117108141 (1)

INDEX
S. No Topic Page No.

Week 1
1 A historical perspective 1
2 PV cell characteristics and equivalent circuit 10
3 Model of PV cell 17
4 Short Circuit, Open Circuit and peak power parameters 23
5 Datasheet study 29
6 Cell efficiency 33
7 Effect of temperature 40
8 Temperature effect calculation example 51
9 Fill factor 56
10 PV cell simulation 60
Week 2
11 Identical cells in series 72
12 Load line 78
13 Non-identical cells in series 81
14 Protecting cells in series 88
15 Interconnecting modules in series 91
16 Simulation of cells in series 95
17 Identical cells in parallel 101
18 Non-identical cells in parallel 106
19 Protecting cells in parallel 111
20 Interconnecting modules 115
21 Simulation of cells in parallel 118
22 Practicals - Measuring i-v characteristics 121
23 Practicals - PV source emulation 128
Week 3
24 Introduction 137
25 Insolation and irradiance 144
26 Insolation variation with time of day 152
27 Earth centric viewpoint and declination 160
28 Solar geometry 166
29 Insolation on a horizontal flat plate 177
30 Energy on a horizontal flat plate 188
31 Sunrise and sunset hour angles 195
32 Examples 198
Week 4
33 Energy on a tilted flat plate 203
34 Energy plots in octave 211
35 Atmospheric effects 224
36 Airmass 230
37 Energy with atmospheric effects 236
38 Clearness index 246
39 Clearness index and energy scripts in Octave 258
Week 5
40 Sizing PV for applications without batteries 265
41 SIZING PV Examples 278
42 Batteries - intro 285
43 Batteries - Capacity 288
44 Batteries - C-rate 293
45 Batteries - Efficiency 299
46 Batteries - Energy and power densities 302
47 Batteries - Comparison 305
48 Battery selection 307
49 Other energy storage methods 312
50 PV system design- Load profile 320
51 PV system design- Days of autonomy and recharge 327
52 PV system design- Battery size 329
53 PV system design- PV array size 334
54 Design toolbox in octave 342
55 MPPT concept 346
Week 6
56 Input impedance of DC-DC converters - Boost converter 353
57 Input impedance of DC-DC converters - Buck converter 360
58 Input impedance of DC-DC converters -Buck-Boost converter 368
59 Input impedance of DC-DC converters -PV module in SPICE 376
Input impedance of DC-DC converters -Simulation - PV and DC-DC
60 interface 389
Week 7
61 Impedance control methods 422
62 Impedance control methods- Reference cell - voltage scaling 424
63 Impedance control methods- Reference cell - current scaling 430
64 Impedance control methods- Reference cell - Sampling method 435
65 Impedance control methods- Reference cell - Power slope method 1 440
66 Impedance control methods- Reference cell - Power slope method 2 445
67 Impedance control methods- Reference cell - Hill climbing method 453
68 Practical points - Housekeeping power supply 458
69 Practical points- Gate driver 465
70 Practical points- MPPT for non-resistive loads 475
71 Simulation - MPPT 479
Week 8
72 Direct PV-battery connection 494
73 Charge controller 503
74 Battery charger - Understanding current control 515
75 Battery charger - slope compensation 525
76 Battery charger -simulation of current control 531
77 Batteries in series - charge equalisation 544
78 Batteries in parallel 552
Week 9
79 Peltier device - principle 561
80 Peltier element - datasheet 569
81 Peltier cooling 577
82 Thermal aspects 591
83 Thermal aspects- Conduction 595
84 Thermal aspects- Convection 597
85 Thermal aspects- A peltier refrigeration example 605
86 Thermal aspects- Radiation and mass transport 621
87 Demo of Peltier cooling 625
Week 10
88 Water pumping principle 629
89 Hydraulic energy and power 633
90 Total dynamic head 639
91 Numerical solution - Colebrook formula 649
92 Octave script for head calculation 652
93 PV AND WATER PUMPING Examples 661
94 Octave script for hydraulic power 673
95 Centrifugal pump 678
96 Reciprocating pump 685
97 PV power 687
98 Pumped hydro application 689
Week 11
99 Grid connection principle 701
100 PV to grid topologies Part-I 706
101 PV to grid topologies Part-II 713
102 PV to grid topologies Part-III 720
103 3ph d-q controlled grid connection intro 726
104 3ph d-q controlled grid connection dq-axis theory 730
105 3ph d-q controlled grid connection AC to DC transformations 738
106 3ph d-q controlled grid connection DC to AC transformations 743
107 3ph d-q controlled grid connection Complete 3ph grid connection 749
108 1ph d-q controlled grid connection 759
109 3ph PV-Grid interface example 765
Week 12
110 SVPWM - discrete implementation 781
111 SVPWM - analog implementation 789
112 Application of integrated magnetics 806
113 Life Cycle Costing Growth Models 819
114 Life Cycle Costing Growth Model Examples 827
115 Life Cycle Costing Annual Payment And Present Worth Factor 831
116 Life Cycle Costing Lcc With Example-01 838
117 Life Cycle Costing Lcc Example-02 847
118 Life Cycle Costing Lcc Example-03 854
Indian Institute of Science
Design of Photovoltaic Systems
Prof.L Umanand
Department of Electronic Systems Engineering
Indian Institute of Science Bangalore
NPTEL Online Certification Course
This course deals with the interfacing the photovoltaic cells to various applications and loads.
The interface will be the primary topic of discussion and design in this course. So, it will
primarily comprise of circuits, power electronic circuits that will interface the solar cell to the
various loads. However, the central component in all these circuits and applications is the solar
cell or the photovoltaic cell. We will not be going much into the physics of the photovoltaic cell
or the making of the photovoltaic cell.
But we will be looking at it as a two terminal device and we would like to characterize and
parameterize it as an electrical component just like any other component that we would buy off
the shelf like the diode or the MOSFET or the BJT. However, it will be interesting to look back
and see how this photovoltaic cell came about. A historical perspective about the photovoltaic
effect of the photovoltaic cell, will be in keeping with the discussions to follow and it will give
us an insight into how the fore fathers thought about and how they discovered the principles
behind the photovoltaic cell and gave us this wonderful gift which is the solar cell.
1
(Refer Slide Time: 02:09)
We go back to the 19th century, in 1839, it began for photovoltaics. A young boy of 19 years old,
Edmond Becquerel discovered the photovoltaic effect and it came to be known as the Becquerel
effect. He was working in his father's lab, wherein he discovered that when light was shown up
the electrode dipped in an acerbic medium, current flows through the electrode.
He later on published the results in memoirs and this represents the very first publication on
photovoltaic effect. He came to be known as the father off photovoltaics and if you look at early
photovoltaic cells made by Becquerel Edmond Becquerel, it consists of a container and was
painted black so that it traps light, it was filled with an acidic solution and there were two
electrodes and the electrodes were coated with silver chloride, he placed a membrane in between
and connected the external circuit to the two electrodes in this fashion.
INCLUDE FIG of EDMOND Solar CELL screen shot

Then he showed light onto the electrodes and he found that there was an electric current flowing
through the external circuit on the application of light. He experimented with blue light
ultraviolet light and sunlight and recorded his observations of all these things. So this was the
earliest photovoltaic cell that you can find. From 1839 to 1877 there was not much action in the
on this topic. Not much research work was carried on or at least not reported.
2
So the first publication after 1839 was in 1877, 35 years after the discovery of the photovoltaic
effect, Adams and Day published in the Royal Society, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London, The Action of Light on Selenium, where it is described the selenium
photovoltaic cell. So they actually borrow on the discovery of Willoughby Smith, when an
electric current was passing through a bar of crystalline selenium, it’s resistance was less when
the bar was exposed to the action of light than it was if the bar was kept in the dark. Wearing on
this principle Adamson and Day made selenium photovoltaic cell. So they used vitreous
selenium and to that the electrodes the platinum electrodes were attached, it was encased in a
glass tube and the light was made to incident on the selenium through the glass cube and observe
they observed the current flowing through the electrodes and external circuit. So this was the
selenium photovoltaic cell.
3
In 1883, 5 years later, Fritts published in the American Journal of Science on a new form of
selenium photocell. So this was the first thin film selenium solar cell. So he described this first
thin fill in selenium solar cell. It consists of a metal substrate, he used brass. 25 micron selenium
layer, molten selenium was pressed in between two metal sheets and the top layer was a gold
leaf, a very thin semi-transparent gold layer, to which were attached the two contacts to which
the external circuit could be connected and when light was made to fall on the selenium through
the semi-transparent metal there was electric current that flows through the contacts and the
external circuit. The Fritts, thin film selenium solar cell, even though it was demonstrated and
performed well, the researchers was skeptical about it. Even though the experiments were
reproducible and repeatable, they were not clear about the theory. Because at that time the
classical physics was not able to answer the underlying theoretical principles of the operation of
the solar cell. In 1900, something revolutionary happened. It was the birth of quantum
mechanics. On December 17, 1900, a german physicist Max Planck, he reported to a meeting for
the Berlin Academy of Sciences Physical Society, on the problem that he was facing in the
thermal radiation issue.
4
He could not find any solution to his problem from the traditional classical physics and he tried
to introduce a totally new concept, the concept of quanta. Max Planck introduced this very
famous equation now famous equation where energy is quantized and here is proportional to the
frequency and H is the Planck's constant. So at that moment at that point in time discrete
discretization of energy or energy indiscrete form was not imaginable.
INCLUDE screen shot of quantum mechanics equation.
Classical physics wouldn’t allow it but Max Planck with the seminal ideas at that point in time
introduced the concept of energy packets or the quanta and this was a starting point for amazing
discoveries far beyond the imagination of even science fiction writers. The work of Max Plank
foreshadowed all the development of physics for many years to come. So this was the
contribution of Max Planck. He gave us a window to our totally new world of ultra spawn.
So we had this quantum mechanics the birth of quantum mechanics right at the beginning of the
20th century. Sometime in 1905, at the time relatively unknown person Albert Einstein published
an article in the annalender Physik and then he explains the concept of photon packets light
packets or the light quanta called photon. And through this mechanism platform, he explains the
5
photovoltaic principle or the photovoltaic mechanism completely and that lays or laid the
foundation for even the semiconductor industry.
In1933, Grondahl worked and published many articles on copper cuprous oxide solar cell and he
published numerous papers, out of which this particular article in1932, the copper cuprous oxide
rectifier and photoelectric cell gives great details into the manufacturing process of the
photoelectric or the solar cell. This copper cuprous oxide solar cell became quite popular because
of its low-cost of production.
Then later in 1941 Ohl made the first patent for a silicon solar cell. Silicon solar cell patent was
made in 1941. So it was a light sensitive electric device including silicon. This silicon solar cell
had an efficiency of much less than 1%. It did not have much commercial value or commercial
implication but it was a landmark point as far as the solar cell or the photovoltaic cell was
concerned. It was a very important point in history. In 1954, Chapin Fuller and Pearson
6
published in the Journal of applied physics, a solar cell silicon solar cell semiconductor solar cell
having an efficiency of 6%.
Fuller and Pearson were employees of the Bell labs. This was an offshoot of an observation that
the bell labs silicon diode produced significant amount of current and voltage in the presence of
light. So this was brought forth into a commercial product when the first silicon photovoltaic cell
with an efficiency of 6% was developed. So this was the beginning of the silicon photovoltaic
cell. From then on there were rapid improvements and then you have a host of solar cells that
have been developed. So if you see the top three, these are the mainstays the monocrystalline
polycrystalline thin film silicon solar cells. See that the monocrystalline silicon solar cell has an
efficiency of 20% today, they are the most efficient. Polycrystalline solar cells reaching about
18%. So also the thin film solar cells. Another group of cells here which are at the research level,
not in commercial installations. Gallium arsenide germanium solar cell having efficiency of up to
30 %. Copper indium gallium selenide solar cell 21% efficient, cadmium telluride solar cell
again 21%, Amorphous silicon solar cells having efficiency of 10% but very low production
costs Dye-sensitized solar cell around 11%. You also how organic solar cell having efficiency of
8%. They are low-cost cells. Multifunction solar cell indium galliumphosphide gallium arsenide
7
indium gallium arsenide they have a very high efficiency of 37%. Again all these at the
laboratory report reportage level. In future I think one should look out for perovskite solar cells.
Perovskite is a material which is coated on top of silicon solar cells to improve the efficiency.
It improved by another 5%. Quantum dot solar cells, these are something that will start coming
in the near future and they are supposed to be high-efficiency solar cells. The early solar cells
were used for telephone repeaters and earliest popular application was space application. The
Vanguard 1 satellite in 1958 was launched with six silicon cell panels of having the power of 5
milli Watt. The silicon cells were placed here in these notches one two three four five and the six
one in the back. So this is the Vanguard satellite. When the battery stopped operating after few
months, the PV source continued to operate the transmitter for over six years life of the satellite.
This in fact was a very great success for photovoltaic cell. Now a days the photovoltaic cell is
being populated on rooftops to power the homes, buildings and communities. This is one of the
8
more recent applications of the photovoltaic cell. This is a place in Tamil Nadu, Kamudhi. This
is the world’s largest solar array at the time of this recording. So this is phenomenal 648
Megawatt solar power plant. It's been a long journey for the photovoltaic cell about 180 years
from 1839 from the time Edmond Becquerel discovered photovoltaic effect. Till today when we
see high-efficiency semiconductor silicon solar cells powering many roofs many communities
and as you see here the 640 megawatt station. So now the photovoltaic cell is poised to power or
to become the electric power supply for this planet.
9
Prof. L Umanand
Indian institute of Science, Bangalore
We shall try to study the photovoltaic cell from the electrical engineers point of view. From the
electrical engineers point of view, most of the devices like the diodes, BJT, MOSFETS, IGBTs
are black boxes, they bought out items and the design is performed based on the datasheet
parameters. Likewise we would like to study the photovoltaic cell from the terminal
characteristics without going into the physics of the PN Junction of the photovoltaic cell we
would like to study the terminal characteristics and develop a model an electric circuit equivalent
model for the photovoltaic cell. This model we would later on like to use it for analysis and
design of photo light based systems.
Here is an example of a poly crystalline photovoltaic cell. This is the top layer which is the N
type N type part of the PN Junction. the bottom layer is the p-type and the p-type substrate
10
metallization so normally what you would see is that then-type metallization are joined together
and then that would be connected to the minus terminal and the p-type metallization would be
connected to the plus terminal.
Another example of a PV cell which is knotted and encapsulated is this, this is again another
poly crystalline PV cell. Something that is encapsulated with glass and that you can use for lab
purposes is something like this. You see here, the plus terminal and the minus terminal, this is
the mono crystalline cell. The top N substrate is connected through the metallization to the minus
terminal and the bottom substrate is connected to the plus terminal.
So this is nothing but like a diode a PN Junction. This is the anode and this is the cathode. So this
is brought out as terminals on the backside and then students can perform experiments on this
very simple encapsulated PV cell. The operation is pretty simple. Light falls on this glass
surface, the top surface of the PN junction which is a n-type and the valence electrons get excited
and move into the conduction band and through this stop metallization moves into the negative
terminal and then flows out into the external circuit and into the anode terminal and comes back
to the P substrate through the bottom metallization. So it is important that the exposed part
covered by glass here has to be perpendicular to the incident radiation coming from the sun.
Only then this particular PN Junction will act as a generator.
11
To understand the photovoltaic cell, let us start with another PN Junction the well-known diode.
Let us connect this diode in a circuit, a typical circuit for this would be something like this,
where the diode is part of a much more complex external circuit as shown here. Let us put in
some terminals so this portion of the circuit the diode along with these terminals is of interest
and let us study its characteristics before we try to understand the photovoltaic and cells
characteristic.
Let us call this terminal as A for anode and let us call this terminal K for cathode and we know
that the current always flows from the anode to the cathode in this case the diode we call this as
the current I. Another parameter terminal parameter of interest is the voltage across the terminals
A and K we call that Vak. So it is of our interest to study the diode PN Junction in terms of the
current through the diode and the voltage across its anode cathode terminal Vak.
So with this polarity of voltage V ak being taken as positive that is the non arrow end as a
common point for probing and the arrow end as the positive terminal for probing to the voltage
12
and the direction of the current as shown here as positive, then we say that the power flows into
the device. The device is acting as a sync and the power flow is into these one port terminals.
The object of interest now is the diode part. So, we will bring the focus to the diode and this
diode in its present representation as it is drawn in this circuit with the current flowing into the
terminals anode terminal and with the voltage indicated as this and the power flowing into the
diode terminals the diode acts as a sync which means it receives power and only dissipates it
cannot generate. So this particular portion of the diode circuit is now a sync circuit and not a
generator circuit.
We will gradually see how we make it into a generator circuit and what extra components we
need to add in order to bring about the model of the photovoltaic cell. Let us now make some
space for drawing the characteristic. We will reduce this portion and keep it there. Let us have
the x-axis and we shall mark it as Vak this is the voltage axis and then we have the y-axis we shall
mark it as i and draw the I-V curve. The I-V curve of this particular diode is very familiar to all
of us we will stick to drawing mainly the forward portion of the characteristics which of course
things like this.
So this is a familiar static curve of the diode and we know how this has come about. Now from
this how do we develop the photovoltaic cell model. We see that the first quadrant is involved in
dissipation and is the dissipation mode of components basically sinks where in the current flow
is into the terminals are shown. The fourth quadrant is a generation quadrant. Here the voltage is
still in the same direction and only the current has become negative or current as reverse
direction here in which case the power flow also reverses direction which means the power is
flowing out of the terminals and therefore acting as a generator.
So this portion of the I-V characteristic is of interest to us because we would like to see how this
diode can become a PV cell and also a generate. Let me drag this here, a copy of it here and
increase the size so as to make it more legible. So in this quadrant we see that the current is
negative with respect to what we have represented here if this was supposed to be the positive
direction of the current flowing into the terminal, negative would be direction of the current
flowing out of the terminal.
13
And the object here, the diode in this case plus something else will act as a source and the power
is actually now flowing out of the terminal. Because the product of these two will result in a
negative value which means negative power. So in this quadrant fourth quadrant this component
or object is behaving as a source but how does the current here flow in this direction because we
all know that the diode can handle current flow only in the direction from anode to cathode.
How can one make the current flow in this direction out of the terminal. Across the diode we add
a current source 'ip' in such a direction the current is flowing in this fashion as shown. Only under
this condition, you will see that this current splits at this node into the diode id as shown here and
into the terminal i as indicated here. Therefore, you see that, through the diode the current is still
flowing from the anode to the cathode but at the terminal the current is flowing out of the
terminal.
So if you look at this whole block as a whole the current flows out of the terminal voltage is still
retaining the same polarity the power 'is' flowing out of the terminal and therefore this whole
block acts as a source this is actually the principle of the photovoltaic cell. This current source 'ip'
is actually the photocurrent which is dependent upon the solar radiation intensity. More the solar
radiation intensity higher is the value of the 'ip', larger will be this current and larger will be the
current flowing out of the terminal and power. There are a few other components and non-
idealities also that will come into the model but this basically will indicate how the photovoltaic
cell is behaving as an electrical source from an electrical engineers point of view. Let us study it
just a little bit further before we develop the equations for that.
'ip' is the photocurrent which is directly proportional to the solar intensity, the solar power that is
incident on the surface of the panel. If 'ip' is zero that is under dark condition, the characteristic is
like this with the bias at the x-axis line. As the light intensity increases the photocurrent 'ip'
increases and this whole characteristic starts coming down by amount equivalent to the photo
current.
14
So increasing 'ip' would mean the shifting of the characteristic like this. Higher the incident
power incident solar power the more the characteristic will shift towards the fourth quadrant. So
any operating point on this part of the curve would mean that the photovoltaic cell is operating in
the generating mode. So normally the photovoltaic cell is considered to be a generator and one
would like to see that it is in the first quadrant.
Therefore, we now redefine the current, the voltage remaining the same but the current the
direction of the current we will take it as positive for this axis when the current goes out of the
terminal as shown here and not like what it was defined before for the case of the simple diode.
So we would not like to have this but would like to use this as a reference now and this we would
like to bring it to the first quadrant which would mean we have to flip the current axis.
And that is done by just simple flipping of the y-axis because the current has just flipped the
direction. So this here forms the characteristic the I-V characteristic of a photovoltaic cell.
Consider the I-V characteristic of a typical photovoltaic cell observe that for some portion of the
I-V characteristic the photovoltaic cell behaves as a constant current more or less constant
current for this portion of the characteristic the photovoltaic cell would behave like more or less
a constant voltage source so the photovoltaic cell has the unique feature of being both a
combination of a constant voltage source and the constant current source.
Let us draw a line is the constant current line let us draw another line with a constant voltage
line, the constant current line if you take, it gives an idea of the slope of the constant current
portion and therefore, it implies existence of a shunt resistance a high value of shunt resistance
across a constant current source. So we can include a non ideality or shunt, a higher value of
shunt resistance across the constant current source as shown here.
Likewise the voltage line, the slope of it to the voltage portion of the characteristic would imply
a series impedance in series with the terminals so it would appear as though we have a series
impedance at the terminals like this. So let us include this non-ideality also to the existing model.
15
Minor redrawing and relocation of the components, this forms the equivalent circuit model of a
photovoltaic cell.
This has a symbol which looks like this, this envelope like symbol is the symbol of a
photovoltaic cell it represents either a photovoltaic cell or a photovoltaic model. There are two
terminals, the anode terminal and the cathode terminal. This is the terminal voltage and the
terminal current generally flowing out of the anode terminal. So here, we have the entire
photovoltaic cell with a characteristic, the equivalent circuit model and the symbol.
16
Prof. L .Umanand
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore
We have here a photovoltaic cell, the symbol of a photovoltaic cell, the terminal voltage v and
the terminal current i that is supposed to flow out of the terminal 'a' here is indicated and we also
know we have seen before, the equivalent circuit model of this photovoltaic cell and that is like
this, where you have this constant current source representing the photo current the photo current
ip is basically directly proportional to the incident solar power.
This is primarily resource, rest all other parameters are sinks, dissipaters and we shall now try to
study this equivalent circuit model a bit further and try to arrive at the equation for the terminal
current with respect to the various parameters of the photovoltaic cell. So using this model, we
shall further get some more insight into the photovoltaic cell which will be useful for selection
choice of the photovoltaic cell.
17
Let us clear some place and position the equivalent circuit here. The, looking at the equivalent
circuit the current ip is equal to id the diode current plus the current through the resistance R shunt
plus the terminal current i. If you consider this as the reference node, the voltage at this node
again can be seen that it is equivalent to v plus this drop and this drop is having a potential which
is positive here and negative here.
And therefore, you have at this point v plus iR s. Therefore, i flowing current flowing through R
shunt is v plus iRs divided by R shunt. Rearranging we get the current terminal current which is
ip minus the diode current id minus the current flowing through R shunt which I can write as v
plus iRs by R shunt.
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Now the diode current, we know from the PN Junction theory, i d can be written as I0 which is the
reverse saturation current e to the power of voltage across the diode which is nothing but v plus
iRs by an ideality factor n into VT minus one. So this is the current equation for the diode it
comes from the PN Junction theory which you will find it in any electronics PN junction chapter.
Typical reference would be the integrated circuits electronics by Millman and Halkias.
Now what is VT, n and I0t. I0 is the reverse saturation current, VT is the volt equivalent of
temperature, VT is the volt equivalent of temperature and given by Boltzmann constant into the
temperature divided by q. q is electronic charge in coulombs, K is the Boltzmann constant, T is
the temperature in degree Kelvin.
And if you substitute the Boltzmann constant electronic charge, you will get this to be a value T
by 11600. n is a parameter which is dependent upon the material and it has a value equal to 2 for
silicon and it has values which are different for other semiconductor materials. Now I 0 itself
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called the reverse saturation current, reverse saturation current, is also dependent on the material
and the doping of the P and the N junctions. Not only that I0 is dependent on temperature.
So this is given by the following relation, K, T to the power of m, e to the power of minus V GO
by nVT, the same n VT coming into the picture here. Where K is a constant which depends upon
the dimensions of the PN Junction and also the material properties and V GO is numerically the
equivalent band gap energy in electron volts. So V GO is basically the forbidden band gap energy
which is EGO in electron volts.
So this, this is again a numerical value which will come in there. V T of course is known which is
same as, as written about T by 11600. n again is 2 for silicon. T is the temperature in degree
Kelvin. Some typical values are like this, you have M which is equal to 1.5 for silicon and V GO
varying from 1.16 to 1.21 again depends upon the grade of purification whether it is electronic
rate solar grade, the solar grade for PV cells will be more closer to 1.16 volts.
20
So these are the typical values using which you can get the reverse saturation current for a
particular PN Junction device. The entire model of the photovoltaic terminal current can now be
written as ip is the photocurrent the directly proportional to the incident solar radiation minus I
not, e to the power of V terminal voltage plus iR s by n VT minus the current flowing through the
shunt resistance which is given like this.
So this would form the terminal current model of the PV cell and this can be obtained easily
from the equivalent circuit as shown above. So this equation of the current, a word of cohesion at
this point, you see that the terminal current i is a function of itself. I appearing here in the
equation so this means that this is an acausal equation which means that the present state of i is
dependent on the present state of i itself.
And therefore it is an algebraic equation and you can land up in problems when you do
simulation. However, in practice you should understand that the diode is not an ideal diode it has
junction capacitances and the junction capacitance across the diode will take care of the causality
problems which means the voltage here will be a state and it will have history and memory and
therefore the current here will not cause a problem, if you simulate this particular circuit in spice.
21
Because, spice takes the real model of the diode along with the junction and diffusion
capacitances. Whereas if you try to simulate this equation in Simulink in MATLAB, as an
equation it will give you algebraic loop problems. So for that what would can be done is to use a
memory block history block, pass this current through history block and use that to calculate the
terminal voltages here. This would give some memory effect and can make the simulation work
without problems. However, for our analysis and selection of devices and to understand the PV
cell this model is more than sufficient and we will use this model to understand the PV cell
further and characterize it.
22
Prof. L. Umanand
In this clip, let us discuss the parameters of the photovoltaic cell. For this, let us have the model
of the PV cell. This is the equivalent circuit model of the PV cell. We have the i p the photo
current, the diode part, the shunt non-ideality and the series non-idealities coming here and these
are the terminal voltages and the currents of the PV cell. Let us have in place the IV
characteristic of the PV cell too. We will need this for our discussion now.
Let me put down for you, the terminal current model of the PV cell that we discussed and
developed in the last clip. So, we now have the terminal current model of the PV cell also written
down here. Now looking at the IV characteristic, there are three significant points on the IV
23
characteristic. We will discuss all these three significant points, one by one. The first point is at
the intersection here. So let me mark that. So this is one point that we need to discuss.
And I will call this as the short circuit point, shortly you will know why it is so. I will call this
one as Isc, I short circuit. Now, this is origin 0, you will see that, this point is a intercept on the y
axis when the voltage V is equal to 0, which means the terminal voltage is short circuited. It
apparently would mean that the terminal voltage has been shorted like this. So, under such
conditions you will get this Isc point, which would mean that for this particular significant point
V is equal to 0, I is equal to Isc, we are setting it to this Isc and if we apply these constraints to
this equation we will see that the short-circuit current point Isc is given by i p minus I0 e power
zero plus Isc Rs by nVT minus 1 minus...
So this is the equation after having substituted V = 0 and I = I sc the terminal currents. Now we
have to further constrain that Rs is very very small compared to the shunt and I sc Rs is tending
towards 0, it is a very small value of R s being very negligible, so which would mean that as a
first step as an approximation so that we understand the relationship between the parameters, this
is negligible, we can remove it from the equation.
This portion, Isc Rs by nVT will tend to 0 so e 0 is 1 and therefore this entire diode current portion
let us remove from the equation and you will see that I sc will equal Ip, the photocurrent which is
proportional to the solar power which is incident. This we would call insolation, later on I will
explain on this term insolation, but for now understand that insulation is the incident solar power.
So the main take away from this critical point that we have been discussing is that that is the
short circuit point occurring when the terminal voltage is short circuited. And the short circuit
point is called Isc and this Isc is proportional to the incident solar power.
24
Next we shall discuss the second important, significant point in the IV characteristic, which is
around this point and we will call that as V oc or the open circuit point. So this is the next
important operating point that one has to consider. This we will call it as Voc. Now note that at
this point, the current is 0 and the voltage thus obtained here is the open circuit voltage which
means that here nothing is connected in the external circuit there is no current flowing through
that, that current is 0, implying an open circuit character of PV cell.
Now for this the constraints are, V will be set, the voltage terminal voltage will be set to V oc and
the current terminal current is 0. So likewise, let us apply these currents to this equation and see
what we obtained for the Voc terminal character, so you see that terminal current is 0, Ip – I0
into.... all this expression Voc by nVT minus 1, Voc by R shunt, I being 0. So this is the
expression. Now here again we could say that R shunt is much greater numerically compared to
Voc.
And therefore we could remove this from the equation without loss of generality so that we get a
much better picture of what is happening. And now repositioning these variables you Voc is
25
equal to nVT logarithm of ip plus I0 by I0. So, this would be the equation that you would obtain.
So, observe that there is a logarithm coming into the picture, V oc is related to ip the insolation but
in a logarithmic way. So that, you have to keep in mind that if the insolation changes, if the
incident solar power changes the variation of Voc here will be in a logarithmic manner.
So if ip increases due to increase in the solar radiation Voc will increase logarithmically whereas
Isc will increase linearly with the incident solar power, so this is the difference between this
significant point and this significant point here.
I have now zoomed into the PV cell IV characteristic to show the effect of solar radiation
change on the IV curve so this is IV curve and we see that this is the short circuit I sc point, this is
the open circuit voltage Voc point. Now suppose that the solar power is changing what happens to
the characteristic. If you take the readings of the IV curve at a different solar incident power you
will see something like that and at a still higher solar power you will see something like that and
26
you see that the short circuit points are increasing linearly whereas the V oc points are increasing
in a logarithmic way as we just saw from the equation that we just developed.
There is another important and significant point related to IV characteristic of PV cell and this
third significant point relates to the maximum power that can be transferred from the PV cell.
Consider this IV curve and let us retain the same x-axis that is let it be the voltage axis, the y-
axis we can include even the variable, power variable P which is the product of v and i. Consider
for example this point the origin where i equal to 0 and v equal to 0, so there will be a power
point which is P equal to v i i.e. zero and at this point P is V oc into i which is 0 and therefore
power is 0 again here. So somewhere in between current will be nonzero, voltage will be nonzero
and you will get a hill type of curve.
27
So if you look at the power curve, it will be something like this having plotted this power curve
using P equal to v i, now this power curve is having a maximum at this point and let us denote it
by Pm the max power that the photo light cell can generate. Now if you look at the projection of
the max power point on to the IV characteristic, you will see that somewhere at this point, it will
intersect the IV characteristic and we shall call that voltage corresponding to that maximum
power point as Vm and the current corresponding to the IV point as Im.
And this point we shall call as the peak power operating point, so this is the point that is very
important and the choice and selection of the PV cells too and we would like also to operate the
PV cell at this operating point which means even the electronics, the electronic load to the PV
cell should behave in such a manner that the PV cell is most of the time operating in this region
where it is capable of delivering the max power from the PV cell and thereby utilizing it to the so
least.
28
Prof. L .Umanand
Having looked at the I-V characteristics and the significant points on the I-V characteristics, it is
probably now a goodtime to look into the data sheets. Studying the datasheet and trying to map
the datasheet parameters to the I-V characteristic significant points will give great insight into the
character of the I-V characteristics and also to select the PV panels. We shall have a look at the
datasheet and try to consolidate our understanding of the I-V characteristic of the PV panel.
29
This page shows the datasheet of photovoltaic modules. This is a poly crystalline 210 watts to
240 watt module. You see many columns here, each column represents a particular package
panel and these are the parameters of interest to us and then let us see how they map to the IV
characteristics. We will look at one typical panel of a particular wattage which is 240 watt peak
and try to study each of the parameter.
30
And see how the map to the I-V characteristics that we study. For that let us place the I-V
characteristics of there here so that you will be able to understand it better along with the
datasheet. We now have here, the I-V characteristic of the PV panel. Consider these parameters
and let us take this column, means we are taking a 240 watt PV panel.
Now let me consider isc, this is 8.99 amps and let us mark it here 8.99 amps. V oc as given in the
data sheet is 36.72. So we can write that down here 36.7 volts and we also have further
parameters Imp and Vmp, Imp is the current at peak power point, Vmp is the voltage at peak power
point they correspond to. This is V mp which we have used the term V m and this is Imp. So if you
look at these two and map it on to the PV panel, this is equal to 7.96 amps.
And this is 30.18 volts. Now, this is a 240 watt panel, what it basically means is that we have 240
watts as the peak power the panel is capable of supplying and that is, this point as indicated here.
You could also get it by multiplying 7.96*30.18 volts. You will notice that the term p is used
31
here, p represents peak, so generally in photovoltaic module datasheet terminology what is used
is watt peak implying that it is the peak power point.
So normally we would write this as P now one question arises, we have 240 Watts peak and this
is the currents and the voltages as we see on the I-V curve. At what incident solar power do all
these values apply. So normally there is a standard incident solar power and that is one kilowatt
per meter square and at a temperature 25 degree centigrade. Now this is standard insolation we
call it a standard insolation and 250 centigrade as the standard temperature. So if it is not
specified all these values are given for this standard incident solar power per meter square and at
a temperature of 250 centigrade ambient temperature.
32
Prof. L. Umanand
Consider the PV Cell as drawn here, so it has the two terminals V and I, the input is the incident
solar radiation, so what is the power input and what is the corresponding power output that this
PV cell is capable of, gives you an idea of efficiency, which is given by P 0 by Pin, now which is
equal to P0 at peak power. So what is maximum power that the PV cell is capable of giving at any
particular installation is this peak power Pm.
So we will call this one as Pm and this is what is the output of the PV cell by P in and we know
that Pm is nothing but (Vm*I m)/Pin. Now what is Pin, it is that the standard insolation, is one
kilowatt per meter square and Pin is given by one kilowatt per meter square into area of panel,
what is the area of the panel?
33
Go back to the data sheet, in the data sheet, look at this row, the cells, there are 6 x 10 pieces, so
the poly crystalline cell, which means 60 cells and each cell having this area as indicated,
0.156 meter into 0.156 meter. So let us use this in our calculation to arrive at what is power input
case, so going back to the...
34
So you see the area of the panel is, 16 numbers of the cells each having 156 mm x 156 mm area.
So let us convert them to meters so it is 16 x 0.156 x 0.15 6 meter square.
35
This turns out to be 1.46 meter square. So Pin is one kilowatt per meter square into 1.46 which is
1.46 KW. Now, the cell efficiency from the data sheet is given as 16.5%. Therefore, P0 which is
equal Pm which is the max power will be efficiency of the cell into Pm which is 1.46 KW into
16.5 by 100 which is equal to about approximately 240 Watts.
36
Therefore a cell efficiency, I call it as efficiency subscript cell, is given by the output power
delivered by the PV cell to the incident input solar power. The output power at the peak power
point is named as Pm we know that divided by Pin, and what is a Pin? Pin is nothing but insolation
which is given in kilo watt per meter square into area of cell, the total area of the cell or the cells.
We shall use the symbol L for insulation into the area of the cells which is area cell, like this and
thereby, therefore after substituting you see that Pm/L which is kilo watt per meter square into the
area of the cells will give you the input incident power.
Or further in terms of the peak power voltage and the currents with a V m i.e. (Vmp*Imp)/(L*Acell).
The insulation is in kilowatt per meter square, the area of the cell is in meter square. So this is the
cell efficiency, however one should note that the module efficiency is not the same as the cell
efficiency. Efficiency of the whole PV module actually is less than the efficiency of the cell.
What is the difference between those two? Basically it is in the area of the cell and the area of the
module now let us look at this difference.
37
Consider a PV panel this is actually a 6 into 10 cell panel, this each is a cell, this portion as I am
indicating with the mouse cursor is a cell. There are 10 such in this column and there are 6
horizontal. Now if you look at a much more closer view, you will see that the cells, the cells have
some space is between. The module is actually encapsulating all these cells there are spaces at
the rim, the rim itself is occupying some area there are some spaces in between the cells.
Now all these area are not affective area and the solar insulation even if it falls on this area is
actually not captured. Therefore the entire module is actually having a bigger area
accommodating all these gaps and cases as compared to the pure cell area alone and therefore the
module efficiency is definitely going to be lower than the cell efficiency.
38
If you come back to the datasheet and we will look at the data sheet here you have the cell
efficiency and you see the cell efficiency is 16.5% and where as the module efficiency is actually
14.66%. It is so, in all types of panels, because the module area is higher than the pure cell area
and most of the time the peak power and all these other rating, the peak power rating as
mentioned earlier here are with respect to the Pure cell area and pure cell efficiency.
However, a practical purposes whenever you are calculating for a given application the module
efficiency is a much more conservative and better value to take because you will be using the
more practical efficiency.
39
Prof. L. Umanand
In this clip let us look at the effect of temperature on the PV cell characteristics. There are 3
important parameters, one is ISC the short circuit current and then you have the V oc open circuit
voltage and you have Pm the max power of the PV cell or the peak power of the PV cell. Now
how do these 3 important parameters vary with temperature. Let us now have a look at the data
sheet and see what are the number and what are the values they give.
40
Here in this data sheet, you see here there are 3 parameters, temperature coefficient of I sc short
circuit current, temperature coefficient of VOC, temperature coefficient of Pmax. These are the 3
parameters that we would be discussing. Now see the temperature coefficient of I sc is plus 0.045
% per degree Kelvin and the temperature coefficient of Voc is –0.34% per degree kelvin, which
means that as the temperature increases Voc will decrease, same way Pmax. This is understandable
because the temperature coefficient of Isc is positive, temperature coefficient of VOC is negative,
the temperature coefficient of power which a product of current and voltage will also be
negative.
And that is given as – 0.47% per degree Kelvin, so let us study a bit on how these temperature
coefficients come about and what is there relationship with respect to temperature.
41
With regard to Isc, we know that we have see an earlier clip that Isc is approximately equal to the
photo current Ip which is the photocurrent and the photocurrent is directly proportional to the
insolation, insolation is nothing but the power per m2 of the incident solar radiation. So if you see
this, from this relationship with increase in temperature what will happen to I sc. With increase in
temperature the photocurrent will increase.
Why should the photocurrent increase, the band gab energy reduces the band gab energy was
1.16 electron volts and it will come down and this will allow more wavelength electrons to jump
into the conduction band any way for there are more free electrons and as result more
photocurrent and therefore higher value of Isc short circuit current. So, in summary, for the short
circuit current, the short circuit current Isc increases as temperature increases. And this is very
small value it is around 0.1% per degree Kelvin or per degree centigrade for silicon.
42
With regards to the effect of temperature on Voc the open circuit voltage, we seen the
relationship of Voc with the photocurrent which is given in above screenshot. Where, n is to for
silicon, VT is the voltage equivalent of temperature, logarithm of ip, the photo current I0 is the
reverse saturation current by I0. If you take I0 very small compare to the photocurrent then we
can say Voc is equal to nVT logarithm of ip by I0, the reverse saturation current.
So apparently if you look at this equation it is not directly evident that V oc will decrease if
temperature increases. However, you should note that VT is a function of temperature that is
T/11600, I0 is also a function of temperature, it is an exponential function of temperature. So
considering I0 and VT effect together, you will see that V OC is inversely proportional to
temperature. The reverse saturation current I 0 is proportional to temperature to the power of m, e
to the power of VGO, recall VGO was the numerically voltage equivalent of the band gab energy by
nVT.
43
So you see the dependence of I0 on temperature and substituting this and then trying to find
dVOC/dT, we get,
dVOC VOC -(VGO +m.n.VT )
=
dT T
So you see that for a given temperature we can calculate the rate at which V oc will change with
temperature. Now, if we take typical values for silicon, m = 1.5, n = 2, V T = 0.026 V @ 3000
Kelvin and we will take temperature as 300 0 Kelvin and you will and Voc as 0.6 Volts for a cell
cutting voltage.
And you will see that if you apply all these through the above formula, you will get
approximately –2.1 milli Volt per degree Kelvin. What it means that, for every cell PN junction,
the variation of the open circuit voltage Voc with temperature is minus 2.1 milli Volt per degree
Kelvin. 1 degree Kelvin (Professor said degree centigrade instead of degree Kelvin by
mistake) rise in temperature will make Voc to fall by 2.1 mV. How did we get this equation. I
will quickly run through the derivation, you can use the pause mode and try to study how the
relationship is with the effect of temperature of Voc came about.
44
So here, I have the derivation for dVOC/dT. The derivation is simple but I am not going to explain
every step. I will just run through it you can use the pause mode on the video clip and read it at
your convince. The reverse saturation current, we saw it was given by
-VGO
m
I0 =KT e nT
where VGO is the numerically voltage equivalent of the band gap energy, m is 1.5 for silicon, n is
2 for silicon and VT is the temperature equivalent to the voltage.
Now for this equation take the logarithm and you will see that it falls into this kind of a
relationship and logarithm of I0 is given like this then this equation you differentiate with respect
to temperature T. so differentiating with respect to temperature you will land up with
d{lnI0 } m VGO
= +
dT T nTVT
So keep this equation a side. Next come to the Voc relationship, we saw that Voc is equal to
I p +I0
VOC =nVT ln( )
I0
45
If we take Ip greater than much greater than I0 you will see that it is equal to
Ip
VOC  nVT ln( )
I0
This the relationship that falls as the next step.
Now differentiate that. Differentiating this equation with respect to temperature, you get
d VOC d d
( )= (lnI p )- (lnI0 )
dT nVT dT dT
Now d(lnI0)/dT, we have all ready derived here. So we can directly substitute this value here
d(lnIp)/dT is 0 assuming that the variation is very negligible compared to variation of I 0. So, as
you are having numerator and denominator, as you are having 2 terms V oc dependent on
temperature and VT dependent on temperature, splitting it up single product rule. You get this
relationship and then simplifying.
46
You will see that

dVOC VOC -(VGO +m.n.VT )
=
dT T
and this is what I had mentioned earlier. see there is almost inverse proportionality of Voc with
T. Now for silicon if you substitute m = 1.5 n = 2 V GO = 1.16 electron volts and Voc 0.6 you will
0
land up with T voc by dT as this value and for a temperature of 300 Kelvin, the rate at which
Voc changes is
–2.120 milli volt per degree kelvin. Which means that for very degree rising temperature open
circuit voltage falls by approximately 2mv.
47
Therefore in the case of Voc, we see that Voc will decrease as temperature increases. Whereas, in
the case of short circuit current Isc, we saw that Isc increases as temperature increases and in the
case of power, power being a product of v into i, as V oc is having a negative temperature
coefficient and Isc is having a positive temperature coefficient so this is negative temperature
coefficient, this is positive temperature coefficient.
Power will also have a negative temperature coefficient. This means, this would imply that P m
would decrease as temperature increases. So these are the main effects that you would see on the
PV cell parameters due to variation in temperature.
48
Consider this IV characteristic of a PV cell and let us study the effect of temperature on the cell
characteristic. We have this IV curve, taken At standard insulation of 1 kilo watt per meter
square and standard temperature of 250 centigrade. Now let us say the temperature increases and
the temperature incases form 250 centigrade to 400 centigrade. What is the effect on the cell.
Now, let me make a duplicate of this curve. Let me change color to green and super impose the
changed curve, the Isc will vary slightly and it will increases with increase in temperature that is
what we studied.
And what happens to Voc would decrease with increase in temperature and it will decrease in
inverse ratio. So the changed characteristic PV cell characteristic curve would look like this the
one show in green. So as temperature increases the characteristics shifts in this manner. Now
consider the temperatures replaced with variables T1 and T2 where T2 is the lower temperature
and T1 is the higher temperature. Now what would happen and how will the curve look like if we
have 3rd curve which is set at a temperature T3 such that T1 is greater than T2 greater T3, T3 is a
lower temperature, much lower than T1 and T2. so we would expect the curve of a Voc to be on
this side of T2 the red line and for Isc because the temperature is lower we would expect it will be
low the red line. So this is the curve that is excepted for the IV characteristic which is set a
temperature T3 now looking at the power curve, now this is the power curve for the T3 curve.
49
And this is the peak power that the cell is capable of giving at temperature T 3. Now at
temperature T2 and T1, the corresponding power curves are like this and you see that the peak
powers are decreasing, so as the temperature is increasing you will see that the peak powers
reducing like this. This is also corroborating what we just studied that V oc decreases with
increase in temperature Isc short circuit current increases with temperature and its product the
peak power decreases with temperature.
50
Prof. L. Umanand
Let us try to understand the temperature coefficients better by doing some examples, but before
that let us name the variables. Now the temperature coefficient of I SC we will call that as αi the
temperature co-efficient of VOC we will call that one as αv and the temperature coefficient of
peak power as αp. For this particular example you see that the temperature coefficient of current
is 0.045% per degree Kelvin.
And temperature coefficient of VOC is -0.34% per degree Kelvin and that of the power α p is
0.47% per degree Kelvin. So what do these numbers mean and how do they effect the overall
voltages currents and the power. Now that is what we would like to see now.
51
Consider the I-V characteristic I have shown here. Let the I-V characteristic which is in red
represent the characteristic at temperature 250C or 2980 Kelvin. So this is the standard
temperature and the one in green, let us say it is at 40 0C. Now we know from the data sheet the
open circuit voltages and the short circuit currents at standard temperature and insolation and this
value from the data sheet is given as 36.72 Volts and ISC is given as 8.99 Amps, all this from the
data sheet.
Now we need to find what is V OC at the 400 curve and also ISC for the 400 curve. The peak power
for the curve at standard temperature and insolation is given as 240 Watts peak for this particular
cell in the data sheet. We need to estimate what is the peak power value for the curve which
represents the 400C temperature. Let me replace the question marks by meaningful variables.
So what we need to estimate is here the short circuit current at 40 0C, the peak power at 400C and
VOC at 400C. ISC short circuit current at 400C is equal to the short circuit current at the standard
52
temperature of 250C + Δi. Likewise VOC at 400C is VOC at 250C standard temperature + a Δv and
the power max power or the peak power at 40 0C is given by the peak power at the standard
temperature of 250C + a Δp. We need to find what the Δi, Δv, Δp values are using the data sheet
temperature co-efficient parameters.
The temperature coefficient of ISC αi is given as change in ISC divided by ISC at standard
temperature into 100. So which means that this whole thing is converted to a percent form per
degree change in temperature. So this is how it is defined as per the data sheet and this value for
the short circuit current we saw is given as +0.045 % per degree Kelvin. Rearranging, change in
ISC which we shall denote as Δi is given as α i the temperature coefficient of ISC into the ISC at
standard temperature 250C into ΔT the change in temperature divided by 100 Amps.
So this would be the change in ISC. Now substituting it in the ISC equation we find ISC at 400 C is
equal to ISC at 250C + Δi. The Δi can be replaced like this, α i is the temperature coefficient of ISC
as given in the data sheet into ISC at 250C the reference temperature into ΔT difference in
53
temperature by 100. Now if you take out ISC at 250C out as a common factor you will get this
particular term 1+αi ΔT/100.
For the values given in the data sheet substituting for all this parameters here we can get the short
circuit current ISC value at 400C. ISC at 250C 8.99 Amps as given in the data sheet αi is 0.045% per
degree Kelvin temperature the standard temperature is 250C and the raised temperature is 400C
divided by 100 and that would give you a value of 8.9968, 0.0068 amps higher than the
corresponding current value at 250C.
Along similar lines the open circuit voltage that 40 0C is given by open circuit voltage at the
standard temperature of 250C + a change in voltage Δv. Now this change in voltage ΔV can be
obtained using the data sheet value of temperature coefficient of VOC into the VOC at 250C into the
change in temperature by 100. Bringing out the common factor the VOC at standard temperature
into 1+αv x ΔT/100.
54
So if we substitute the values from the data sheet values, 36.72 volts for V OC at standard
temperature, αv for the VOC is given as -0.34, note the minus because the VOC decreases with
increase in temperature. A temperature rise of 40 minus 25 0 which is 150C divided by 100. So
this amount here amounts for -0.051 which reduces pulls down the open circuit voltage to 34.847
Volts, so as temperature increases the open circuit voltage will drop.
Similarly for the peak power value also Pm at 400 C is given by Pm at 250C + at ΔP value,
the ΔP value can be expressed as α p the temperature coefficient of the power into P m at
250C x ΔT by 100. Simplifying, we have Pm at 25 0C to 1+αpΔT/100. Now if you
substitute the data sheet values Pm at 250C is 240 Watt peak. 1+αp from the data sheet is
given as -0.47 x (40-25)0C rise in temperature/100.
So this portion will become negative it is -0.0705 which will pull down the value of the peak
power to 223 watt peak. Therefore here again you will see observe that with rise in temperature
the value of the peak power will come down.
55
Prof. L .Umanand
Fill factor, fill factor is actually a figure of merit for the PV cell. It tells how good or how bad a
PV cell is. It is actually a ratio. Now before I tell what the ratio is, let us get to it in a much more
intuitive manner. Now you see this is the I-V characteristics of PV cell. Now let me have a
56
projection of along the perpendicular to the voltage axis and the projection of ISC perpendicular to
the I axis.
And this point is Voc, Isc point as shown here. Now this V oc, Isc this rectangle here now let me fill
up this area represents this point here represents the maximum possible voltage and the
maximum possible current that is theoretically possible from the PV cell but this point will never
be reached.
Now for a particular characteristic curve this, the maximum power point is given like this V m and
Imp and it has projections which cover a rectangular area like this. Now observe that when the R
series non ideality is removed it would gradually become vertical and R shunt ideality is
removed then that would become properly horizontal and this would be a very ideal cell
character. So this point Voc*Isc would be the weak power of such an ideal cell but this will never
happen this is more practical cell. Now we need to see how close this area matches with the grey
shaded area of a very ideal cell. Now that is how the definition of fill factor comes.
57
Now consider a PV cell I-V characteristic like this a straight line, this is actually very bad PV
cell characteristic where in the series component Rs is very large and the shunt component R
shunt is very low. Now even if we take such a bad PV cell we would be getting some power out
of it.
And let us say we have a Vmp, Imp point like this and its projections result in a rectangular area
like this and we see that this rectangular area is much smaller with respect to the ideal
rectangular area as remarketed by Voc Isc. Any normal PV characteristic would have a much
higher peak power point and a much larger area with respect to the ideal area.
So the area ask encompassed by the maximum power point with respect to the idealized
maximum power area is defined as a fill factor so the fill factor is given by V mp Imp divided by Voc
Isc. Voc Isc is the rectangular area the limiting rectangular area which would be the maximum
possible. Vmp Imp is the rectangular area as a encompassed with respect to the operating peak
power point.
The fill factor is a ratio of this area with respect to this area. This tells us or gives us an idea of
the goodness of the cell. The more closer this area is to the V oc Isc rectangle the better the cell. So
if you take our typical PV cell it will be much better than this straight line. It will have a curved
line like this.
So this practical PV cell characteristic would have a weak power area as shown in blue here
much larger than this green area as shown here as encompassed by the peak power point of the
bad cell. So apparently just looking at this you see that this curve a PV cell having this curve is
much better than this, because this area is greater than this. So this ratio which gives a measure
of the goodness of PV cell can be computed from the data sheet values.
58
Now if we go back to the data sheet values you will able to compute the fill factor for the typical
cell of a particular data sheet. Look at the datasheet and bring your focus to this parameters. So
you see here, this is the V mp voltage value and the Imp voltage value. So this could give you the
Vmp Imp. This is the Voc voltage value and the Isc current value and this would be this one.
So plugging in these values into our equation for the fill factor, we get fill factor value can be
computed from the data sheet values 30.18 Vmp into 7.96 Imp divided by 36.72 Voc 8.99 Isc. Now
this will give you a value of 0.72. So this is the ratio. Now 0.72 is a reasonable panel available in
the market. If you say fill factor is .5 it is very bad cell, if the fill factor is .8 or .85 it is a very
good cell. So that is by FF of the fill factor is generally calculated to measure the quality or the
goodness of the PV cell.
59
Prof. L. Umanand
Simulating the PV cell. In this session let us see how we would go about simulating a PV cell.
Before we go into the nitty-gritty of simulating the PV cell in the Ngspice. Let us see what we
want to actually do. We know that the PV cell has a model like this. Now this model has to be
simulated and what is it that we want to see. We would like to see the I-V characteristic at the
terminals. The voltage across the terminals and the current flowing through the terminal and the
external load and how is the I-V characteristic. We know that it is something like this, if we have
I on the y-axis and the voltage on the x-axis. The I-V characteristic looks something like this.
60
So how can we achieve this I-V characteristic by simulating this model in the spice. Consider we
have an external load R0 like this. Now if we just how this external load R 0 like this, there will be
a current flowing through this and a voltage will develop across R0 a DC voltage will be there
and you will have a DC current. it will give just one operating point on this I-V curve. We need
to have many operating points.
So therefore, we make the load resistance R 0 variable. In such a case, by making R 0 zero, you
would achieve V0 of zero. There will be a short circuit current flowing through R0 and when you
try to increase R0 to a larger value this I into R0 value at that point in time would give you a
voltage which would sweep the x-axis. So basically we would have an x-axis sweep voltage
value and when you measure the current you would get the various points which would represent
the I-V curve. Alternately what you could also do is, replace this resistance with a source
incorporating a voltage source like this across the terminals will also provide us with this I-V
characteristic.
However the voltage source should have a time evolution in this manner let us say we have a
saw-tooth like this in this manner. This would provide the sweep for the x-axis of the I-V
characteristic. This voltage V and the current will accordingly vary and provide us with the
points for the I-V characteristic. What can be noted is that this wave shape for the voltage of this
voltage source need not be sawtooth it could be triangle or it could also be sinusoidal as long as
it is a very function of time, so that this x-axis sweep is provided.
So normally we will use a sine sinusoidal voltage source here because that is easy to make an
easy to implement and even in the simulation we can try putting a sinusoidal voltage source here
and see the performance of this model and obtain the I-V characteristic curve. After we have
obtained the I-V characteristic curve, we will try to vary R S and see what is the effect on the
characteristic. We will try to vary R shunt and see the effect on the characteristic and also try to
vary the temperature operating temperature let say 100 250 500 and see what is the effect of
temperature on the characteristic.
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So all this let us see how we go about doing in simulation using the open source Ngspice
software.
Let us now go through the steps in simulating a model for PV cells in ng spice for that first let us
create a new folder and it may call it as PV sim and this folder PV sim will act as our simulation
project folder it is right now empty and into this all the files related to simulating the model of a
PV cell will be placed. Let us go to the applications and pick up the GEDA schematic editor
click on that you will get the schematic editor gichem this is where the circuit schematic will be
drawn maximize start and you have the empty blank schematic page.
Before you begin drawing schematic let us save this file and give it a meaningful name. so go to
save and then into the PV sim folder that we just created we will call it as pv.sch and then we
now have a blank pv.sch file. Now into this page let us drop in the components and then connect
them to form the model of a PV cell go to the add component box and here you select there are
many libraries with components now let us choose the ones relevant for this particular project
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and choosing spice simulation elements and in that I am selecting the spice include Directive you
click that here I will explain it explain about that a bit later.
Then we will choose the power rails library and that we need two important symbols one is a
ground symbol without which the simulation will not proceed and then the generic power symbol
it is a label we need to label the next so let us place that here I will explain that later again. next
we choose the basic devices library and open it up and then we need to choose few components
from here one of the components we need is a current symbol for the photocurrent then we need
to choose resistors the PV model has resistors in it circuit model. Resistors there are two symbols
I would prefer the box type symbol.
So let me place two resistors there one for the series and another for the shunt then we need to
pick voltage source, so let me pick this voltage source and place it here this is for connecting
across output terminals to see the IV characteristics. Then we need to pick a diode because diode
is again another component that is an important part of the PV cell model. We pick the diode and
we have here almost all the components in place we can close this. Now we need to combine this
into a circuit. Pick the current source rotate them like this, pick the voltage source rotate it
accordingly, pick the diode rotate that, take the R shunt we will become R shut rotate it
accordingly and then place the series component and then next we need to wire them up. Before
wiring you could also name the component parts.
So let us say this is I p indicating the photocurrent you would have, D 1 is the diode part of the
model, then the R shunt I can say R sh, the series non ideality Rs and the voltage source to be
connected to the output we can call it as V0 and the output node label we can call it as nV0 node
of V0 NV0 like this. Now let us go about connecting the components with the wires like this as
shown. After having connected the wires appropriately the circuit looks like this and here for the
include directive also you can give a designator A1 and then for the file you give it right now as
pv.sub and into this pv.sub we will put all the models related to the circuit.
I will describe that a bit later, for now just give it as pv.sub. Next I have given values to the
various components let me bring it to close up like this. So for the photocurrent part I have given
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a one amp as a value, you just have to enter into the value attribute and for the resistance also
into the value attribute I put one mega ohms and the series resistance 0.1 ohm and for the V 0
source I have given as a sign source we need a monotonically varying source here at the output
terminals so that we have x-axis sweep for IV characteristics.
I have given as sign source from 0 to 0.85 peak 50 Hertz and all the parameters 0. So you can
experiment with that and I am calling this node again nV0 as I said earlier. Now for the diode I
have given the value as Def which means it is a model value and that model will be included in
this pv.sub. So this now completes the entire schematic. Now we see that in the pv sim folder the
schematic file pv.sch has been created. You can always double click on that and then see the
circuit and edit it at any time that you like.
Now you should note that Ngspice does not directly use the dot SCH file for simulation it has to
go through one more step of conversion to a netlist and ng spice can only recognize and use
netlist for simulation. So now what we will do is to create a netlist before creating the netlist
there are two files that needs to exist in this folder. One is the pv.sub rim recall that we had
mentioned pv.sub here in the spiced include directive we need to provide that file even if it is a
blank file and the other one is pv.cir the circuit file in which will contain all the analysis that ng
spice is supposed to do.
So to create these two files, let us go to a text editor and just a blank file we will save it into
pvsim as pv.sub. Now this will save and you will get one blank text file pv.sub. We will also
create one more file and name that as pv.cir which will contain all the analysis that ng spice is
supposed to do. Now you have the three files pv.cir, pv.sch and pv.sub. Now using the sch and
sub file we can now compile and create a dot net PV dot net.
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Now let us see how we go about generating this net list file. For this let us go to terminal, open a
terminal window, go to the simulation subfolder and check that we are the right folder the right
files. Now here let us type in the command for generating the netlist, g netlist – G spice - SDB
output pv.net input pv.sch. (gnetlist -g spice - sdb -o pv.net pv.sch). So this is the command for
generating the netlist and it would have generated the netlist here. So see that here new file has
been created in that that fold at the fourth file which is pv.net.
So if you read through the pv.net netlist file open it, the initial statements are automatically put in
by the gnetlist program. See here the first file include pv.sub this is coming from the spice input
directive and this or the net list of the circuit that we put in into the circuit pv module circuit
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diagram. I am going to draw your focus to this point D1 the value that we gave was Def it is the
name of a model right now it does not have a definition. Because pv.sub is blank so we need to
define this Def model within pv.sub then the netlist becomes complete.
So let us do that and then recompile and generate the net list. I'll close this and open pv.sub so
that is open the first line is normally a comment line but you put in some comments, So let me
type in something library of component models something meaningful then it is better that you
have some demarcation. Star would indicate comments. So let us say class of diodes again star.
All these are comment lines. Now starts the model, dot model the name of the model which we
gave Def a diode model within these parentheses and then just close it indicating now all others
are comment line all the line starting with the star are comment lines. The dot model Def D
within parentheses is the model default diode model that we have put.
If we want to have any special diodes we may have to fill in the parameters within this
parenthesis that you can look into the data sheet manual of spice and then appropriately edit the
models. Now for the for now we will put this default model and save that is saved we close this
and then we do the generation of the netlist, so when we redo the generation of the netlist the
new netlist would have been created in pv.net it would have been updated just see that with
respect to the previous one it has been updated there is a Model Def which has been now
included it is residing in pv.sub.
So the diode Def is now defined here and then all the portions of the net list is fine and okay and
it is supposed to execute well in the simulation. So now we have a full-fledged proper netlist. We
need to put in the analysis within the dot cir file. So let us see what we will write in this dot cir
file. Now open pv.cir. It is a blank file, first line is again a comment line, I will just type in
simulation of PV cell. I will leave one more line and then put in the analysis I will put a dot Tran
transient analysis with print step of 0.01 milliseconds, 5 milliseconds as the end of time and uic
use initial conditions.
I will also include dot include pv.net that is we include the pv.net into this. Okay this 5
milliseconds is coming from the schematic where if we go to the schematic you see that we have
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an output which is a sinusoidal source 0 to 0.85 peak this is 50 Hertz which means 20
milliseconds period so in a quarter of this period it would have reached 0 to 0.85 in 900 time.
So it would have reached the full sweep value of the x axis so that is why I have given 5
milliseconds here that should be sufficient. Save this and that is it, we have all the files here ng
spice will use this and these two files. We will be using this, this will in turn called pv.net which
will in turn call pv.sub. Now let us simulate the circuit file you go into the terminal window type
in ng spice pv.cir, that is it, over. You are now into the ng spice environment you type run, run
will execute the simulation, you see that now there are a 512 data rows and these are the vector
available to you, node one, node nvo and V0 branch current.
So now you recall why we give the label so that you can recognize which node that particular
node label will appear here for the vector name and we can easily recognize that particular node
to the circuit and then use it for plots. Now if you plot, the branch current I V 0 versus nv0, so it
will give you the plot of the IV plot of the PV cell. So this is the V 0 the voltage across the
terminal and this is the current through the terminal, this is a short circuit point and this open
circuit point.
So you can expand it and then see that this is the short circuit point one amp, we had given it as
one amp and then this point at I equal to zero this will be the open circuit voltage point and
somewhere here would be the peak power point okay. So this is how you would get your plot
outs now if you want to get a plot out on white background this is what you need to do, set color
zero representing the background as white and also set color of the foreground one as black and
then plot again plot I V0 current versus nv0. Maximize it and then you see that it is. So you could
choose whichever type of background and foreground that you want according to your
convenience.
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Now opening the schematic file and zooming in the circuit and let us say we would like to see
this set of IV characteristic curves with RS as a parameter as RS varies. So let us see how we go
about simulating with IV characteristic of the different values of RS. So now open the terminal
window going to ng spice pv.cir, so now you are in the ng spice environment, you can use listing
and see what is the netlist as we as that have been loaded, now what we want to do is we want to
change the parameter of the RS the series resistance.
So we would say a 0.1, 0.3, 0.6 ohms just for example right now. So how do we go about doing
it is, we will execute this run of the simulation with R S is equal to 0.1, so you just type in run, so
one set of simulation is executed these are the node voltage the branch current that you see if we
want to see the vector names just put in display. So when you type in display, you see these are
the vectors available to you. The voltage of node one the voltage of the labeled node, the time
and the current through the branch V 0. This all these vectors are grouped into one called tran1
group, when you type in set plot, you will see that tran1 which is the current plot group okay is
named tran1 it is a simulation of the transient analysis.
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So now if you alter the RS value to 0.3 ohms let us say, now the RS value is altered and now you
run the simulation. Now I get another set of vectors here, typing set plot just to show to you that
now you have a tran two simulation with the second simulation so I still have the vectors of tram
one I now have the vectors of Tran two now let us say that I also alter once again R S to 0.6 ohms
and run the plot and I will type in set plot you will see I have Tran 3 all the vectors
corresponding to transit.
So each of these plot groups will have the vectors of all the node voltages and currents. Now let
me shift the current plot to Tran one that first plot at R s is equal to 0.1. You can check that again
type set plot, you will see that the current plot now is Tran one. Now I will plot, before plotting
let me set the background color white set the foreground color to black and now plot now what
are the things that have to plot. I have to plot the IV characteristics, the x-axis I will take it
always corresponding to the transient analysis one and the y-axis is the one which would vary for
the other for all the other transient analysis at RS is equal to 0.3 and 0.6.
So plot current V0 versus nv0 the voltage across the output terminal labeled, then tram 2 current
to the terminal versus nv0 same sweep, then Tran three current versus the same sweep, so when
you plot you get the three sets of plots like this maximize it and you will see. Now you see this
red one is I V0, this is tran1 at RS is equal to 0.1 ohms.
Now blue one Tran 2 is for the case when R s is equal to 0.3 this is for the case when R S is equal
to 0.6 and it is also agreeable with the theory that we had discussed earlier and the Rs non ideality
causes quite a lot of distortion as it increases. So quit this and you can exit out of the ng spice
environment. Sometimes you may want to run the analysis repeatedly many times and then every
time for you to type within the ng specie environment may be cumbersome. So what you could
do is now let me go into the ng spice environment.
Now let me type history, you know the history of commands that you have done previously. You
can now go to pv.cir, open that and let us put in the control scripts, so between control dot
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control and dot endc. You can put in all the scripts that you had typed here and whatever is
relevant to you.
Now let us say we wanted to first run the simulation with R S is equal to 0.1 then we would like to
alter RS to 0.3 and then run the script then again alter RS to 0.6 ohms and then run the script. Now
we have three analysis tran one, tran two and tran three. We would like to set plot to tran one
then we did a set color of the background to white set color of the foreground to black and then
we plotted the graphs, so what did we plot. so I what is there here I could probably copy that and
then paste it here.
So this is the analysis that we wanted to do and plot, so this I will save it and then close it. So
now when you call ng spice it will execute all these control statements and then provide you with
the final results. So let me exit out of it. ctrl L or clean-slate call ng spice pv.cir. So it will go
through the complete set and execute and give you all the three results. So this will help you to
do repeated simulations with minor changes, so you could make the changes directly here in the
control statements this will save on iteration.
In a similar manner, you can perform the experiment for any other parameter in the circuit you
could probably do it for R shunt although the variation of the IV characteristic curve for or shunt
variation is not as large or as significant as the series no ideality R S. I would like to show you the
variation of the IV characteristic with temperature it is slightly different in the sense that the
command is slightly different.
So let us have a look at that. We opened pv.cir, now we run the simulation of the circuit as it is
normally default temperature is at 270 centigrade. So this simulation tran1 would be a 27 0C, we
change the temperature here but changing the temperature for the circuit is using the option
statement temp equals let us say 00 it is at 00 and run that and then again we will change the
temperature to 500 and then around that simulation, then we set the plot to this is some logic that
you need to use you see that when the when the temperature when the temperature is lower V oc
will be higher and when the temperature is higher Voc will see is lower.
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So we could probably take the one with zero as the reference so which is transient 2. So let us set
the current plot to transient 2 and then we are setting the foreground and background black and
white and I0 versus nv0 is transient 2 because we have set it as the reference. You can then set
transient analysis 1 I0 versus nv0 with respect to two, transient analysis 3 with respect to 2. So
this would execute and give you the temperature variation in the IV characteristic.
So let us call this ng spice pv.cir, so that will go and execute. Expand the simulation then you see
that you have the variation of V0 with respect to. now here if you see the red line I 0 is the one
with respect to 00 that is transient analysis 2, transient analysis 1 at 27 0 so it is slightly reduced
and transient analysis 3 this is at 500 so still further reduce.
So as the temperature is increasing you see that the curves start going with in V 0 starts decreasing
and that is as per our understanding too as per the theory also, so like that you can make any
analysis using ng spice this is a sample that I have said there is lot of scope for expanding and
checking out various things and various parameters I will leave all that to you.
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Prof. L Umanand
The PV cells of the solar cell if it has to be useful so that it can be made use of in power
application, need to be enhanced in power which means the voltage has to be higher much
higher than 0.6V the current has to be higher. So for this the PV cells many PV cells need to be
connected in series or parallel or a combination of both to arrive at a module. Now can this be
done, can we connect PV cells in series directly, can we connect PV cells in parallel directly.
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What happens if one set of PV cells have different characteristics with respect to another set.
This is likely to happen due to shading. If there is a shade or a shadow that falls on a part of the
module then some of the PV cells will have less insulation compared to other parts of the
module. So under such condition what happens to the resultant characteristics IV characteristics
or are these non identical cells being connected in series of parallel having detrimental effect on
the overall module or individual cell. Can we take any protective measures. These are some of
the issues that we need to discuss understand study and solve. So this is what we will be
discussing right now.
So first let us take a connecting cells in series. So connecting cell in series, let us take just two
cells and see how we go about connecting them in series. So we know that a PV cell is
represented in this fashion. Then you take cell one, then take another cell two. Now these 2 cells
if we are to connect them in series what we would do is connect these two terminals, so this is + -
for the first PV cell this is + and - for the second cell and of course you would connect an
external load and I will just represent it as a simple resistive load for now, it could be any node
which is compatible to the PV cell.
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So we would connect the load like this and we are interested in the terminal characteristics, the
resultant terminal characteristics. So let us sat this is the resultant terminal voltage V T and this is
the resultant terminal current iT, I'll call this one as T, and let us say with respect to this. So we
have the individual cell having, I will say VT1 and the second cell having VT2 and when you
connect it in series you observe that the current of both the cells will have to be the same and
they have to be iT, so the constraints here are that iT1 = iT2 which is equal to iT.
Because they are connected in series. Now what is i T1 and iT2. So I will say that this is i T2 and I
will call this one as iT1, so as far as the currents are concerned they being in series, i T1 = iT2=iT.
And with respect to the voltage, VT1 +VT2 is equal to VT, now these two are the constraints that
get applied because of making that connection in between here. So this will series connection of
two PV cells. Let us now try to replace these block PV cell symbols with an approximate model
of the PV cell here, so that we understand the play of currents and voltages are much more
clearly.
This is a PV cell model. This is VT the terminal voltage, this is iT the current that will flow
through the terminal if there is a load connected across the terminal R S of the series resistance
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and RSH is the shunt impedance or the shunt non ideality. Without loss of generality, we can
remove these two non idealities, so that understanding the series and parenting effect becomes
much easier and therefore let us first try to remove these items.
This now becomes a more idealized model of the PV cell. Let us substitute this model of the PV
cell into the PV cell symbolic block which we have used and try to understand the series and the
parallel paralleling effect of the PV cell. Now in this series circuit, let us replace the PV cell
symbol with the ideal PV cell model. Replacing the symbol with this model you see that the PV
cell 1 has been replaced and the circuit becomes like this, now if we replace PV cell 2 also with
the model idealized model we have two circuit like this, both the symbol being replaced by the
idealized models. Now it will be much more easier to understand those seen in connection with
this circuit configuration.
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Let us see how the 2 series cells work and what will be the resultant IV characteristic of these 2
series cells. Now this is the circuit that we just now discussed and we are interested in seeing the
I versus VT characteristic. For this let us draw the x and y axis, the x axis is the voltage axis of
the VT it is representing the terminal voltage across the combined system. The y axis is the
current axis, so this IV axis represent the terminal current and the terminal voltage. Now let us
how characteristic like this, which is having the V oc1 and Ioc1 representing PV cell . Now another
characteristic which is superimposed on the PV cell one characteristic, is the PV cell 2
characteristic. PV cell 2 characteristic is taken identical to that of PV cell 1 characteristic which
is having same VOC1 and VOC 2 and the ISC2 is same as ISC1. Now these two cell characteristic PV
cell 1 and PV cell 2 characteristic are to be combined to obtain the characteristic of the combined
combination. Now let us say that this is one operating point of the combined system and this is
obtained by the constraint the voltage of the combination is equal to the sum of the voltage of
each individual, that is PV cell 1 voltage plus PV cell 2 voltage. So if you take the x axis there is
an operating point Voc1 and Voc2 add it up and you will get this operating point likewise another
operating point is, as the current flowing through both the cells is the same, this would be the one
at the outer point is another operating point, so you have two operating points in a simple
simplistic manner let us just combine these two operating points into the characteristic as shown
here.
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So this would be the green ocean would be the combined characteristic of the two PV cells in
series and I should note that this is a trivial solution there are many problems, the two PV cells
will not have identical characteristic will never have identity identical characteristic and we need
to see what happens in such cases.
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Prof. L Umanand
Let me introduce you to the concept of load line, load line on the IV characteristic of the PV cell.
Consider the PV cell connected to an external load, say external load is R0 and this you keep it as
variable. Let us see what happens if R 0 is variant from 0 to ∞, 0 mean short circuiting the
terminal R0 ∞ means open circuiting the terminal. Now let us plot the IV characteristic, the x
axis is VT the terminal voltage, y axis is the current through the external load. So this would be
our x and y axis and on to this axis let us place an arbitrary IV curve. So let us say we have a
curve like this.
Let me now draw a line, a straight line like this, what does this line represent, consider the slope
of this line, so the vertical intercept would be the Δi and the horizontal projection is ΔV and the
slope is Δi / ΔV. So Δi / ΔVe = 1 / R 0. So that is external output impatience as seen between
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these two terminals. So this line any line you draw like this from the origin straight line cutting
the IV curve would represent 1/R 0 and 1/R0 line and that line is called a load line. The point of
the intersection of the load line with the IV curve is this and this point of intersection is called
the operating point. So if you draw an arbitrary load line, the point of intersection with the IV
curve would be the operating point for that load R0. So for this load represented by 1/ R0 line the
operating point in IV curve is this.
In this circuit in the system if R0 is varied the slop of this load line will vary and if R 0 is made
very high, open circuit in fact and what will happen to the load line. The load line will move
such that it will try to align itself with the x axis. This is because R 0 is open circuit, infinite value
1/∞ is 0 which means a slop is 0, Δi is 0. So you will see that in this load line and the intersection
of the IV curve, the operating pint is here, and this is the V OC. At the VOC point R0 = ∞. Now if
we change R0 such that there is a short circuit across the terminals of the Pv cell such that R 0 = 0
and what happens to the load line. The load line will move in this fashion and it will try to
become vertical and align itself with the y axis like this. Because now R 0 = 0, 1/R0 is ∞ the slop
is un infinite value, and therefore it is aligning itself in the y axis now this is the short circuit
operating point. At the short circuit operating point R0 = 0, in between these two operating points
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there are host of other operating points at different R0 values and it will take this slopes
according to 1/R0 value.
So this load line and this concept the load line will help you to gain a great inside into the
operation of the circuits connected with the PV source you will see that we were using the load
line concept more and more in many of our discussions and understanding of circuits that will
come in the future.
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Prof.L Umanand
Indian Institute of Science Bangalore
In practice, the PV cells or the solar cells are never identical. Even cells from the same batch of
manufacturer will not have identical IV characteristics. Further, you will see that when the PV
cells are mounted on the roof tops and exposed to the solar radiation, there may be neighboring
buildings the shadow of which may be falling on portion of the PV cells on PV modules. There
may be trees nearby who shade will be falling on portions of the PV modules. Therefore some of
the PV cells will be under shade and there will be some of the PV cells which will be under
bright sunlight. Therefore the short-circuit current of the PV cells in bright sunlight will be much
higher than that of the PV cells which are in the shade. Therefore you will see that having non
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identical solar cells is a practical situation. Now if these cells having non identical IV
characteristics are connected in series what will happen? What will be the resulting IV character
tics of the combination? Will there be detrimental effects? Can we estimate the resulting IV
character tics? How is the power versus voltage curve? These are some issues that we would like
to look at and study in this module.
Here we see the circuit of two PV cells, non identical PV cells and that are connected in series
like this and these two points are the output terminals of the combined series connected cells.
The load is connected across the output terminals R0, we are interested in the voltage VT across
the terminals and the current through the terminals. V T1 is the voltage across the terminals of the
first cell, VT2 is the voltage across the terminals of the second cell. Now we are interested in
seeing how to get the IV character tics of this entire combination.
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So let us have alongside, the V versus I graph still unpopulated just under x and y axis. Let us
have also another I and V axis and this is for having the IV characteristics of cell 1 and cell 2 and
how they play a role in the development of the IV characteristics of the combined cell. Now let
us have the IV characteristics. This IV characteristics shown in red is that of the PV cell one
which is also shown in red here and the voltage being measured there is shown by red arrow. The
second IV characteristics shown in green represents that of the PV cell 2 is also shown in green.
So I have indicated the IV characters of PV cell 2 slightly lower than that of PV cell 1 indicating
with the short circuit current of the PV cell 2 is smaller, meaning that this cell is shaded. I have
considered the open circuit voltage VOC1 and VOC2 as same for both the cells as shown here. The
short circuit current ISC1 and ISC2 are shown here and the green one that of the cell 2 is bit lower
indicating that cell 2 is partially shaded. Now let me consider a situation where R 0 is infinite
which means this is open circuited, these terminal the combined terminal of this module is open
circuited, which means the load line is along the x axis, in both the cases it will be along the x
axis. Because the open circuited no current flowing through either of the cells each of the cells
are open circuited, the combined circuit is also open circuited.
So what is the operating point you will see for each of the individual cell the operating point is
here because the load line is the X axis. So the terminal voltages V T1 and VT2 are like this. How
does it look like here? So if you see V T terminal voltage of the combined system is this plus this.
So one operating point you will get is this which is V OC1+VOC2 with the X axis as the 1 by R 0 load
line. Now let us change the value of R0, from open circuit we will put in some finite value of R 0
and if we do that let us say that some current flows, this is the current line.
Likewise the same current line is indicated here also, indicating that there is some current
flowing through the external load, the same current flowing through each of the two cells. Now I
know how much amount of R0 I have applied and therefore the 1/R0 line is known. The current
line is known, the point of intersection is one operating point as shown. Now this current line
here with respect to the two individuals cells, you will see that the operating points are as shown
here, points of intersection the respective IV curve. So this distance is the voltage across the cell
2 VT2 and this distance with respect to the other operating curve is VT1 which is the voltage
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terminal voltage across the cell 1. This voltage plus this voltage will be the voltage at this
operating point here as shown which is this VT1+VT2.
Now let us increase the load further decrease R 0. So you will see that the load line the slope has
increased, this is the increased I0 the load current and this is the point of intersection, this is the
new operating point on the combined cell IV curve. So I get one more point here. For the
increased load current with respect to the individual IV characteristics of the cell1 and cell2 you
see here all the new operating points and this is voltage across cell 2, this is voltage across cell 1,
addition of this will be the voltage of the operating point of the combined cell. Now I will further
increase the load which means I will further decrease R0.
So what happens this is moving up further like this and this is the operating point with respect to
the load current line as shown here the horizontal line. So this would give you the operating one
more operating point as you traverse as you sweep the load line from here onwards. So with
respect to this load current you see the operating points on the two IV characteristics of PV cell
is as shown like this and you see the voltage across PV cell 2 is much reduced compared to that
of PV cell 1 and summation of this is what you see here VT1+VT2.
Let us see at another critical point when this when increase the load bit further I can reach at this
point, that is the zero voltage point of the cell 2, where you have the operating point exactly in
such a way that it is exactly at the vertical axis for cell 2, cell1 is at an appropriate point here.
Now what happens to the combined characteristic, you see that the load line is like this and this
is the operating point, this will match exactly with this because the voltage contributed by the
cell 2 is 0.
So you see here VT2 is 0 and VT1 is voltage that is occurring here and that should exactly be V T1
and which means that the cell characteristics one must pass through that point. So there is a point
on the cell charatertics 1 which passes through. Further on if I try to increase try to increase the
load or decrease the current I0, there is not much significant rise in the current because you see
that the cell characteristics 2 starts going on to this quadrant, it is not in the generating quadrant
this is the only quadrant the first quadrant is the only quadrant which is generating quadrant or
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the source quadrant, this is as sink quadrant for cell 2. So the voltage here becomes negative, this
is a negative voltage appearing across this and this is a positive voltage with respect to the cell.
So cell 1 is acting as a source, cell 2 is acting as sink. Summation of this V T1-VT2 is actually
what is this point and proceeding further by if decrease this still further to a short circuit let us
say 0 and make it 0 you will see that the operating point here shift here for this current, you will
see that this voltage will exactly match this voltage such that these two will cancel and the
voltage under the term now is 0. So VT2 which is negative VT1 which is positive. These two will
exactly balance each other out, so that you get an operating point here which is 0.
Now let us look into some problems in series connecting the non identical cells. One of the main
problems is that some of the cells will act as source and also sink and we saw that PV cell 2
under some conditions operating conditions was sourcing and under some other operating
condition was sinking power which means dissipating and as a consequence that cell can become
hot during that condition and deteriorate.
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Let us consider the IV characteristics of the combined cell and plot the power curve also in the
same graph. So this is the power curve of the combined cell with respect to the voltage. Let me
now super impose the cell 1 characteristic, this is the cell 1 characteristic as you will see and the
important point is here the intersection of the cell 1 characteristic with the combined cell
charatertics and at this point if I draw the vertical line, we see that this is a crucial junction to the
right of this line you will see that both the cells are sourcing and to left to the line only PV cell 1
is sourcing PV cell 2 is sinking, so this is the dividing line.
And now at this line exactly if you look at the power curve of P 2 this is the power curve PV cell
2, see that at this point when the voltage VT2 is 0, the power that is delivered from PV cell 2 is 0.
So it now stops behaving as a source and if we go still further down towards the 0 axis, it starts
behaving like as a sink. Its a dissipater in these region. Now if you consider this portion of the
characteristics the combined characteristics which is shown lightly shaded, reflects on to the
second quadrant for the individual cell of the PV cell 2 in this case and the second quadrant is
not a sourcing quadrant it is a sinking quadrant. Only the first quadrant is a sourcing quadrant, so
if has cell is in the first quadrant the operating point is in the first quadrant then it is a source
otherwise it is a sink that is what is happening to the PV cell 2 to the right of the line the PV cell
2 the operating points are in the first quadrant and therefore you will see that P2 is positive, to
the left of this line when VT becomes 0 and negative the operating points for PV cell 2 is in the
second quadrant and therefore you see that it is acting like a dessipator. Contrary to that, you will
see that PV cell 1 is positive in both the regions of the IV current and therefore it is always a
source. Now if you look at, it is more or else constant. This can be seen from the fact that for the
variation in the current, in this narrow region, narrow space, the variation in voltage of PV cell 1
is not much and the variation in the current flowing through both the cells is also not much and
essentially the product of I into the cell voltage is essentially constant.
And that is why you see almost it is a constant and you see that here this power balances out the
negative power and positive power gets balanced out and therefore the power of the combined
cell is 0 at that point.
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Refer Slide Time: 20:07)
The important take away is that cell 2 acts as a sink during a portion of the IV characters in the
combined cell and that is detrimental to the PV cell 2. It detriates its characteristics not only that
it becomes the dissipater and it dissipates this extract power and thereby bring down the efficient
of the entire system. So we should find ways to avoid this problem as best as we can.
The important take way is that cell 2 acts as a sink during our portion of the Iv characterics the
combined cell and that is terminal to the PV cell 2 it dissipater its charter tics not only that it
becomes dissipates this extract power and there by brings down the efficiency of the entire
system so we should find ways to avoid this problem as best as we can.
Video is blank from 17:50 to 20:11 and from 20:12 to 20:48 the last paragraph is repeated
again.
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Prof. L Umanand
Non identical PV cells when connected in series have some issues. The two PV cells as
connected here are now acting as sources. Notice the polarity + -, + - both are the same direction
and they aid each other and both are acting as sources. They are operating in this region of the IV
characteristics where power from both the cells are positive. Now if one of the cell is partially
shaded we see that during a portion of the IV characteristic of the combine cell, one of the PV
cell, PV cell 2 here for this example shows negative power indicating that the PV cell 2 is acting
like a sink.
Under that condition this +- polarity will get reversed like this. So now PV cell 2 is acting like a
sink R0 is acting like a sink, PV cell 1 alone is a source. Now we can slightly modify this circuit
so that it is much more convenient to read in this fashion, it is still the same circuit. This PV cell
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1 is a source and you have a load R0 + - as shown here, you have another PV cell 2 acting like a
load additional load + - the same direction of the load as shown here.
So now the PV cell 2 here is acting like a sink or a load means that it is in operating in this
portion of the IV characteristic. We can as well replace this PV cell 2 by a resistive item like this.
So in effective the PV cell 2 is the behaving like a resistor during the time when it is sinking.
Now the question is, the PV cell 2 if it is sinking, it is dissipating and it is becoming hot, can we
avoid that, can we bypass the power, can we bypass the PV cell 2 or any cell which is sinking
such that it doesn't consume any power during the time when it is normally supposes to behave
like a resistor in this region.
So this can be achieved by putting a diode across like this. So whenever the PV cell this gets a
PV cell 2 reveres polarity and operates like a sink, you have + and –, so we have put diode here
and the diode will get forward biased and conduct. Note here, for the sake of simplicity right
now, I am considering this diode to be ideal, its cut in voltage or turn on voltage is 0 volts or
very, very less compared to the PN junction voltages of 0.7 volts of a single cell.
This is very important I will explain that a bit more later, for now consider that this diode is ideal
and the cut in voltage is 0. So the moment the PV cell 2 reverses the polarity the diode cuts in
and bypasses the PV cell 2. Thereby you will not have any power dissipation within the cell and
the cell would not get hot and deteriorate. Now let us look at this characteristic, what happens
when we put this diode there will not be this negative power so that portion will vanish.
So which means all the powers are positive, the PV cell 2 will only source power during this
time and during this time, it does during the time when it was sinking earlier because of the
presence of the diode it will get effectively bypassed by the diode. Now if you convert this
characteristic during this portion of the characteristic, we see that both cell 1 and cell 2 are
sourcing and at this point, at this critical junction where there this vertical line, this point PV cell
2 contribute 0 power, all the power is contributed by PV cell 1.
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And if you take all these regions less than this vertical line point, PV cell 2 does not contribute it
is effectively bypass by this ideal diode. So only PV cell 1 is sourcing. So the characteristics the
operating point characteristic will be such that it will not take this path but it will take this path,
because that is the path IV current path of the PV cell 1 and as PV cell 2 is effectively out of
picture this is the path now it will take.
So if you redraw this portion such that the operating point takes this path in this region it will
look something like this, so this portion this dark thick line portion is actually now the IV
characteristic of the combine cell with an ideal diode put in place like this. The advantage in
putting this ideal diode is that PV cell 2 is bypassed whenever there is a voltage inversion or the
PV cell 2 acts like, tries to act like a sink.
Under such condition this diode will save this PV cell 2 and it will look as so PV cell 1 alone is
in the circuit delivering load to R0. Now PV cell 1 will deliver the full power to R0, R0 alone and
no dissipation occurs here. So that is the advantage of putting this diode, you will be improving
the efficiency slightly and the characteristic also kind of takes this shape as indicated. Now this
is the portion where PV cell 2 contributes power and the remaining portion PV cell 1 contributes
the power and together of course will be the power contribute power of the combined cell. So
here you see that the contribution is only from PV cell 1.
Ref time: 8:00
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Prof. L Umanand
Department of electronic systems engineering
I would now like to revisit this point where I said that this diode should be ideal, if it has to
effectively by pass the PV cell 2 when it is acting like a sink. In practice, this diode that you
would connect is not an ideal diode, it will not have a cutting voltage of 0 or close to 0. In such a
case will this by pass PV cell 2, will this circuit work? So let us consider for now that this is
effectively going to by pass this cell, under such condition.
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PV cell 2 is out of the system, it is bypassed. If you take typical voltages, you will see that the
voltage across the source is of the order of 0.6 volts to 0.7 volts. This as to overcome the
potential across the load, the VT and also the potential across the bypass diode as shown like this.
This it is the order of around 0.6 to 0.7 volts. So this drop 0.6 to 0.7 volts pplus V T drop will
exceed the sourcing capability of the PV cell 1.
So effectively this diode will not actually the bypass it if it is not ideal, so it will work only if you
make a diode, the bypass diode which is having a cut in voltage at least one tenth that of the cut
in voltage of PV cell, that would make this diode more costly than the PV cell itself. So it is not
that the workable solution. So the via media is that, in-between solution is, you put the bypass
across a cluster of PV cell.
Let us say you have some 5 PV cells, or 10 PV cell or 100 PV cells in the series, so let us say
that you have PV cells in the module, you can put a bypass for a module, for a cluster of cells, in
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such a case this will work. However note that there will still be issues of negative power within
the module as long as the overall terminal voltage is still positive.
So now if you consider instead of two single PV cells, we put many PV cells in series and we
call that one as module. Likewise, here are many PV cells in series and we are calling that one as
another module, so you have module 1 and module 2. Now these two PV modules are connected
in series to a extent load. Now these can be protected with a bypass diode, because the voltage of
these PV cells in series of this PV module will be high, it will in the order of 35 volts to 40 volts
and it will much greater than the cut in voltage of a single diode that would you put in here
externally and that will definitely work. So here I have drawn this bypass diode here, which is
bypassing module 2 under conditions when the module 2 starts going negative, that is module 2
when it try to behave like a sink, this bypass diode will effectively take module2 out of the
circuit.
We don't know which of the modules are having shading, so therefore you have put these kind of
protection bypass diode to every module which is there in the circuit. So you should also put a
protection diode across here for the module 1 too. As you see here the module 1 is also having
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the protection diode whichever the module has shading and tries to go to the sink zone of
operation, the bypass diode will come and protect them effectively removing that portion of the
module out of the circuit.
However you should know that within the module there cells series, there are more protection
diode, there could be combination of diode partially having a positive voltage and parts of them
are having negative voltage. As long as the overall voltage across the module is positive, this
diode will not come into the picture. So the internal diode of some of them is acting as sinks they
will be dissipating, so we cannot help that.
At the module level you can protect it in this fashion. These PV cells in series, these modules can
effectively be represented in symbolic form like this. These are modules M1, M2, Mx so on and so
forth and each of the modules have many PV cells connected in series and these are the protected
bypass diode and they are connected across in the fashion, such that they protect the modules,
whenever the modules try to become sinks.
If there is partial shading and any one of the modules try to have the inversion in the voltage,
these bypass diodes will effectively removes those modules out of the circuit and try to save
them from becoming hot and also try to improve the efficiency of overall circuit.
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Prof. L. Umanand
Let us simulate two PV cells in series, let us take the case of two identical PV cells in series. I
have captured the circuit in a gschem schematic and this is the schematic. This part here is one
PV cell and this is another PV cell. So I have name this one as PV cell one, it is having the
insulation source, it is current source 1 Amp, there is a diode D1 and shunt resistance and the
series resistance. Likewise for PV cell 2 there is an insulation current source I p2 one amp same
value D2 and R shunt and R series come into the picture.
So this cell is connected in series to this and the terminals of where the load is connected is
across this point where we have connected voltage source which is sine varying source which is
suppose to provide the X access sweep. I have named the node as nVt for the output terminal,
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nVt2 for the terminal which measures the terminal voltage for cell two the bottom cell. If you
have to find the terminal voltage for the top cell which is the PV cell 1 it is nVt – nVt 2. I have
included here the spece include directive, the file is pv.sub, in that one, inside that one is diode
model, default diode model which is suppose to handle these diodes D1 and D2. So we are ready
with the schematic let us generate the netlist and simulate using a Ngspecie.
Let me go to the simulation project folder which is pvsim, there are three file that you will see
here series.sch, this is the schematic file that we just now saw. series.cir this is the circuit file
which contain the analysis. pv.sub, which was referred in series.sch through this spice directive.
This contains nothing but the diode model default diode model. series.cir actually has the
transient analysis statement and an include statement for including the netlist series.net which we
have not at generated we will just that now.
There is the series of control statements. One is to set the background as white and to set the
foreground as black then the run comment so that is put in to the control statement. Now let us
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generate the netlist file and then go in to Ngspice. For that first open the terminal window go the
project sub folder. So we have all the relevant files here. I have here the netlist generation
command gnetlist dash g spice dash sdb output to series.net from the input series.sch (gnetlist -g
spice-sdb -o series.net series.sch). So this will generate the netlist you can come back here and
see that the netlist is generated and then now call Ngspice series.cir.
So we are in Ngspice, Ngspice use the run command which was there in the dot control
statement, you can check the display and see that these are the vectors available for you to plot.
Now we can plot and see the results, what is see that you would like to plot. You could open the
schematic file so that it becomes a bit more easy for you to understand the variable that you are
plotting. Now let us say we would like to plot the current through this output source where is
high and the node voltage across this that is the terminal voltage.
How does it look like? So let us plot current V0 through the V0 source versus nvt. So we get a
plot look like this. So you rather than seeing a single plot, we can see group of plots which will
give you a kind of a relative idea of the various things. So let me quit this. Let us plot the I versus
V characteristic of the PV cell 1, PV cell 2 and the overall set. Plot i v0 versus nvt would give
you the I versus V characteristic of the overall result in PV module and then i v0 versus nVt 2
would give you the IV characteristic of the PV cell 2 and i v0 versus nvt – nvt2 would give you
the iv characteristic of PV cell 1. Now plot that will get this maximize that and you will see that
you have this characteristic.
You see this line, the blue line actually this is having two lines, one is the orange and the other
one is the blue, this is high there is I versus V for the two cells, they are identical cells. And the
red one is for the resultant cell and that is what you are seeing here, which matches with our
theory. Now let us plot the power versus voltage curve for the three items, which is power versus
voltage for cell 1 power versus voltage for cell 2 and then for the combination.
So let us now plot i v0, the i current is same for all, because they are currented in series, same for
all the three components, x what say nvt for the overall cell versus nvt and the next plot will be i
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v0 x nvt2 for the pv cell 2 versus nvt, the same X axis. i v0 x (nvt – nvt 2) would be the voltage
across cell one versus nvt.
So this will give you the power versus voltage curves for the three cells, you see them here. So
you see that the blue one power versus voltage for cell one and also cell 2 also orange
superimposed and the red curve is the power versus voltage curve for the series combination.
I have here, the circuit of two modules connected in series. Now this is module one, this module
one contains five PV cells and these five PV cells are identical, all having one amp insulation
current sources ,they are connected in series, and there is another module, module 2 and they are
also connected in series not all are identical you have two of them having one amp current source
and three of them having 0.7 amp current source, indicating that these PV cells have partial
shading.
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Now this module 2 and this module 1 are connected in series to the external load, in this case
external load is the voltage source which is acting as a sweep.
If you look at the simulation project folder, you have three familiar files series.sch, is the
schematic file which we just now saw, series.cir is the circuit file which contain the analysis
statements and pv.sub contains the diode model default diode model in this case which is refer in
series.sch through the spice into directive. Now if you want to have a look at the series.cir, I have
here the transient analysis statement and there is an include statement which includes the
series.net list file, this is the net list file which we will generate shortly and there are the control
statements where the first two are to set the back ground as white and black and then run you
will run the simulation automatically then plot.
So plot i versus v, i versus i x v, so this is a power versus v, power of the combined system
versus v, power of module one versus v power of module 2 versus v. I have scaled i versus v so
that you have a much more nice looking graph. So, I am going to the terminal window, let us
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generate the net list first. We execute this, we see now that there is a netlist which has come in
and now we call ngspice series.cir and execute that you see that it was executed and then you
maximize the graph, you will see all the graphs that we have plot we have included in the control
statement.
Now look at these, i that is the current flowing through the external load, so that is this red line
versus v and this orange line is i x nvt – nvt2, which is the voltage across module one, so this
would be the power of the module one which is the orange line this is the orange line. And the
green line is the power of module 2, that is this the one which is weaker and has partial shading
and the green one is the net power of the combined cells.
So you will see that, it agrees very much with the discussion that we have had previously.
Observe that module 1 is always in quadrant one which is sourcing throughout. Observe that the
green line crosses from sourcing to sinking at this point, so here all this places the power is
positive, module 2 is acting as source. Here the power is 0 and it crosses over, power becomes
negative and here it is sinking it is acting like a dissipater.
Now let us see what happens if we put the protective diode and try to remove this portion this
negative portion of the power. This is the same circuit of two modules connected in series, there
is one modification that I have made and that is this diode I have included this bypass diode here
to protect module 2 whenever module 2 tries to go negative that is operating in a sink mode.
Now let us go the terminal, let us now generate the netlist and let us go to ngspecie and going to
its environment .cir, you will see that the simulation is executed and you see now this set of
graphs along with the protection diode.
Observe that the green line which is the power curve of module 2 and as it tries to negative it
gets clamped, of course the diode is not ideal so it gets clamped to the forward voltage, observe
also the shape of this curve it is as per our discussion. Observe that the power curve for the entire
system series system is having two bumps and it is not single, it is not a single hill or single
bumped power curve.
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Prof. L. Umanand
Like cell series, one can also connect cells in parallel. Now if you take a module like this and let
us say we would like to connect this module in parallel with another PV module completing the
circuit, the parallel connection of two cells or modules is like this, so you have module 1 or cell 1
connected in parallel to module 2 or cell 2 and in parallel with an external load R 0. Let us call the
voltage across the output terminal as VT and let us call the current that flows through the external
load as i.
Now these two are the parameters of importance and we would like to know what is i versus V T
or i versus V, so this is what we would like to see for the system of cells connected in parallel
and here you have individually this current as i1 and current from panel 2 or cell 2 as i 2, the
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conditions here i is equal to i1 + i2. If I say that the voltage across panel 1 is VT1 and voltage
across panel 2 as VT2 then VT1 = VT2 = VT. These are the constraints two constraints that are
applicable for cells connected in parallel.
This is constraint 1 the terminal voltage is equal to the voltage across each of the cells or models
kind of in parallel this is 1, the other 1 is summation of the currents from each of the panels will
add up to the terminal current this is the second constraint.
I can replace the PV cell symbol with the current source diode model the idealized currant
source diode model, so that we will be able to understand the operation much better like this.
Completing the replacement, we see cell 1 replaced by the current source and this red color
diode, cell 2 replace by this current source and the green colored diode. This is paralleling two
PV cells in parallel along with an external resistance R0 which acts as the load.
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This is the circuit of 2 PV cells in parallel, let us zoom in and it is clear that we have these two
cells PV cell 1 and PV cell 2 in parallel with load R 0. This here is i1 which is the sourcing current
from cell 1, i2 is the current from cell 2, i 1 and i2 add up to give you i which flows through the
external load R0 and VT is the voltage across the terminals of the cells parallel cell system.
Now in order to study and see how we can get the IV characteristic of the entire parallel
connected system, let us draw the X and Y axis, X axis is the voltage axis which is the terminal
voltage, i axis is the current which is terminal current axis.
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On this, let us superpose the IV characteristic of cell 1 and cell 2. Right now I have taken
identical cells and therefore they have identical characteristic and therefore this is actually two
characteristics superposed one upon the other. Now these 2 characteristic have these parameters
one is Isc1 and Isc2, this is a short-circuit current point for both the cell 1 and cell 2 and this point is
the open circuit point for both cell 1 and cell 2. From constraint 1 of cells connected in parallel
we saw that VT = VT1 + VT2, this point here marked blue, this operating point is obtained when
the current is 0 which basically means when R 0 is made open circuit. There is no current flow
and therefore that would be the x axis line.
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And that is this is the operating point under open circuit condition under that condition, we see
that as the cells are in parallel Voc = Voc1 = Voc2. Now, let us get a second operating point and let
us get that by short-circuiting R0, so when you short circuit R 0, we are talking of the y-axis, 1/ R 0
is infinity and there we apply the second constraint where i = i 1 + i2. So, when you short circuit Isc
will be equal to Isc1 + Isc2. So that would be the second operating point we have. These two
operating points we can smoothly join this and get the equivalent parallel cells IV characteristic.
Before that, let us see what happens when you pan the load line 1/ R0 line from the short-circuit
condition down to the open circuit condition. So if you take one arbitrary load point and a
corresponding load line like this, the R0 is not finite, not a short-circuit nor is it open and load
line is like this is the operating point. The current here is basically this height, you see that this
arrow having i1 , i2 of these two identical cell is the current at this point vertically and you just
add it up i1 + i2 and you will get the current at this operating point.
And this distance is the voltage which is the terminal voltage also and to across both each of the
individual cells, so that is VT. So if you keep on panning this line down to the condition where it
is horizontal up to the open circuit point, you will get the entire operating a set of operating
points with the locus of which will form the IV characteristic of the parallel connected cell
system. So this dark green line is the IV characteristic of the parallel connected cell system.
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Prof. L Umanand

Consider the case here where to the cells PV cell one and PV cell 2 have characteristic as shown
here. They are non-identical characteristics, however the VOC point is identical. Paralleling these
types of cells will also lead to a exactly same in the nature of the resulting IV characteristic as we
saw for identical cells being parallel. If you consider the case when the load R 0 is short circuited
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then the load line is the vertical axis x axis, the operating point is nothing but addition of these
two currents ISC1 and ISC2. So ISC becomes ISC1 and ISC2. The other operating point of course is V OC,
these being parallel VOC1 = VOC2 = VOC. Any other operating point can be obtained by changing
the load putting in some finite value of the resistance and the load line and the voltage developed
across the panels will define this operating point. So i1 + i2 will be the height of this and the
voltage developed across the load will be this V T and so on if you sweep this load line you will
land of with this time of IV curve for the combined system having non identical characteristic
but identical VOC point. So you see that this is going similar to the IV characteristic of the
identical cells in parallel.
Now let us consider cells that are totally non identical, both the short circuit points and the V OC
points are different for both the cells and let us see how to derive the overall characteristics IV
characteristics of the cells in parallel, non identical cells in parallel. ISC1 and ISC2 are the short
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circuit parameters for the two cells and V OC1 and VOC2 are the open circuit voltage parameters of
that two cells respectively.
Now consider in a situation where R0 is 0, that is the external terminals of the parallel
combination system is short circuited, the load line is vertical and we can get a one operating
point of the result IV characteristic, which is the summation of these two values, which is I SC1 +
ISC2. Now let us introduce some resistance R0, the load line is like this, it has a finite resistance
value and therefore a finite slope, now obtaining this operating point that is well known and we
have seen that even the other cases. We have the corresponding currents and this point i 1 + i2, this
is the current value and VT is the voltage value which is occurring across the parallel cell
combination.
Now, let us increase VT by increasing R 0 such that VT is exactly equal to the V OC2 value, means
the open circuit voltage of the PV cell two and this is indicated by this vertical line. So I have
drawn this vertical line which is just passing through V OC2. You will notice that the cell 2
operating point is here as indicated by the arrow the current i 2 is 0 at this point and the entire load
current is given by cell so this point here would be the operating point of PV cell 1, and this
would also be the operating point of the resultant cell.
Now shifting the load line, we will achieve one more operating point for the combined parallel
system as shown here. Now at this operating point you will see that VT the terminal voltage is
exactly equal VOC2 that is the open circuit voltage of cell2 and at this operating point cell 2
contributes 0 current, this will be 0 current. Therefore, i will be totally equal to i 1, which will be
also in current flowing through the load. Notice that this operating point falls exactly on the IV
characteristic of the PV cell 1.
This is because i2 = 0 and there is no contribution from cell 2. Let us shift the load line further
down line for horizontal axis. In that case R0 is infinite which means that the terminals are open
circuited, in that case VT represents the open circuit voltage of the combined parallel system. I
have drawn a line here passing through this point here and this point here pointed by the arrow is
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the open circuit voltage the combined system. And this line, just is a marker and this open circuit
voltage is in between VOC1 and VOC2.
Why should it be so. To answer that, first let us extend the IV characteristic of the PV cell 2
down below so that it intersects this line. Now you see that the IV characteristic of PV cell 2 is in
the 4th quadrant this is the 4th quadrant and it is a sinking quadrant not a source quadrant.
Remember that only the first quadrant is a sourcing quadrant. So, now this intersects at this point
and we have two marker pints here, this small marker here indicates that the PV cell 2 will
operate at that operating point and PV cell 1 will operated at this operating point, this current the
current here indicated in red and the current here the indicate by a green line, will match each
other exactly. So let me zoom this so that you get a better view.
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This height here is the current i1 and this height here is the current i2. i1 and i2 will match and
cancel each other. Notice that i1 is still the first quadrant positive, i2 is in the 4th quadrant negative
and therefore i1 and i2 will subtract exactly to 0 and that 0 will be this point, which is the open
circuit voltage point of the combined system. with the open circuit point available we can now
drag the entire characteristic to get the overall IV characteristics of the parallel system. So this
would be the open circuit operating point and this would be V OC voltage level which occurs in
between VOC1 and VOC2. At this operating point PV cell 2 is operating the 4 th quadrant, it is
sinking, PV cell 1 is always in the first quadrant and sourcing.
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Prof. L .Umanand
Even the case of cells in parallel there is a problem of sinking, sourcing issue as we discussed for
the case of the series connection. Look at the IV characteristic near the point where Voc of the
parallel system occurs. We see that the cell 2 which is weaker of the two cells is operating as a
sink and therefore dissipating power at becomes hot.
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And the efficiency also would deteriorate. In order to protect the cells, we need to introduce
divots in an appropriate manner just like we did for the series connection of cells. For that, let us
go back to the IV characteristic and look at this portion in a bit more detail. Let us zoom this and
draw the power verse v curve here, so let us draw up to the point up to this point as we see PV
source two is sourcing.
Further it goes in to the 4th quadrant like this and shows negative power which means sinking.
The portion I have shown here shaded is the portion where the power is negative and this is the
region during which the PV cell 2 this dissipating, acting like a resistor. Now how do we
eliminate this. So in order to eliminate this we should not allow negative current to flow.
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For that to happen we put a diode in series with each of cells like this. So we put a diode there
like that as shown and a diode here. Now the moment you have put this diode, this protection
divot here you will not have a negative current flowing in any of the panels. So this will not
happen because of the presence of the diode. So this diode will act as the protection.
Once you have put this diode, there will be a slight change in the characteristic. The IV
characteristic without the protection diode was like this, for the overall parallel system. The
moment that protection diode is introduced, there is no negative current and therefore when there
is no negative current during this region the entire current to the load is given by cell 1.
So, which means it will follow the cell 1 characteristics just like in the case of the series case
after we put the protection diode. So when protection diode is put, we will see that after the point
after this operating point when Voc2 is reached, we the PV cell 2 current becomes 0, it will
continue to stay 0.
And during that time the operating point will follow the IV characteristics of the PV cell 1 like
this. So this would be the entire IV characteristics of the parallel combination to the cell with the
series protective diode. So here you see two PV cells PV cell 1, PV cell 2 connected in parallel
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along with the load R0, you have the protective divots here which prevents current flow into the
PV cell.
Now here too, as in the series case we cannot afford to have one diode for one PN junction. It
would become too expensive and further they should be ideal diodes and therefore we put the
protection divots for group or a cluster of cells that is for a module. So if we replace this single
cell by a module then you will have a practical solution like this.
So the module representing a group of PV cells of higher voltage and current than a single PV
junction. So here you see that you have two modules module 1 and module 2, each of the module
is having many PV cells in parallel, this module 2 is also having many PV cells in parallel and
the modules are protected with diodes so that you don't have reverse current flowing into the PV
modules. So this is how you connect the PV modules in parallel and also protect them.
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Prof. L Umanand
Let us look at some module interconnections. If you take a typical module of a PV cell. It is like
this and it has its terminals. So to this we need to add the diodes. So one of the diodes that we
need to add is across the terminal like this. Now this is the diode which will become effective
whenever this module is connected in series and if it is having partial shading this may go into
the sinking mode at which time this diode will bypass this panel and protect it. Another diode
you need to add like this and the terminal now supposed to get connected to the external load
will be here.
So this is where you have to connect the external load R0 like this. So this diode is for series
protection and this diode is for parallel protection. When the panel is in the sinking mode,
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dissipative mode, the polarity will be like this, this diode will be active and you will have the
current flow like that. So you actually will have both the diode drops coming into picture across
the terminals in order to save one of the diode drops, you may find in literature this diode instead
of being placed here will be placed here. So it will bypass this panel along with a series diode
set. You can also place the bypass diode in this fashion where you will have only one diode drop
whenever the current is flowing through the bypass diode in this fashion.
When we have many modules connected in series, it will look like this, drawing it quickly. So let
us say you have many such modules and all these modules you want to connect in series like that
and we know that we just connect diodes across like this, such that they will be able to bypass
the PV panels in case they go into partial shading sinking mode. So this would be the terminals
and you will have VT the terminal voltage across which you can connect the load. Now this way
you can have a string of modules in series like that. You can also have many modules in parallel.
So let us say, I have n modules in parallel like this and we can connect external diodes in series
like this, such that it blocks any reverse current flowing into the panels. So this would be set of
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modules in parallel. You could also have series-parallel configuration. So this is a series this is
parallel.
Let us interconnect a big system with modules in both series and parallel. Now let us say, you
have m modules in series like this, so this is 1, 2 to n, let me put a series diode like this for the
entire series arm like this, so each of the series arm is having one series diode and there are M
parallel sets and for bypass protection you have diodes across each of the modules like this or
you can have even for group of modules set of diodes. Connect the diodes like this across, now
this will give the series sink effect protection for every module and then interconnect all the
series arms in this fashion.
So there are many such arms and here you will have your load. This is R 0 and voltage across that
is VT. So this will be a generic system where you have n modules in series like this and there are
M sets. So is 1, 2 so on M th set. So you have N by M modules and they are protected in this
fashion.
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Prof. L .Umanand
The circuit here shows two modules, one set of module called PV module 1, contains 5 cells in
series 5 identical cells in series and another set of cells called PV module 2 they are also
connected in series and they are also identical cells. Only thing is that the insulation source
current is lesser, indicating that PV module 2 is having partial shading. Now these two modules
are connected in parallel and connected to the external load, the external terminals is terminated
with the source V0 which is acting as a sweep voltage.
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These two sources are zero voltage sources, they are put in here to measure the currents. This
source will measure I1 current of module 1, this will measure I2 current of module 2. I have also
changed the series resistance values, so that this two modules will not be exactly same even for
the Voc points, there will be some difference, of course one could also change the diode models
between these two modules.
But I will leave it as an exercise for you to do. Now let us go to the terminal window and
generate the netlist. You see that we are using parallel.sch as the input file and the output file is
parallel.net. So executing that, we now have generated the parallel.net net list, parallel.sch is the
circuit file that we just now saw. pv.sub is the file that contains the diode model and linked
parallel.sch. Now parallel.cir is a circuit file containing the analysis. I have put in the transient
analysis include to parallel.net, the net list file and some control statements.
The standard one, set background as white, set foreground as black, run the simulation and up of
two plots. Plot one, the first plot is I versus V 0 the terminal voltage, I of module 1 versus
terminal voltage, I of module 2 versus the terminal voltage. The second plot, so the first plot is
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IV characteristics, the second plot with reference to this IV characteristic, I versus V terminal,
you have I1*V terminal, which is the power of module 1 versus the voltage and power of module
2 versus the voltage. These two plots will get executed and display.
So, now let us go into Ngspice and call parallel.cir and run the simulation. The simulation gets
run too, plots are displayed. The first one here, is the IV characteristic. So this is IV
characteristic of weaker cell, that is module 2, this is IV characteristic of module 1and these two
get added up and then here you have the IV characteristic of the combined parallel module set.
Now the other plot, this is IV characteristic of the entire module and then you have the power
versus voltage curve. This blue one is the power versus voltage curve of module one and this
light orange colored one is the power versus voltage curve of module two and you see that the
module two is going into the fourth quadrant, negative, the power is becoming negative and this
is the region where it goes into the dissipation mode, to the sinking mode. To avoid, this we of
course put a series diode, a diode in series and try to protect the PV panels.
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Prof. L. Umanand
(Refer Slide Time: 00:18)-
Let us look at some practicals. Practicals are important for engineering and let us look at answers
to two questions, one is how to measure IV characteristics of a PV module or PV panels using an
oscilloscope. The next question that we need to answer and see how we can practically do that is
how to emulate a PV module. Now why would you want to do that? See, most of the
experiments with PV module, you may be doing during night time or during times when there is
no Sun.
And even during the morning time when there is Sun, the insulation is varying. So, therefore the
output of the PV module is highly uncertain. Therefore, especially for experimentation and
works research work related to PV modules, you would like to have something which gives an
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output characteristic like the PV module, but you can use it at any time of the day, which gets
power from the utility grid. So therefore it becomes important to emulate PV module. So we will
look at few methods of emulating PV modules so that we can do our experiments.
Let us now consider the first problem of how to measure our IV characteristic of a PV panel a
PV module. Now let us draw the circuit have this PV module, let us put the protection diodes,
the series, both the series protection, the bypass diode and the parallel protection and you have
the PV module with the protection, so terminate it. So this is the terminals of the PV module.
To this PV module, let us connect an external load and in series of the load, we will also connect
a smaller resistance called Rsense to measure the current. Now the voltage across, this we will call
it as VT across R0 and R0 is a variable resistance, it could be a wire wound rheostat. Now across
the resistor for measuring current, so let us say we call this as R sense, if you measure the voltage
across start we will get V sense and what is Vsense equal to? Now if you have a current i T as shown
like this, Vsense is nothing but iT x Rsense. So, Vsense is proportional to iT, knowing Rsense you can find
out IT that is the terminal current. Now, for this circuit let us tabulate and the find out the IV
characteristic. This IV characteristic is not still directly viewable on the oscilloscope. So you will
have to first tabulate and then plot that.
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So let us do a tabulation. What do we tabulate? Serial number, you include R 0 in ohms, this is
something that you will be varying, then the measurement of V T volts, measurement of Vsense then
iT is computed based on the measurement of Vsense and Rsense. So using this tabulation, we can plot
VT versus iT. So in fact, you can now plot something like this V T versus iT, so you would
probably get the characteristic, based on the characteristic you can measure the fill factor,
measure the efficiency, measure the power versus V curve and all these things.
But this is an experiment which will give you DC values and you cannot see directly on the
oscilloscope because there is no sweep voltage as you expect when we did the simulation we put
across the terminals a sweep voltage source and that would definitely give you a direct plot out
of the oscilloscope. We will see that experiment later but for this experiment it is something that
you need to tabulate and then graphically plot it in a manual manner or through a package like
octave where you can take the VT vectors and iT vectors and plot the same.
Let us now look at a method where we will be able to see the IV characteristic on an
oscilloscope. So, for that, let us draw the circuit diagram. This is the PV module with the
protection diodes both series and parallel protection. Let us terminate the PV module. Now
across the terminals let us draw now, not a load but a voltage source just like we did in the
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simulation exercise and then incorporate a series resistance here called R sense such that this will
give you a measure of the current i T flowing through the terminals. Now what should be V T?
Note that VT should have some special character. So the wave shape should be something like
this, a full wave rectified wave shape or a half wave rectifier shape will also do as long as the
voltage is unidirectional. Since your voltage is unidirectional, the terminals are always positive.
Now the terminals are positive then the system is in the first quadrant and this fellow will be
sourcing, that is very important. If suppose the voltage goes negative if you are using a regular
sine wave and then the voltage goes negative then during the time and this becomes positive you
see that there will be a circuit current path which goes like this.
So it will be a large surge current for the circuit and something may blow. So it is not
recommended to have VT going negative. So very importantly, you need to ensure that it is
unidirectional. So therefore we qualify that the voltage must be an absolute value voltage and
also it should be capable of sinking current. This is a very important condition, constraint.
Because iT is going through the voltage source V T connected across the terminal and the V T
should be able to sink iT value of current, otherwise the circuit will not operate. If you just put an
absolute value circuit using rectifiers then rectifier will not allow sinking capability. Therefore it
is important that not only should the voltage be unidirectional, it should also be capable of
sinking current, only then this circuit will work and then the IV characteristic can be plotted on
the oscilloscope.
If you have such a voltage source, you can give the V T value to the external trigger of the
oscilloscope and capture the voltage across Rsense and give it to one of the channels of channel A
or channel B of the oscilloscope, then you could see the XY plot or the IV characteristic. What
would be the amplitude of the VT signal? You see that the VT signal is acting like a sweep and
therefore the amplitude should be related to the amplitude of the module voltage.
So if the model voltage is some V X the amplitude of the VT signal should be of that order,
whatever may be the unidirectional signal that you will be giving. It should be noted that
obtaining VT which is both unidirectional and capable of sinking is not easy. So if you take, if
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you derive it from the mains voltage which is sinusoidal to get a wave a wave shape like this,
you should either have a full bridge rectifier or a half bridge rectifier.
And if you use a rectifier you will not be able to sync current and therefore you will have to
make an electronic regulated power source for that, which is more difficult to do that an
experiment in a short time.
Therefore what we will do is, slightly change the circuit. So that it is easily implementable in
practice and you can quickly get the IV characteristic on the oscilloscope. So instead of a source
there, we will put a transistor a BJT, it could be a BJT or a MOSFET. So let us drive it with base
drive resistance and let us have a resistance across the base and emitter for removing the base
charges when the device is supposed to switch off and then let us have a diode there so that it
will pass only unidirectional voltage and as a consequence only unidirectional base drive and
therefore the transfer will receive the base current in the proper direction. The transistor of
course will be capable of sinking iT will flow in this direction. Now we have to get this voltage ?
So let us get this voltage from a step-down transformer. So let us draw this transformer, so you
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have a step-down transformer and the output of this transformer let us connect it to an
autotransformer which is here in the lab.
So this is an autotransformer and the autotransformer input is connected to the 230 supply of the
230 outlet the grid outlet, now 230 here is applied here, so which means this potential swings
from 0 to 230 and what we will have is a transformer here which is having a step-down ratio 230
to 18. So when this is at maximum value, what you would get here is 18 volts and when this is at
minimum value this will also be 0.
So you will get voltage here which is swinging from 0 to 18 volts and this will be a sine wave
swings in both direction. Putting a diode here gives you half-wave rectified waveform here. So
the base current is half wave rectified and that will try to drive the transistor here the BJT here
into the linear region. So as the base drive increases due to the sine nature, this goes deeper into
the on state finally into saturation when the resistance as seen across the collector and emitter
terminal becomes 0 at saturation.
And at that point the voltage across this will be V cesat. So the base current here will modulate the
impedance as seen across the terminals of the PV panel. Therefore, we can say that this BJT
here transistor acts like an electronic rheostat. So let us say the voltage across the BJT collector
emitter terminal is called VT and the voltage across Rsense is Vsense. VT we will give it to the
external trigger of the oscilloscope and Vsense. Observe that Vsense is now measured in this way.
This is the positive potential one with respect to this but still V sense is measured like this which
means you will get a negative voltage, there is a reason. V sense you give it to channel A or channel
B and invert, because Vsense is negative measured in this fashion. The reason is that you can use a
dual channel oscilloscope and make this as the common probe point, the common point of the
probe can be connected here and the other two channel probes can be connected, one can be
connected here and other can be connected here.
Thereby you do not need to use differential probe oscilloscope. So that is the reason I have taken
negative at this point for that one. Now, we say that this is the probe common point probe
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common pin. So you can probe the channel here, plus point here which will go in here, the other
probes plus will go here and connect to the external trigger. So, this if you give it to the
oscilloscope, the oscilloscope will plot the IV characteristics.
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Design of photovoltaic systems
Prof.L Umanand
Indian institute of science Bangalore
PV source emulation is very important. When you are doing experimental work or even design
work with circuits related to PV resources, you need to have a source which is stable and
available all time of the day so that you can test your circuit, you can perform your experiments
and it should not be varying with the insulation, dependent on the sunlight, clouds, rain and all
those things in order for your circuit to function. Therefore having a stable source whenever
needed any time of the day is very important if you have to do your experimentation and circuits
and design.
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With respect with respect to the PV source. Therefore we shall look at this problem and then see
for the lab for you to work with a source which emulates PV source as best as possible, we will
try to demonstrate with a few circuit examples and see how you can go about building them.
The simplest and the best way is to use a light source. So let us take, for example a PV panel.
Now let me consider this as a PV panel or a PV modules and this PV module is having two wires
coming out of it, mark plus and minus, across which you connect the load. Now this PV module
has to be excited with light to deliver power and therefore we need to have some kind of an
enclosure like this and this enclosure is housing the bulbs. So this is enclosure, this is fan so that
the bulbs when it becomes hot, you need to remove the hot air and this enclosure is actually
deriving power from 230 volts means and these are the bulbs which you see here and these bulbs
are energized to throw light upon the PV module so that it can deliver power. You can control
the amount of light that falls on the PV module by controlling the intensity and the number of
bulbs that are switched.
So, these light bulbs are bulbs that you can choose which has a spectrum as close to the sunlight
as possible. Now each of the bulbs or cluster of bulbs can have manual switches connected in
this fashion such that only those particular bulbs are energized and the load is connected across
the terminals of the PV panel in this fashion and the load R 0 is what you would like to drive.
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Now this is a very simple PV source but unfortunately this needs a PV module and the PV
module output is depend upon the area of exposure which means if you want to go for very high
powers, you need a very large real estate and then a large bulb cover area so that you can switch
them on and off under your control. This is not such a feasible solution for very large powers.
For very small powers and small experiments this is fine, but the once you start going to higher
powers greater than 1 kilowatt, then you will have took at other electrical solutions.
Let us now see how we can go about emulating a PV source by electrical means. We take a
simple DC source. It could be a laboratory power supply or it could be a battery. So let us say
you take a battery and you connect in series a resistance, we will name this battery as V dc and we
renamed the resistor as RS. So this combination Vdc and RS together in series form the simplest
PV source emulator. Across the terminals, you will get a voltage v T and the current through the
terminals that will look like quite similar to a PV source.
Let us connect now a load resistor across the terminals. Now, I will call this load resistance R 0
and we will make the load resistance a variable resistance so that it can be varied from 0 to
infinity or short circuit to open circuit. The voltage across the terminals, we will call that one as
vT and there is current that flows through the terminals through or not and that we will call as a
terminal current iT.
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Now if we look at the characteristic IV characteristic, then we will see that IV characteristic of
this combination resembles that of the PV source and therefore we can call this as a simple PV
source emulator. So now let us draw the characteristic. Now x-axis, I will call the x-axis as v T
and for they-axis I will have iT. Now I will set R0 to a very large value, R0 infinity meaning open
circuit. So which means there is no current flowing through the terminal i T is 0. When iT is 0,
now I am talking of a point on the x-axis alone and what is v T? As there is no current flowing,
there is no drop across RS, the whole Vdc will come across the terminals and therefore vT will be
Vdc if you open circuit the output. So I will put an operating point here and I will call that one as
Vdc.
So I have marked this operating point right this Vdc, the special thing here is that R0 is infinite, its
a open circuit. Next, I will short-circuit. I will go to the other extreme of R 0. I will short-circuit
the terminals. When you short-circuit the terminals, v T becomes 0, which means then I am
talking of a point on they-axis. So I short-circuit this v T becomes 0, what is the current flowing
through that, Vdc by RS. So I will mark a point. Another `operating point and the value of that is
Vdc/ RS.
And the important character of this operating point is that R0 is 0, short-circuit. Now as you very
R0 between these two extremes, short circuit to open circuit, you will see a series of points
coming up like this in a linear fashion. Now, at the midway point here, I will mark and I will call
that one as Vm and likewise the midway point will be Im. So Im and Vm, why do I call it Im And
Vm, because is the linear one, at the midway point, you will see that the product V m into Im will be
maximum, so power will be maximum here.
The product here Vm into Im is V into I is 0, because voltage here is 0 even though the current is
Vdc by RS. Here at this operating point, voltage is V dc, current is 0. Therefore you will get a
triangular power curve P with the peak power operating point here. So this will be the peak
power operating point. What is the the fill factor? Fill factor is V m Im, this area. As you see here
this area, divided by the total area as given by V oc into Isc. So if you see, fill factor, which is equal
to Vm by, Vm by Im. What is Vm? Vm is halfway point of the x-axis, Vdc by 2 and what is Im
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halfway point on the y-axis which is Vdc by 2RS divided by Vdc for Voc and VDC by RS for Isc. So if
you workout, you have 1 by 2 and 1 by 2 coming up here in here, it is 0.25. The fill factor of this
PV source emulator is 0.25. It is a very bad fill factor. Fill factors of PV panels should be of the
order of 0.7 to 0.8 for a reasonably good PV panel. However this PV source emulator is very
simple and it will serve the purpose of doing experimentation at odd times even at night when
you can get a steady PV source supply. This PV source emulator is very inefficient. why is it
inefficient? See there is a current flowing through this iT and always there will be iT square into
RS drop, a power loss. There is a iT into RS drop and iT square into Rs power loss in this resistance
and that will make it pretty hot. Therefore, it is inefficient even though it is very very simple
emulator. So if it becomes hot there, you have to build in mechanisms where you will have to
remove the temperature.
So you may how to fix along with the resistance a forced cooling, a blower fan or something like
that. So this becomes the PV source emulator, A very simple PV source emulator. Now, we will
look at this DC supply. I said wean use a battery but using a battery is not convenient because the
battery has to be always kept charged and when it discharges you will have to find mechanisms
or have another equipment to keep charging it and then keep the voltage at a nominal level.
However, it would be very convenient if you get the power, draw the power for this DC power
supply from a much more steady supply like the mains or the grid. Therefore, we would like to
replace this Vdc source by an electronic version of DC generator or a DC source, where power is
drawn primarily mainly from a grid or the mains supply. So how do we go about doing this. Let
us shift this circuit this side. Now this is what I want to replace. So I will remove that and instead
of that Vdc source, we will be having some electronic circuit here which will link up that. We
would like to draw power from the 230 volts grid, the AC means.
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So let us draw transformer, it is not a transformer, it is an autotransformer. So we would like to
have an auto transformer there so that you can draw variable voltage from the grid and to that let
us interface full bridge rectifier circuit, so this is a full bridge rectifier, you are familiar with this
and we will place a capacitor filter, full bridge rectifier with capacitor filter output and this will
get connected to this point and that will become the DC source. Now if see, the portion of the
system from here to here is what we will call as the PV source emulator and this is a simple
circuit, this is an autotransformer easily available in the lab, the bridge rectifier you will get four
bridge modules available to the market, you can buy them put a capacitor across and then you
have your Vdc, put a series rheostat, you have your total PV source emulator. So this is a nice
interesting circuit you can have, you can use it anytime of the day and the load that you connect
here can be used for testing a PV cell.
So in the in the end, whatever experiment you have done, you will finally test it with the actual
PV source and if it works with the emulator, most likely it will work with the PV source. I will
describe to you now, a switched-mode DCDC converter based PV source emulator. You see the
previous circuit which was simple and easily could be implemented had one major drawback that
is that it was very inefficient, lot of loss in the series resistance R S and not only that the quality of
the IV characteristic was poor. It had only a fill factor of 0.5. But one major advantage with the
previous circuit is that it was very simple, easy to implement. Now, here I will try to describe to
you in a block schematic form the operation of the DC DC converter, switched mode DC DC
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converter being used as a PV source emulator such that the dc-dc converter output will have an
IV characteristic similar to that of PV cell.
Now let me draw the block schematic of this switched-mode DC converter which now behaves
as a PV source emulator. It is supposed to be a current controlled converter, so the terminal
current iT is supposed to be controlled. So, therefore I now have here with me, a reference i T
reference, the terminal current reference and terminal current feedback, now these two on
comparison leads to an error signal and this error signal is passed through controller which is a
PI controller and output of a PI controller goes into a PWM block and this PWM block is
supplied with a triangle wave and output of that will be the duty cycle input to a DC converter.
Like this, the DC converter is supplied with Vdc and output of the DC converter is supposed to
emulate PV source and that disconnected to a load R0 like this. iT as indicated here is what we are
supposed to control. So which means that I need to sense iT and then feed that back and get it
control. So what this block diagram mainly indicates is that, if I set reference i T star and the error
here passing through the PI controller PWM DC D C converter and all those things.
And this current terminal current being fed back in this fashion, the job the PI controller is to
make error 0 which means that iT will be same as iT star which means iT is nothing but the
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terminal current flowing through the load which will becomes same as i T star. Now, that is a
current controlled DC DC converter. Now this basic topology is what we will use for making the
PV source emulator. Now the DC DC converter being switched is very high efficiency converter
and therefore we will not have the loss as we saw in the earlier case or earlier model.
Let me mark the output voltage like this as v T and let me also draw the v versus, v T versus iT
characteristic like this and now let us say this is the output characteristic that we expect across
these terminals, the actual characteristic that we expect across the terminals that we would see
and this has a load R0 and therefore the load line, the one by R 0 line is like this with the operating
point as shown here.
So at that operating point we see operating voltage v T and iT. So this is the actual value of vT
which you see here and the iT which is flowing through this. Now let us sense vT and use that vT
to provide the iT reference. So what we do is have a lookup table of vT versus iT and this look-up
table is the one which we will be using to generate the reference for i T. So you see that in the
lookup table vT is provided as the input, it will check the independent axis and appropriately
because the current iT to be given out.
So this iT is given out and fed to the reference. So this way the setting for the i T references done.
Now imagine that R0 has changed R0 has increased. So increasing R0 means the load line comes
like this as shown in the green. Now the moment R 0 has increased iT into R0 would be a higher
value, so you will see that vT is, vT is like this. Now that is the vT and what is actually expected as
iT is the horizontal. So this is supposed to be the expected iT but right now the iT is here R0 has
changed, vT has become this. Now we should try to see the controller will bring back i T here.
Now let us see now this vT has increased and that is given here and which means it will try to
look to the lookup table and see that the vT falls there and waste on that vT and intersection of the
IV characteristic of table, you will get the new value of i T and this value of iT will be set as a
reference here. Now this is a smaller, a lower value of iT and therefore this iT will try to match
this and therefore this load iT will try to match the new reference and therefore come and settle at
this point.
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So in this way, for any value of R 0, this converter will track the iT and the in that way give you
IV characteristic and IV characteristic as we have loaded into this lookup table. So this lookup
table is crucial. The characteristic that you load into the lookup table is the one that will actually
reflect here. So you can you can play around with the lookup table in terms of insolation in terms
of voc, in terms of fill factors and all those things and actually get replica at the output at the
higher power level and this you can design it for any power level that you want.
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Prof. L. Umanand
Let us look at a solar photovoltaic system. A full fledged solar photovoltaic system contains
many parts. The photovoltaic modules, power converters and power converters for energy
storage, the storage mechanisms and the loads themselves are important aspects in any solar
photovoltaic systems. We need to understand, study each of them clearly so that we will be able
to design and implement each of the subsystems. We shall look at the entire generic solar
photovoltaic system first, try to get an idea visualize how it looks and then goon if into each of
the subsystem try to understand them and then we shall design them too.
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One of the important players of the solar PV system is the solar energy, the Sun which is a very
important component in the sense that it is the giver of the energy, it is the source of the energy
and this energy is incident on a collector which is the photovoltaic module. So the photovoltaic
module collects the solar energy and then makes available in the form of an electrical energy
across the terminals of the PV module. So it is a collector and the converter which converts solar
energy into electrical form.
The electrical energy, one of the things that can be done to it is store it. So we pass it through a
power electronic block, it is an energy charger block, it contains power electronic components
like the BJT, MOSFET, IGBTs and other control circuits and then that is used for passing the
energy into a storage device. There are many different types of storage devices. One can choose
from chemical storage like the battery where electrical energy is converted to chemical and then
retrieved using electrochemical means.
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You could store it store it as a hydro storage. The electrical energy is converted, it lifts water to a
height and stores potential energy of the lifted water is called the Pumped hydro. You can
retrieve the energy with the help of water turbine. You can also store the electrical energy as
compressed air. So it can drive a compressor and compress the air into different levels of
pressures and you can retrieve it with the help of an air turbine or you can store it as mechanical
kinetic energy in the form of a rotating flywheel and retrieve it by means of an electric generator.
The solar energy gets converted to electric energy at the PV module and this electric energy is
stored in one of the various storage mechanisms through the energy charger. Alternately the
energy can also be routed directly to some load. The energy can also be routed from the storage
mechanism into the load through a bi-directional energy charger. So these both these part led to a
power electronic device which does the job of conversion, a power conversion to an appropriate
form which is compatible to the applications.
The power conversion can be a converter, which means it gives you a DC output or it could be a
power inverter which gives an AC output to drive applications that are either DC or AC
respectively. The inverter output should how AC loads, the converter outputs will have DC loads
and sample setup load would be something like lighting for LED lighting, fluorescent lighting, it
could be pumping to pump water up to height and store as potential energy, the pumps could be a
DC pumps or AC pumps. You could have refrigeration, the regular compressor based
refrigeration which is an AC load. You could also have DC refrigeration by means of using
peltier junctions which are very compatible to the PV type of source. You can have grid
connection, this is a very upcoming type of application where the photovoltaic power after
getting converted into AC through grid connected inverter gets pumped into the grid. Any load
that is connected to the utility grid can also be served. So this is one of the application which is
emerging as one of a popular applications for PV systems in the smart grid scenario.
Now what you should note is that MPPT, maximum power point tracker is a very important term
that you will be seeing more and more in the lessons to come or the discussions to come. All the
power conversion, power converters and energy converters must incorporate maximum power
point tracker. What it basically means is that the PV module has a power versus V characteristic
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which has a peak at one operating point only and it is recommended that the PV module operates
at that peak power operating point so that you can get the maximum out of the PV cells. So it is
the job of the power conversion unit, the power converters or the energy charger units to see that
appropriately a load is presented to the PV module such that this will operate at maximum power
point. So this maximum power point tracking algorithms should be inbuilt and should become
inherent part of these power converters. So these are some of the sample, some of the important
components that you will see in the solar PV systems.
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Now we have three important components here, of course MPPT is part of these two. Which we
need to study and also design so that we can implement these kind of components for any solar
PV system. Fist let us take up the sizing of the PV modules, sizing of the PV module is very
important because it occupies a lot of real estate and real estate does not come cheap and
therefore you need to give a lot of thought into this. Unfortunately this has lot of dependency on
the local geography the incident radiation coming from the Sun, the atmospheric condition, water
vapor content, the latitude, time of the day, time of the year, all these parameters affect the
effective energy that is coming out of the PV module. So it is very important to study this PV
module in connection with the local geography and the local latitude.
Consider a PV panel which has these outputs. It is taking the input from the Sun and it has a
input of Pin this is the power and output power P 0 and recall that the efficiency is given by P 0/Pin
and this is equal to VmIm which is the voltage and the current corresponding to the operating
point on the IV characteristic of the PV panel divided by P in is nothing but the incident insulation
into the area. The insulation is having units of kilowatt per, this is having unit of kilowatt per
meter square, this is a meter square, so this would become the input power.
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Now what is this A and the insulation L? Now if you consider a panel drawn like this, then this
area, as seen here, the on the flat plate solar PV panel that is the area A in meter square. Consider
a normal passing through this area and let us say that the solar radiation is falling in this fashion
at an angle θ as shown. This is the angle θ like this. So what you should consider is actually the
normal incidence. So if this is called L i, then what you should consider for the PV panel
calculation is the Li cos θ which would be the normal incidence.
So what is effectively converted as power is the incident insulation normally on the flat plate
panel, so this will become Li cos θ. So now replacing, you will see that L i cos θ is the effective
insulation that is given to the panel. Therefore, efficiency becomes V mIm by Li cos θ into A.
Therefore P0 is equal to VmIm and this is equal to, if I take these two components efficiency into
Li cos θ into A. So you see that P0 is dependent on the area of the collector and L i cos θ which is
the incident insulation normal to the collector. P0 is dependent on the application. The application
will tell how much load power is needed and this is the amount of electrical power output the
panel as to give. So P0 is a requirement. Efficiency is from the datasheet of the PV panel, L i cos θ
is the incident insulation in kilowatt per meter square and area is the size of the collector panel
plate that has to be exposed to the solar energy in order to collect enough energy to provide this
P0.
So we need actually to find out what is the value of A in order to size and select the PV panel. So
if you rewrite this equation A is equal P 0 by efficiency and Li cos θ. So you see that area of the
panel is proportional to P0 and also inversely proportional to the incident insulation. So at a given
place the insulation is high, the area of the panel that you need to select and choose for that place
can be lower and likewise more the load power, higher should be the area of the panel. So we see
that both the load power is dependent on the incident insulation and also the area of the panel
that we need to choose is also dependent on the incident insulation. However it is not easy to find
out what this incident insulation is. Because it is dependent on very many factors, it is dependent
on the time of the day, it is dependent on the time of the year, it is dependent upon the local
climatic conditions, it is dependent on the water vapor content in the vertical column of the air
above the collector, it is dependent on seasons.
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So, like this it is dependent on so many factors and many of the factors are uncertain. It is not
easy to estimate the incident insulation, but our objective now is to go towards finding as
accurate a value of the incident insulation as possible so that we may be able to size the panel,
size the collector area for a given load our requirement.
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Prof. L .Umanand
In order to estimate the energy from the Sun, let us try to understand the sun's spectrum. So let
me introduce the term spectral irradiance P S. The spectral irradiance has the units kilowatt per
meter square per unit wavelength. So generally the sun's spectrum is given in terms of this
spectral irradiance which is generally denoted kilowatt per meter square per nanometer or per
micrometer depending upon the units used for measuring the wavelengths.
So typically the sun's spectrum will look like this. You have a graph X and y-axis, let the x-axis
be denoted by λ. λ is the symbol used to denote wavelength and the y-axis is the spectral
irradiance as we see denoted by this unit. The shape of the Sun spectrum is something like this. It
is an approximate. I will later on show you a more exact spectrum, but the general shape is in
this fashion. So we can denote it by three important regions. So this first region is called the UV
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region, this is a UV region and the second region is called the visible light region and the third
region is called the infrared region.
Now these regions are basically defined by the nature of the wavelength. So if you take the UV
region, the UV region has wavelengths which are very small. They are very high frequency. The
visible region have intermediate wavelengths and in the case of the infra infrared region the
wavelengths are pretty long very large and the frequency is low.
So the Sun spectrum spans the ultraviolet to the infrared and the visible region portion of the
wavelength is the one which is perceived by our eyes and we can see, see this light so visible
light. However, energy content is there with respect to other wavelengths also. Importantly, note
that, now let us say that if I denote the wavelength as nanometer nm, the UV region is
approximately up to around 400 nanometers 400 nanometers to around 700 nanometers is the
visible spectrum and beyond the 700 nanometers may be up to around 4,000 nanometers you
have the infrared spectrum.
So these are the thermal regions, this is visible and this is the ultraviolet region. So note that each
wavelength in the spectrum has a distinct power level. So solar radiation is an electromagnetic
radiation and each wavelength has a distinct Power level. Now that can be seen from this curve
itself and all these wavelengths all these wavelengths are, are felt at the surface of the earth and it
is a kind of a cumulative effect or accumulated effect of all the wavelengths put together.
So the accumulated effect of all wavelengths together is called insolation and the insolation is
denoted by the symbol L and L is actually an accumulation of the spectral irradiance and
therefore we can use the integral symbol, the spectral irradiance and it is integrated with respect
to the wavelength parameter delta. So which basically means that the area under this portion
would indicate insolation of the ultraviolet region the wavelength the area under this portion of
the spectrum, all the wavelengths corresponding to this portion of the spectrum would give an
accumulated effect and that is called the visible insolation. Likewise the accumulated effect of all
the wavelengths in these parts of the spectrum would give you the infrared insolation. The
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accumulated effect of all these put together is what we call as insolation and given by this L
which is the the integral of PS d Lamda.
Observe that PS, here has the units of kilowatt per meter square per unit wavelength, which is
kilowatt per meter square per nanometer corresponding to this particular graph and L is an
integral of P with respect to the lambda parameter and therefore the insolation has the unit of
kilowatt per meter square so remember this units we will be using insolation quite frequently in
future.
Now this particular graph, the spectrum that I have drawn by hand gives you a considerable
amount of insight to the nature of the spectral energy from the Sun. Now I will show you an
actual spectrum with real data and it will give you much better insight about the solar energy or
the Sun energy. For this I have collected real data and put them into a text file, which I will call
from within octave and plot the wavelength versus the spectral irradiance.
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In order to understand the solar spectrum with real data, let us go to Google and type in some
keywords like solar spectrum data. You will see lot of websites getting popped up. Something
interesting is to see these images, there are whole lot of images on the solar spectrum just along
the lines that we discussed. You can look at these images and get a lot of insight. However, these
are images these are pictures, you cannot work with the data. So we are looking at something
where we can work with the data, where the data is available in numerical values. There is one
site, one of, one of the sides here where they have collated the data and made it available do
downloadable form as an XLS fil,e spreadsheet file, also as compressed txt files which is
compatible with PC, UNIX and Mac and Macintosh. Let me download this UNIX version. So a
text file gets downloaded like this. Let me go and look at the folder where such a file has been
downloaded and look within the compressed file. So there is a CSV file, let us see what is inside
the CSV file. So open the CSV file in a text editor and let us zoom the text. You see that it has
lot of data values, comma separated data values. There is a comma and then there is again data
comma. So you have, in a row of four data values. Now the first data value is actually the
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wavelength in nanometer, the second data value is the extra-terrestrial radiation in watts per
meter square per nanometer.
So these two data values are the ones of interest to us. We will only take those values and work
on them. Now before we work on these data values, let us convert this file, let us edit this file
into a MATLAB compatible or an octave compatible M file. Octave is an open source equivalent
of MATLAB. So what we do is that we just convert by simple text edit. I will convert this first
line into a comment line. I will put a comment line here and introduce the website URL from
where we took this file and I will make this as a comment line like this and introduce a variable
called solve and put a open bracket for the matrix what it basically means is that all these data
values are put into a matrix. What I will do I will go down right down to the bottom and put the
closed matrix brackets and that is it. Now you have a fully MATLAB compatible or an octave
compatible file which can be worked with within the environment of octave or MATLAB. So all
these data are put into a matrix and they are named solve. So solve will basically have four
columns and as many rows as the data provided here. What we have to now do is that change is
dot CSV into dot m. We will save this, close and rename this as data dot m.
So, now data dot m is a MATLAB file where you can call in MATLAB and execute it. So if you
look at it, now you will see that this is nothing but a regular MATLAB file with solve as the
variable and solve is a matrix variable having column four columns of data and many rows and
this is what we will be using and we will be using only the first two columns of solve. The first
column represents wavelength, second column represents the spectral irradiance.
I now have another script file insolation dot m. The job of this script file is to take the data values
from within data dot m and then appropriately use them to plot our spectrum. So data will be
called by insolation and the spectral radiance of the spectrum will be plotted. So let us see what
is within this insolation dot m file quickly. So I will double click that and let me increase the
zoom in the text.
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So quickly, I will read through. This is a very simple script file. This script file for plotting your
radiance and solar insolation with the solar spectrum and the solar measurement data is in data
dot m which we just now created. So first to clear all the variables in the workspace, load the
data from the text file data by m by just calling data which we just created. So it will put all the
data values into the variable sol. Now λ a newton meter will be taken from the first column of
solve. So all rows first column and from all rows second column of Solve, you will obtain the
spectral irradiance data. Now the spectral irradiance data is given in watts per meter square per
nanometer. So I will just comment it put a command there so that it is good for readability. Now
the last line here is a plot statement which plots λ that is the wavelength verses spectral
irradiance and grid the X label Y label and title are also included.
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Now let us run this in octave and see what happens. So let me open octave. So this is the octave
environment. Let me clear the workspace screen, let me go in here into the appropriate folder the
folder the solar spectrum folder it has these files. I have to run insolation script, so let me type in
insolation and it will plot the data values accordingly like this let me zoom this.
And you see that is the so a lot a radiant spectrum this is actually P S in watts per meter square per
nanometer and the X axis is the wavelength it goes up to 4000 nanometer. Observe here let me
just use it as a marker, observe that somewhere around here will be between 400 nanometers and
700nanometers and this is the visible spectrum what I have marked here in the rectangle, to the
left of it will be the ultraviolet region of the spectrum and to the right of this rectangle will be the
infrared region of the spectrum.
Let us now, write few more lines in the insolation.m file such that we are able to integrate this P S
curve and obtain the insolation curve also and superimpose on this graph. Let me go back again
into the insolation.m file in the text editor. Let me introduce few more lines of code here. So we
have to integrate the irradiance column. So integrate the spectral in the irradiance P S so that we
may obtain L, the integration with respect to the lambda parameter. I have used here a simple
trapezoidal integration which is of this form and all these lines are basically integrating the
spectral irradiance to obtain finally the insolation in the variable insol. Now the installation is
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also actually in watts per meter square, because the data given is in watts per meter square per
nanometer. Therefore insolation also is in watts per meter square.
However, while displaying what I can do is, let me display in this fashion, plot λ that is the
wavelength and the spectral irradiance wavelength and the insolation but insolation I am dividing
by 1000 so that we can output the insolation in terms of kilowatt per meter square. So the
wavelength Y label has irradiance in watts per meter square per newton meter and insolation in
kilowatt per meter square because I have divided that by thousand.
So let us see, the old plot statement have here. So this would be the modified file, let me save
this and let us execute that. So we go in here and let me type in insolation. So when you type in
insolation, now you see that we see the graph of both, the spectral irradiance the blue curve and
there is this green curve which is the integrated value of the spectral irradiance along the λ axis.
Now see it integrates to around, around 1.3 let me just zoom at that point then you will get the
value.
So here, you see that it has integrated to around 1.347 like that. Always remember that the solar
insolation would integrate to between 1.33 kilowatt per meter square to 1.41 kilowatt per meter
square and it depends upon the day of the year and this is because of the elliptic or orbit of the
earth around the Sun. So therefore this variation. Generally, in the literature an average value the
mean value between 1.2341and1.37 is taken as the solar constant.
So if you hear the term solar constant it means it is 1.37 kilowatt per meter square. So always the
insolation value L will integrate to a number between these two. So that is the takeaway out of
this figure. So I will keep this data dot m file containing the data and the insolation dot m
containing the script for utilizing this data and plotting the irradiance and the insolation in the
resource section, so that you can download this source as a zip file and then you can run them,
operate on them and then gain some insight out of this.
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Prof. L Umanand
We shall discuss now a very important topic that is of insolation with reference to earth. We have
discussed about insolation and spectral irradiance of the Sun in a generic manner where the sun's
spectrum does not change and the insolation of the sun's spectrum remains unchanged in
whichever direction that you look at. However, for a person on earth or a person with reference
to the earth, the insolation is not constant. On earth, during night time, there is no solar radiation
and therefore the insolation is zero. During noon the solar radiation is maximum and therefore
the insolation is maximum.
During the morning dawn and during evening dusk, you will see insolation at a very low value.
All this is because the earth is rotating about its own axis, these are the diurnal changes and the
earth is also revolving about the Sun in an elliptic orbit, giving rise to seasonal changes and all
these affect the insolation at a given locality on the earth. Therefore, it is very important that we
study insolation due to the Sun or due to the Sun spectrum with reference to the earth. So, how
do we correlate this Sun spectrum and arrive at insolation with reference to the earth is very
important for sizing the solar PV panels and that would be the focus of the discussion now.
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I would like to revisit the solar spectrum once again. So, here you have the spectral irradiance
and the insolation in kW/m2. This pictures, this graph is with respect to the sun's spectrum, it is
independent of time. However, for a person situated at a point on the surface of the earth, the
insolation would vary with time. So, the time of day is an important parameter that needs to be
considered. For example, if it is at night, the insolation value would be 0 and it would be at a
maximum value probably at noon.
So, insolation value would probably be at a pretty low value at around 6 O clock in the morning
and gradually increase to a peak at noon and then further decrease again to 0 by dusk. So, how
does one visualize this insolation with respect to time also. So, let me introduce here in this
graph a third dimension which is a third, which is the time dimension and let us see how the
insolation plot looks like.
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Here, I have recomposed the insolation graph, instead of the plot function I have used the mesh
function and plotted the insolation using time as a parameter. So, you see here a family of curve.
The x-axis of course is the wavelength and the y-axis is the insolation in kW/m 2. This bottom line
is at a pretty low insolation, which probably may be morning near 6 O'clock,7 O'clock and then
as the time increases in the day, you will see the insolation rising and rising further on as the time
most words noon and probably at noon it may be at the max of the peak value and then further on
it would again fall down and coming down to 0.
So, as I use the mesh 3D, I should be able to rotate it and just get a much better view of how it
would look. So, this now, this position gives you a much better idea of what is happening and
you see that the time axis is going down into the plane of the screen. So, this is the time in a time
in hours 0 to probably 24 somewhere here. This as usually the wavelength and this as usual is the
isolation kW/m2 and you see that if I start here from 0 which is 0 hours midnight and this is at 5
O' clock and probably at around 6 a.m, it starts to rise the insolation value and the insolation
value would probably peak at around somewhere here noon 12 O'clock and then 13, 14, 15 so on
it comes down and probably at 18 which is 6 p.m, it again goes down to 0 and then remains
further zero during the night.
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Of course this profile will change depending upon the latitude at the equator it will be different,
at the northern latitudes it will be different, at the southern latitudes it will be different. But at a
given longitude-latitude point, at a given locale, you will have a profile something like this over
the day. So, every day this profile will repeat. So, this is the important takeaway that I would like
to give you for the insolation at a point on the earth. I am assuming right now that our
atmospheric condition but we will discuss that later.
But for now, the important thing that you should understand is, for a person standing on the
surface of the earth, at that locality the insolation is dependent on, highly dependent on the time
of the day and this is the diurnal changes and this happens every day because of the day night
effect, because the earth is rotating on its own axis. I shall include for you also the script file
which generates this. I have made that in insolation_3d and I will include that also in the
resource that I would place for you the resource section.
Once we know the daily insolation profile, we will be able to derive the solar photovoltaic panel
requirement in terms of peak power. So, let us put the insolation profile with respect to time that
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we just now saw on this screen. So, we have the x-axis which is the time axis and the y axis
which is the insolation in kW/m 2 and we saw that this is the kind of profile that we get, peak I
have put it at around noon, not necessary that it should be at noon. Now, if you take the region
within this green insolation profile and take the area within this region, it is nothing but the
energy because it is the kW/m 2 into the time in hours will give you the energy in kilowatt hour
per meter square and let me denote that by uppercase H.
So, if we make measurements, let us say if we make either measurements or estimation at a

particular latitude, we will get this curve and the area under that curve should give us the energy
per m2 per day for that particular local latitude. Now, this area can be approximated or can be
represented equivalently in terms of the standard insolation. So, if we consider the standard
insolation line, it is in this fashion. So this is a 1 kW/m 2 line and this is the standard insolation
line. Now, using the standard insolation line as the upper limit, we can draw a rectangle like this
such that the area within the rectangle is matching the area H of the actual measurement or
estimation.
So, this width of the rectangle is let us say H hours. Then what is the area of this rectangle ? This
is 1 kW/m2 height into H hours. So, this will give you H kWh/m 2 per day. Now, this is the energy
that is contained within this left angle and if we make this energy equal to the energy the actual
estimated energy at that place which is H, then we would know what is the equivalent hours of
standard insolation time. So, if the, this energy is made equivalent to the actual energy of that
place, then the H hours of standard insolation time is equal to H kW/m 2 per day and this
insolation can be used to derive the peak power requirement of the PV panel.
Now, let us say that WhLoad is the required energy and WhLoad by H is the peak power requirement
for the PV panel. So, WhLoad is again energy in kilowatt hours and if let us say this Wh Load is the
required energy, daily energy for that day, now that would mean that the requirement is filling up
has to fill up this rectangle. Now, I know the H, H has been obtained if I am able to estimate H,
the uppercase H in kW/m2 per day then that will directly give you the value of how many hours
in a day with standard insolation. Using that here you will get the peak wattage required. Now,
that would form the basis for you to select a PV panel with this peak power requirements. Now
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with data sheets and series parallel connection, you can choose the number of panels that are
needed for series connections and parallel connections.
So, in this way you can arrive at the size of the panel. But the difficulty here is how to get this H
because this H has many uncertainties. Uncertainties are as I said the daily, the seasonal, the
water vapor content in the atmosphere, the clouds, the weather conditions, climate conditions all
these are going to effect this H, that is the incident energy falling at that particular locality or
particular latitude. So, if we are able to get this with reasonable accuracy then you would be able
to size the panel appropriately. So, our whole focus is to see that we get kW/m 2 per day that is the
energy per meter square per day as accurately as possible.
Estimation of the incident solar energy H in kW/m2 per day is an important activity that we have
to now take up, if we have to appropriately size and rate the solar PV panel for any given
application. However, this incident solar energy is dependent on many factors and many
parameters. So, it is important that we have a look at these factors that affect the solar incident
solar energy H. A note of caution, this H I am calling as the incident solar energy in kWh/m 2 per
day, in literature you will find the solar energy is also referred to as irradiance as solar irradiance.
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We have used the term spectral irradiance, so distinguish spectral irradiance and solar irradiance,
the units are different.
Spectral irradiance has the units of kilowatt power per meter square per nanometer, solar energy
or the solar irradiance has the unit kilowatt hour energy per meter square per day. So keep this
distinction in mind. But as far as my discussions here, I will not be using the term irradiance for
this, I will just use incident solar energy, so that it reflects closely to the units of the energy that
we keep writing for H. So, be cautious about this particular variable, it is also called solar
irradiance in the literature but note the unit. One of the important obvious factors that affect the
incident energy is the geographic location. So, geographic location is represented by two
parameters, two variables one is ϕ latitude represents the latitude and other is  representing the
longitude at a given place.
Another factor that affects significantly this value of H is the collector orientation. By collector, I
mean here the solar PV panels. Solar PV panels are always flat, they are flat collectors. However,
in the thermal applications the collectors need not be flat, you will see parabolic and cylindrical
paraboloids being used as collectors and they have different concentration profiles. However, for
the solar photovoltaic applications, the collectors are always flat and I am always meaning the
flat plate collectors and the orientation of the flat plate collectors to the horizon plane or the
horizontal plane. So that is the angle which we which we understand here by collector
orientation.
And that angle is denoted by the symbol β. So, this is also called the collector tilt, the tilt angle.
Another very important factor is the time of day, this is something that we have discussed
already and we saw how the insolation is affected by the time of the day and we use the symbol
ɷ for hour angle. ɷ the hour angler presents the time of the day and which also represents the
diurnal changes and diurnal effects. Another effect is time of year, this is another factor which
seriously affects the value of the incident solar energy. We represent this by symbol δ and it is
called declination. I will explain later what declination is, but this is an important parameter this
actually represents the seasonal variations and the seasonal effects on the incident solar energy.
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All these parameters which I have listed or fairly deterministic. However, the one that I am going
to now say, which is the atmospheric effects is the one which is most difficult to estimate. The
atmospheric conditions like cloud conditions, water vapor content in the atmosphere, gases
present in the atmosphere, etc., all these things affect the incident solar energy. Now, all these
are not deterministic. At, on a given day we do not know what is the condition and what is
effects. You have to take probably the statistical values for all these.
This is represented by a variable called KT and it is called clearness index and this probably is the
most difficult to estimate due to the uncertainties in that atmospheric conditions. So, we will look
at all these parameters and variables and see how we go about obtaining these parameters and
then once we have these parameters, how we get integrated into the estimate equation for H.
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Prof. L. Umanand
In order to estimate the solar insolation and the energy in kilowatt hour per m 2 per day following
at a given locality on the earth surface, we need to understand the earth centric view point and
the parameters related to it and therefore I will briefly review the earth centric view point and its
related parameters before going into the maths for estimation of the solar insolation at a given
place.
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Consider that in absorber is well removed from both the earth and the sun. He will see that the
earth revolves around the sun in a elliptical orbit, something like this, with the sun position
within the ellipse and earth goes around along this elliptical path. Let us position the earth like
this, this is the equator and this is the pole axis. Observe that the poll axis is tilted from the
vertical by around 231/20. The earth is spindling about its poll axes continuously as it is
revolving around the sun. This spinning effect is what is going to give the diurnal effects, the day
and the night.
Now, let us say this position occurs on 21st March. I will talk about this later, but for now let us
say, at this position it is occurring every year on 21 st March. Now, the earth is continuously
spindling and moving along on this path, on the elliptical path and let us say it comes to this
position, and at this position I will mark it by again another picture of the earth spinning with the
same tilted axis and this occurs on June 21 st every year. Progressing further in time, the earth
takes this path and then reaches another important point here and that occurs every year
September 21st, of course some literature say September 22 nd or September 23rd but for easy
remembrance I will keep it at September 21st.
And then going further along, you will see that this is another important point and I will mark
that by another picture of the earth and this occurs every year on December 21 st. March 21st and
September 21st these positions are call the equinoxes because the sun is in the equatorial plane, it
directly is in line with the equator. When I show you the earth centric view point, you will see
that the sun is aligns itself along the equatorial plane and this line joining these two is called the
equinox line.
Now this position is call the summer solstice, for the northern hemisphere it is the longest day
that will occur on June 21st and you will see that the sun aligns more towards the northern
hemisphere and the line passes through the 23 and 1/2 0 latitude which is the tropic of cancer.
And in the southern hemisphere it is winter. Likewise, on this side this is called the winter
solstice and this occurs on December 21st every year and you see that the sun aligns itself along
this line, where it touches the latitude tropic of capriccio which is -23 and half degrees in the
southern hemisphere.
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So it is summer for the southern hemisphere and for the northern hemisphere it will be the
winter. The line connecting the two solstice points, the summer solstice and the winter solstice is
called these solstice line. And the line connecting the two equinoxes is called the equinox line. I
had mentioned that the extra terrestrial solar insolation is fairly constant, it varies between 1.33
to 1.41 kW/m2. So, typically for this positions of the earth points along the elliptic orbit, the
following insolation values, a data values are available. So, at the winter solstice point it is
1.41kW/m2 and at the summer solstice point it is 1.33 kW /m2.
At the September equinox it is 1.36 kW/m 2 and at the March equinox it is 1.38 kW/m 2.
Apparently, the shape of the elliptic orbit and the nearness of the earth to the sun would probably
have brought about this small change in the value of the insolation. In this view the absorber is
neither on earth or the sun, he is away from both these planetary bodies. Let us move towards an
earth centric view point in order to get the insolation at a point on the surface of the earth.
We have the pole axes, the polar axes tilted at 23 and half degrees from the vertical. So, let us try
to shift it and make the polar axes vertical and that would give you a better visualization for the
earth centric review point. So, when we tilt the entire figure by 23 and half degrees, you see that
the polar axis for the earth appears vertical and this will become the basis for the earth centric
view point.
Now, the earth a bit enlarged is like this. You have the equatorial plane, this is the tropic of
cancer and the tropic of Capricorn, the earth will rotate about its polar axes. Now, observe this
line, the line here going along and join to the center of the earth, so the line join the center of the
earth to the center of the sun, now that is this line and on 21 st June it appears to a person on the
earth, it appears the sun is relatively in this position like this with respect to the earth. Then, if
you go along and look at the winter solstice, you see that it is the sun is align in the southern
hemisphere.
So, it looks as though the sun as moved down and it is aligned in this fashion to the center of the
earth and it is cutting the surface of the earth at the tropic of Capricorn at -23 1/2 0 latitude. And
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for both the equinoxes, the sun align itself along the equatorial plane in this fashion. So, for a
person standing on the earth, let us say person standing here on the equator, it would appear as
though the sun is moving in this fashion annually. So, June 21st it is it would have reached the
maximum point in northern hemisphere cutting the surface at 23 ½ 0 north which is a tropic of
cancer.
And then moving down, it reaches the September 21 st equinox, which is aligned along the
equatorial plane and then as this continues, you will see that it reaches the December 21 st winter
solstice which is aligned along this. It is summer for the southern hemisphere, and then as this
continues to move up like that, you will see that this again starts to move up the sun is ascending
and reaches the March 21st equinox and so on the cycle repeats year after year.
Now this is called the earth centering view and this is the view that we will be using for
calculating the insolation at any given latitude on the earth surface. One important angle that I
want to introduce here is the angle between the equatorial plane and the line joining the center of
the earth and the center of the sun, that is this angle. This angle is called declination and it is
denoted by the symbol δ, remember this the δ or the declination is the angle between the
equatorial plane and the line joining the center of the earth and center of the sun at any given
time and day of the year.
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So the declination angle varies from plus 23 ½ 0 to minus 23 ½ 0. Let us look at the model for the
declination δ from the earth centric view point. So, this is supposed to be the earth, this is the
polar axis, it is rotating about the polar axis and we saw that the moment of the sun over the year
is in this fashion. The sun reaches a height, where the line joining the center of the earth and the
sun cuts the 23.50 at latitude north which is the tropic of cancer and then as the sun swings to the
winter solstice point it intersects the latitude tropic of Capricorn which is 23 ½0 south.
And it is the equinoxes here during March 21st and September 21st. Now, consider an arbitrary
point here, the sun is at on some day at this position the line joining the sun and the earth is here
indicated in red. This angle is called δ which is the declination. So, this is the variable and as the
sun is moving along in this arch, the value of the δ keeps changing. It reaches a max value here
which is 23.50 and the min value will be corresponding to this and that will be declination value
of -23.50 because it is going in the clockwise direction from the equatorial plane.
Now how to go about obtaining a model for this variable δ. So, if you look at the movement of
the sun, so now take for example the equinox, let us say March 21 st it starts here then goes up,
June 21st then starts coming down, September 21st then still going further down, December 21st
coming up again March 21st. So, this movement is one cycle this has a resemblance to a sine
wave. If you look at the δ function as a function of time over the year function of the day number
over the year from 1 to 365, it has a very close resemblance to the sine wave.
So, one very good model would be based on the sine function. Let us make some space, let me
push it up so that we have some space here, let me push this up, okay. Now δ can be written as
23.45 x sine (2π(N-80)/365) as shown here, where N = 1 on January first, N = 365 on December
31st. This is a empirical formula, which seems to fit the δ with very close accuracy, you can get
0.1% accuracy with respect to actual values that you would find in ephemeris data or almanacs.
The δ declination is given in degrees. Observe that here 80 would represent in terms of number
of days starting from Jan 1st 80 would be 80th day would be 21st of March, so somewhere at the
equinox, so when N is 80 sine 0, so you have δ 0 it is starting from here, as N is increasing 81,
82, 83 so on goes up here and then comes back and returns again back on March 21st to this
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point. So, the sine wave we shifted in such way that N = 80 it is 0 starting at this point and also at
the equinox the September equinox.
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Prof. L Umanand
In order to estimate the insolation in kW/m2 and the H, the energy in kWh/m2/day at any given
point on the surface of the earth, we shall use the help of solar geometry, solar geometry is
nothing but the spherical coordinate system but as it also involves the position of the Sun in
relation to the earth, it is generally referred to as solar geometry. Apparently the figure here looks
complex but it is not as complex as it looks.
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We shall reconstruct this coordinate system step by step and try to get insight into the various
parameters that we have used in relation with the position of the sun and later use these
parameters to estimate the insolation and the energy H in kWh /m 2/dat at any given point on the
surface of the earth
This is the coordinates of the 3D system X Y Z and you using open SCAD for building the 3D
models. Let us build the earth centric coordinate system here and see how we can get the various
solar geometric parameters. First, let us put in a globe and give it a blue color and this is a 3D
sphere. Now, we shall cut out a quarter and make that as our 3D coordinate space. So, after
cutting out the quarter you will see something like this.
Now, in this space only you will be trying to understand the X, in this case X Y Z portion and let
us define the various parameters solar of the solar geometry and try to get our insolation estimate
model. Now, we shall try to connect the center of the earth to the center of the distant sun with a
line and that line is something like this, it is going on to the distant sun. Now I have placed it at
an arbitrary angle you can see.
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Now, with respect to this line connecting the center of the earth to centre of the Sun, let us see
how the declination would appear. I have now included an equatorial plane which cuts a right
across through the globe at the equator as you can see. Now, this equatorial plane will become
the reference plane for us and we shall measure the angle of declination with respect to that. I
have now included a plane, a meridional plane which goes in such a way that it just goes through
the line which is connecting to the Sun. This line can be called as the insolation line. So, this is
the meridional plane which is going through the insolation line. I shall now draw the angles that
represents both declination and the hour angle.
Consider this figure and consider this angle which I have marked between the equatorial plane
and the line joining the center of the earth to center of the Sun. So, this is termed δ and we know
that δ from the eccentric view point is nothing but the declination. There is another angle here I
am going to introduce, the angle between this coordinate axis and the point this meridional plane
on which lies this line joining the center of the earth to the center of the Sun, that is the isolation
line we call it ω and ω is called the hour angle. The reason that it is called our angle is, because it
is directly related to the time of the day. This insolation line will move from east to west this is
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because earth is rotating about its polar axis and it will appear as though this insolation line is
moving from east to west every 4 minutes one meridional plane will be traversed or 1º longitude
is traversed every 4 minutes and the ω is an indication of that traversal.
So in this 3D coordinate system, let me remove this insolation line and this meridional plane and
define the axis of the coordinate system. So, I have removed those two items which is an
meridional axis and the insolation line and we now have the plane coordinate a system. This axis,
we shall call the meridional axis. The reason being that I would like to choose this longitude, this
meridian as the point of interest. Let me emphasize that by putting a meridional plane here.
I have now included this Meridian meridional plane, this is the meridian of interest and the axis
coordinate axis which is in line with this longitude is called M or the meridional axis. This
coordinate axis orthogonal to the meridional axis, this axis will be called east of the meridian and
the one going vertically up is called the polar axis P, so this will be the polar axis P, this will be
E east of the meridian and this would be the meridional axis.
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Let us now consider the solar geometry using a 2D graphic system. I am using inkscape for 2D
graphics. The visualization that we just now had using the 3D graphic system will help you to
visualize the entire solar geometry in a 2D graphics based system. So, we have these 3 axes here
as shown. The vertical axis is called P that is called the polar axis and earth is rotating about the
polar axis.
Now this earth has been chopped off, a quarter of the northern hemisphere has been chopped off
as can be seen. Now a coordinate axis is shown here and this is going out of the page and that is
orthogonal to both the other two axes but it is passing through this plane, this meridional plane.
So, when you want to consider a point of interest on the surface of the earth it will be associated
with the latitude and the longitude the longitude is the meridian.
So consider that particular meridian which is related to the point of interest, as the meridian of
interest and let this axis cut through that particular meridian and we will call this axis as M, the
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meridional axis. So, it is actually the meridional axis of the meridian of interest. So, whichever is
the meridian of interest let a line be drawn from the center of the earth along the equatorial plane
cutting the meridian of interest and coming out of the page like this and that is the meridional
axis.
The third axis orthogonal to both the meridional axis and the polar axis is basically east of this
meridian and as it is just east of this meridian, we just named it as e representing east of the
meridian. Now let us draw a line joining the center of the earth to the center of the Sun, this line
is eventually going to the center of the distant Sun and that is the insolation line which represents
the incident radiation from the Sun. Any vector or any line is now considered with respect to this
plane, this plane is called the equatorial plane. So the equatorial plane, the three coordinate axes
that is the polar axis, maternal axis and the Eastern Meridian axis together form the earth centric
coordinate system with the origin positioned at the center of the earth.
Now from the insolation line, let me draw an arc like this and it is actually a projection onto the
equatorial plane and you have two important angle, one of the angle is this and this we have
known the angle of the insolation line with respect to the equatorial plane is δ which is the
declination. The other is on the equatorial plane, the angle from the meridian, so the angle from
this meridional axis up to the projection of the insolation line on the equatorial plane and that is
called ω or the hour angle.
Going back to the 3D visualization, now let us shrink this meridional plane so that it is in line
with the earth radius. So like this, now that is the meridian of interest and restoring all the other
parts. We know how the system like this. Now, let us consider a point of interest on this
meridional plane, let us say some point like this as pointed by at the cursor. Let me draw a line
from center of the earth right through the point of interest. Like this, you see that this line goes
to the point of interest here on the surface of the earth and that line continues down to the center
of the earth. The coordinate system that we have been discussing till now is with respect to this
as 000 the cursor is pointing to the origin. This is the earth centric coordinate system, where you
had the pole axis, the east of the meridian and the meridian axis.
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Now this is the local point which we are interested now, someone is standing here. Now, the line
passing through the local point and the center of the earth intersecting at a specific latitude and
longitude here will become the 00 origin for the local coordinate system. Now let us say we
place a tangential plane here, we place the tangential plane here to indicate the coordinate system
at the locality and you see that we have placed a plane here at the locality, the locality point as
the origin, tangentially to the meridional plane.
So to get a better visualization if I move it like this, now you see that this plane here is tangential
to the meridional plane and it is tangential to that line passing through the through the locality.
So, this angle probably would give you a better visualization. Probably, if I move it in this
fashion, you will get a visualization of this plane. Now, this plane is called the horizon plane.
Important note, you see that this is the equatorial plane and this plane is called the horizon plane.
This plane is the horizon planes specific to this latitude, it is orthogonal to this line which is
joining this latitude point to the centre of the earth and the coordinate system for that latitude is
referred with respect to this reference plane which is the horizon plane. Now, let us write down
the coordinate system for this latitude and we call this one as local centric coordinate system.
Remember, this coordinate system which we have written down is the earth centric co-ordinate
system. Now, you have another coordinate system which is focused in this horizon plane and
relative to this horizon plane and is called the local centric coordinate system.
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Let us define the coordinate axis of this locality with reference to this horizon plane. First this
axis the one which is normal to the horizon plane going right from the centre of the earth through
the locality and straight up the vertical line we shall call that as Z representing zenith. So, this is
the zenith axis which is just going normal to the horizon plane as going vertically up. So, that is
one axis the other axis is along the meridian tangential to the meridian going down south.
So, this line which goes tangential to the meridional plane going down south along the horizon
plane will be denoted as S. The S coordinate system representing south. The third coordinate axis
is shown east as E, uppercase E to distinguish between the lowercase e which we used for the
earth coordinate system and this is East. Remember that this East uppercase each of the local
coordinate system and the east of the earth coordinate system are parallel and the point to the
same direction. So this forms the coordinate system of the locality.
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Let me give you a 3D visualization. I am looking down from the North Pole polar axis straight
down. You see the horizon plane here located at tangential to the local point latitude, this is the
zenith taxes as pointed by the arrow, this axis is pointing south on the horizon plane and this axis
is pointing East on the horizon plane. We could probably take another view, something that is
something that is much more familiar to us.
We have written this kind of a viewpoint on the paper. This is the Zenith axis, this is the axis
pointing south on the horizon plane, this is the axis pointing East on the horizon plane. This is
the insolation line joining the local point to the center of the Sun. Now, observe that three
important parameters, this angle here is the latitude angle because this line joining center of the
earth to the local point here makes a angle equivalent to the latitude angle and this is the
insolation line and the angle that insolation line makes with the zenith axis is called the zenith
angle and if you take a point of insolation line project it down and that projection line makes an
angle with respect to the south axis on the northern plane and this angle is called the azimuth
angle. These are the important angles that you must keep in mind with respect to the local
geometry.
So, you see that in this figure, there are two important coordinate systems. The earth centric
coordinate system and the local centric coordinate system. So, these two coordinate system are
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the important ones that we need to analyze and try to estimate the insolation at the local point.
So, let us see how we go about doing that. But, first let us try to consolidate this two coordinate
system on a 2D graphic system.
Let us go back to the 2D graphics. Let us draw a line from the center of the earth to the locality
of interest. This line will make an angle Ф to the equatorial plane and this angle is the latitude
angle. Now, from this point the locality point, you draw you extend the line straight up vertically
up and at the surface of the earth, let us how a plane which is tangential to the Meridian as shown
like this and this plane is exactly horizontal at the locality is called the horizon plane.
Now, on this horizon plane will be the new coordinate system which is the local centric
coordinate system. Remember the earth centric coordinate system which was with respect to the
equatorial plane. You had the P polar axis, the east and the meridional axis. Now, at the locality
here with respect to the horizon plane, this axis exactly vertical up is called the zenith axis Z and
south going south exactly south on the horizon plane, we will call it as axis S and going east this
axis is called just East. To distinguish from the earth centric coordinate system I will use upper
case for the local centric coordinate system. Let us now draw the insolation line from the locality
point to the center of the Sun extends to the center of the Sun. So, this insolation line will make
an angle to the vertical axis or the zenith axis. Now this angle is called θz and this is called the
zenith angle.
The angle that the insolation line makes with the vertical axis at the locality the zenith axis at the
locality is called the zenith angle. There is one more term, so you consider a point on the
insolation line, drop a vertical projection onto the horizon plane and this line on the horizon
plane connecting the projected point to the local centre and the south axis, so this angle is called
the azimuth angle γS.
So these are all the variables that you will use in estimating the insolation at this locality point.
Remember, there are two coordinate systems, the earth centric coordinate system and the local
centric coordinate system. In the earth centric coordinate system, the important variables are δ
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the declination, the hour angle ω and in the case of the local centric coordinate system, two
important angles are the zenith angle θz and the ultimate angle γS.
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Prof. L Umanand
Consider the profile of the earth surface as shown and on the surface of the earth, let us consider
a locality at a specific latitude. Now, from the center of the earth draw a line passing through the
chosen locality like this. This black line now here is the equatorial plane and this angle here is
the latitude angle. Let us place a horizontal flat plate at the chosen latitude like this. So, this
horizontal flat plate is the focus of interest and we need to find out how much insolation falls on
this plate.
This is kept tangentially to the locality point here and we need to find what is the normal
incidence of solar insolation that is falling on it. So this is the estimate that we need to find out
from the solar geometry. Remember, that the horizontal plane that we have indicated here does
not appear horizontal to us but to a person standing at the locality this plane will be horizontal
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and which and it will also lie on the horizon plane. So, this is said or this is considered as
horizontal with respect to a person standing at the locality, keep that in mind and then we will
look at the corresponding solar geometry and try to estimate this.
This coordinate axis a system, you are now familiar with. This is a familiar figure. This is the
locality of interest and this is the local centric coordinate system. This is the horizon plane this
yellow plane. This horizon plane can be considered as the horizontal flat plate on which we want
to now estimate the amount of insolation falling on it normally. This is the latitude angle ϕ, this
is the azimuth angle and this is the zenith angle and this line joining the locality to the center of
the sun is the insolation line.
Let us now find the insolation on a horizontal flat plate located at the chosen locality here. Now,
consider a vector like this which represents the insolation from the sun at that locality. Now that
vector is at an angle θz zenith angle from the zenith axis. Now this insolation vector can be
resolved into components orthogonal components along all these axes and these resolved
components or something like this. So let us say that I name this as L S component along the
south axis of the local coordinate system, component along the east axis of the local coordinate
system I will call it as LE and the component along the zenith axis vertically up I will call it as
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LZ. Observe that LZ is vertically up normal to the horizon plane and therefore if there is a
horizontal plane placed at the locality, L Z alone is normal to the horizontal flat plate. So it is very
important for us to find what is this value of L Z and that will give us the effective insolation at a
place on a horizontal flat plate collector.
Now, we know that L is the vectorial sum of LS+LE and LZ. So they vectorially add up to give
you the insolation coming from the sun. Now, what are each of these quantities in terms of the
parameters of the coordinate system. So, L S which is along these south axis is L and this being θ z
this will be 90-θz, therefore this would be projection would be sinθ z and this projection is cosγS,
so this would be the value of the insolation vector along this south axis.
Likewise, the value of the insolation vector along the east axis will be L sinθ z and sinγs, and the
component of the insolation along this z axis or the zenith axis is nothing but L cosθ z and this L
cosθz is the important insolation vector as that is normal to the horizon plane or normal to a
horizontal flat plate placed at the locality. So, Lz alone is the insolation which is at normal
incidence to the horizontal flat plate. LS and LE are along the horizontal flat plate, so they do not
contribute to any effective insolation on the horizontal flat plate.
Now, how do we estimate Lcosθz, θz is the zenith angle and we do not know directly. So we
should try to estimate θz from known parameters like latitude angle is known we know the place
location of the place, time of the day ω hour angle and these are the parameters which are known
to us and which we know which can measure and in terms of those we should express this, so
that we get this LZ with measurable parameters using measurable parameters.
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Let me shift the coordinate system to the left. I am also including the earth centric coordinate
system also in this figure. So you see the meridional axis m, the east of the meridian and the
polar axis p, and I have included the insolation line also joining the center of the earth to the
distant sun. As the sun is very far from the earth we can consider the insolation line is parallel in
either of the coordinate system and in this earth centric coordinate system let us see how the
insolation L gets resolved into. Consider an insolation vector L like this and this insolation vector
can get resolved into three orthogonal components along the meridional axis or on the east of the
meridian and the polar axis like this. So, let us say we have along the meridional axis it gets
resolved as Lm and along the east of the meridian axis as another insolation vector and we will
call it as Le and one along the polar axis we shall call it as Lp.
And L the insolation vector is the vectorial sum of L m along the meridional axis, Le along the east
of the meridian axis, plus Lp along the polar axis. Now, from this coordinate system, we can
easily reduce that Lm=L cos of this angle δ and cosω would be along L m. So, clearly you can
write it as L cosδ and to cosω and along the east of the meridian Le we can write it as Lcosδ sinω.
So, you will get it as cosδ sinω and L p along the polar axis would be Lcos of this angle this angle
is nothing but 90-δ, so you will have Lp along the polar axis has Lsinδ.
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Here, the resolved components are in terms of δ and ω. δ is the declination ω is the hour angle.
Both δ and ω hour angle or deducible, can be determined knowing the time of the day and time
of the year, we can calculate that and we know how to calculate that. Then for L m, Le, Lp can be
easily determined. We had also resolved this insolation vector along the local coordinate system
and we are interested in a normal incidence to the horizontal plane placed at the locality. How do
we make use of these resolved components along with the resolved component of the insolation
at the local centric coordinate system?
Because local centric coordinate system is and there earth centric coordinate system have a
different origins. So, one assumption that we can make here is that the radius of the earth is very
small compared to the distance from the sun. So, in addition to the insolation lines being parallel,
they can be merged. So, which means we push the horizon plane straight down to this center of
the earth and merge the origins of the local centric coordinate system and the earth centric
coordinate system, then we will able to relate these resolved components obtained from the earth
centric coordinate system with the resolved components of the local centric coordinate system
and make the relationship.
This assumption is valid, in the sense that r, the radius of the earth is very small compared to the
distance from the sun and without loss of generality we can push this coordinate system and
make it merge to the center of the earth.
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Let me give you a 3D visualization of merging the two coordinates systems such that they both
have the same origins. So, what I am going to do is, take this local centric coordinate system and
try to push it down to the center of the earth such that this origin and this origin are the same.
First what I will do is I will make the horizon plane a bit bigger such that when I push it down it
will stick out of the globe so that you will able to recognize where the horizon plane is and how
it is oriented and also I will make the coordinate axis of the local centric system little longer so
that when we push it down to the center of the earth this will still project out.
Obverse now that I have made the horizon plane bigger much bigger I have increased the lengths
of the south axis or the horizon plane and the east axis on the horizon plane. Now, we will push
this whole system down to the center of the earth when you push the horizon plane down such
that the horizon origins meet and merge at the center of the earth.
You will see that the insolation line also merges together, the east on the horizon plane is same
as the east, east of the meridian. So, both the axes east merged together this is the south axis on
the horizon plane. So, if you rotate you will see that the horizon plane cuts through the center and
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you will be able to visualize it much better in this angle. See that the south axis, the east axis is
coming in like this they have the horizon at this point at the center of the earth both earth centric
and local centric horizons are same and you see this was the zenith axis continues to be the
zenith axis normal to the horizon plane.
So, if one positions on the east axis and looks in this direction so it will appear as though like this
and we are positing standing on the east axis so it looks like a line, here and you see the horizon
plane in this fashion here and this is the insolation line, you have the zenith axis, the polar axis is
right up, the meridian meridional axis is along this line, the east of the horizon and the east of the
meridional axis will appear like a point here it is in fact coming out of the screen.
Coming back to the 2D graphics, let us view standing here, let us view in this direction, so when
you view in this direction, we saw the visualization in 3D and let us try to capture it in 2D. You
will see of course this vertical axis p the polar axis like this and then viewing from this direction,
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the equatorial plane will cut across, as the equatorial plane and the horizon plane cuts across and
we saw that cuts across through the origin because we have made the origins of the two
coordinate system the same and the horizon plane cutting through the horizon will look like this
from this view direction and from this view direction we will see this line the meridional axis, it
will appear here. This point would be the two east, the east of the meridian and the east on the
horizon plane, the meridional axis, this is the zenith axis, this zenith axis right from the origin it
continues up normal to the horizon plane and that is z, this angle would be ϕ the latitude and this
is what you would see if you are standing on this side that is if you are standing on the side and
facing towards the center of the earth, you would see this kind of a profile of the coordinate axes.
In this way, if the horizon plane and equatorial plane are merged like this with the two coordinate
systems local and equatorial coordinate systems merged together, we have this two merged
coordinate systems in this fashion and the variables like the insolations in the earth centric
coordinate system and the local centric coordinate systems can be related by this angle ϕ and that
is what we now proposed to do so that we bring in a relationship of the insolation such that it is
along the zenith axis in terms of the latitude, the hour angle and the declination.
We have seen that the insolation vector L resolved into the three orthogonal coordinates of the
local centric coordinate system. We have seen L resolved into L S along the south axis, LE along
the east axis and LZ along the zenith axis and it is of interest for us to find out this insolation
vector along the zenith axis which is Lcosθ z the zenith angle. We have also seen the insolation
vector being resolved along three orthogonal axis of the earth centric coordinate system and then
we have the Lm along the meridional axis, Le along the east of the meridian axis and Lp along the
polar axis given in this fashion has a function of δ declination and ω.
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Now let me put down the two sets of equation, so from the local centric coordinate system we
have the insolation L which is a vectorial sum of L S, LE and LZ and from the earth centric
coordinate system we have L as a vectorial sum of L m, Le and Lp L polar. and we have also seen
that if we stand on the east axis, the both easts, from both the coordinate systems, east of the
meridian and also east on the horizon plane, so you will see that the axis profiles are like this and
then we have merged the horizon plane zero horizon and the equatorial plane horizon this
fashion. We can now represent or obtain the insolation along the zenith axis in terms of the
equatorial plane or the earth centric coordinate system parameters. Now, looking at the figure
here, Lz is along the zenith axis which is orthogonal to the horizon plane and L z can be resolved
into Lm on the earth centric coordinate system and also Lp on the earth centric coordinate system
polar axis.
So, Lm and Lp earth centric coordinate system vectors can form and give Lz the zenith axis vector
which is what we want. So, let us say L z=Lm cosϕ, ϕ being the latitude angle here and also L p
sinϕ. So, the vectorial sum or L m cosϕ and Lp sinϕ will result in Lz. Now in each of their
respective coordinate systems, we have written down what is L z and what is Lm and Lp. So,
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substituting we find L cosθz, this is the zenith angle equals L cosδ cosω is Lm which we have
substituted here into cosϕ plus Lp which is L sinδ into sinϕ. So, this is the relationship that would
come out. So, cosθz which is the cos of the zenith angle can be expressed only in terms of
declination, hour angle ϕ the parameters related to the earth centric coordinate system.
To summarize, consider a portion of the earth surface and on the surface there is a locality point
as shown here and at that locality point I am placing a horizontal flat plate collector and our
interest is to say how much amount of insolation falls on it perpendicularly, normal to that
surface. So, it is our interest to ask that along the z axis what is the amount of insolation L z that is
falling on this flat plate collector and that we saw from this equation L z is nothing but L cosθz
where θz is the zenith angle.
But we do not know the zenith angle, we know other parameters in the earth centric coordinates
like the declination, the hour angle latitude and such and therefore we know that now L z can be
written as L (sinδ sinϕ + cosδ cosϕ cosω). So, this would be the insolation that is falling on a
horizontal flat plate placed at a locality located on the latitude ϕ. All these parameters are
determinable knowing the time of the day, time of the year and the latitude.
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Now, this L is called the extra terrestrial insolation in kW/m2. This is basically the insolation at
the earth’s outer most atmosphere that is outside the earth outer most atmosphere, if you place a
one meter by one meter square plate, the amount of insolation falling on that is this L, which is
very close to the solar constant a 1.37kW/m 2. However, it will vary from the solar constant
depending up on the time of the year we will discuss that shortly, but keep in mind that this is
outside the earth’s atmosphere.
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Prof.L Umanand
Given that we are able to obtain the insolation incident normally on a horizontal flat plate at any
given latitude on the surface of the earth, we need to find what is the daily energy that is incident
on that horizontal flat plate. We know that LZ is the insolation that is incident normally to a
horizontal flat plate placed at a given locality at some particular latitude. Now, this is expressed
in kilowatt per meter square, this is the power per meter square. Now we need to find H 0, I am
using a new symbol H0 represents the daily energy available for a horizontal flat plate placed at a
given point on the surface of the earth at a given latitude and this has units kilowatt hours per
meter square per day.
Let us draw an x and y axis. The x-axis is the time of the day so let's say that is the noon and this
point here is the Sun Rise and somewhere here let us have the Sun set and the y axis is L Z in
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kilowatt per meter square the insolation. So, if you draw the curve it will look something like this
which we have seen earlier and the area under this curve is the integration of the L Z curve with
respect to the time of the day or what we called our angle Omega. So, this area is H 0 and it is
integral of LZ overall hour angles for the day or the complete day. Now this would give you the
energy integral of kilowatt with time will give you the kilowatt hours.
I have here the solar geometry coordinate system. And we have the hour angle here and I would
like to integrate with respect to the hour angle to obtain the energy in kilowatt hour per meter
square per day, but for that we have to redefine the x-axis slightly differently like this. So, let me
put the x-axis variable here and that is omega represented by  and a vertical line here
representing noon and at noon =0, so =0 means the projection of the insolation line is on the
meridional axis and at =0 would be the noon for that meridian.
Any our angle to the east of the original axis is considered positive and any our angle to the west
of the meridional axis is considered as negative. Sunrise occurs on towards the east of the
meridional axis and therefore sunrise is having an hour angle which is positive and sunset is
having an hour angle which is negative. So, likewise we will indicate now when you want to
indicate sunrise sun rise will be on the positive side of the noon, so therefore sunrise will be
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located here and sunset will be located on the negative side. So drawing that, will draw sunrise
and I am going to present sun rises SR and sunset as SS.
Note that sunset the distance of the sunset sun set from noon and the distance of sunrise from
noon are the same, only difference is that Omega sunset is negative, it is the negative angle
however the value is the same as SR and therefore you can write it as -SR. Now, if you draw the
insolation curve it will look something like this and it is the area under this insolation curve that
we are interested, this insolation is kilowatt per meter square. We want kilowatt hour per meter
square. So, the area under the insolation curve is of interest to us and this is what we can obtain
through integration.
So, on integration we would get H 0 in kilowatt hour per meter square per day and that is
integrated over the whole day from sunset to sunrise, we will write it as SS to SR LZ into d.
Now this can be rewritten as -SR to SR, because sunset angle is same as sunrise angle with a
negative sign and LZ that with d is a parameter and this can further be written simplified as 2
times integral 0 to SR LZ d. This is because the distance from 0 to SR is same as 0 to SS so
you can write it as 2 times 0 to SR. This curve is symmetrical about the noon axis and note that
the length of the day is 2 times SR.
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Let us now evaluate the daily incident energy on a horizontal flat plate. LZ that is the insolation
and we know the equation for that, we have here the equation for L Z which is the insolation at
normal incidence on the horizontal surface. L is the extra-terrestrial insolation outside the Earth's
atmosphere and this is the relationship with declination latitude and Omega playing a role now
we will use this relationship in our equation
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Equal to 2 times 0 to SR, insolation, extra-terrestrial insolation cos δ cos  cos  + sinδ sin 
and integration parameter is d.  here is a radiance, Omega this Omega is also in radiance. So
note that by integrating in this fashion you will get kilowatt radians per meter square per day, but
what we actually want to achieve in the end is kilowatt hours per meter square per day. So, later
we will convert radians in two hours.
Integrating we have sine, cos  would become sin , cos δ and cos π are constants. L is a
constant and sine  where Omega has two limits which are 0 and SR and sine δ and sine  are
constants for a given latitude and time of year and Omega is omega which again has limits 0 to
SR and this is the integrated value and this will result in an SR plus sinδ sin  SR. So, this is the
daily available energy incident on a horizontal flat plate. SR the hour angles are in radians,
therefore in this form it is kilowatt radians per meter square per day. However, we would like the
energy units to be kilowatt hours per meter square per day.
So, we will convert radians to hours the conversion factor goes like this. We have pi radians
getting converted in 12 hours or 2 pi radians in 24 hours and therefore  radians are covered in
12 by pi into  hours. So, this is the conversion factor which can be used for converting  in
radians to hours. So, therefore if I multiply the entire. if I multiply the entire H 0 value obtained in
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kilowatt radiance per meter square with 12 by pi into all the things in the bracket. Omega still
being in radians, we will have kilowatt hour per meter square per day has the units.
H0, the incident energy on a horizontal flat plate at a given latitude is given by this equation 24 L/
π and a cos δ into cos  into sin SR and SR sin δ sin . Now, here there are two variables, one is
this L, the extra-terrestrial insolation and other is SR the hour angle at sunrise. These two are
still not determined, we don't know how to evaluate that right now and as a result we cannot
evaluate the value of H0. So let us see how we can go about getting an estimate of the
extraterrestrial insolation.
And also the hour angle at sunrise. So, let us take up the case of the extra-terrestrial insolation L.
Now this L is given by an empirical relationship obtained from measurements over many years,
so these this empirical relationship is available in the literature, so let me write it down L SC solar
constant into 1 plus 0.033 cos 360 N by 365. Now this is the empirical relationship that will
determine the extra-terrestrial insolation on a given day of the year N. N is the day number,
where en is equal to is the day number of and 1 for January 1st and 365 for December 31st and
LSC is the solar constant I had mentioned it once before, solar constant is a value equal to 1.3 7
kilowatt per meter square is also called the mean solar constant and it is it is a constant value in
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the sense that it is not dependent on the position of the earth. This again is the extra-terrestrial
value. Now this and this relationship together can be putdown in this fashion. Let's say this is K
and L can be written as K LSC. Now this can be substituted here and the whole equation can be
written in this fashion H0 is equal to 24 K L SC by φ and cos δ cos φ sine SR plus SR R sine δ
sine φ. Now this would be the entire equation for the energy available on a horizontal flat plate at
a latitude for a given day a daily computation. So this kilowatt hours per meter square per day.
Now here see this is known L SC the solar constant 0.37, K is known given the day number the
day of the year and δ the declination is known by latitude is known SR is the sun rise angle we
will look at how to find that one out and once that is known you should be able to evaluate the
daily instant energy per meter square Per day.
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Prof. L Umanand
Let us now obtain the sunrise and sunset angles. I have here the local centric coordinate system
and the earth eccentric coordinate system, and I have also written down the insolation equation.
L Cos θZ is the normal incidence insolation at a horizontal flat plate located at a point on this
latitude ϕ. At sunset and sunrise this θ Z will be 900C, what it basically means is that the insolation
line will be just along the horizon plane. At sunet, at sunset it will be just along the horizon plane
it will start to rise above the horizon plane and at sunset it will be along the horizon plane and
start to go below the horizon plane.
Therefore, at sunset or sunrise, we have θ Z the zenith angle equal to π / 2, 90 0C, this will be 900C
because the insolation line is along the horizon plane and ω the hour angle is the angle of interest
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to us, the our angle, we will call it as ωsr s hour angle at sunrise and modulus of the hour angle at
sunset, so you see that when ω = 0 the projection of the insolation line will be along the
meridional plane that would be considered as noon for that particular Meridian. Hour angle on to
the east of the Meridian will be positive, hour angle to the west of the meridian is considered
negative.
So, sunrise is on this quadrant, on to the east side of the meridional axis and therefore sunrise
angle is considered positive and sunset is to the west of the meridional axis and ωSS is considered
as negative but modulus of the sunset angle and hour angle at sunrise will be the same. Applying
CosθZ = 0 at sunrise and sunset, so you will say Cosδ Cosωsr there is sunrise angle and Cosϕ +
Sin𝛿 Sinπϕ = 0. Because CosθZ is 0, θZ that being π / 2 and from here you can get Cos ω at
sunrise which is Cos inverse of – Tan δ Tanϕ. So this is obtainable just directly from this step, so
you take Sin 𝛿 Sinϕ onto this side and then Cosωrs - Tans 𝛿 Tan ϕ and ωsr will be Cos inverse of
- Tan 𝛿 Tan ϕ and the sunset angle is nothing but minus sunrise angle. Because it is on the west
side of the meridional axis, so these two angles hour angles, hour angle sunrise, hour angle
sunset are given by this relationship entirely dependent on the declination and the latitude of the
place.
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So, now let us summarize the daily energy incident on a horizontal flat plate. So we know now
H0 is the daily incident energy and this is given by this relationship 24 k L SC solar constant by π
into Cos ϕ Cos 𝛿 Sin ωsr + ωsr Sinϕ Sin 𝛿 and this is expressed in the unit kilowatt hour per meter
square per day where k is 1 + 0.033 + Cos 360 N / 365 and N is the day number,1 for January 1 st,
365 for December 31st. So now this k is an expression which is obtained empirically to obtain the
insolation value at, on a given day and L SC is the solar constant mean solar constant hich is 1.3
kilowatt per meter square, ωsr is the sunrise hour angle which we saw just now and this is given
by Cos inverse of- Tanϕ Tan 𝛿, again in terms of latitude and declination only expressed in
radians, ϕ is the latitude and 𝛿 is the declination, both of these can be in radians or degrees. Now,
this can be considered as the model for obtaining the energy incident on a horizontal flat plate
without having considered the effects of atmosphere.
Till now we have not considered atmospheric effects. We will shortly discuss that also, but right
now this value is without any atmosphere by coming into the picture. To put it in a block
algorithmic form, let us say we need two important inputs, one is latitude ϕ another one is day
number N that is we need the day number N and the latitude ϕ, remaining everything else is
determinable, can be calculated using the equations that we just now discussed. So, the day, from
the day number we can get 𝛿 declination and this constant k using this relationship. So knowing
ϕ as one of the inputs, these 3 will be given to the model for estimating the energy and you will
get H0 in kilowatt hours per meter square per day and this whole block algorithmically can be
considered as the energy determining module for a horizontal flat plate.
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Prof. L Umanand
Let us now consolidate our understanding of energy on a horizontal flat plate at a locality. So, we
will try to calculate through some examples and try to get some inside on this topic. For ready
reference, I am keeping here the picture of the earth centric view point that will make you easy to
understand the problem that I will be suggesting right now. So, for now consider a simple case
where the attitude is equal to 0, what does it mean that the place is located on the equator.
So, now the locality is located on the equator, very simple case and now let me make it further
simple by taking declination is equal to 0, what is the declination? You know that, this is the
insolation line, the line joining the center of the earth to the center of the sun and angle that this
insolation line makes with the equatorial plane is called the declination. So, if you set declination
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is 0, which means the sun is along the equatorial plane and this occurs only on two days in a year
and that and those days are the equinox days.
So, therefore declination 0 would mean one of the equinox days in the year. There are only two
equinox days. One occurs on 21st March called the spring equinox and the other occurs on 21 st
September and it is called the autumn equinox. So, we can consider one of the equinox days and
let us say for this example we will take March 21 st. So, now the problem is what is H 0? what is
the daily incident energy at the locality ϕ=0 on the equator on an equinox day on a horizontal flat
plate?
So, let us calculate compute H0 24 k Lsc/π[sin ωsr], this comes from the equations that we have
derived, cosϕ cos δ will be 1 because ϕ and δ are 0 and the second term ω sr sinϕ sinδ will be 0
because again ϕ, δ are 0 and sin ϕ sin δ are 0. So, now here we need to know k, so let us compute
k Lsc and we need to know ωsr then we will be able to compute H 0. So, if we consider March 21 st
equinox and counting from 1st of Jan, N=1 on 1st of Jan and if you start counting from 1 st of Jan
21st March will turn out to be N=80 and with N=80, k can be calculated and k L sc can be
calculated and you can see that it comes out to 1.38 kW/m2.
And ωsr is given by cos-1of -tanϕ tanδ. So this we know, ϕ=0, we know δ=0, tanϕ tanδ is 0 and
therefore cos-1 of this 0 is π by 2. So, ω sr the sun rise hour angle is π/2. So, we know ω sr and
therefore we can calculate H0 which is 24x1.38 kW/m2/π [sin π/2]. Now, this turns out to be
10.54 kWh/m2/day. Now, this value is the energy per m2/day that is incident on a locality located
on the equator ϕ=0 and it is evaluated on one of the equinox days δ=0 and also must be noted
that there are no atmospheric effects.
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Let us take another interesting example. Let us say we want to find the length of the day in a
given time of the year. So, let us say for the case a latitude is equal to 0 which means that the
locality is on the equator ϕ=0 what is the length of the day. Second case, we can say latitude to
the north of the equator, latitude greater than 0, north of the equator and during summer in the
northern hemisphere and Case c, let us say latitude greater than 0 which is a place in the northern
hemisphere and winter in the northern hemisphere. Under these conditions what is the length of
the day for each of these conditions. Now, let us see how we go about calculating that one. We
know the length of the day is two times the sunrise hour angle, 2 ωsr and is expressed in radians
as ωsr is in radians.
However, if you want to express it in hours, the of the day it is more convenient to express in
hours, we say it is 2x12/π, we saw this conversion factor into ω sr which now will give you the
length of the day in hours. So, this gives you 24/π ω sr which is cos-1 (-tan ϕ tan δ). This would be
the length of the day expressed in hours. Now, let us take up case a. In case a, we are talking of
trying to find the length of the day at a place located on the equator and it could be any time of
the year.
So, for ϕ=0, the length of the day is given by 2 time ω sr or in hours we use this relationship 24/π
and cos-1 (-tan ϕ tan δ) ϕ is 0 and therefore cos -1 of ϕ is π/2 and you will get 12 hours. So, the
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length of the day is 12 hours, 6 to 6. So, this 12 hours length of day is irrespective of the value of
δ here. So, therefore it is irrespective of the time of the year. So, tan δ, δ can be any value from 0
to + 23 and 1/2 or 0 to -23 and ½ degrees. If ϕ is 0, which if the place is located at the equator,
this product term is 0 and therefore you will always find the length of the day is 12 hours
irrespective of the time of the year, but it is not so at all latitudes it is very very specific to the
equator.
So, consider case B. Now in case B, we need to find the length of a day of a place which is to the
north of the equator, any place above the equator and in summer in the northern hemisphere
which means the declination angle δ is positive and the sun the insolation line is having an angle
which is positive with respect to the equatorial plane. Now, in such a case here now consider the
cos ωsr the sunrise angle, so you see that cos ω sr is given by -tanϕ tanδ, now ϕ is greater than 0,
we know that that is positive and δ is greater than 0 because it is summer in the northern
hemisphere.
So, when both these are greater than or positive cos ω sr will be a negative value. So, cos ω sr is the
negative value then ωsr is in the second quadrant and therefore, you will have it as greater than π/
2. Therefore, you see that the value, the length of the day is given by 24/π, ω sr value greater than
π/2 for this particular case which will result in the length of the day being greater than 12 hours.
So, for latitudes in the northern hemisphere in summer, you will see that they have the length of
the day greater than to 12 hours and that is why in summer the northern latitudes we will see,
will have sunlight even late into the night. Now for case c, the length of the day is given by a
similar relationship, only thing is that we are talking of a place located in the northern
hemisphere, north of the equator but it is winter time in the northern hemisphere, which means
the declination is negative.
So, under that condition, you know that cos ω sr will become positive value, because δ becomes
lesser than 0, if it is winter the northern hemisphere it is summer in the southern hemisphere and
the declination is negative value. And therefore ωsr will be a value which is less than π/2 and now
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applying this here we will see that value is equal to 24/π ωsr value which is less than π/2 and as a
consequence the length of the day will be less than 12 hours.
So, therefore you see that for the same latitude in the northern hemisphere above the equator, in
summer it is greater than 12 hours, in winter it is less than 12 hours and these are the important
take a ways. For a place on the equator, irrespective to the time of the year, the length of the day
is always 12 hours. For a place on the north of the equator, during summers in the northern
hemisphere, the length of the day is greater than 12 hours and the length of the day is less than
12 hours for the northern hemisphere latitudes during winter. Similar corollaries can be obtained
for places located to the south of the equator also.
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Prof. L. Umanand
Let us now try to find out what is the daily energy incident on a tilted surface placed at a locality.
So, for that let us first draw the horizon plane, so this is a 2D graphics, so the horizon plane is
indicated in straight line and this is the horizon plane at some arbitrary locality on the surface of
the earth. Now, this axis is the normal axis normal to the horizon plane, it goes vertically up and
this is called the zenith axis Z this also we know.
Normally, till now we used to have a horizontal flat plate collector, something similar to this and
for this horizontal flat plate collector, we were interested in finding the amount of daily energy
incident on this horizontal flat plate collector. But in general, normally, the flat plate collector is
not kept horizontal at the locality it is kept tilted at an angle, at an appropriate angle which will
fetch, which will collect the maximum amount of solar radiation.
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So therefore, if we tilt this horizontal flat plate collector at an angle ß to the horizon plane, so it
will be tilted, the horizontal flat plate collector will become a tilted flat plate collector with a
angle of tilt ß in such a way that the tilted collector tries to face the equator. In the northern
hemisphere, it will try o face south and the southern hemisphere, it will try to face north or in
general you can always say the tilt is in such a way that the collector tries to face the equator.
I will now push and try to bring it down to the origin like this and also now let us draw a line
normal to this tilted collector. So, this line, this axis named N is the normal axis or a normal
vector normal to this tilted flat plate collector which is tilted at an angle ß to the horizon plane.
Now, it is of interest that we try to find that insolation vector which is along this normal, when
we, when the flat plate collector was horizontal the normal and the zenith axis coincided and
therefore, you are interested in the insolation vector along the zenith axis. But in actuality, now
in the case of a general tilted flat plate collector, we must try to find the insolation vector along
the normal to the flat plate collector that is along this N axis.
Now, let me go back to the merged coordinate axis system. Recall that we have seen this merged
coordinate axis system. This is the horizon plane and with respect to the horizon plane you have
the local centric coordinate system shown in red, this is the south on the horizon plane, this is the
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zenith axis and the one shown in blue is with respect to the equatorial plane that is earth centric
coordinate system.
You have the meridional axis and the polar axis shown like this. Now, on to this, let us merge the
tilted flat plate collector too. Now we have seen a tilted flat plate collector is like this. We have
the horizon plane at the locality and we have tilted the flat plate collector at an angle ß with
respect to the horizon plane and the plane along the tilted flat plate collector is called the tilted
horizon plane and normal to the tilted flat plate collector you have this normal line or the normal
axis N axis which is orthogonal to this tilted flat plate collector.
Now, this one let us merge it with, let us merge the origin with the already merged axis,
coordinate axis system like this. After placing it like this, let us rotate it about the origin such that
the horizon planes match like this. So, the local centric horizon plane is like this and with respect
to the local centric horizon plane at an angle ß, you have the tilted flat plate collector and the
plane along that is called the tilted horizon plane and the line normal to that is the normal,
normal axis and it is now important for us to find out the insolation that is incident along this
normal axis, and later to find out the energy incident on this tilted flat plate collector. So,
remember this modified merged coordinate axis system and we will be using this to develop the
equation for the energy falling on a tilted surface.
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As in the case of the energy on a horizontal flat plate collector, we have from the local centric
coordinate system, the insolation given as the insolation along the south axis of the horizon plane
insolation along the east +LZ along the zenith axis. So, Ls Le and Lz are given in terms of the
zenith angle and the azimuth angle.
From the earth centric coordinate system, the insolation is resolved into L m along the meridian
axis along the E so meridian and along the polar axis and there given in terms of the declination
and the other angle. Now, let us bring in the tilt also into the picture and let us see how we get
the modified insolation along the normal to the tilted flat plate collector. So, we have placed here
brought in the modified merged coordinate axis system. Now, this is the tilted flat plate collector
tilted at an angle ß with respect to the horizon plane and this is the tilted horizon plane.
And what is of interest is the insolation along this axis, the normal axis or the N axis normal to
the flat plate collector which is tilted. So, therefore let us draw that and I will name that one as
LN vector and there are two vectors from the local coordinate from the earth centric coordinate
system one is the LN and another is LP along the polar axis. So, like as before we will use the
same method and this is LP. Now, LP will reflect can be resolved onto this N axis Lm can be
resolved on to this N axis in the following manner. Knowing this angle, now because this is ß
this will be ß and therefore this will be ϕ –ß, ϕ –ß and LN is given by Lm projected onto the N axis
will be cos (ϕ – ß) and LP projected onto the N axis will be L P sin (ϕ – ß). Now, we know L M is L
Cos 𝛿 Cos ω and LP is L Sin 𝛿 substituting, we have L into Cos 𝛿 Cos ω Cos (ϕ –ß ) + L Sin 𝛿 Sin
(ϕ – ß).
Now, this is the insolation equation for the insolation that is incident perpendicular to the tilted
flat plate collector located at a locality which is at a latitude ϕ from the equator.
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Now integration of this insolation LN over the entire day will give the energy on a tilted surface.
So therefore, we can now find out the daily energy incident on a tilted flat plate and that is
nothing but H. We will now call it Hot, Ho we had used the symbol for a horizontal plate energy
on a horizontal plate, Hot energy incident on a tilted flat plate and that is equal to 2 times integral
0 to ωsr, ωsr is the sun raised our angle.
Now, I am going to slightly modify that it will be ω srt sun rise angle for a tilted plate. I will
discuss that more in a shortly and the integration is for LN with a integration parameter dω, ω is
the hour angle. Now, this would provide you with the daily energy incident on a tilted flat plate.
Now, let us perform this integration and then see what the relationship that we will get.
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Now this Hot has given here has the units of kilowatt radians per meter square per day because ω
is an radians. Now, to convert this into kilo watt hours per meter square per day like as we did
for the H0 case, we will use the scale factor now you have 24 k LSC, LSC is the main solar constant
by π, integral of 0 to ωsrt and LN we can expand Cos 𝛿 Cos ω Cos (π –ß ) which is the tilt angle +
Sin 𝛿 Sin( π – ß).
Now, this would be the energy expressed in kilowatt hours per meter square per day, because we
have used the 12/ π conversion factor.k and LSC are their usual meanings. So, when you solve
this, you will have Cos 𝛿 and Cos ω Cos (π –ß) are independent of hour angle and Cos ω will
become Sin ω SRT +ω SRT Sin 𝛿 Sin (ϕ - ß). Now, this is the energy incident on a tilted flat
plate at located at latitude ϕ and having a tilt with respect to its local horizon with an angle ß.
Now ωsr on with respect to the horizon of the place, we know is given by Cos -1 – tan ϕ tan 𝛿.
Now, if you take the tilted horizon we take the tilted horizon and I will call that one as ω srß the
horizon that is tilted at an angle ß which we saw in the profile of the merged coordinate system.
You will see it having a value Cos-1 - tan, tan ϕ will become ϕ – ß x tan 𝛿. Now, this would be the
sunrise hour angle with respect to the tilted horizon we tilted an angle ß with respect to the
horizon of the place attracted to ϕ. ω srt what is ωsrt? ωsrt is the sun rise our angle for the tilted flat
plate, should remember that the sun should be the horizon of both the horizon of the place and
the horizon of the tilted plane.
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Here, you have the horizon plane and you have the tilted horizon plane which is tilted at an angle
ß with respect to the horizon plane. The sun should be above both the horizon for any effective
LN that is normal insolation to fall on the tilted flat plate. So, not only is its sufficient that the sun
is above this horizon it should also be above this tilted horizon. So, if we take for example, this
horizon we just having an hour angle ωsr at some latitudes and some day of the year.
The sun may rise above this horizon first and then above this horizon next. In the case of, in
some other cases you will see that the sun rises above the tilted horizon first and the horizon
plane next, depending upon whether it is on the northern hemisphere and the southern
hemisphere. So, therefore let us say the sun rises above the horizon of the locality then we call it
as ωsr. it has still not risen above the horizon of the tilted plane.
When it rises above the tilted plane, you will see that the ω sr would actually be smaller measured
from the meridian axis than what it would have been from the horizon plane. Therefore, what we
do is, we take when minimum of the our angles as computed with respect to these two planes,
then we are safe are conservative we know that the that there will be an effective insolation
falling on this if we consider that the sun has risen above both the horizon planes.
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So therefore what we do for ω srt is to take the minimum of ω sr value computed as above and the
ωsrß value computed as with a ϕ – ß value for the latitude angle. So therefore, therefore, whenever
you use this relationship here for computing the daily energy incident at a tilted flat plate, the ω srt
sun rise angle of the tilted, sun rise our angle for the tilted flat plate collector, use the minimum
of the computation of ωSR as of the horizon plane for that locality and ωsrß for that locality if you
place a flat plate which is tilted at an angle ß, if you computed like this that is for the tilted for
risen plane that value. So, these two values the minimum of them is what has to be assigned to
ωSRT.
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Prof. L. Umanand
It is time for some simulation, some scripting. We know how to evaluate the daily energy
incident on a horizontal flat plate collector at any given latitude on the surface of the earth. We
also know how to evaluate the daily energy incident on a tilted flat plate collector located at any
given latitude on any place on the surface of the earth. We have seen lot of equations, we shall
try to consolidate all these equations and put them in a form, in sequence so that it will help you
later on in design and sizing of the PV panels.
We shall use octave for scripting and try to run the simulation and see the plot outs of the
kilowatt hour per meter square per day versus the day number, so that you know how the
available energy function is over the year.
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I have here a text file, a blank text file. I am renaming it as irrad.m, irrad short for irradiation dot
m, it is an m file, the script file which can be executed either in octave or MATLAB and then I
am storing that file, saved that file in pv.sim, it is a scratchpad folder. So, now let us start to
populate this file, write the scripts, first let us have the header comments. So, these are all
command files as you can see here, this description is that this file calculates the incident energy
on a horizontal tilted surface given the latitude and the day number where N real number and I
am considering only the non leap years and I am using Q for the latitude instead of ϕ because I
cannot type in ϕ and the ASCII in the text file, it will be in degrees and we will later convert it
into radians.
So the first commands would be clearing the screen and then clear all the variables and then now
let us take inputs. So, to take inputs, first we will have to mention the locality, so the locality this
again is the comment file, the latitude is 12 degree 58 minutes north of the Equator and this is the
latitude of Bangalore, that is Indian institute of Science Bangalore has this latitude, so I just have
taken that, you can as well choose any other latitude or locality of your choice.
So Q = 12.97, 58 minutes is in decimals 0.97 and this is expressed in degrees, we need to convert
it into radians because it is always better to convert all degree units into Radian units, the SI units
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and the system of equations that will follow and the result that will follow will be consistent.
Next, I have converted Q into radians Q = Q x Π/80, Π/80 is the conversion actor from degrees
to radians.
So, next let me list out the constants, there is only one constant part is right now that is L SC. LSC is
the mean solar constant which is 1.37 kilowatt per meter square and that is what I have written
and now let us begin the calculation of the insolation and energy on all days of the year. So, we
have to take one by one, so let us say we take day number one, n = 1 and calculate H 0 then the
day number two calculate H0 so on for all the 365 days we will calculate the H 0 and put them in
an array. So, let us have a for loop and this for loop will do this job of calculating.
So, here if you see, for n = 1 to 365 and n for of this day number loop. Within the loop what
should come ? So, within the loop let us see what we can have. First let us calculate the
declination. We know how to calculate the declination. So, let us say at t, a variable t is equal to
2Π(N – 80)/365 and then we use the declination relationship which we have studied. d, delta was
the declination but I cannot use delta, so I will use d for declination, 23.45 Sin(t) or Sin (2Π(N-
80)/365) and this value is in degrees and therefore, I want to convert it into radians and I am
using this factor Π/180, the declination is now expressed in radians.
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Next, I will calculate the extra-terrestrial insolation scale factor kL SC. We have LSC, we need kLSC
and that is calculated using 1 + 0.033 Cos 2Π N/365. I know N, because n is an input, that is, it is
an for-loop input and we can calculate k. Then after that, I will calculate the hour angle. So, hour
angle is a Cos, that is Cos-1 (– tan ϕ tan 𝛿). So, tan Q tank 𝛿 and you will get the hour angle, this
is followed by calculation of H0.
H0 for the day number N, so if it is 1 it will be H 0(1), H0(2) …. H0(365), this will be an array. We
use the equation well known 24 k L SC / Π X Cos ϕ Cos 𝛿 Sin ωsr + ωsr Sin ϕ Sin 𝛿. Now, this will
give you the H0 in kilowatt hour per meter square per day. We will also put into the day's
variable, another array the day number, so that we can plot H 0 as a function of the day number.
Then next, we need to show the results and let us plot. So, what do we plot ? We will plot days
versus H0, days on the x-axis, H0 on the y axis and then we shall have the grid, label the X label,
hour Y label and the title.
So, this will complete our simple script file which will do the calculation of the energy incident,
daily energy incident on horizontal flat plate collector and we should be able to see the results of
this value computed for every day of the year. So, we shall now save this file and that's it and we
have the script file ready to function.
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We will open now octave, I will click on the octave, octave is open, octave is open onto the
screen. I will clear up this workspace and move into the folder of interest so pv.sim, this is where
I have kept the files and I will call irrad. Now, it will execute the script file that we just wrote
and we will get this. So, you see that this is the H0 kilowatt hour per meter square per day
computed for every day of the year, where the x-axis is the day number, so the day number is
one two three and somewhere here is eighty, we had calculated for eighty remember that it is
10.54 and this is this is that one single calculation and so on at 100, 200, 300, 365. These are the
values that you calculate for The H0 this is for horizontal flat plate collectors. This is how it will
look like. Observe that this energy swings from around 8.25 to a max of around 10.7 or so. So,
this is a pretty large swing, so you see that during January, during November, December, the
available energy on the horizontal flat plate collector is low.
And during the mid year during March, June, the summer solstice month, you see that the energy
that is available is high. However, you should note that this calculation and plot of the energy,
available energy on horizontal flat plate collector is for a latitude and it is without atmospheric
effects we will shortly discuss also the atmospheric effects.
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I shall long incorporate some changes in the script file, so that we will be able to handle tilted
surfaces too, so that we will be able to evaluate the incident energy on a tilted surface. So first,
let me incorporate this line, so what I have done is set B = Q, what it means is that ß the tilt angle
is set equal to ϕ the latitude angle. I am using B to represent ß the tilt angle tilt with respect to the
horizon plane of the locality and right now I will just set it to a fixed angle Q which is the
latitude angle. Next I need to incorporate here couple of lines, two lines, to estimate the ω srt the
sunrise hour angle for the tilted surface. So, it is actually the minimum of the sunrise hour angle
of the horizon and the sunrise hour angle of the tilted horizon. So, let us incorporate these two,
these two lines. So, this line here is the sunrise hour angle of the tilted horizon ω srß which is equal
to Cos-1 (- tan (ϕ – ß) x tan 𝛿).
And this other line here is ωsrt, the ωsrt of the tilted surface which is minimum of ωsr and ωsrß, so
that is what we will use to evaluate Hot. Now, next we will try to incorporate Hot. We have H0, we
will also obtain Hot and that equation is like this Hot =24 kLSC/ Π Cos (ϕ - ß) written as Q–B,
Cos 𝛿 Sin ωsrt, this is the sunrise hour angle of the tilted surface ω srt, Sin (ϕ – ß) written as Q–B
into Sin 𝛿.
Now, this would give us the estimate, evaluation of the energy incident on a tilted surface, tilted
with an angle beta. Then coming to the display results, we have days versus H 0. We will also
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need days versus Hot and then we will change the title slightly as H0 and H ot. So, this would be
our new edited file, script file, we will save it and then this would be the saved file here.
Now, next we go to octave, we will open octave, I will clear up the octave workspace screen and
then go to the pvsim folder and that is where the irrad.m is located. We will now run the script
file arrad, now that will result in this graph.
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So, I will open it up, zoom it. So, this gives us two graphs, the blue line and the Green Line. So,
the blue curve, you have already seen is representing H0 in kilowatt hours per meter square per
day. The green line is representing Hot, the energy incident on a tilted surface. Observe that the
green curve Hot is better than the blue curve because Hot is giving you over the entire year, 1 to
365, day number 1 to 365 over the entire year, a much more uniform incident energy on the flat
plate collector which is tilted.
Compare to the blue line Hot where the flat plate collector is placed horizontal. So, the max
energy minus the min energy here the ripple that would be the 𝛿H ripple is large in the case of
the horizontal flat plate collector compared to the max energy minus the min energy of the tilted
surface. Therefore, it becomes essential that we need to tilt the surface appropriately at a proper
angle such that you get the best collection of energy from the Sun.
We will see shortly what would be the best angle ß of tilt that we should provide for a given
latitude.
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Let me further modify this script file so that we include a continuous variation in the tilt angle, so
that we try to find out which would be the optimal tilt. So, now here what I will introduce is a
line. I have introduced Bmax or ßmax the tilt angle max has 30 degrees, 30 x Π/180 radians. This is
just a limit here for this example, you can set any limit, which means that I would like to make
the variation in the tilt angle from 0 degrees to 30 degrees in steps and see how the H ot varies
with respect to H0. So, we will introduce one more for loop, outer for loop for B, ß tilt angle
which is 0 to ß max that is 30 degrees in this case, would be any other value also and I have done
that in steps of ß max by 30, which is one degree in this case. So, for every one degree, zero one
degree up to 30 degrees and let us have the ending of the for loop here. So the end of the for
loop, end for the tilt angle.
And what do we do in between, for every value of ß, every value of the tilt angle you will see,
although this I calculated as before H0 will be calculated, Hot will be calculated and it will be
plotted and then the next value of tilt angle H 0 and Hot will be calculated and plotted and you will
see that H0 is same, does not vary and HOT will vary with the tilt angle and we will be able to see
how this Hot moves and what would probably be the minimum value.
Now, what I am introducing here is on the workspace screen, we would like to see these
parameters, Hot, minimum value of Hot important parameter to see, what is the H ripple, ripple the
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maximum value of Hot – the minimum value of H ot, what is a triple and we want to minimize that
ripple so that it is as much as possible uniform throughout the year. Let us type in the latitude
value also and let us display the tilt angle what is changing and that is changing in steps of one
degree. So you will see, I am putting it in degree converting and putting it in degree.
So, this would be the title line of the display. I would like also put within the loop for every beta
calculation, display num 2 string of the minimum H ot, the max Hot minus min Hot that is the H
ripple, the latitude angle and the ß angle, okay. So, this we, we can save and before we save, let
us pause for every tilt angle loop change. So, I will put a pause here so that you will be able to
stop these script execution and observe the waveform. So, this we can save and that would be the
saved file.
Let us now call upon octave, open it and execute within octave. So, I will clear up the workspace
screen, let us go into our folder here and let us execute irrad and then you see, we will get
something like this. I will now keep it side by side with the octave screen, you keep observing
here, you see that there is a display which is appearing H, Hot minimum which is this value, the
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minimum value here, the H ripple, the max H minus the min H, that ripple, the latitude angle is
12.97 degrees and the tilt angle is zero. It is starting with the first value of the for loop, this is
zero and then next value, observe that this will keep putting up this values here in table and this
also will change. So, you will see something like this and you and keep observing these two, you
see that as the tilt angle is increasing, the ripple reduces to a minimum and then increase, you see
the ripple starts increasing beyond a particular value and you can see the values here. In this
fashion, the tilt angle is changing from 0 to 30 like what we had set. So, the tilt angle changing
from 0 to 30 in steps of one degree. Now, what you could see is the H ripple and minimum H 0
and you can probably see somewhere here at around 10 degree tilt, at the 10 degree tilt value for
this latitude, at 10 degree tilt value, you find that the ripple is minimum 0.99 and the value is
close to the minimum, the value of the minimum H ot is 9.52 which is the maximum minimum
value, so which is advantageous for us, so that you can gain more out of this particular tilt angle
from the solar PV panel.
So, this would become the optimum value to place the panel at this particular latitude at a tilt
angle of 10 degrees. Now, here again we have not yet considered the atmospheric conditions, we
will consider that and get back again, but the concept is like this. You look for the difference
between the max value of H, Hot and the min value of Hot that is one parameter which is
important and also look at what is the HOT min and the HOT minimum must be as high as possible.
So this, at 10 degree tilt angle this is the most optimal and acceptable for us, in this way you can
find the optimum tilt angle.
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We have seen the result for a success tilt angle throughout the year. But if you change the tilt
angle every day such that it faces the Sun optimally, that is you link it up with the declination
delta, then you will get a much better incident energy on the tilted face. So, what I have done
first is that, save that previous file as irradB.m, which means that it is a fixed beta m file. I will
put it up in the resource so that you can study that and then use it.
And I will make one more modification in the irrad file here, means I have removed the for loop
for the tilt and I have included here one line, beta or the tilt angle is equal to Π – 𝛿, Q - B here.
When the 𝛿 is equal to the latitude, which means the insolation line is such that it is passing
through the latitude of the location, then ϕ – 𝛿 will be 0 at that place at that time the tilt can be 0,
that is it can be horizontal, because the Sun will be directly overhead and at any other declination
let the panel track the Sun. So, making this modification and keeping all the equations same, let
us see what you will get when you run the script in octave. So, I have saved that and then let us
run irrad.
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And when I zoom it up, so you see two, two curves the blue curve representing H 0 and the green
curve representing Hot, the energy incident a tilted surface. However, here the tilt angle is
changing every day, on day number one you have one tilt angle, day number two another tilt
angle, so on day number 365 another tilt angle. So, it is tracking the Sun throughout and you
observe the improvement in the energy curve and you see that it is really much higher than H0
and the previous fixed tilt angle and you see that the minimum the minimum Hot itself is much
higher than 10 kilowatt hour per meter square per day. So, this is the benefit you would get by
tracking it on a daily basis, but it is cumbersome to track because you need to fit up motors and
the mechanical arrangements where you have to pay for that. So, in order to keep it simple
people generally have a fixed set angle tilt and try to optimize on the fixed angle tilt which you
would place.
The other option is to have a seasonal tilt, so every season let us say three times or two times in a
year you can change the tilt angle and keep it and maximize the energy that you connect over the
year.
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Prof. L. Umanand
Till now, we had studied the incident energy on a flat surface at any locality on the surface of the
earth and we had not considered the effects of atmosphere till now. How our atmosphere plays a
very important role, key role in deciding the amount of energy that falls on a flat plate. Now
consider a globe like this, I will draw an approximate globe and put the center of the earth like
that and I am drawing the equatorial plane and from the center I will draw a line through the
place of interest like this, this is the zenith axis actually.
So this axis is actually the zenith axis that we have been seeing, this is the latitude angle and this
is the place of interest and at the place of interest let us place a horizontal flat plate. So, I have
placed a horizontal flat plate collector like this, it could be a PV panel. Now we have been
estimating the energy that is falling on this flat plate collector and all this time we have been
doing that without considering any atmospheric effects and therefore the incident energy here
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would be same as the extra-terrestrial energy, which is significantly higher than with the effects
of atmosphere coming into picture, because the atmosphere significantly absorbs a major portion
of the incident energy.
Now, let me draw the outer atmosphere like this, so in green. So, this is the outer atmosphere and
the outer atmosphere is mostly ozone, so what I have actually shown in green would be the
ozone layer and you have the atmosphere within up to the surface of the earth. Ozone layer also
plays a very important role in absorbing the high frequency incident radiation. So, especially the
ultraviolet and the higher frequencies of the visible radiation there is a quite significant
absorption by the ozone layer.
So, you will find a dip in the incident radiation not only due to the ozone layer but also due to
other effects like clouds, you have water vapor and other gases. So, these how very great
attenuation factor which will bring in a lot of attenuation in the incident radiation that will
actually happen on this flat plate collector. Now, there is a vertical column of air mass, now this
is a vertical column of air mass and this is what is actually causing as an attenuating filter for this
flat plate collector.
So, what will be falling here? Now, this is the incident radiation that is falling, incident
insolation that is falling at the outer atmosphere. So, without at most the atmospheric effects we
had considered H0, so it will be about almost equal to H 0 because this distance is very small
compared to the distances of the Sun from the center of the earth and therefore we can safely say
that the incident energy here would be H0.
So, this insolation as it passes through the atmosphere, so this would be H 0 let us say incident
energy in kilowatt hours per meter square per day, as it passes through the atmosphere you will
see a significant portion of it getting absorbed. The ozone layer also will absorb the portion of
the energy, in fact the insolation corresponding to the ultraviolet frequency range and shorter
wavelength energy, energies are absorbed in the ozone layer and as you come down water vapor,
clouds, aerosols, dust, they all will also cause attenuation and actually what will be falling on the
flat plate collector will be much smaller and that we will call it as Ha.
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Ha is the incident energy on the flat, horizontal flat plate collector with atmospheric effects and
quite obviously Ha will be less than H0 in kilowatt hour per meter square per day is actually the
one without atmospheric effects which we have already dealt with and discussed. There is no
attenuation due to atmosphere and this is same as the extraterrestrial energy or the incident
insolation that is occurring at the outer atmosphere or outside atmosphere of the earth. Whereas,
Ha is the incident energy on the flat plate collector with atmospheric effects or atmospheric
acting as an attenuating filter with atmospheric absorption.
The picture here shows the spectral irradiance of the Sun, this is the extra-terrestrial spectral in
irradiance in watts per meter square per nanometer, we have seen this graph earlier, the x-axis is
the wavelength in nanometers and the y-axis is the spectral irradiance P s in watts per meter
square per nanometer. In order to study the effects of atmosphere on the instant irradiation, this is
a very good place to start. The spectral irradiance that is incident at the edge of the outer
atmosphere of the earth is something like this.
This is the extra-terrestrial irradiance and on what will happen when it goes through our
atmosphere? We expect that this spectral irradiance will go through a process of attenuation, the
atmosphere will act as an attenuating filter and you will see a vastly reduced spectral irradiance
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pattern after having gone through the atmosphere and that is what we will like to see and study.
If I superpose the spectral irradiance pattern after it has gone through the atmosphere, after it is
gone after it has gotten attenuated due to the various factors in the atmosphere, we see the pattern
something like this. The one in red is the one which is with that atmospheric effect, the one in
black is the extra-terrestrial spectral irradiance and you see that there is a significant amount of
attenuation after having passed through the atmosphere and this is the irradiance that is measured
or measurable at sea level on the surface of the earth after passing through the Earth's
atmosphere.
We know that the factors that are affecting the energy incident at a horizontal flat plate collector
at any given locality are the following, one is the location and location we have three important
parameters. One is the latitude and we see that, we have seen that having a significant effect on
the incident radiation, there is the longitude, the Meridian, it also has a significant effect in the
sense that the diurnal changes are due to the longitudinal position and also the longitude
indirectly as an effect in terms of the geographic conditions and profiles the third one is the
height above mean sea level. This also has an effect on the ultimate radiation that is incident on
the flat plate collector. The air mass, amount of air or the volume of air in the vertical column
above the location determines the amount of attenuation that one can expect when the radiation
reaches the collector. So, this also has a significant impact on the amount of energy that is going
to be incident at the surface of the location.
Now, the second important point is that time of day. This is the hour angle, we have seen it is
effect, the time of the year, which is the declination we have seen its effect too and the angle of
the collector tilled β, we have seen this effect also. Note that all these all these factors that we
have listed here are deterministic factors, we can very accurately determine all these parameters
and their effects on the incident radiation by using spherical geometry. However, the fifth
important parameter that is what which we are going to discuss now is the local climate.
The local climatic conditions has a significant impact on the local atmospheric conditions and
this in turn will have an effect on the attenuation capacities of the vertical column above the
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horizontal flat plate collector in a given locality. So, this is not a deterministic, it is probably
stick in nature, there is a lot of statisticalness that is involved in this.
However, there is a kind of a repeating cycle that happens year after year on any given day and
that is what we want to use to estimate the effect of the local climate on the attenuation of the
spectral irradiance before it reaches the surface of the earth of the flat plate collector mounted at
the surface of earth in a given locality. There are various atmospheric factors that attenuate or
absorb the spectral, various components of the spectral irradiance. One of the first and foremost
factors is the ozone layer. The top one layer absorbs primarily the high-frequency components.
So there will be significant attenuation in the low wavelength or the high frequency very high
frequency spectral irradiance components. So, if you see these regions where I have shaded it
with yellow, the dominant factor in the attenuation would be the ozone. These are the high
frequency component mostly in the ultraviolet to the higher visible range and if you go down in
the frequency or higher in the wavelength, there is attenuation due to other gases, clouds, carbon
dioxide and also water vapor and you can probably see that there are some notches here deep
notches where attenuation in this band are very significant almost down to zero. These notches
where I have indicated by green are due to the water vapor content in the vertical column of air
above the collector. So, you see that a major portion of the, infrared portion of the spectrum
irradiance components get eliminated, get filtered out to the presence of water vapor. Of course it
is it is not only here that water vapor acts as absorber but even in these regions water vapor also
is one of the factors to bring about absorption and attenuation of spectral irradiance components.
So therefore, you can you can say that high-frequency components mainly ozone and then there
is a water vapor content in these notches in the infrared region and also spread of distributed in
the visible light region too in this orange shaded area and the orange shaded area here cloud
cover, dust scattering due to dust, so let me put in the list, list out the factors, clouds and
scattering and the scattering maybe you go dust and other particulate materials which are matter
which are suspended in the atmosphere, then you have water vapor which is a very significant
factor in absorption and therefore attenuation in the spectral irradiance and all the other gases in
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the atmosphere even in which includes oxygen and the carbon dioxide also which absorbs a
spectral irradiance some of the spectral irradiance components to some extent.
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Prof. L .Umanand
Let me now introduce you to the concept of the air mass. the air mass coefficient. This is
important figure of merit which gives you an idea of the path length through which the spectral
irradiance or the insolation vector passes through the Earth's atmosphere before it reaches the flat
plate collector placed on the surface of the earth at a given locality.
So, this path length will differ from time of the day, time of the year and also the place
geography and based on this the amount of attenuation was also a very. Though this does not
give any idea on the climatic condition or does not even use the climatic condition, but it uses the
physical geometrical properties that is the zenith angle property to give you an idea of the
amount of atmospheric length that the sun rays or the radiation vector has to pass through before
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it reaches the collector and the amount of absorption or the attenuation that may happen. So, this
air mass coefficient is an important coefficient which is used as a parameter for comparison, it is
a benchmark parameter which is used to compare various panels under standard air masses. It is
also used to compare the spectral data or from the spectral irradiance data of various
measurements of various people done at some standard air masses.
Let us now see how we calculate the air mass coefficient and also how it is visualized. Now, let
us consider this picture. This picture here as I am showing on this cursor which is tracing this
circle is the surface of the earth and this second concentric circle which I am now tracing is the
boundary of the atmosphere, outer atmosphere beyond that is free space and in between the gray
shaded area is the atmosphere.
Now, there is this red line drawn from the center of the earth passing through the point of interest
which is the locality passing through straight up and this is actually these init axis and there is
another line from the center of the Sun right up down to the point of interest which is the locality
and this actually is the insolation line.
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So, we know these terms and using this let us try to define what is the air mass coefficient and let
us see if we can calculate the air mass for a given place. Now, this is the zenith axis Z and this
white colored circle is the earth and this shaded area is the atmosphere and this angle is , the
latitude and this angle is the zenith angle θz. Now, let us let us try to define two distances length,
one length is here just along the movement of these cursor here just along the zenith axis from
the surface of the earth at sea level along the zenith axis up to the outer atmosphere, now that is a
reference length and we shall denote it by unity that is the reference. Now, the other length is this
length which is along the insolation line starting from that locality at sea level and goes through
the atmosphere in this path, cuts the outer atmosphere at this point and goes on towards the
center of the Sun.
Now this length is a longer length and is basically the hypotenuse and this we shall define it as l
lowercase l. Now, let us write the statement for the air mass coefficient, let me write that
statement first. Air mass coefficient defines the direct optical path length of the insolation
through the atmosphere what it basically means is that these air mass coefficient defines the
direct optical path length this is the direct optical path length of the insolation. The insolation,
this is the insolation line, insolation vector is along this line. What is this direct optical path
length up to the collector ? Now that is actually defined by the air mass coefficient.
Now, this is always referred, the constraint for this statement is always with reference to this
zenith axis length. So, this is expressed relative to the zenith path length which is normal to the
horizon plane located at sea level, this is the definition. Knowing this, now we can say the air
mass is a symbol for air mass and the coefficient l, AM l this is how the air mass coefficient is
written. So, where l is actually obtained from the trigonometry, l is actually the hypotenuse, this
is one of the sides of the right angle triangle, θz is the angle. So cos θz is 1/l or l is 1/cos θz which
is nothing but secant θz. Now, air mass 1, let us say air mass 1 means l is equal to 1 occurs when
θz is 0 degrees, what it means is that θz is zero degree, this insolation line is in line with the zenith
axis, which means it is directly overhead during that time the insolation vector passes through
minimum distance through the atmosphere and, and that is the reference distance. But normally
that is not what happens, the air mass length is much more the path length is much more than the
minimum distance.
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And the standard is not AM 1, the standard is AM1.5 which is around 48.20.We will come to that
later. Now AM2 occurs when θz is 600. So, when theta is at 60 0, cos θ it is 0.5, l is 2 and that is
why call it as AM2, so the moment you see this symbol this air mass coefficient symbol like this
you know that the zenith angle is 600. So this AM coefficients are pretty popular and used as
benchmarks and many places in fact even in the PV photovoltaic panel datasheets, you will see
the air mass parameter coming into the picture because they use it as a benchmark in comparing
the PV panels and also it is used as a benchmark for the spectral studies especially when
comparing the spectral irradiance data obtained from various locations.
what is the AM0? AM0 is generally used for path lengths in free space, that is when there is no
atmosphere. So, for all the extra-terrestrial insolation vectors where there is no atmospheric
attenuation or absorption AM0 is used. AM1 we know is along the zenith when the insolation is
along the zenith axis. AM1.1 implies θz, Zenith angle is 250, AM1.5 implies in zenith angle θ 48.20
the zenith angle and AM2 imply θz is equal to 600 which we saw and so on and so forth. But
what is important to note is standard, what is the standard. This AM1.5 where the θz is equal to
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48.20 is the standard for air mass and that is the standard pin benchmark which is used for
comparison of the PV panels.
Consider the following insolation line where drawn is the Sun position and also another Sun
position like this. See, these are positions for the northern hemisphere this Sun position would be
winter for this particular locality which is situated on the northern hemisphere. So, the Sun is
moving like this from Tropic of Cancer down-low Tropic of Capricorn and then up again. So, as
the Sun is moving, the path lengths are varying which means that it travels through the
atmosphere with a different path lengths and therefore you will have different attenuation factors
over the year.
So, you can say that is the path length at some value of θz here and there is this path length, a
different time in the year and this is the path length when it is at probably close to the topic of
Capricorn or still near about. So, this angle, let us say if it is 48.2 0, 48.20 zenith angle is
considered as the air mass standard as this is applicable for most of the land masses which are
occurring at the temperate zones in the northern latitudes and the southern latitudes.
One more point before we close this topic of the air mass is this air mass, I will call it as AM l*,
what it basically means is that most of the air mass by definition is for the path length up to the
sea level. However, on the surface of the earth the heights of the places are varying, there are
some places at sea level and there are some places on top of the mountains and how do you take
care of the height of the place above sea level. Because once you give a particular latitude, it is
mostly in terms of the zenith angle where the height of that particular place is not reflected.
However, the path length will vary depending upon the height of the place. So, one measure that
is normally used is AMl*where l star is a modified value of l and it is given by P by P 0 into l
where P is the pressure at the place which is at a raised altitude let us say and P 0 is the pressure at
sea level.
So, if the place is at sea level then P and P 0 will be same and therefore l star will be l and the
usual, usual factor coefficient holds good. In case, the place is at a height above sea level and the
pressure is lesser and therefore, this factor is a value less than 1 and therefore l star will be less
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than l and therefore the optical path length of the place at a height will be less than that of the
place which is at sea level. So, this correction factor can be taken and it is normally used to
address places which are above the mean sea level.
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Prof. L Umanand
We need to estimate now the incident energy on a tilted surface with atmospheric effects. So, let
us draw the real physical setting on how the collector is placed and what are the various radiation
and atmospheric effects that comes into picture. So for that let me draw the ground profile this is
a ground profile, there is a hilly region here and then the valley region where probably we will
place a flat plate collector at an angle and this basically is our ground surface.
Now on this ground surface, let me place a flat plate collector and that flat plate collector is kept
in inclined manner like this mounted on two struts and it is at an angle β to the horizon, β is the
tilt angle. So, this could probably be a PV panel flat plate collector. Now to this PV panel flat
plate collector, our objective or the goal is to find out what is the amount of insolation that is
falling on it and to calculate the daily incident energy on this flat plate collector panel which
includes all atmospheric effects.
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Now consider a line like this and this line is supposed to represent the outer atmosphere. So we
will call this as atmosphere boundary. Now, from the distant Sun we will have an insolation
vector falling onto the flat plate collector and this is called the direct insolation vector and this is
coming directly from the Sun. So, this is the direct incident radiation falling on to the panel.
Apart from the direct incident radiation, there are other forms of radiations, subsidiary forms and
one of them is let us say I take another parallel insolation line which is falling on the nearby
neighboring hill, slope of the hill.
So what happens after it falls on the ground gets reflected and it can get reflected in multiple
direction and these reflected radiation can also go and fall on the flat plate collector and affect
the amount of collected energy at the panel. Now, this ground reflected radiations are called
Albedo, the term Albedo is used for ground reflected radiations. So, you see that there is this
direct insolation falling on the flat plate collector tilted and then there is this Albedo effect also,
ground reflected effect also coming on to the collector and apart from that there is one more
important effect that comes into picture and that is the diffused radiation. You will see that there
is cloud cover and the insolation that is directed towards the flat plate collector, will get scattered
and will also get diffused due to the cloud, and you will see that there are many insolation
vectors in different directions pointing and many of them pointing towards the collector in this
fashion and this is called the diffused radiation and it is our objective to find H at. Hat is the energy
incident on the flat plate collector which is tilted at an angle β including the atmospheric effects.
That is what Hat means and Hat is actually a composition of energy from direct radiation plus
energy from diffused radiation like this plus energy from reflected ground reflected radiation or
the Albedo. So, all the three effects put together is what will be the H at or the energy available at
the tilted flat plate collector as position like this. Now, this is a practical and real situation, how
do we go about estimating this. There are so many uncertainties in this, unlike in the previous
cases where we found H0 and Hot energy incident on a horizontal flat plate collector and energy
incident on a tilted flat bed without the effect of that atmosphere that was much more idealistic
and deterministic relation that we arrived at.
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But here it is not so deterministic because we do not know the climatic condition at locality. This
would mean that we do not have the exact, accurate model for predicting the cloud nature, the
nature of the water vapor and other the gaseous content in the vertical column above the
collector. All these all these knowledge is not available in any model form and we only have
knowledge of history, we only have statistical data and based on the statistical data only we can
arrive at an approximate model which will try to give you an approximate value for these and
give you an estimate of the energy that will become available at the flat plate collector. So, let us
try to see how we can get as best a value for this Hat in the discussions to come further.
Let me now explain tilt factor, the concept of chill factor without atmosphere. You see, we have
already found out the energy that is incident on a horizontal surface and on a tilted surface
without atmosphere. So, with respect to those energies, let us define this term R D. RD is called as
the tilt factor of the direct radiation, RD is called the tilt fact of the direct radiation and it is
defined as the daily energy on tilted surface to the daily energy on horizontal surface, this is
without atmospheric effects.
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And this is equal to, we know how to calculate a daily energy on tilted surface, we have seen that
which is Hot and on the horizontal surface which is H0. So, if you write down the equations of
these two and canceling the common terms, you will get Cosϕ - β Cos𝛿 ωsrt sunrise angle of the
tilted surface + ωsrt Sin(ϕ – β) Sin 𝛿 divided by Cosϕ Cos 𝛿 Sin ωsr + ωsr Sin  Sin 𝛿. Now, we
can simplify this slightly, Cos(ϕ – β) Cos 𝛿 you take it out from the numerator, Cosϕ and Cos 𝛿
take out from the denominator and you will get in the numerator Sin ωsrt + ωsrt Tan(ϕ – β) tan 𝛿,
this is because you are removed Cosϕ – β Cos 𝛿 it will get divided by Cos(ϕ – β) Cos 𝛿 and that
will become tan 𝛿. Likewise on the denominator side also, you will get Sin ω sr + ωsr Tan ϕ Tan 𝛿.
Of course, we can cancel out Cos 𝛿 Cos 𝛿 here and Tan ϕ Tan 𝛿 is nothing but minus Cos ωsr,
Tan(ϕ–β) Tan 𝛿 is nothing but minus Cos ωsrt. Substituting, this we can write it as Cos(ϕ – β) by
Cosϕ, Sin ωsrt -ωsrt cos ωsrt by sin ωsrt minus ωsr cos ωsr. So, this is defined as our tilt factor without
that most fearing effects, this is for the direct radiation without the atmospheric effect. We will
have another tilt factor coming with atmosphere effects, so or try to distinguish the two.
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Consider the direct radiation, where we will consider a flat plate collector that is placed
horizontally like this and normal to it there is the incident irradiance. Now we know what H 0
naught is, H0 is actually the energy incident on this flat plate collector without atmosphere and H a
is the energy collected with atmospheric effects. Ha of course is smaller than H0 because Ha is the
attenuated value of H0 after having gone through that atmosphere. Now, let us define a term KT,
KT is defined as Ha the energy collected on a flat plate collector with atmospheric effects divided
by H0 the energy incident on the flat plate collector without atmosphere or atmospheric effects
and this is called clearness index. This is a very, very important factor, his clearness index.
Because this consolidates all the uncertainties of the climate it includes, because it is the ratio of
energy instant on the same flat surface with atmosphere divided by one without atmosphere. So,
this ratio is kind of encompasses all the uncertainties, unpredictability and the statistical nature of
the information that is present in the climate at a locality. So, this includes and incorporates all
the statistical effects due to atmosphere. So, this is a pretty important parameter which we will
use and we will discuss later how we will estimate this clearness index value from the previous
historical data.
For now, let us consider this as a variable and let us consider that this is estimated. Now, once
you have this clearness index, then we can say that energy incident on a flat surface with
atmospheric effects is equal to KT clearness index into H0 the energy that was incident in the flat
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surface without atmospheric effects. Now, what is a H at, Hat is energy incident on the flat surface
with atmospheric effects with a title of an angle β and this can be obtained by this ratio H at / Ha
would be same as Hot / H0.
Their atmospheric effects in both these cases will cancel out and therefore at H ot by H0 would
also approximately will actually be equal to the R D which we just now calculated this is the title
factor of the direct radiation therefore, I will now say Hat is equal to Ha into RD. This is an
important relationship.
Now this relationship, we shall now expand to include the diffused portion of the radiation and
the reflected portion of the radiation that is Albedo effects, but remember that both the diffused
radiation and the Albedo are again very uncertain parameters varies from place to place, very
difficult to have a closed-form solution. So, we will only be using a empirical relationship. So,
we shall expand this to include the empirical relationship of the diffuse and also the reflected
components into Hat.
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So now, RD into Ha can be expanded to KT into H0. Now let me say Hat and Hat is composed of the
direct component Ha into RD. Now this Ha into RD which is having KT into H0, Ha is KT into H0. A
part of the KT into H0 is going off into the diffused radiation. So, I will have to subtract from this,
the diffuse component and I will deal diffuse component separately, as a separate term. So, let us
remove the diffuse component from this, so I will say minus H d, let us say Hd is the diffused
component of the air radiation and into RD.
So this part I will remove H d into RD the diffuse component and I will call this as a direct portion
and the diffuse portion I will deal separately and I will call that one H d into, now here an
empirical parameter come in which is dependent on the title angle. So, (1+ Cosβ)/2, this
relationship is an empirical relationship which deals with the diffuse component, plus let us
include the reflected component also. So, it is a small fraction of H a, so this row is called the
reflection coefficient it is a value smaller much smaller than 1 and (1 - Cosβ) /2, this is the
reflected part and this is also an empirical relationship and it goes by this argument see when the
tilt is 0, means when you keep the flat plate horizontal, beta is 0, so 1 - 1, so there is no reflected
component on a flat plate collector which is placed horizontally. So, that is argument with which
this empirical relationship has been brought about. ρ is a reflection coefficient it actually depends
upon the terrain, if it is a plain terrain, if it is in the plains where there is not much possibility of
reflection from the neighborhood ground surface then a ρ is very small around 0.1 and if you
have a lot of mountains in the neighborhood, let us say the collector is placed in a valley and
there are a lot of nearby mountains and slopes which can reflect a lot of light onto the panell or if
it is a snow-capped mountain which can reflect quite a significant amount of light onto the
panel's collectors, then the reflection coefficient ρ is 0.7 here.
So, you see that there is lot of empiricalness which is brought in into this relationship, but you
cannot help it because of the uncertain nature of the locality and the climate. However, you
should note that the direct portion is the dominant component of H at of the total incident energy,
the diffuse and the reflected power component will be the subsidiary components which will
supplement the direct component. So, give lot of importance to this portion of the equation, the
other empirical portions of the equations are added to make H at much more closer to the practical
value much more accurate to the practical measured values.
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So then, we can simplify this. I will put it as 1- H d by Ha into RD at the direct portion, plus I will
put Ha into Hd by Ha (1 + Cosβ) by 2 diffused portion + Ha into ρ (1 – Cosβ) by 2, this is the
reflected portion. So I have Ha common factor, I can take out Ha as a common factor and say H a
into RT, now we have this RT is the overall tilt factor taking everything into consideration and H d
by Ha, the ratio of the diffuse to the energy with atmospheric effects on the horizontal surface is
again an uncertain thing and it is also a curve fit equation again obtained from previous statistical
history and a curve fit relationship is available for that and I will write it down 1 - 1.13 times K T.
It is, note that it is dependent on clearness index K T which means this is a term which will vary
with the climate, which will vary the region, which will vary with the atmospheric effects on the
vertical column above the collector. So, there are a lot of uncertainties in the relationship but it
will serve the purpose for us for designing and sizing the PV panels. So, this is a curve fit
relationship and also note that ρ the reflection coefficient is a value between 0.1 and 0.7 as we
just now discussed
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We have gone through a lot of steps to estimate the daily instant energy on a collector. We have
derived equations and we have formed relationships and we have also stated some empirical
relationships in order to estimate the daily incident energy on a horizontal flat plate collector, on
a tilted flat plate collector and also on flat plate collectors, tilted flat plate collectors with
atmospheric effects. Now finally to size the photovoltaic panel you need this value H at, the daily
incident energy that a collector will collect a flat plate collector will collect with atmospheric
effects and with tilt.
Now, this is the parameter that we need to determine and let us consolidate all the all the
equations that we have derived and discussed by listing out the steps that will lead to this
calculation. So, first we start with the inputs, what you need, determine the latitude at which the
locality is placed and for which you want to calculate a Hat. The day number, the day of the year
which you want to calculate Hat and β the tilt angle.
Now, with this, you can definitely estimate H 0 which we have seen. We can also estimate H ot
because we know the tilt angle β and we need to estimate K T the clearness index, this is the most
important when you want to consider atmospheric effects and KT is a function of latitude, the day
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number, the atmospheric of the climatic conditions at the day on that day at the place. So, it is a
kind of a figure that will give you all the statistics history which is based on all the statistical
history of the place with respect to atmosphere.
So, this is it to be formulated we need to discuss on this but for now consider that K T, KT can be
estimated and it is a dominant function of latitude and the day number. It can also be a function
of latitude, day number and water vapor. But I will discuss that later. But for now let us say K T
needs to be estimated from these values, input values. Next estimate or find out R D the tilt factor
for direct radiation which is Hot by H0 we have this then we can find this. Then estimate RT which
is the overall tilt factor, including the direct diffused and the reflected radiation.
And then finally, you calculate the value of Hat the important value of Hat which is given by RT*
KT * H0. This we have seen just before shortly we discussed this one and we need to calculate
this and this will be the value in kilowatt hours per meter square per day and this is what you will
use to size the PV panels.
But before that we need to do one important job, how do you find K T. We know how to find all
other things in order to find H0, we know how to find RD, we know to find RT and then this now
this is the only parameter that we have not discussed. This clearness index and how to find is
clearness index, this is a statistical phenomena and how does this clearness index factor
encompass the entire climate of a particular locality we will shortly see that.
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Prof.L Umanand
Indian Institute of Science. Bangalore
Let us now find out a way to estimate the clearance index. Clearance index K T is nothing but the
ratio of the daily energy incident on a horizontal flat plate collector with atmospheric effects,
with atmosphere is divided by daily energy incident on horizontal flat plate collector without
atmosphere. Now, the key here is with and without atmosphere. Now, this is equal to the daily
energy incident horizontal flat plate with atmosphere we have been using the symbol H a and the
daily energy without atmosphere and we have been using the symbol H o. Now, Ho can be
computed, it is determinable, by means of a closed form solution and all this needs is input like
the latitude the locality and you can accurately compute it using 3D geometry with reasonably
good accuracy. However, Ha is the energy with atmospheric effects and that is difficult to
calculate, but we can measure it. So, if we measure H a and calculate Ho and we get the accurate
current value of KT at any event place.
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So now, how to we do that how do we measure K T? First, what we do is place a pyronometer at
the place of interest. Now, what is pyronometer? Pyronometer is an instrument that can measure
insolation, so it is used in all solar based experiments and then it is based on thermal principles.
It has a thermal coil and by means of the seebeck effect it converts the incident radiation to
electric voltage value and the voltage value gives us the measure of the incident insolation. Now,
let me show you the pyronometer which we give you an idea of what it is and you will
understand what I mean by pyronometer.
Look at this equipment, this is a pyronometer. You see that there is a glass bulb on top and
inside, let me tilt it, there is a black item. Now, that is thermopile. Now, the radiation falls on the
thermopile and heats up the thermopile and that becomes the hotspot and the pyronometer body
is the cold junction and there will be a temperature gradient between the hot junction and cold
junction give voltage output or thermo electric EMF based on seebeck effect.
Now, through this wire, we will be able to measure what is the voltage using a multimeter. Now,
this pyronometer, or thermo couple can measure, so it is, let me open this out and you will get a
look at the name plate. So, you see here, name plate indicates, when it is 0 volts, output is 0 watt
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per meter square and if the output is 10 volts and the output is 2000 watt per meter square. Of
course, the insolation from the sun will not exceed 1000 watt per meter square, so you will get
utmost 5 volts from these terminals. Now, if you look at the side here, you will see this green,
green spot here that is nothing but spirit level type of an item which is there, mechanism which
will do the job of positioning the pyronometer horizontally. You can position it horizontally at a
at a place and then allow it to measure the radiation and it will give you the output in voltage
which is in a direct measure of the insolation and the units of in watt per meter square. The
pyronometer is an expensive piece of equipment so handle this with care.
So now, after having placed the pyronometer, the pyronometer gives the measure of the
insolation in watts per meter square. Measure for the entire day and integrate the values and you
will get Ha in meter square per day. So, this would mean you would get the H a for that day
number N. So, this Ha value in kilowatt hour in meter square per day is the energy that you
would have got for that particular day of the year. You could do that for every day of the year to
get the value of Ha of the year and if you do for many years, you will get a statically history
based on which you get an idea of that climatic condition and atmospheric absorption during
various times of the year and various years.
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Next, let us compute Ho value. We know how to do this. If we have the latitude and the day
number, we can compute Ho. After that we take the ratio of Ha to Ho and this will give you the KT
value. So this clearance index value, remember for that specific value of a Ha. If Ha has been
computed for a particular day number, then KT value is valid for that particular day number.
So, if you want to have KT which takes into account the historic data, then Ha itself should take
into account the statically mean of all the Ha values of previous years too, then you will get the
KT value which has a much better representation on the climate atmospheric effects.
Curve fitting for clearance index. See generally, measurement of clearance index for a particular
place on a particular day, as we saw before by measuring H a. However, if you want to find the
clearance index of the place for which the measurement has not been done and in such a case,
how do we go about finding the clearance index. Curve fitting is a very nice solution. Here, even
if we have measured data of few latitudes, we can make a curve fit model such that for any given
latitude in the neighbor of the place where measurements have been carried out, we can find the
clearance index using the a curve fit mode. So, that is what we attempt to do. We, let us say have
data collected for few of the latitudes in different parts of the country and we will why do we
make a curve fit model, a Fourier curve fit model to give the clearance index estimate equation.
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Then we can find the clearance index for any latitude or any place in the neighbor of the places
where we have measured data available.
Now, to find the clearance index, let us first proposed a model. K T is given by KT estimate. This
is the KT estimate equation which we need to formulate now, plus the error. So of course, when
we do an estimate, there will be an error and therefore K T actually deviating from the estimate
equation or the estimated value of KT will deviate from the actual measured value of K T by some
error. So, let us see what is the best K T estimate that we can arrive at which will give minimum
error.
So, one important characteristic of this clearance index is that it is periodic, so it has the periodic
interval of one year, 365 days and therefore we could use our Fourier series fit with τ, the period
of 2πN/365, N varies from 1 to 365 or the angle Fourier series, fundamental angle can be
represented in the fraction. So, this would give a yearly period and we are okay with using the
four year curve fit method. Now, let us choose this particular K T at some function, function of x,
like this, A1+(A2sinτ+A3cosτ)+(A4sin2τ+A5cos2τ) so on.
So, this is the Fourier series curve fit model the we can use which are having the fundamental
and the harmonic of the fundamental and what is x? x is contained in all these coefficient
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parameters and how to find these coefficient parameters. So, A i of the form ai1+ai2x+ai3x2 plus so
on, where x itself is a function of many things which are related to the atmospheric conditions.
One is latitude, it could be water vapor, it could be beta, so on. So our job now is to find A i.
What are these coefficient values and each coefficient value is spilt into a function of x of this
polynomial form and these x are function of latitude, water vapor content, beta, the tilt angle and
so on so forth. So, this is the model that can be used to curve fit and get an estimate equation for
the clearance index KT. Now, let us see how we be go about getting a curve fitting model for
clearance index. We will us a simplistic model to understand how we go about obtaining the
model and then I will show the more accurate model using data collected from 12 cities from
within the country.
Let us go through a demonstration example and let us take a very simple curve fit model and we
see how we go about obtaining the coefficients of curve fit model and then later I will expand it
and extend it to a much more accurate and more exact model and we will see, how we obtain,
estimate equation for the clearance index. So, let us say K Te is the estimate clearance index,
estimated clearness index based on the estimate equation which is of this form
KTe=A1+A2sinτ+A3cosτ.
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So, it is a simple equation. I have just taken the fundamental harmonic, where τ is 2πN/365, of
course it need not necessarily be in this form. It could also be a phase shifted form. We will look
at this more when we are considering the exact model. Now, our job is to find out what are these
coefficients. Now this coefficients Ai themselves are of these form a i1+ai2*x, where x is just
simply the latitude. x can be a function of latitude, water vapor, tilt angle, so on and so forth as
we said before other atmospheric effect, but here in this simplistic problem we will take x as just
plain latitude.
And we have taken the coefficient upper cases A i as ai1+ai2x, just up to the first order
polynomial. Now, let us see how we go about obtaining the various coefficient parameters. So,
therefore now KTe can be written as, using these form format into these coefficient here, you will
get (a11+a12x)+(a21+a22x)*sinτ+(a31+a32x)*cosτ. So, this is the clearance index estimate equation
and we don’t know what a1,a12,a21,a31 are, it is now our job to find out these coefficient and plug
in these coefficient, only then theis estimate equation becomes complete and you can use it for
another place latitude x and τ values and error is given by K T, this is the measured clearness
index minus the KTe, the estimated clearness index and our job is to find these coefficient in such
a way it will give the K T value such that the error will be a minimum. Now, the error square will
be the minimum. So, let us say J is Σe i2 =Σ(KT-kTe2). Now, this is the square of the error and we
want to minimize the square of that error. So, what we will do now is set, δj/δa11, δj/δa12, δj/δa21, δj/
δa22, δj/δa31, δj/δa32 to 0 individually and when you equate each to 0 individually, we will have six
equations, 6 unknowns and later if you simultaneously solve that out you will get the values of
a11, a12,a21,a22,a31,a32 so on.
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Now, we have the estimate equation here and we know the J, the function to minimize is J=Σ(K T-
KTe)2, now this is what we would like to minimize, this is the error square, so that you get the
minimum square error or the least square error. So, δJ/δa 11 is nothing but -2Σi(KT-KTe)2 and this is
set equal to 0. So, now we will do it for the other parameter term δj/δa12 which is -2(Σi KT-KTe)*x,
12 has x as a coefficient, so this you set into 0. Likewise if you do 21, here it as a coefficient
sinτ, so therefore when you differentiate, you will have sinτi set to 0.
And 22 you will have (KT-KTe)*xi sinτi=0 that is because x sinτ, then for the a31 and a32 you will
have cosτ, xcosτ as multiplying factor here. We will write that down, let me make some space
a31=-2Σ(KT-KTe)cosτi setting equal to 0, let me make more space, δj/δa 32 is -2Σ(KT-KTe ) xi cosτi
set equal to 0. Now, these are the 6 equations that you have. K T is a measured quantity, xi τi are
input quantities, KTe the parameters, a11 to a32 are unknown, you know 6 unknowns 6 equations,
you should be able to measure, you should be able to calculate.
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So, what we do next is rearrange. You have a 11Σi1+a12Σixi+a21Σisinτi + a22 Σisinτi +a31 Σicosτi +a32
Σixisinτi =KTe. So, this is coming from actually this 1 st equation, expanding KT, KT comes to the
right side and expanding KTe you will get all these things. Likewise if you expand the other
terms. I will just run through, you can do that for all the terms. So, the second term here, you will
see that xiKTe, now that is what xiKTe and KT estimate into xi and that is what comes in here.
You have the xi component coming in everywhere as a factor. So likewise, the third term, so on.
So, I will just run through it and you can work it out at your pace later on and so on all the six
equations. Now, these six equations can be expressed in matrix form and put in matrix form like
this. So, you have matrix component parameters, the coefficient parameters a 11,12,21,22,31,32, 6
coefficient component parameters and that equal to ΣKTi, ΣxiKti, ΣsinτiKTi, Σxisinτi KTi, Σcosτi KTi.
These are, so this is the matrix representation. You have the six set of equations represented the
matrix.
This matrix here which is shown blank contains the coefficients of theses equations like this
xi,sinτi,xisinτi, Σcosτi, so on Σsinτi, so one all these things will get populated here and these values
can be calculated and here this particular column vector can be calculated because we know
KTi,xi,sinτi, and the only set of unknowns will be this column vector a 11,a21,a22,a31,a32 and you
have six unknowns and 6 equations which you can calculate easily.
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Now we need to look into the input data, now this input data is needed because we need to know
what are these values, what is KTi? What is xi? What is sinτi? and what are all the various
elements of this coefficient array. So, normally you have to get set of input data, measured data
and you should get as many as possible, so that you get very good results. So i represents the
number of data, more the better. We need , the latitude, we need the day number N, we need to
compute H0, Ha, KT the clearance index.
And you need τ, x, sinτ, cosτ, these are the values which you need if you have to compute this
matrix and this matrix and  is something given input, N is also a given input, H 0 is computed
based on  and N, Ha is measured using pyrometer which we discussed while back, K T is
computed using Ha and H0, τ is computed using N, x is computed using  and other atmospheric
parameters likewise sinτ ,cosτ computed. Once you have all these data you can solve for
a11,a12,a21,a22,a31,a32 and so on and obtain the values of this.
And note that this is a onetime computation, you are not doing it dynamically every time. This
you compute it one time using a set of data that has been measured by anybody and using that
day you have arrived that this coefficient values which will go into the clearance index estimate
equation. Now the clearance index estimate equation can now be written as a11 which we have
found out a11+a12x+(a21+a22x) sinτ +(a31+a32x)cosτ. So, this becomes the estimate equation and this
equation you can save it and keep it at one place or put it as script file in a program like
MATLAB or Octave and then use it for finding out the clearance index at any latitude by
substituting it within x and then computing the value through this estimate equation and the
latitude value that you use need not be the one for which the measurement data has been made
available, it could be any other latitude also within the neighborhood which will fit into, which
will fit into that geographical occasion and because of the curve fit equation, it will give you a
various good estimate.
Now if you go back and look at the steps to estimate H at, this is what ultimately you want. The
incident energy on flat plat collector at any given place with atmospheric effects H at. So, we saw
that we need to have the latitude, day number, tilt angle, you can estimate H 0, you can estimate
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Hot. Estimation of KT was differed, that is what we wanted to do it last and then we have now
mapped where you can estimate KT for any given latitude and day number, we will use this type
of an equation, a curve fit equation, Fourier curve fit equation. Then we find R D which is Hot/H0,
estimate RT and calculate Hat as RT*KT*H0.
Let us now discuss a curve fit model for India. It is based on measurements taken from 12 cities
and towns from various parts of the country. So, the model goes like this, the estimate equation is
of this form A1+A2sinτ+A3sin2τ+A4sin3τ, so we go up to the 3rd harmonic and then we have cos
terms also, A5cosτ+A6cos2τ+A7cos3τ. Now, this is the model frame work, this a Fourier series
curve fit model. We need to estimate what is A1,A2,A3,A4,A5,A6,A7 based on atmospheric
parameters.
So, where, how do we find the various parameters? First let us take τ, that is the yearly period
instead of taking 2πN/365, we shall take 3π(N-180)/365. this gives much better lower mean
square error. Then the Ai are of this form, ai1+ai2+ai3x2+ai4w+ai5w2. You know what is w, w is
water vapour content in the vertical column above the locality, we have included that into the
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effects of the coefficient component of ai and what is x, x is  latitude degrees minus 35 degrees.
S0, this set off definition give a very good accuracy of the estimated clearance index. Now, how
to get the water vapor content? Of course, one can do a measurement of water vapour content,
look at metal cal size and obtain them.
But again this is the tough thing to do. We need to go have it integrated into the model.
Therefore, again like clearance index, we make a sub Fourier series model to estimate w. So, w
is of the form G1+G2sinτ+G3sin2τ+G4sin3τ+G5cosτ+G6cos2τ+G7cos3τ, where Gi are of the form
gi1 +gi2 x+gi3x2 where x is the latitude as defined here. Now, this would give you the entire
model. So, first what you do, given the latitude, we estimate this portion that is water vapour
content, because you need to know the latitude and the day number to find τ, then water vapour
content can be estimated from this estimate equation, then this can be plugged in here to define
the ai and then that can be used to estimate the clearance index by plugging it in here. So, this is
the model that we have used to find the clearance index at any place within the country. It is
reasonably good model, accurate within 15% and which is sufficient for design because we are
any way being conservative and we are designing the photovoltaic panels. So, this model we can
put it as script file within the octave and mat lab and execute it to obtain KTe.
(Refer Slide Time: 33.45)
257
Design of photovoltaic systems
Prof.L Umanand
Indian institute of science Bangalore
We shall now write some scripts in octave to estimate the clearness index for a given place and
also to estimate the coefficients of the Fourier series curve fit model for clear mass index and
also the water vapor content, then we shall also see how we use these estimated values of the
clearness index, in order to estimate the energy incident on a tilted slightly collector in the
presence of atmosphere atmospheric effects.
I have here in this folder few files. We have already seen errad.m earrdB.m ealier in an earlier
discussion. I have three other files kt_India.m, wv_India.m and hat_estimate.m. So, k t_India.m is
a script file which will provide you the coefficients of the Fourier series curve fit model for k t
and wv_India.m will provide the coefficients for the Fourier series curve fit model for the water
vapor content in the atmosphere.
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We shall then later on use the hat estimate script file to estimate the energy incident on a tilted
flat plate collector with atmospheric effects. So, first let me open the clearness index script file.
The model is given here you can read this model. Let me probably increase the size of the font,
okay slightly. So, this is the model which we already discussed. You see that k t model is a
Fourier series model and we have gone up to the third harmonic in τ. We need to estimate these
coefficients and we have used up to the second power of x and the second power of w the water
vapor current content. The water vapor itself is found from another Fourier series curve. We will
go into that shortly and that is in wv_Indian.m script file. Okay, so what are the inputs? The data
are like this, we have the latitude given here and for the corresponding latitudes and the
corresponding day numbers, we have the kt value, the measured kt value which is basically the
ratio of the Ha measured by H0 computed. Now, this is done for around twelve places distributed
all over the country and you can probably check the latitudes of the twelve places here and check
it on the map of India.
And which all places fall in that latitude and we have also taken the water vapor content value as
input data. Now you think this, x is 5-35, τ is being represented with t and we are using ai 1+ai2x+
ai3x2+ai4w+aiw2 for the base model and then how sint sin2t and sin3t getting multiplied and cost
cos2t, cos3t also coming into the picture and then we formulate the matrix and then take the
matrix inverse to get the coefficients.
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Let us execute this to find out the coefficients of kt. So, let me go into octave. So, in the octave
let me clear the screen, let me go into the folder of interest and I will execute this k t _India
kt_india.m, no m, like this. So on executing the script file, you get this matrix. This will be ai 1 ai2,
oh sorry, this will be a11 a12 a13 a14 a15 a21 22 23 24 25 so on. So, this will be the coefficients for
the Fourier series curve fit model for kt.
Likewise, If I look into the wv_india.m, you will see the curve fit model for the water vapor
content just like as we discussed, you can see the curve fit model given here and the data is the
day number which is taken as these values here and the middle of the month and for these
latitudes for the same 12 cities and the water vapor content input data, measured data is here and
then here were using the model ai 1+ ai2x+ai3sx2. So, it is a three term second-order polynomial.
we do the matrix inverses, generate the matrix and then find out G.
So, when you execute this. wv_India, we get the coefficients of the G matrix which will fit into
this model. So, this would be Gi1, Gi2 to and Gi3. So, you can then get this model. So now we
know how to get water vapor and we can also get the clearness index. Next, we shall look at this
file. This file is used for estimating the incident energy on a horizontal or a tilted surface now
260
with atmospheric effect. We saw without that most atmospheric effects, it is a modification of
that file, now you have few things added to it.
So this is the latitude, I am using 12.97 Bangalore and I'm giving the tilt factor as 10, which we
saw, was the optimal under the without atmospheric conditions, use tilt factor of that of that
condition, the one without atmosphere and there is this row, the reflection coefficient, I am
taking it a 0.2 in the plane. G is the coefficient matrix for the water vapor content, A is the
coefficient matrix the clearness index and the rest of this equation remain the same as before the
new portion that I have introduced is here, introducing atmospheric effects, estimation of the
water vapor.
So those coefficients are put in this model form and this G is the one that is estimated this is the
one that is estimated using wv_India.m this a was obtained from kt_India.m and that we use it
one time and we use it only when we have fresh data or probably more other more number of
places to include in the input data. So, using that data, we can get water vapor content and then
261
use the water vapor content estimated into the fx equation of the clearness index which is 1; x; x 2
W2 and then you will get kt estimate from the kt estimate equation. Then find out Rd the tilt factor
Hot/H0, then kd which is basically Hd/Ha the diffused radiation factor, it is approximately given by
1-1.132 kte, rt the overall tilt factor is given by this relationship which we discussed earlier, from
there we have these 2hat_direct, that is without the diffuse and reflected radiation and the other
one is Hat which is with the atmospheric effects including the diffused and reflected radiation
affecting the tilted surfaces.
These are the formulas that we have used and we will just run this and then see what is the result
that we would get. So going back to the octave and clearing the workspace I will now execute
Hat_est estimate. So see here that we get this result is, this blue line is the H 0 kilowatt hour per
meter square per day without atmospheric effects on a horizontal flat plate, this Green Line is
tilted flat plate collector with atmospheric effects.
So you see that this is actually very significantly attenuated from the one without the
atmospheric effects and this is basically due to the clearness index. Now, see that for Bangalore
see around here around 80 which will be March 21st region, we see clear sky and very intense
radiation, intensity of radiation decreases here, you will see lot of cloud, because this is the
monsoon region in Bangalore and you see the intensity reduced and you see that a minimum
value is around 4.6 or so and so on it will, it reaches around 6 towards the December months
where again we see clear sky. So, the due to k t that is the clearness index we will see the local
atmospheric effects getting reflected nicely in this fashion. It is interesting to see plot the days
versus Rd this is the tilt factor and versus R t the overall tilt factor. So, you will see that this R d
blue line is the tilt factor and the Green Line is the overall tilt factor Rt lowercase Rt.
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So this is actually though it looks similar in shape this is actually lower the value is lower than R d
in the earlier months and the later months and during the monsoon months you see that the R d is
lower and the overall tilt sector is having a better value due to the diffuse because of the cloud
the diffuse part is more and therefore Rt becomes higher.
It also be interesting to plot days and the clearness index, how it varies and you will see that the
variation of the clearness index with day January 1 st to December 31st how it has varied, again
you see that the clearness index is very nice and better. It is reaching 0.75 during the March
months when the sky is clear in Bangalore and it is reaching a very low figure around 0.45
during the monsoon months, these are the monsoon months from June to around September,
October and then it picks up again. So, k t the clearness index actually reflects the atmospheric
conditions of that locality there. So, the important conclusion is that if you run this Hat estimate
you will get this green line here which is Hat, the energy instant on the tilted flat plate collector
with atmospheric effects and this is what you have to use for designing the PV panel. Now take
in a year what is the minimum value, you look at that. So, this minimum value here for example
here the place where I kept the cursor is around 4.6 and that value is the one which you need to
take for designing all your applications, because you are guaranteed four point six kilowatt hour
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per meter square per day of energy this much amount of energy every day of the year and in
other days you have excess. So, the worst case would this value pointed by the cursor which is a
Hat minimum and this we will use for designing and sizing the TV parents.
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Prof. L. Umanand
Let us now discuss on how to size PV modules for any given applications. There are two class
of applications. One set of applications does not require energy storage. So, how do we size the
PV modules, that doesn't need batteries for energy buffering.
The other class of PV applications require energy storage, require batteries. So, how do we size
PV modules for those applications which require batteries. We will see both these cases and see
how we go about sizing PV panels.
Let us list down some applications. One of the most common one is PV power being pumped
into the grid. This is an important application gaining in popularity very much. You would have
seen lot of rooftop PV solar cells being mounted on the top of the buildings and they are
integrated with the inverters which are connected to the grid to pump AC power into the grid.
These applications don't need batteries in general.
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Another set of applications which don't need batteries are the water pumping applications. One
of the more one is the underground sump where the water is stored and that is lifted up to the
overhead tanks. This and also the pumping for irrigating lands, vast expanses of lands this also
comes into the category where batteries are generally not needed.
Another set is cooling applications like refrigeration, peltier cooling, AC. You can make use of
converting the solar power into the thermal effects without the need for batteries in general, and
so also, the heating applications, there are some heating applications where you do not have to
use batteries.
Let us consider this typical application of PV power being pumped into the grid. This is a very
popular application and let us take that as an example to consider how we go about sizing the
PV panels.
Now grid, let me represent the grid by these two lines, single-phase grid, but it could as well be
a three-phase grid, and from this grid, we draw power and also we can put power into it. So, the
grid is acting as a buffer. So, these, to these grid lines, we will interface loads which are within
a building and there are electrical loads inside and they need power and then we draw the power
from the grid. So, in this fashion, we connect the loads which are inside to the grid, draw the
power from the grid we meter it and then operate the appliances.
Now let us say on the rooftop of the building, we have solar panel and it is receiving and
capturing the solar energy. So, this solar energy gets converted to electrical and let's say we
meter it and then put it into the grid in an appropriate manner by using grid connected inverters.
So, this is the scenario, so let us take this scenario as an example and see how we go about
designing this photovoltaic panel. So, that will give you an insight and understanding on what
we need to do.
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The, the amount of energy that you put into the grid, that is, the solar energy captured from the
PV panels and what we put into the grid, we will name it as WH PV, watt hour PV, so watt hour
is the unit of energy and that is what we will be using. And watt hour load, let me call this as
watt hour load, is the energy that will be consumed by the appliances within this. So, if the PV
power was not there, we would be only consuming the watt hour load amount of energy on a
daily basis or monthly basis and paying for that depending upon what is metered.
Now that we are putting back the energy, now let us say we have a requirement that we need to
have net balance, that is the zero net energy that we need to incorporate into this design. Most
of the states, most of the places, you will have a tariff for watt hours that we are drawing from
the line and the tariff for the watt hour from the solar energy that we are putting into the grid is
different, generally higher. So therefore, there is an advantage in trying to put the green energy
into the grid.
So now, let us say that this watt hour load has a tariff which is C load, so it has a cost of Cload per,
per watt hour and let us say, the solar energy that you put into the grid has a value C PV, rupees
CPV per watt hour. How do we calculate the net cost? So the net cost is given by watt hour load
into the cost Cload, the tariff Cload minus the watt hour that we are putting into the grid into C PV,
the photovoltaic tariff.
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Now this minus this will be the net cost. So, our goal, our interest is to have the net cost as zero.
So, for zero net cost, we have watt hour PV required, watt hour load into Cload/CPV, because net
cost is zero. We can make watt hour PV is equal to watt hour load, if we are interested in
having a zero net energy, in which case, zero net energy in which case C load is equal CPV, that is
the tariff of load and tariff of PV is same, no subsidies involved. So let us take this requirement
that we would like to design the PV panels to meet this watt hour requirement, watt hour PV
which is the same as watt hour load such that the net energy is zero in and out of the building.
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Generally the load is metered and billed on a monthly basis and it is expressed as units per
month and it is synonymous with kilowatt hour per month. So, this is the units for which it is
billed and the tariffs are given. So, for our purpose watt hour load is a daily requirement. So, we
will take the kilowatt hour per month requirement by 30 and expressed as kilowatt hours per
day, and watt hour PV is set equal to watt hour load. It may be good to take the kilowatt hour
per month reading of many months, may be every month of the year and take the average of
that and then use that for calculating watt hour load. So, it could be the mean kilowatt hour per
month by 30 to give a much more consistent value of the load requirement, so that the PV can
address that load.
A worst case design would be, consider the kilowatt hour per month, billed reading for the
entire year and take the highest value of kilowatt hour per month, so that would be the max
requirement of energy for this building and watt hour load can be the max kilowatt hour per
month by 30, which will give you the kilowatt hour per day, the maximum that the PV has to
supply in order to maintain net zero energy balance. So, one can design the watt hour PV
requirement either way, either taking the worst-case value, the max value of kilowatt hour per
month or take the average of the mean value, depending upon what your constraints are in
terms of the application.
Next we need to determine the amount of daily energy that is incident on a flat plate tilted at an
angle β with atmospheric effects and this we know how to do. So, determine Hat versus N the
day number, so you will probably get a curve like this.
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See, this is the curve which goes from Jan 1st onwards to December 31 st, N = 365. So,
somewhere, say, let us say, we have a minimum. Now, this would be the worst case incident
energy available on the flat plate collector, tilted flat plate collector with atmospheric effects on
any day in the year and that is what we need to find out and use that for sizing the PV panel. So
find out this particular value which is in kilowatt hours per meter square per day Hatmin.
We can find out Hat by executing the script files that we discussed earlier. So, this text file is
hat_estimate.m, est.m, this estimates the Hat value for a given latitude. So, I have chosen
Bangalore as the latitude, you are familiar with the contents of this file. We have written this
earlier and described this earlier, discussed it. So now let us execute that in octave H at estimate,
so you will get a output figure like this.
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So the blue line is H0 versus the day number. So, this is day 1, January 1st and day 365 on
December 31st. The green line is Hat, this is the incident solar energy falling on a tilted flat plate
collector with atmospheric effects. So, the units are kilowatt hour per meter square per day.
Now observe here for Bangalore, somewhere here is the minimum. So, if you take this point,
this will be around 195, if I zoom to this place, you will see that at around 195 day number, you
have the minimum value of Hat, which is around 4.6, slightly less than 4.6, 4.55 or so.
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You can find out the minimum value of Hat by typing min HAT array would give you 4.5866
kilowatt hour per meter square per day and this is at that day number 195 or 196. Now let us try
to find out the day number, so the day number basically is the index of the H at array. Let me set
Q = Hat less ≤ min Hat, which means all the elements will become 0 except the element
corresponding to the minimum Hat value. Then use, find Q, it will find the nonzero element of
Q, which is at index 196. So, Hat 196 should contain a minimum value of 4.5866 and 196 will
correspond to July, N = 196 will fall somewhere in July 16 th or so. So, you can type in the
calendar and I am typing year, let us say, month 07. So, somewhere here, July 16th would
correspond to 196 or you could use a date num command like this. So, the date num command
gives the number from the Unix timestamp, how many number of days. So, this is 16th July 27
minus date number of 1st January 2017. So, from 1 you will get the date number. So, this is 196
which will be 16th July.
So basically, on, around 16th July you have the minimum Hat value which is 4.58 kilowatt hour
per meter square per day. Now, that is the crucial and the important value that you have to take
away from this and you have to design your PV panel to deliver the full load requirement even
during this low insolation, least insolation day. Then any other day in the year is covered.
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Let us understand the implication of finding Hat minimum and using it in our calculations. So,
let me draw those X and Y coordinate systems, where X represents t, time in hours, this is time
in hours of the day, 0 to 24 hours, and the Y-axis is L, the insolation in kilowatt per meter
square and let me indicate the salient times 6 am and 6 pm and let me draw the approximate
insolation curve which looks something like this. The area under this the integral of this is the
energy, and that energy is HAT minimum,
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So every day of the year, you will have a wave form of the insolation something like this, and
the area under that would give you H at and we have looked at the Hat of all the days of the year,
the entire year and found that on a particular day in the year, we have minimum energy incident
on the tilted surface with the atmospheric effects. So that is this Hat minimum and for
Bangalore, we found that this value is around 4.58 kilowatt hours per meter square per day.
Now this picture of the insolation versus this time is equivalent to, can be equivalently written
in this fashion, I am writing in another t versus insolation L graph. Now, on this I'm going to
mark the line indicating the standard insolation, L standard, which is 1 kilowatt per meter
square, this is 1 kilowatt per meter square.
Now, can I map this area into a rectangular area having a maximum value of insolation of L
standard, which is 1 kilowatt per meter square. So, let me mark the line corresponding to noon,
on either side of noon, I will draw these lines and you have this rectangle and the width of the
rectangle, the width of this rectangle is equal to this value, numerically equal to 4.58, let us say
for this special, for this specific example, so I will keep this with that 4.58 hours.
At any other value of Hat it will be Hat hours, numerical value of Hat hours. So, what is this area?
Now this area will be, height 1 into, the width 4.58. So, this area is also exactly equal to this
value.
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So, this would give you an equivalent area which corresponds to H at minimum. The only
difference here is that, this is a rectangular profile and it says that if 1 kilowatt per meter square
standard insolation is applied, then only for 4.5 hours you can have the incident radiation.
So let us draw the symbol of the solar panel and it has the output terminals as indicated. Now,
on the input side sunlight, solar light is falling on the panel and that is at 1 kilowatt per meter
square insolation. Now, the panel itself is having an area and let's say A meter square.
Now, 1 kilo watt per meter square into A meter square, 1 kilowatt into, 1 kilowatt per meter
square into A would be the amount of power input that will be falling onto the panel and at the
output you will get efficiency times, efficiency of this panel into 1 kilowatt per meter square
insolation, into A meter square panel area, into this many hours, 4.58 hours, will give you the
kilowatt hours out of the panel per day. Every day, you will get this much amount of energy out
of the panel.
So in the more generic terms, let us say, now this is Pin, 1 kilowatt per meter square into the area
will give you the power input, and this is numerically equal to H at minimum. So, this is
numerically equal to Hat minimum. So generalizing, we will say efficiency, into, efficiency, as
this is 1, into A, into Hat minimum, into Hat minimum, is equal to watt hour PV, what should
this be equal to? The output of the photovoltaic panel set should be able to supply the load
requirement which we had set it as WH PV coming from the application side. So therefore, the
area of the panel that we should actually buy and install is WH PV, the load requirement, by
efficiency of the panel into Hat minimum. Now this would be the design equation for sizing the
photovoltaic panels for an application without battery, where WHPV is the application load
requirement.
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This is a picture of solar panels installed, mounted and installed on the roof of my department
building.
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Now these are solar panels, and the A that we calculated corresponds to the area of these solar
panels. However, the real-estate is required is slightly more than the calculated area A.
Oobserve that you need some in between spaces, where you need to mount, work on the panels,
you need to clean the panels, you need a pathway, an isle here, so that you need to allow
maintenance people move around and also for cleaning people to clean and maintain the panels.
So, the, not only that, you may want to space out the sets of panels, so that the shadow, you see
it, observe the shadow of this panel falling here doesn't fall too much onto the neighbouring
panels and thereby, lose out on the available output power. So therefore, some amount of
spacing is needed and this is dependent on the place where the panels are installed. So in
general, the real-estate needed will be more than the calculated area A, electrically calculated
area for the panels. So, the A that is calculated is called the intrinsic area. However, the
practical real-estate needed will be 30% more than the calculated. So approximately, you can
set aside extra 30% for all these spaces for maintenance and cleaning operations.
So, this calculated area is called the intrinsic area in meter square. However, we need to
evaluate, what is the actual real estate that you need. So, we will call area estate that is required,
will be area intrinsic that is calculated like this, and plus you have to add the area needed for
maintenance purposes, the service area. Set aside approximately 30% of area intrinsic for
maintenance purposes, and therefore, you will have the area estate equal to 1.3 times area
intrinsic. So, this would be our area needed for a particular application, a particular given watt
hour requirement.
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Prof. L Umanand
Let us now consider an example where we would like to design or size the photovoltaic panel
that needs to be installed on the roof top of a building. So this is the scenario, the problem
statement is like this, a household in Bangalore consumes 200 units of energy on an average in a
month. So, monthly based billing. Design a roof top PV setup so that the net energy is 0. So, we
are given with, latitude we know because the problem mentions that the place is located in
Bangalore and latitude of Bangalore is 12.97 and watthour load is also given which is 200 units
and it is same as 200kWh/month, so this 200 units is consumed in a month.
So now we can set Whpv=Whload/30 in order to get the daily consumption. So, we would like to
see how much we would like to put into the grid from the PV on a daily basis. So, that will be
equal to Whload/30. So, this works out to be around 6.67 kWh/day. Efficiency of 16%, this is from
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the datasheet, recall that PV panels have data sheets and once you have decided which PV panels
you would like to buy, you would like to go for, which manufacturer you would like to go for,
take that data sheet and from that datasheet look up the efficiency parameter for that model of the
PV panel and take that.
Now, once you have these parameters, you can now start your design process. So, first determine
Hatmin, you have to find out what is the incident energy that is falling on a tilted flat plate collector
at that place with atmospheric conditions and work it out for the entire year day number varying
from 1 to 365 and find out the minimum value of H at for that entire year and this we have just
previously discussed and for Bangalore, we know it is 4.58 kWh/m2/day.
So, this value is known and now you are ready to calculate a intrinsic area of the PV panels
which is given by Whpv by efficiency into Hatmin and this will work out to be 6.67/(0.16) and Hat
min is 4.58. So this unit is in kWh/day, this unit is kWh/m 2/day, so you will have the intrinsic
area coming out as 9.1 m2. Now, this is the intrinsic area, the area that will be occupied by the
solar PV panel. Now, you need to work out what is the actual real estate that is needed. Recall
that we indicated that we need some space for maintenance for personal to install, clean and all
those things. Therefore, the real estate actually needed would be 1.3 times the intrinsic area,
approximately and that works out to be around 11.83 m2 or 12 m2.
If you are comfortable in square feet 12 m2 will work out to be around approximately 127 sft, the
conversion factor is 1m2=10.75 square feet. So, you can use that and convert it. So, this much
amount of roof top area should be made available so that you can fit the panels within that area.
However, note that the power output is given only by the panels which are within this 9.1 m 2, so
9.1 m2 is the active power generating area and this area is capable of giving 6.67 kWh/day.
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Let us take another example. This is a live example, you see here a picture, this is a picture of my
department, on the top, roof top of the department there are PV panels mounted. There are two
sets of PV panels, you see that you will be able to distinguish, this is one type of panel one set of
panel and this is connected to a commercial inverter and feeding to the grid. These are another
set of panels, these are renesola panels and this is connected to inverters designed and developed
by the students and then feeding to the grid.
Now, let us look at this set of panels here. There are 100 panels here in this set what I am
showing through the mouse cursor and let us try to calculate what is the maximum capacity of
the set of array.
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The output from this panel is fed to the grid using the set of inverters here.
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Let us look at some close-up shots of the photovoltaic panels these are mono crystalline panels.
And at the back of the panel you will see the name plate reading. I have captured it on the
camera and you have the details given in this name plate. It is from Renesola manufactured in
China and you have the various parameters, the maximum power, open circuited, short circuit
current all these parameters. Also, note here all this data has been performed under standard test
condition. Air mass 1.5, insolation 1000 W/m2 or 1 kW/m2 and at 25°C temperature.
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Now let us come to this part the dimension, length and width and height which is 40 mm. Now,
the area is what we want to find out, what is the intrinsic area? Now, you have here 1640 mm by
992 mm which means it is 1.64 m by 0.992 m. Now let us go back to the white board.
Considers close-up shot of this roof top PV panels set, start counting from here 1, 2, 3 so on and
so forth and then you will see that on counting everything you will have 100 panels. Now if you
take a typical panel like this, we saw that the area is 1.64x0.992 m 2 and this works out to be 1.63
m2. You can verify it in the name plate panel here 1.64mx0.992m, this is the length and the
width. So, this 1.63 m2 is the area of the panel, area of each panel is 1.63 m 2. Now, let us try to
find what is the intrinsic area of the entire array. The intrinsic area is, each panel area 1.63 into
there are 100 numbers of the panels so into 100 panels and this workout with 163 m2.
So, now let us calculate what is the Wh PV of the entire array and how much it can pump into the
grid. So, watthour PV is equal to efficiency into A intrinsic into Hatmin for that place. The efficiency
can be obtained from the datasheet or also from the name plate readings. Now, if you have to
obtain on the name plate readings you can use Pout/Pin. Pout is nothing but Vmp into Imp, voltage at
maximum power and into current at maximum power, divided by the area of the panel, area of
each panel into 1 kW/m2 standard insolation.
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So, 1 kW/m2 into the area of the panel would give you power input and at the standard insolation
what is the power output which will be V mp into Imp. So, this will give you the efficiency,
multiplied by Aintrinsic and multiplied by Hatmin. Now, let us look at the name plate readings and
then see what are the values of Vmp, Imp. Observed here, max power voltage Vmp is 30.1 V, max
power current Imp is 8.32 A.
Let us use this value substitute them in our equation here. So, you have 30.1x8.32/1.63 which is
the area of the panel into 1000 W/m2, Aintrinsic it is 163 m2, Hatmin for Bangalore we know that it is
4.58 kWh/m2/day. Now, this works out to, now let me make some space. This works out to 114.7
kWh/day. Now, the peak wattage of the entire array system can also be calculated and that is
114.7 kWh/day, let has put that down. Now, divided by the number of hours where you could
have effective insolation and that is Hatmin 4.58. So, divided by 4.58 will give you 25 kW. So, this
way you can, 4.58 is numerically equivalent to H atmin, but we are using here the units 4.58 hours
of standard insolation.
So, that would give you a 25 kW system here. So, this whole array is a 25 kW rooftop system.
So, in this way you can ascertain for any given array or a field PV array or PV field you can find
out what is the system rating or what is the system output power rating and energy ratings.
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Prof. L Umanand
Consider an application like this, we have PV panel, PV source which is connected through a
power converter and out to the power converter is connected to a load. This is a typical
application, no batteries are used. Now, there are many applications where the load may demand
a very steady power, but the power that is coming from the PV is highly fluctuating, we saw that
because of the insulation, because of varying insulation output power here is fluctuating. So, in
case the load is demanding a steady power, steady power source, we need to have an energy
buffer somewhere here, so that the PV can charge up this energy buffer energy buffer can
supplement the PV source by providing a steady source of power input to the load.
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So, in general there are many applications, where there is a charger which is again of power
electronic converter and charges up a battery or any energy storage device. So, assume that this
is a battery and the power can flow into the battery for charging and it can also flow out of the
battery while supplementing the PV source when it is weak, so as to make up for the load power
requirement. Now, this battery is the one of interest and we want to look at some detail into the
various types of batteries and its characteristics. The battery here is behaving, acting like a
energy buffer.
Now, the batteries are of two main types one is a primary cells and the other type are known as
the secondary cells. Consider the primary cells, the cells that are used for torches, clocks, remote
controls, watches, they are all primary cells. The main feature of the primary cell is that they can
be used for only one discharge. Some of the examples are zinc manganese oxide also called the
dry cell, zinc silver oxide, lithium thyionylchloride, these are some of the primary cells and the
most important feature that you should note in a primary cell, is that primary cells can be
discharged only once. This is the key feature and after they are discharged once, after they are
used once you have to throw them away.
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Secondary cells on the other hand can be charged and discharged several times. Car batteries,
two-wheeler batteries, UPS batteries, these are all examples of secondary cells. So, lead, lead
oxide is more commonly called as the lead acid battery, the acid here is sulfuric acid, dilute
sulphuric acid, nickel metal hydride batteries, lithium sulfur dioxide batteries, lithium-ion
polymer batteries, these are very popular batteries, lightweight and are now very popular and
almost to be ubiquitous, you will find them in almost all the electronic gadgets, cell phones,
iPhones, iPads, laptops, camera, video cam, all these devices use these lithium ion polymer
batteries.
These batteries as I said mentioned earlier can be discharged and charged many times, several
times. They can be discharged from 100 times to 20,000 times depending upon the type of the
battery. So, that, this is one major advantage of the secondary cells. For photovoltaic based
systems most of the applications will use only secondary cells, there will be many several charge
discharge cycles and secondary cells are the ones that are most compatible for these applications
and we will be discussing these secondary cells their characteristics, their features, the
parameters and how we go about charging these secondary cells are the ones that we will be
discussing in some detail in a short while.
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Prof. L. Umanand
There are certain battery parameters that you should be aware of, in order to select and specify
for batteries. One of the most important parameters is capacity of the battery. What is capacity of
the battery? So, let us consider this figure which gives you a picture of the battery symbol and
these are the battery terminals let us say and then there is a current flowing into the battery
positive terminal and that is called ib and let me mark the voltage across the terminals and we
will name it as vb.
Now, given such a battery, with the terminal voltage vb and the current flowing into the battery
positive ib which means is the charging current, we can define the capacity, the energy capacity
in the following manner. So, you have integral vb ib dt, this is nothing but energy in watt hours
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and ib if it is positive ib is positive means it is flowing into the positive terminal meaning it is
charging the battery.
So, this implies charging then the energy that you would calculate in this fashion would be the
charging energy Echarge. On the other hand, if ib is negative meaning ib is flowing out of the
positive terminal, it is flowing in the reverse direction as indicated here, then it implies that the
battery is discharging. Then the energy is representing the discharge energy E discharge. Therefore,
when you say capacity of the battery, it would mean the watt hour capacity, how much amount
of energy that the battery can hold, how much amount of energy the battery can discharge to the
load.
So, we talk in terms of watt hours. However, you can also talk of the capacity in terms of charge,
columbic charge. Integral of ib dt, is nothing but is C and it is nothing but ampere hour, ampere
hour is nothing but the charge. So is the charge capacity. So, people use this definition also to
indicate the capacity of the battery, now that if you compare these two, if I have vb constant then
you will get the ampere hour capacity.
So, watt hour capacity or the energy capacity is the true capacity of the battery, it will give you
the true capacity energy whatever capacity of the battery. However, if vb is constant, if vb is
maintained constant here, then integral of ib dt C the ampere hour capacity will be a direct
measure of integral of integral of V ib dt that is energy capacity, then the charge capacity C or
the ampere hour capacity will give you a direct measure of the watt hour of the battery. In the
commercial world, this ampere our capacity as defined here integral of ib dT = C ampere hours
unit, now this charge capacity is the one which is more popular and you will see that in almost all
the battery specs and people using the Ah of the battery, the Ah spec for the battery much more
commonly than WH spec of the battery. So, therefore when you look at battery data sheet, the
edge of the battery is a much more common battery capacity spec than WH. So, commercial
usage terms this is much more commonly used.
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Consider the figure of the battery as shown here are the positive terminal, negative terminal. Let
us take the analogy of a water tank. In case the water tank, when you have the water tank full of
water and we say the tank is full, likewise even in the case of the battery, when it is fully
charged, we say it is full and under full charge condition the open circuit voltage across the
terminals will be maximum. Take for example, in the case of a lead acid battery, a 12 volt lead
acid battery 12 volt lead acid battery which you will find being used in cars and vehicles, you
will find that it is around 14.3 volts not actually 12 volts but 14.3 volts under full charge
condition. Now, consider another level, a level x, now at this level, the amount of charge
available is much lesser than full tank and like in the case of the water tank, once the water level
has decreased to the level x, the potential is also reduced. Same way here also, at level x the
voltage across the terminals of the battery is much lesser than the voltage that you would find
across the terminals when the battery is full.
Suppose, if the battery is discharged to the level x, then the depth to which it has discharged is
called DoD, the depth of discharge, so from 100% to X %, so 100 - X % is called the depth of
discharge depth from full. So, it is called the depth of discharge and normally expressed as
percentage and it is a very important specification parameter that you will see in battery specs
and it has lot of influence on the life the battery, we will discuss that shortly. So, when you saw
the battery has gone from full tank to this level x, this much amount of charge as shown shaded
here is the amount that has been utilized.
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So, this is the utilized charge and if you set x as the limit that you do not want the charge level in
the battery to go below this because you would like to have minimum potential and maximum
potential limits and if you do not want the potential across the terminals to go below a particular
level. So let us say, you would decide on a lower limit of the charge level for the battery just like
you define a lower limit or the water level for the water tank.
So, then this shaded area would become the usable charge or the usable capacity of the battery.
So, this level is corresponding to the useable watt hour or ampere-hour of the battery. DoD is
measured from full to the level x. Just like you measure from 100% to the level x, you can
measure from 0% to the level x to get the state of charge. So, if I measure from 0 to level x as
shown here, then you call it a state of charge. State of charge is nothing but 100% - DoD% and
that is equal to (1 – DoD / 100) x 100, state of charge being expressed as percentage.
So, DoD and state of charge are complementary. State of charge will give you the amount of
charge existing in the battery, DoD depth of charge will give you the amount of charge or watt
hour that can be used up or has been used to supply to the load. State-of-charge is also expressed
in percent.
So, at an arbitrary level x, let us say the battery voltage is x vbx note that vbx will be less than the
battery potential at full capacity or full charge. So, as the charge decreases, the battery terminal
potential also decreases. You can set a voltage below which you do not want the battery to
discharge and that would be the limiting voltage or the fully discharged condition voltage as far
as your application is concerned.
So, for example, in the lead acid batteries, 12 volt lead acid battery, we will set it as 10.8 V as the
discharged condition and we will not allow it to go beyond that below that. So, the voltage range
for a 12 v lead acid battery for most of the applications would be from 10.8 V minimum to 14. 3
V maximum. Connected with this capacity and depth of discharge is life, life of the battery. Life
of the battery is expressed in terms of number of charge discharge cycles. One of the significant
parameters this life of the battery is dependent on is the DoD of the battery, the depth of the
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charge of the battery. So, the life depends significantly on the depth of the charge. As the depth
of discharge increases the life decreases. What it basically means is that if the depth of the charge
is 20% you have some number of charge discharge cycles, let us say 1000 charge discharge
cycles. If the depth of the discharge goes down to 60%, this goes down deeper that is you are
going into deep discharge then the life would probably let us say come down to 200 cycles
instead of 1000.
So. there is a kind of an exponential kind of a decay in the life as the depth or depth of discharge
for the battery increases. So, DoD is an important parameter in determining the life of the battery
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Prof. L .Umanand
Another important parameter of the battery is the C rate. What is C rate? The rate at which the
capacity of a battery is built up, filled up what we call a charged, charging or given up
discharged to the load is called the C rate of the battery. See the C rate normally refers to the
discharge current of the battery. But nowadays the charging up of the battery has also become
very important. You would have seen fast charging, super fast charging characteristics of the
batteries coming into commercial usage.
So, along with the discharge current, the charging current is also equally important. So, today the
C rate refers to more to the capacity of the battery being built up or given up the rate at which it
can be discharged, the rate at which it can be charged up. We have a simple equation here I B, IB
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is the battery average current is equal to C/N, C is the capacity, we are taking the ampere hour
capacity and n is the number of hours of continuous discharge.
So, if you take a simple example you see that for a 20 ampere hour battery and 10 hours of
discharge, IB is 20 ampere hours by ten hours, which is 2 amps pretty simple. But what it means
is that a 20 ampere hour battery is capable of supplying 2 amps average current to the load up to
10 hours. However, note that, 2 amp average current to the load, 2 amp discharge current to the
load for 10 hours.
So, 2*10, 20 ampere hours would ideally be the capacity and the discharge current relationship.
However, in practice it is not so. A 20 hour, 20 ampere hour battery if you have been charging at
2 amp average current rate for 10 hours, it would be much more than 20 ampere hours or you
should say that 20 ampere hours is consumed in much less than 10 hours. So, you should read it
as something like this, let me make some room, due to losses a 20 ampere hour battery can
supply 2 amp average current for less than 10 hours.
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So, this is what you should actually use in practice, not the ideal one, but however for
benchmarking we still use this equation. C rate symbolic variations, means there are many
representations of the C rate in the literature and in the web. So, probably some examples here
will give you some idea insight, C/10 means 1/10 th the capacity will be the discharged current, it
is also indicated as C10, 10 coming to the right of C.
So, the C rate value will be C/10 which means this will be the amount of discharge current
flowing for this much amount of hours to give you this capacity. C by 5 also indicated as C 5 in
some literature and the discharge current is C/5. C/0.5 also indicated as C 0.5 and also indicated as
2C, you see the integer number is on the left of C and the discharge current value is C by 0.5 or
2C.
So, what is more popularly used probably is something like this. You see here C with an integer
on the right, C with an integer on the right 5 , C with an integer on the left giving you C 10 C rate
C20 rate so on, you have the 20C rate, 10C, 2C so on. So, in general if you take C and if you take
the left hand side, the left hand side the integer, if you find an integer on the left hand side of C
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you multiply with the capacity. if you find an integer on the right hand side of C you divide the
capacity.
So if it is C10, you say the discharge current that it is capable of delivering is C/10. C 20 the
discharge current the battery is capable of giving is C by 20. If it is 20C, the discharge current
that the battery is capable of discharging is 20 times C. 2 times C, likewise. So, you see that the
C rate is quite an important parameter to be considered especially when you are sizing the
battery.
Consider a simple battery circuit, a battery which is connected to a load R L like this as shown.
Let us mark id as the discharge current, battery is discharging to the load and id is flowing out the
battery and into the load in the direction as shown here and if you take the terminals of the
battery and across the terminals of the battery, we have vb the battery voltage. Now, for this
simple circuit, let us plot a graph of time on the x-axis and the time represents the elapsed time of
discharge. So, you set the load RL to some value such that some discharge current is flowing
through this load and allow it to flow for some time t then i d into time t would be the ampere
hours that is discharged from the battery, capacity discharged from the battery.
Then on the y-axis, we have the battery voltage in volts. Ideally, we expect the battery voltage vb
to be a constant like this. It is supposed to be a constant like this for however long i d is flowing
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through the external load RL. We could have the load as a rheostatic resistor and vary the load to
get different values of discharge currents id. Whatever may be the discharge current in an ideal
sense, the battery voltage vb will be constant like this for how much overtime the current
discharges till the entire capacity of the batteries remove from the battery at which time the
battery would have lost all charge and the voltage will start dropping down drastically as shown
here.
So, this characteristic is an ideal characteristic and you will not see such a characteristic in
reality. In practice, the characteristic will be much different. Let us say we set the R L value to
some value and some id is flowing through the load resistance. A practical characteristic will look
something like this, the voltage drops with time as i d starts flowing out of the battery, discharging
out of the battery ampere hours are being removed, the charge is being removed and the battery
will start losing the voltage and the voltage starts decreasing like this as shown.
This drop in the voltage is due to voltage lost in the dynamic internal resistance of the battery.
battery has an internal resistance, let me show that, indicate that like this. So, this resistance will
call it as RB, RB is not a fixed constant resistance. it is a dynamic resistance, it is a nonlinear
resistance, it is a function of many parameters including the chemistry of the battery but R B is a
very significant dominant function of depth of discharge for the battery, the depth to which the
battery has been discharged.
If it is fully charged then RB is low, very low and as more and more charges remove the battery
the RB value will increase. So, that is what is indicated here. Here, when the battery has not
discharged much, time is not elapsed much. You will see that R B is low and VB is at almost full
battery voltage and as time progresses id is flowing out of the battery, id into t will be the amount
of charge that is removed from the battery.
And you will see that as the charge is removed, the depth of charge increases depth of the charge
increases, RB also increases and more and more drop starts appearing across R B and therefore the
terminal voltage vb drops like this. Let us say that this characteristic is for as C10, C/10 rating
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that is if C is the capacity of the battery, C by 10 amount of current is being discharged from the
battery by appropriately setting the value of RL.
Now, let us say I have another id value setting by adjusting the value of RL and id as C/5, one fifth
of the capacity amount equivalent to that is discharged. You will see that the dynamic resistance
increases much more rapidly and the fall in voltage is much more rapid. So, C/1 and C/0.5 or 2C,
you will see that the drop in the voltage increases very rapidly with the amount of the charge
current and with the C rate as shown here. So this, you will see this family of curve that where
the arrow mark indicates for the curves increasing discharge current id, increasing id.
So, it is very important to note that C rate plays a very important role in deciding the battery,
because if you want to have a battery where you want to have a specific discharge time, the x-
axis and you want to have the battery voltage terminal voltage within a particular limit, then you
will have to choose an appropriate C rate of the battery. So, this will matter and also the
appropriate depth of discharge. So, these are important parameter that you should consider while
selecting a battery for a given application.
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Prof. L Umanand
Another very important parameter is the efficiency of the battery. How do we define efficiency
in the case of the battery? is it power or energy? See, normally efficiency is defined in terms of
power, output power by input power. But, in the case of the battery, we consider energy watt
hours. So, consider for example a PV source and a load like this and let us say energy travels
from the source, the PV source to the load in this fashion and there is a watt hours which is
coming out of the PV and we will call it as WhPV and there is a watt hour which is going into the
load and we will call it watt hour load.
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So in this case, in this type of a topological connection, the watt hour PV will be equal to watt
hour load, as there is no loss in between except for the transmission. When we use a battery, the
energy from the PV is stored into the battery and then released later into the load. So, if we
consider the case of energy storage element, let us say a battery in this fashion here, let us put a
battery, the flow of energy is in this fashion, you have energy flowing from the PV source into
the battery. Now, this is called charging. So we charge the battery with the energy coming from
the PV.
So, in charging the battery, we are converting the energy from the electrical to chemical and
there will be conversion loss. We will call this as W hec electrical- chemical Whec. So, there will be
this conversion loss and therefore what will be available within the battery is slightly less than
WhPV what has been taken from the PV panel and we will call the battery that is stored in, the
energy that is stored in the battery is Whbat and that is equal to WhPV - the conversion Whec,
electrical to chemical conversion watt hours, so that much amount is lost.
Then, the energy that is stored in the battery is discharged into the load, as and when required.
So, the flow of energy, the direction is like that. Now, this flow from the battery to the load is
called discharging. So, we discharge the battery. Now, in the process of discharging, energy gets
converted from the chemical to electrical and therefore there will be chemical to electrical energy
conversion loss and we will call it as W hece and what is actually available at the load would be
Whbat - Whce chemical to electrical energy conversion loss.
So you have a loss during the charging portion W hec, you have a loss during the discharging
portion - which is called Whce and these two have to be subtracted from the original W hPV that has
been generated or given from the PV panel. So what the load will get would be lesser than that
with WhPV and that he in effect leads to our definition of efficiency and it is in terms of energy
efficiency, in terms of the watt hours, so watt hours is given to the load divided by watt hours is
generated from the PV source or any source.
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We can now write down the efficiency as watt hour delivered to the load by the watt hour drawn
from the source. Referring to this figure, we see that watt hour deliver to the load is this portion
Whbat - Whce chemical to electrical energy conversion loss and Wh drawn from the source this is
the Wh drawn from the source which is WhPV. So, we can write it as Whbat - Whce / WhPV. We can
further expand this Whbat can be written as a WhPV - Whec electrical to chemical conversion loss -
Whce chemical to electrical conversion loss by WhPV. This would be the definition of the
efficiency in the case of the batteries, it is dependent on the energy that the watt hours, so it is
also called as the energy efficiency or the watt hour efficiency of the battery.
For most batteries, this efficiency which includes both the charge and the discharge cycles watt
hour electrical to chemical loss and whatever chemical to electrical loss, one during charge, one
during the discharge is being included into the efficiency equation and this efficiency is generally
around 70% for most batteries the lead acid batteries, that we commonly use is roughly about
70% efficient energy efficient. Likewise the nickel metal hydride and some of these lithium
polymer batteries also how similar kind of efficiencies.
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Prof. L. Umanand
Energy and power densities, these are yet another set of parameters that are very important for
deciding the size of the battery. Energy and power density have bearing on determining the
volume size space requirement for a given application, in housing the battery for the given
application. If you consider the energy density, there are two specific types. One is called the
gravimetric energy density and other is called volumetric energy density and as the name
indicates gravimetric energy density is having units of Wh/kg and volumetric energy density is
having the units Wh/liter.
So this gravimetric energy density Wh/kg is also given in the literature as specific energy, in
some literature you will see that specific energy, so do not get confused. So, Wh/kg, so for every
kg of the battery materials, battery package, it will deliver so much Wh, x amount of watt hours.
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Now, that is the meaning of the gravimetric energy density. Likewise, for every liter of the
battery package, it will deliver x amount of Wh or capacity in terms of Wh for a given volume
and that is the volumetric density.
The volumetric density has a direct bearing on size and the space requirement is decided or
determined by this parameter. Gravimetric energy density has a lot of significance on mobile
platforms, on static platforms the weight does not play that much of a role as the space, so the
gravimetric energy density is used more in mobile platforms like for example electric vehicles
and hybrid electric vehicles, EV and HEV. The range of the vehicle, how far the vehicle can
operate before the battery is down, before the battery is completely discharged is determined by
this parameter.
So, it is a range determineer. If you consider the power densities, here again there are two types
gravimetric power density and volumetric power density and again as the name suggests
gravimetric power density has the unit's W/kg and volumetric power density is in W/liter.
Gravimetric power density is also called a specific power in literature and you will get to see that
if you are referring to certainly literatures.
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So, specific power for gravimetric power density and specific energy for gravimetric energy
density are alternate names for gravimetric power and energy densities respectively. So, here
again the W/liter is having a direct bearing on the size of the battery, it indicates that for a given
volume you can draw so much watts, the instantaneous watts out of the battery. This has, this
gives an indication on how much amount of discharge current that you can draw out of it at a
given instant. Likewise W/kg, specific power has a bearing on mobile platforms like Ev and
hybrid electric vehicles, just like the Wh/kg the gravimetric energy density had a bearing on the
range of the electric vehicles, the W/kg has a bearing on the acceleration or the overtaking ability
of an electric vehicle.
So, that decides the overtaking ability of the electric vehicle. One must note however that energy
density and power density and the power density both of these cannot be high in a given battery.
It so happens that the battery chemistry is such that if the energy density is high, the Wh density
is high, the power density or the watt density is low or if the power density is high the energy
density is low.
So, these two seem to offset each other and as a result, if you have a high range, you may not
have a high acceleration capability or if you have a high acceleration capability, you may not
have a large range. So, these, the choice of the battery will always be a compromise between
these two parameters, that is the energy and the power densities.
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Prof. L .Umanand
Let us do some comparing of batteries. So, let me take of one of the parameters commonly
available Wh/kg the energy density, W/kg power density, Wh/liter volumetric energy density, let
us take the operating temperature, degree centigrade, Wh efficiency, literature will also give you
ampere hour efficiency but almost all manufactures will claim 99% to 200%. But what is crucial
and what is important is to take watt hour efficiency, energy efficiency as we have discussed.
Life of the battery in terms of number of cycles, charge discharge cycles and let us list down
some of the common batteries, lead acid batteries very common, nickel metal hydride batteries,
you have the sodium sulphur batteries and lithium polymer batteries, there are any other batteries
also but these are the common once which you will be familiar with and then we will look at
some of the numbers. Lead acid batteries, the Wh/kg and specific energy or the energy density,
gravimetric energy density is 35.
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The specific power watt kg for lead acid battery is 100. So, you will get around 100 watt for
every kg of lead acid battery package, the Wh/liter, volumetric energy density is 80. The lead
acid batteries can operate under ambient temperature conditions, it has an efficiency of around
70% and it can go up to 1000 numbers of charge discharged cycles if it is well maintained.
Nickel metal hydride, has a watt energy density, gravimetric energy density of 55, specific power
of 100 Wh/liter of 150, it can operate under ambient temperature conditions has a similar Wh
efficiency of around 70 and around 2000+ number of charge discharge cycles.
sodium sulphur battery, quite popular in earlier EVs has a 100 watt over per kg, a reasonably
good energy density, 150 W/kg is the power density gravimetric power density, 300 Wh/liter
volumetric energy density, the operating temperature is high. It is supposed to be kept inside an
oven of 350o C for it to effectively operate the efficiency is around 75% And around 1000
numbers of charge discharge cycles.
Lithium polymer batteries, very popular nowadays, almost all gadgets use lithium polymer
batteries nowadays very compact. It has a very high energy density of around 150 Wh/kg,
probably the highest till now. The W/kg the power density is around 200+, Wh/liter is around
450. It operates and ambient temperature conditions. It has a Wh efficiency of around 80% and
quite high life in terms of number of charged discharged cycles, around 10000. So, if you see,
the lithium polymer battery is very popular today because of its very nice numbers that it has for
the various parameters and even though it has a high initial cost, high capital cost, it is compact
and has lot of advantages, especially the number of charge discharge cycles, the life being high
and the long run it works out. The lead acid battery, even though it has very poor numbers here,
is the one which is having maximum number of units in the market for usage and sales. It is used
in UPS, it is used some electric vehicles, it is used in a photovoltaic applications, even though it
is very large, it is very low densities, it is having low initial cost. Not only that, it is easy to
maintain and repair and it is easily available even in rural places and that is why this is so
popular. So, this one reason why the lead acid battery is that too stay even though it has a poor
numbers as far as performance parameters are consent.
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Prof. L Umanand
Let us now go through the steps for selecting the battery for a given application. First, we need to
identify and select battery chemistry for the given application. What it means is that do we need
to select a lead acid battery or should we select lithium polymer battery or sodium sulphur
battery etc. Now, we need to make the decision based on the application, whether the application
needs lithium polymer, lead acid or is lead acid sufficient, whether the availability of that
particular battery is easy or not and off course the amount of the capital available to invest on the
battery. Now these are concentration that you need to take and based on that you select a
particular battery type, a battery chemistry. For most of the applications, especially if it is not on
a mobile platform and if it is for, solar photovoltaic application where real estate is not an issue,
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because any way you need real estate for the PV collectors, one can start of by going with lead
acid batteries because the capital investment will be lesser.
Next find out what is the allowable depth of discharge for the particular battery. Now, this is an
important parameter that you should know because this tell you what is the ampere hour rating or
the capacitor of the battery that you will finally have to select. Now, the depth of discharge also
depends upon the chemistry and the type of the battery that you will be choosing.
The lead acid battery, for example the SLI batteries start lighting ignition which are used for
cars, vehicles. They have very high power density requirement but the energy density is low,
they have a depth of discharge of around 20% only. So, you do not select this type of battery for
continuous discharge, continuous low discharge current type of applications. Now, if we take
lead acid tubular battery, they are good for continuous low discharge applications. Here the depth
of the discharge can go deep as 80%.
Lithium polymer batteries can go to 80% but normally 70% is set, chosen. So, when you want to
go for these deep discharge batteries, your application also should equivalently dictate the need
for such deep discharge batteries. If the discharge current are low but continuous for a very long
time, then go for deep discharge batteries. If the discharge currents are very high and very short
time then go for batteries like SLI batteries. Next, find out watt hour requirement of the load?
We need to know this, we need to know what the watt hour of the load is, in order to decide the
capacity of the battery.
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Next, let us calculate the capacity of, that is required, so that you may chose a battery of a
particular ampere rating. Now, if you take a battery like this and let us say that, the depth of the
discharge that we have found out for that battery is around so much, this is the DOD of the
battery. Then this shaded portion is the usable Wh or this is the Wh that can be given to load and
this whole capacity is what you have to rate the battery for, that will be the Wh of the battery is
Whload load/ DOD depth of discharge and Ah rating of the battery would be watt hour rating of
the battery divided by the battery voltage nominal battery voltage, so if you take for example
lead acid battery containing 6 cells, you will the Vbat-nominal is 12 V.
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Next, let us select the C rate for the battery. In order to select the C rate, let us consider this
graph. On the x axis, I have t the discharge time in hours and on the y axis, the discharge current
id in amps. Let me now mark an arbitrary operating point in this i d vs t coordinate system, I will
take an arbitrary operating point like this, I will explain what that is. So, this operating point is
the intersection of some discharge current id here and some time in hours.
So this area here would be the amp powers and let us consider this points for now, let this point
indicate a particular C rate. Now at the values of discharge current lower than this operating
point, I have drawn a straight line here and it is following this relationship which is I x t is equal
to a constant C, constant capacity C and then here, at discharge currents above this particular
selected discharge current, it will follow some kind of square pattern.
Now, that relationship is i square t is equal to C the capacity here. Now, consider this operating
point here, let me mark that, with respect to the operating point, all this area here, let me say is
100 amp hours, let say this area here is 100 Ah. Which means I can have, let us say for example,
5A this discharge current 5A and for 5 amps, we have discharge time 20 hours, so for 20 hours
we are 5A flowing resulting in 100Ah passed on to the load and we can say this is the C20 rate
battery operating in this fashion.
Now let us say you want to choose somewhere here 10 hour, will you get still get 100A
capacity? No you will get something lesser because now you are trying to discharge more current
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in lesser time. So let us say, I have discharge time as 10 hours and you have chosen a battery,
now the discharge current here would be at approximately let us say 7A it is not going to 10 A.
So this area that is passed on to the load in case 70A hour, so this operating point is now let us
say at C10. So, a battery, a C20 battery, if the operator at C10 the capacity is reduced, it is
reduced 70 ampere hour. So, as you start going higher and higher discharge current, lesser and
lesser time results and therefore the capacity also reduces, it is not same as what you started of
with the C20. So, at low discharge currents you could have the model as a straight line it is equal
to C, capacity is equal to i into t.
As the discharge current becomes higher, then you have to use the square law pattern for the
model i2t= C. So, you will have a model for C rate choice, something like this and then knowing
the value of the discharge current, you can appropriately choose the C rate for the battery. So,
find out the average id or the peak id depending upon what the application demands and what is
important for the application and appropriately chose the C rate from the i to the power of n into
t is equal to constant curve.
So this we can say in x t is equal to constant and that constant is representing the capacity. So n
is a varying quantity, so we say n = 1 for low discharges ,id is low. So, here we use n = 1, so at
low discharge currents, we have C= I x t, simple amp hours and for high discharges we use the
square law n = 2, for high discharges currents i d being high. So in this region you have i 2t =C for
the discharge current which are larger. So, using this kind of approximate model you can select
the c rate for the battery given discharge profiles.
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Prof. L. Umanand
When one thinks of storage batteries or the component that comes to mind. Of course batteries
are the most popular and ubiquitous and is found in almost all the electronic gadgets and energy
systems where energy storage is used. However, in large energy storage systems, energy systems
you will find people have used other mechanisms for storage too. It is good to be aware of what
other people have used for storing energy or systems that can act as energy buffers apart from
battery type of systems.
So generally, in the case of a PV system, we have a PV panel like this and that is connected to
some load. Energy is flowing from the PV panel to the load. However, we know that due to
varying insolation, the energy output of the PV panel is not constant throughout the day, it keeps
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fluctuating, varying and therefore, the energy that is received to the load is a fluctuating energy
and therefore we need to have some kind of a buffering mechanism. where, when the insolation
is high, the energy, excess energy can be stored somewhere and when the insolation is low, the
energy which is stored in the buffer will supplement the PV panel and see to it the load gets a
fixed amount of energy.
Therefore, we connect an energy buffer at this point, the point at which it can supplement along
with the PV panel. So, the energy buffers in general will have an interface block here and this
interface block will connect with the actual energy storing device and we will call that one as the
energy buffer and this would be called as the power interface. So, generally this power interface
has to be bidirectional in both power and the energy flow. So, it should be able to charge. So,
whenever there is excess energy available from the PV panel during high insolation conditions
and low load conditions, the excess energy has to flow through the power interface into the
buffer and that is called the charging mode.
And during the discharge mode, that is when the insolation here is low, the energy is not
sufficient to be able to handle the load, the excess energy should come from the buffer to
discharge, the buffer should discharge and then deliver that to the load so that that supplements
the energy coming from the PV panel so that the load gets its quota of power and energy.
so in the case of batteries, the energy buffer here is a battery and for the battery to interface to
this, here you have DC and the battery is also DC the interface will be a DC- DC converter, a bi-
directional DC -DC converter. So, we will have a battery here and it may be a battery or even
fuel cells, so the energy is actually stored in the chemical form, so you have the electrical energy
here gets scaled and then the electrical energy is stored within the battery in the chemical form.
And then when you want to bring the energy out, when you want to discharge the batteries, the
chemical stored energy is converted to electrical within the battery and the electrical energy
discharges into the load, is an electrical power. So, this is the electrochemical storage mechanism
which we are familiar with, which we have seen. Let us now see a few other mechanisms which
follow a similar kind of generic topology.
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Another energy storage mechanism is called the pump hydro. Here, the energy is stored by virtue
of lifting water to a height and storing it as potential energy. So, let me now show you the
components that come within the system and then we will see the various modes that the
charging mode and the charging mode. This is a motor, the electric power here will drive the
motor and convert the electric power to mechanical power.
And this motor is connected to a pump. So, I have just indicated this pump here a peloton wheel
based pump but it could be a centrifugal pump or reciprocating compound depending upon the
application. So, this pump will lift the water which is down below in a sump let us say. So, this
water will flow into the pump and then out of the pump here into an over head tack. So, what this
pump has done is taken water from below the ground, the sump and then lifted the water and
then put into the over head tack.
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So it could be lifted from a well as well and then put into a reservoir which is at a height. So, in
general we are trying to lift the water and put it at a higher potential so that the water stores the
energy in the form of potential energy. Let me mark the base level from which water is to be
lifted and let me indicate that by H, variable H. Then if there is a mass of water which is getting
lifted from the suction pipe and through the delivery pipe into the over a tank, mgh is the amount
of energy that has been given into this water as potential energy to be stored.
Now this mgh amount of water which is lifted up and stored there is coming from this pump
which is getting driven by this motor and this motor is getting driven from this DC bus which is
getting the energy from the PV panel. So, the excess energy from the PV panel is driving the
motor and then the pump which is acting as an instrument to lift water, give it the potential
energy and store it here as mgh. And this mode is called the charging mode. This mode is called
the charging mode.
Now, let us look at the other mode also when the power is needed by the load and then we need
to discharge the energy through this mechanism into the load. During the time, when we need to
discharge energy mgh energy stored here into the load here. We need to have a penstock, a
penstock like this, so you open the valve, this valve can be electronically controlled depending
upon the load requirement, when we, when the power delivered by the PV panel is low, the load
will have to draw from here at which time electronically, automatically this valve gets operated
and released and what will flow through the penstock and in the form of a jet will fall on this
pelton wheels and this will now act as a turbine and this turbine will rotate the shaft of this
machine this what was supposed to be the motor and this motor will now act as a generator and
pump energy into the bus and thereby to the load.
So, you can discharge the energy that was stored here into the load in this fashion. This is called
the discharging mode. So, this pump will now behave as a water turbine in the discharging mode.
This will act like a water turbine and in the discharging mode the motor will now behave as a
generator. So, it will generate, it is DC generator, generates it and puts energy into the DC bus.
During the charging mode, there will be some loss in the motor, there will also be some loss in
the pump and also in the suction on the delivery heads.
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So, you will see that about 85% efficiency is the practical value. Likewise again during the
discharging process, there will be some loss in the turbine and there will be some loss in the
generator before pumping the energy into the, while pumping the energy into the DC bus. So,
another 85 percent would be a practical value. So, the overall efficiency of the charge and
discharge cycle of the energy buffer system is 0.85 square, which is around point 72%, 0.72 or
72%. So, you saw that even in the case of the battery buffer the efficiency of the battery
electrochemical storage system is around 70 percent, here also it is around 70 percent.
Another energy buffering mechanism is the compressed air storage mechanism. Here, the energy
is stored, the excess energy from the PV panel is stored in compressed air by virtue of the
increase pressure. Here again, we shall use a motor which converts electrical energy into
mechanical energy at the shaft and the shaft of the motor is connected to an air compressor. So
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the air compressor takes in the ambient air, atmospheric air, compresses it and puts it into a
container through a non-return valve.
So it will push the compressed air into this container and the pressure within the container keeps
increasing at a constant volume and you store the pressure in the form of P into Q, pressure into
the research volume. So, in this way you can charge up this compressor by taking the energy, the
electrical energy excess energy from the PV panel pass it through the motor converted into
mechanical and from the mechanical to hydraulic pressure and push it into this container and this
is the charging process or energy storage process.
So, the energy is stored by the virtue of the pressure and the discharge volume Q and the
instantaneous power can be controlled by the discharge rate. So PQ dot will be the power, P Q
dot means P Q dQ/dt. Note that during the charging mode, this device is acting as a motor
converts electrical energy to mechanical energy, this device acts as an air compressor which
converts mechanical energy into hydraulic energy and stores the energy by virtue of the
increased pressure of the air.
In order to discharge the stored energy into the load, we need to have an outlet, an electronically
controlled valve here and the discharge rate of the exit is controlled by a nozzle and an air
turbine is used to convert this energy in the compressed air to mechanical energy and the
mechanical energy to the electrical energy through this machine which now acts as a generator,
So that would be the discharge mode. So compressed air here by means of this electronically
controlled valve will operate an air turbine and the air turbine converts hydraulic energy to
mechanical energy, the mechanical energy is converted to electrical energy through a generator.
Here also, there is loss of energy while charging, putting the energy into the hydraulic form.
There is around 85% efficiency, there is loss in the motor and also in the compressor.
And while discharging also there is around 85% efficiency, there will be loss in the air turbine
and also in the generator while transforming the hydraulic pressure into the electrical form. So,
the overall efficiency here again will be around 70%.
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Another storage mechanism is called the flywheel storage mechanism. It is becoming a very
popular method for storing energy, a buffering energy. The principle is very simple. It stores the
excess energy from the photovoltaic panel by virtue of the kinetic energy of the flywheel which
is rotating at a speed . So, let us use a motor like this which converts the electrical energy into
the mechanical energy and to the shaft of the electric motor let us connect a fly wheel of some
particular inertia.
So, while we charge, that is energy from the PV panel goes through the motor into the
mechanical shaft and stores here by virtue of increased rotation, the flywheel kinetic energy is
increased and you will see that that is charged up by having increased rotational angular speed
and then while discharging the energy stored in the flywheel, the inertial energy that is stored in
the flywheel is passed on to this machine now which will act as a generator and puts it into the
load.
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So the flywheel is having an inertia J and rotational speed Omega in radians per second, then the
energy contained within the flywheel is given by ½J ω2. So, if the motor shaft speed increases
then the flywheel speed  will also increase and thereby its kinetic energy will increase by 2,
the differential 2 and that is how the energy is stored within the flywheel and when you want to
discharge into the load the ½ J ω2, the flywheel speed will decrease and release that energy into
the motor which will release it into the load.
So, this is how the flywheel storage mechanism operates and here again you will see that there is
the efficiency of the motor that comes into the picture. So, this will have an efficiency of around
80 percent. So, this system allows overall efficiency in that order because it is just one
component that will come in to the picture here which is the motor and directly to the shaft of the
motor the flywheel is fixed so you can expect practical efficiencies of around 80 % in this
system.
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Prof. L Umanand
Now, let us see how we go about sizing PV for applications with battery. We had already looked
at sizing PV for applications without battery. Now, along with battery what are the modifications
and extensions that we need to do in order to select the size of the PV panels. The first step
would be to determine the load profile. This is a very important step, it in fact will give us an
entire picture of the watt hour requirement for sizing the PV and also the battery. By load profile,
we have to look at what are the types of loads that occur over the entire day and at what times of
the day.
So, let us draw a graph of, on x-axis time in hours from 0 to 24 hours, so we have 6 a.m., we
have 12 noon here, 6 p.m. midnight, 12 midnight. So, this also will be 12 midnight, so you have
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0 to 6 a.m. in the night, then 6 a.m. to 12 noon, 12 noon to 6 p.m. and 6 p.m. to 12 midnight
covers the entire 24 hours of the day and on the y-axis let us have watts of the load, so that
actually this whole graph should give you the profile of the load or the entire day. We shall split
the entire day into two parts, one part where the solar PV panel will supplement the load, solar
PV panel and battery both together will be powering the load.
Either PV panel will be supplementing which will be the battery will be dominating or in high
insulation condition, the PV panel will be dominating, battery will be supplementing, which
ever the case, both the PV panel and the battery are active, that we shall call it as a day load and
the other type is called the night load. In the night load, PV is out of the picture there is no
insulation PV does not contribute anything, the entire load is supported by the battery. So, this
portion roughly around 7 a.m. to 5 p.m. will be the portion that we can consider as a day load,
even at 6 a.m. sometimes okay Sun is just rising and but you may not receive significant
insulation and even during at this time zone where Sun is setting, you may not have significant
insulation.
So, around 7 a.m. to 5 p.m. we can consider as day load all the loads occurring during that time
and during the remaining time, we will say this portion from 12:00 midnight to sunrise and from
sunset on to 12:00 midnight, they all will be considered as times, where night load occurs. So,
we will write this down as the period where day load happens and here this time duration, any
load will be considered as night load and here too, in this time duration any load will be
considered as night load.
After having done the load profile over the entire day for a given application, the take away out
of this exercise are, we need to have got the watt hour of the day as all the loads occurring during
this period, we need to have got the watt hour of the night the night load, which is all the loads
occurring during this period and this period put together. We also need to get what is the peak
load current, useful for battery design and we will mark it as, we will give the symbol I LM, I load
max, we also need to have the average load current during the entire day, again helpful in
designing the battery, the average load current will just call it as IL.
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So this, these parameters ILM and IL will be used for designing the battery along with of course
the watt hour requirement for the load. Watt hour requirement of the day and night we will use
for determining the or sizing the PV panels.
Let us consider an example on determining the load profile, so let us say that there are three
loads, one of the load 1 is having this character, it is having 48 volts, 48 watts and it is a day and
night continuous load, it occurs on all times of the day and it has a fixed set of watt of 48, so this
much amount of power 48 watt power continuously. Now load 2, let us say is a water pumping
device. So, it is it is switched on three times daily for one hour duration each and it is switched
on once before sunrise, once at noon and once after sunset.
The load has an average running current of 4 amps at 24 volts DC. So, this is the character of
load 2. Note that load one also is operating at 24 volt DC, so it is having 48 watts day and night
continuous load at 24 volt DC, let us mark that also at 24 volts DC. So that the voltage is also
defined for the load 1 and load 2. Load 3, now let us take the load 3, it is a 3 amp load occurring
at 24 volts DC, for every 2 hours that is switched on for a period of 6 minutes only. So 6 minutes
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every time it is switched on but it is switched on at regular intervals of 2 hours throughout the
entire day.
Now, let us draw the xy coordinates of the load profile. The x is, x axis is time in hours of the
day let us mark 6 a.m.12:00 noon, 6 p.m. and 12:00 midnight. The y axis of course is watts, load
watts. Now, first let me mark load 1, this is 48 watts, that is corresponding to load 1. So, this is
48 watts and this entire area 48 watt x 24 hours will be the watt hours consumed by this
particular load 1 in a day, 48 x 24 hours. Now, let me mark this as the daylight zone or the day
load zone. So, that is somewhere around 7 a.m. in the morning to 5:00 p.m. in the evening. So
between this time this 10 hour duration let us consider that PV panel is active and participating in
delivering energy to the load apart from the battery.
And during this period, we say this is night load, this is also night load, where only the battery is
participating. So, this is about load 1. Now, let us see load 2, is water pump, is 3 times daily for 1
hour duration each time and once before sunrise, ones at noon, and after sunrise. So, it is having
a running current of 4 amps, so 4 amp into 24 is 96 watts instantaneous. So, let me incorporate
that. Now, let us say this is 1 hour duration and that is 96 watts height. Now, this is before
sunrise, like likewise I should have one at noon and one after Sun set. So, load 2 is taken care by
these 3 rectangles, height 96 watts and each duration 1 hour duration.
So you have 96 watt hours, 96 watt hours and 96 watt hours here. Now, load 3 is a 3 amp load
for every 2 hours, 6 minutes duration. So, it is distributed throughout, so you will see spiky lines
like, okay that is 96 watts, you will see spiky lines like this throughout the day, I will not mark
these spiky lines throughout, otherwise it will disturb the graph. So, each of this line spiky line
here represents 72 watts for 6 minute duration and occurring every two hours throughout the
entire day.
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Let me move up the board and now let us calculate what are the day and night loads. First the
day load now day load we have defined the day to be 7:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m. of course at different
latitudes different places sunrise to sunset can be different, you should appropriately choose that,
so we have here a 10 hour period which we consider as day load from here to here. So, what are
the loads that are occurring during the day time period as we have defined. So, watt hour day you
have 48 x 10, so this 48 workload is occurring constant for a 10 hour period, so this area we need
that plus this is 96 watt water pumped load, load 2, so this is 96 x 1. There is only one rectangle
in the day time period plus these 72 watt spiky line, 6 minute duration, you see between size 7
a.m. and 5 p.m. if I calculate every two hours, you will have five such spiky lines here. So, 72
into 6 by 60, I have converted minutes to hours to have consistent units, into 5. So, there are 5
such occurrences of this load here. So, when you calculate this for 80 watt hours + 96 watt hours
+ 36 watt hours, which is 612 watt hours, so 612 watt hours of day load. Now, let us calculate the
night load, so the night load is for the remainder of the day and it contains off 24- 10, which is 14
hours for our case here.
Let me move up, now let us calculate watt hour night, which is equal to 48 x 14 + 96 x 2 + 72
every 6 minutes, 7. So, totally every 2 hours the spike, the 72 watt load will occur for 12 times,
So, 5 is considered in the day load, the remaining 7 will be considered in the night load and this
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when you calculate i,t 672 watt hours plus 192 watt hours plus 50.4, so you have 914.4 watt
hours of night load. This plus this together will be watt hours for the entire day.
Let us now calculate the peak load current, the peak load current is now you see that for load one
is contributing 48 watts divided by the voltage 24 volts, will be the load current contribution of
that load 1, 96 / 24 volts and 72 / 24 volts.
Let me move it up a bit, so you have two amps contributed by load 1, 4 amps contributed by load
2 and 3 amps contributed by load 3, which is totally 9 amps. This is the worst case, where all the
loads can overlap. So, then the battery needs to supply 2 amps plus 4 amps plus 3 amps all
together. But you see that, you can, you can manage the loads, you can do load management
such that some of the loads need not overlap. For example, load 2 and load 3 need not overlap.
You, all that is mentioned for the constraint of load 2 is that it should be before sunrise. So, you
could always see to it that these two do not overlap in which case, in which case, the maximum
worst case would be 6 amps, the battery has to discharge maximum peak load current of 6 amps
under non-overlapping conditions. So, if the load 2 and load 3 do not overlap.
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Now, let us calculate the average load current too, because this is all the important in calculating
ampere hours of the battery, so we will do a duty ratio, based on the duty ratio, 2 amps is
occurring for 24 hours or for the entire day, so, 24 / 24. 4 amp, the load 2 is occurring 3 times
daily, 1 hour duration. So, 3 hours out of 24 and the 3 amp load is occurring 6 minutes by 60,
converted into hours, this is happening for 12 times, every 2 hours divided by 24 hours. So, this
will give you 2 amps + 0.5 amps + 0.15 amps and this works out 2.65 amps as the average
battery discharge currents throughout the entire day, if there is no participation from the PV
panel, if the battery was even supposed to supply the load, to the entire load for the entire day.
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Prof. L. Umanand
We shall now find out the number of days of autonomy and the number of days of recharge of
the battery to replenish the charge lost during autonomies operation. Let me consider this graph
where the x axis is time in days not hours, time in days and I want to split the time axis like this
and each segment is one day like this 1, 2, 3, 4, then kth day, k+ 1 day and so on. So they are the
day numbers.
Now consider contiguous days, if for example on two contiguous days, there is no sun power
meaning it is so cloudy, it may be monsoons at that place at that particular latitude. So, you may
not have sun power significant sun power at all on many contiguous days. So, consider let us say
for example in on these 2 days, it is cloudy and there is no sun, no sun power. So, how do we
take this into account.
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We say that on these two days, on these two days or the days where there is no cloud, the entire
load as to be supported by the battery. So, these are the contiguous days and the load as to be
supported entirely by the battery, there is no support from the PV or the solar and these days of
operation is called autonomous operation means it is operating by itself without the help from
solar of the PV.
So which means battery has to be rated to support the load for as many number of days for the
particular place needs. So, this is called the days of autonomy and we will give a symbol n a.
Now, after having gone through the period, the days of autonomous operation, the battery would
at pretty low condition and it has to get recharged, following, on the following days on the sun is
back again to normal, the PV has to recharge the battery and probably it may not be able to
recharge in one single day.
Because then you will have to over rate the PV panel very much and it can be costly. You may
have to recharge it in a number of days following the days of autonomy. So, let us say you have a
number of days associated with recharge, replenishing the number of amount of charge that has
been lost during autonomous operation.
We will call this as the days of recharge and then we will give it a symbol n r. So, normally na will
be 0 meaning the 0 number of days of autonomy meaning on every day normally the PV panel or
the Pv source will be contributing to the load. So, number of days, contiguous days, the PV does
not participate is what we will associate with autonomies operation. So, n a will normally be 0
which means we assume that on everyday PV does contribute to the load. n r also will be
normally 0 and it is the number of days replenish the charge lost during autonomies operation.
By autonomies operation, we mean on those days when the PV does not participate, battery
alone will be supply to the load. so we need to define na and nr. So, normally we take it as n a as
0, nr as 0
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Prof. L Umanand
Next, week select the battery. Let us see what is the watt hour requirement for the battery. The
Whload is Whnight by the efficiency. We see that in a normal condition, the day load Wh day is apply
by the for photovoltaic panel and the night load is supplied by the battery. Photovoltaic panel
will charge up the battery to accommodate the night load and the insulation is not present, the
battery will see to it that it supplies sufficient number amount of energy for the load.
This efficiency factor here is included to take care of charge discharge losses. So, this Wh night by
efficiency will take care of the night load plus the battery charge discharge losses that we have
already discuss. Now, this is, if the PV panel participates in supplying to the load everyday.
However, just now we discussed on number of days of autonomy, there can be a cloudy days,
there can be contiguous days without significant amount of sun power.
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Now let us say the night na number of days of autonomous operation, number of days or
autonomy is not 0, which means you have 1 day without the PV panels participating, there could
be two days without the PV panels not participating and so on. So, if we take this n a0 = 0, then
what is the load that the battery has to supply. Of course, it has to take care, cater to the night
load of that day which is Whnight by efficiency of the battery plus it would take care of Wh day by
Whnight which means the entire load of the day by efficiency.
Now, this would be the entire load of the day and the battery has to supply this complete load for
the entire day for how many hour days the sun power is not available, which is the number of
days of autonomy into na. Now, this would give you the total watt hours that the battery has to
cater to. So, this can be simplified as Whnight by efficiency of the battery, na plus 1 plus Whday by
efficiency into na.
Now select the battery chemistry, example let us say, load acid battery tubular lead acid battery
which has deep discharge characteristic about 80% DOD. So, normally one would choose this
for a PV application, tubular lead acid battery deep discharge of 80% DOD can cater to
continuous long tern loads and the Ahbat can be calculated as Whload, this Whload is as calculated
here which includes the efficiency of the battery also divided by DOD into Vbat normal.
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For the example that we had discussed earlier, recall that it had three loads, load 1, load 2, load 3.
Load 1 was at continuous 48W day night load at the 24V dc, load 2 was a water pump, three
times daily, 1 hour duration again 24V dc and load 3 was 3A, 24V every 2 hours was for 6
minute duration.
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And we had the day load of 612 Wh and night load of 914.4Wh. Let us use this value for
selecting the battery, calculating the battery capacity.
So, Vbat.nom in this 24V, DOD 0.8 which is 80% depth of discharge, na = nr is number of days of
autonomy and number of days of recharge we will set into 0 because we are designing it, such
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that the photovoltaic panels are participating in the, in supplying to the load every day. Wh load is
Whnight load by efficiency of the battery which is equal to 914.4Wh by 0.7, I am taking 70%
efficiency for the battery which is a practical value, Wh efficiency of the battery is 70% thats a
practical value this turns out to be 1306 Wh.
Ahbat can be calculated as 1306 Wh by 0.8, depth of discharge, into 24V as the battery in nominal
voltage and this comes out to be is 68 Ah and we have seen earlier that the load current
maximum is around 6A under non-overlap condition and the load current average is around 2.65
A, if you consider 68 Ah and 6A, we will see that, let us say we take a 70Ah battery and if you
choose a C10 rate, so it will be around 7A, 70A / 10, 7A charging and discharge rate and
therefore we could go in for a battery which is 70Ah C10 or C / 10.
This is the case a worst case design, in a sense that you are seeing to it that even the maximum
current rating is within this C10 rating, the capacity is preserved, but this will result in a bigger
size battery and costlier battery. However we could also we go a bit more conservative in the
cost by choosing the 68Ah and the average current 2.65A, this result in selection of a battery or
70Ah and C20. C20 will give approximately 3.5A which is still much greater than 2.65A average
and therefore even this will work better but at maximum current discharge, the maximum current
discharge 6 A will be more than the C20 value and therefore that can be slight loss in capacity
but if that is permissible, then it may be advantageous to go for this because it is definitely much
cheaper and smaller in size.
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Prof. L .Umanand
Let us see now how we go about sizing the PV array. The PV array has to deliver watt hours in
the following way, to the following loads. The first one is the day load which we have called
Whday, the second one is the night load, the night load is actually to be stored in the battery during
the day time. So, when during the day time, when the Sun power is present, the PV array has to
pump this much amount of watt hours, watt hours night load into the battery and the PV array
has also to naturally supply the battery's charge and discharge losses. So, this is a major
component which the PV array has to supply. So, this would be watt hour night load by the
efficiency of the battery.
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The third component is at the watt hour for autonomous operation. So, if there are days
contiguous days without significant Sun power and on those days the battery has to support the
load. It has to supply energy to the load. So, for supplying the energy to the load on the days of
autonomy that much amount of watt hours has to be pre-loaded into the battery by the PV array.
So, taking these load constraints into account, let us work out the worst case situation. The worst
case scenario will be something like this. The x-axis is the days and let me divide that into the
number of days like this. Now, each segment is a day, this is day 1, day 2, so on, up to day n a. na
is the number of days of autonomy, meaning n a the number of days continuous days when there
is no significant Sun power.
So, these are the days of autonomy and immediately following the days of autonomy, you need
to replenish the battery. The battery has to recuperate. So, following those days from 1 to n r,
these are the recharge days, these are the days on which the battery has to be recharged such that
the watt hour lost during these days of autonomy is recuperated, is replenished.
The watt hour lost during the days of autonomy, let us say given by Wh auto and the entire Whauto
may not be possible to be replenished in one day. Because in such way, in such case the PV array
size has to be extremely overrated and then such a system can be costly and that may not be
worth having in such a huge PV array size just for this extreme worst case. So, what is generally
done is, whatever energy is lost Whauto, we will try to recuperate it spread over few days and that
is not number of recharge day.
So, on each day the PV array has to supply an extra amount of Wh auto by nr so this it has to do for
nr number of days then all this energy loss would have been recuperated. So, this Wh auto by nr has
to be replenished to the battery each day following the days of autonomy. Now this Wh auto by nr
is what represents this watt hours for autonomous operation. This is the component which has to
come from the PV array. Whnight by efficiency the battery has to also come from the PV array and
the watt hours for the day obviously has to come from the PV array. Taking all these things into
account, let us now write down the watt hour PV requirement, which will be like this watt hour
PV is watt hour day plus watt hours night by the efficiency of the battery.
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This is the standard requirement where the PV has to supply the day load plus the night load plus
the battery charge and discharge losses. Apart from this, it has to supply the energy required for
the days of autonomy which watt hour day plus watt hour night. So, when the Sun power is not
there, both these has to be stored into the battery and therefore you have the efficiency of the
battery coming into the picture.
And this much amount of the power for any number of days so many number of days so this
would be the total power that has to come out of the battery when the PV is not participating due
to poor light conditions, so these are the days of autonomy and this figure here this equation here
represents Whauto and for recharging the worst case condition is apart from this the PV has to give
immediately following the days of autonomy, this much amount of extra charge which is Wh auto
by nr. So this much divided by nr. So, obviously you will be that this part of the equation
represents the energy Whauto. So, now rewriting Whday load1 plus na by efficiency of the battery
and then nr. So, this comes from taking this along with this part of the equation. Taking this part
of the equations, you will get Whnight plus nr plus na by nb, efficiency of the battery into nr.
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So, this would be the equation for calculating the watt hour of the PV. So, the array peak watt
can now be calculated Pm should be greater than watt hour of the PV divided by Hat minimum.
So, now you have to find out what is the H at minimum that is the incident energy at a place on a
tilted surface with atmospheric condition, the minimum over the entire year, this we know how
to do, we have also developed the necessary program files for that you feed in the latitude and
the tilt and you will get what is Hat minimum.
So for Bangalore, we found out that it was around 4.5 kilowatt hours per meter square per day.
So, WHPV/Hat.min and here the this Hat.min is having the units of hours and not kilowatt hours per
meter square per day, because we are numerically using the value of H minimum to represent so
many hours of one kilowatt per meter square radiation, standard insulation. So, H at.min here will
numerically be same as the hours of equivalent standard in solution.
And then we calculate the intrinsic area of the PV panel which is P m by efficiency of the panel
and there all real estate area, the actual real estate area which includes even the walking area, the
walking, the walkways and the service area, maintenance area will be 1.3 times the intrinsic area.
So, these are the equations that will be used in sizing the PV array.
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Note that if na is equal to zero that is number of days of autonomy is equal to zero and there is no
recharge number of days then the watt hour PV is given by just the first part of the equation
which is watt hour day, it has to supply the day load plus the night load plus the battery charge
discharge losses. Now, now, let us try to apply it for the example that we have been discussing.
Previously we discussed it for the battery sizing and also for load profiling.
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Recall that we had discussed about this load, you have load 1, load 2, load 3 and we had
calculated the day load at our day 612 watt hours, 914.4 watt hours. Let us use these two
numbers and try to calculate the PV array size that is required. The watt hour PV is equal to 612
watt hours for the day load, 914.4 watt hours night load plus you have to include also the charge
discharge losses. So, we have the 0.7 or 70% battery efficiency and all this works out to be 1918
watt hours.
The array peak watt Pm should be greater than 1918 by Hat minimum and Hat minimum for
Bangalore we have found it to be 4.58 kilowatt hours per meter square per day and here we are
using it with the unit hours, so many hours of one kilowatt per meter square insulation. It will
give you 418.8 watt peak or 0.4 per kilowatt peak.
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Now, select a PV cell from standard manufacturers select a 16% efficient mono crystalline PV
cell say for example and if we calculate the intrinsic area of the PV panel, it works out to be P m
by efficiency of the PV panel, of course if P m is in kilowatts then in the denominator the input is
1 kilowatt per meter square incident insulation but if Pm you take it in watts then the input
insulation you should take it as 1000 watt per meter square, so accordingly use the units.
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So if you are using 4 18.8 watt peak as the peak watt divided by efficiency 0.16 in 2000 watt per
meter square, you land up with 2.617 meter square as the intrinsic array area. The actual area of
the real estate will be 30% more than the intrinsic area of the panel and that we have discussed
earlier that it is needed for maintenance purpose cleaning purposes and 1.3 times 2.16175 works
out to be 3.4 meter square. So 3.4 meter square of area should be made available on the roof top
so that you can mount arrays, PV arrays having and net array capability of 418.8 watt peak or
420 watt peak for this particular application. So, this is how you go about selecting the PV array
size.
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Prof. L Umanand
We shall now do some octave scripting to design PV systems. I have here in the folder two files,
one is system design.m, I will discuss about that now and the other one is Hat_estimation.m. This
we have discussed earlier. In fact, I have picked this file from my previous week's discussion.
This gives an estimate of Hat, the incident energy at a place with atmospheric effects and tilt. I
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only slightly modified this file so that it becomes a function and I can call it into
system_design.m.
So, I will now go into system design.m and here I have written the script file. So, basically it
contains few sections, one is the specifications which contain the specs related to loads, specs
related to battery, specs are related to PV and insolation. Then, just like we discussed in theory,
the sizing of the battery, we will try to put in those equations into the script file, then how to
obtain hat minimum, is basically I use the same script file that we had discussed earlier, in an
earlier week, but only that now it is converted into a function and then how we go about sizing
the PV, so and then finally displaying the results.
So, these are the sections and I have put in the numbers, the same number that we had worked
out by hand. So that you can verify them. So, I have here the specs related to load, watt hour day,
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watt hour night, peak load current, average load current, the number of days of autonomy,
number of days of recharge after autonomy, specs related to the battery, V bat nominal voltage,
efficiency of the battery, DoD, depth of discharge and those related to PV and insolation, the
efficiency of the PV 16%, latitude 12.97, Bangalore latitude, the tilt angle of 10 degrees, so the
battery sizing equation, the same equations that we discussed in theory. I have included them
here and estimating it Hat minimum, this one what I have done is I have used the file that we have
already worked before except that I have converted it into a function, function which gives an
output as a Hat minimum and the name of the function is Hat estimation.
And the inputs to the function is Q or  latitude and B, β tilt angle. So, I just made those
comments here and then the rest of this is same as the H at estimate function that we discussed
earlier, and finally I am sending out returning this H at minimum which is minimum of Hat array
and this is what is the return back and we use this for system design. So, this is the H at estimate,
so you will find the Hat minimum from here in kilowatt hour per meter square per day which we
will use this value here to find the peak watt.
So this portion is basically that I want o clamp the n r value to 1, because I have a division by nr
and I cannot actually do a division by zero, so therefore I am limiting n r to one with a new
variable nrr just for calculation, computation within the script file, otherwise all the equations are
as we have discussed and then going to the display, you display the specs, then you display the
battery sizing itself and the PV sizing results. So, this will give you the entire system design.
Let me now see, let us now see how we run this in octave and obtain the results. So, let me start
octave, so this is octave, let me go to the specific folder PVsim. So, we have these two files here
like we discussed, let me clear the workspace and I will execute system design. So on executing
clear everything, so you will see that the display results are displayed. These are the displayed
outputs for the PV system designed, the first part relates to the specifications, it is, these are the
same numbers as we have inputted, specs related to load specs related to battery, specs related to
PV and insolation. It is good to have all these numbers in one place so that you can always cross-
check with the results that you have obtained. The second part is the battery sizing, the PV
sizing. Battery resizing the ampere hour capacity of the battery 68 Ah and then you have the C
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rate with respect to peak load discharge, C rate, with respect to the average load discharge. It is
basically the ampere hour calculated divided by the peak current and ampere hour calculated
divided by the average load current divided.
So C/11, but you can use the nearest, nearest 10 th value lower than this. So, it can be C / 10, C /
25 neasrest ten's values can be C?20. So, this is as per we have discussed while doing the manual
calculations. PV sizing you Hat minimum is 4.58 watt hour required for the PV peak array, the
peak watts of the PV array is 418, intrinsic area 2.6 m 2 and actual real estate area around 3.4 m2
just as per we have calculated.
But this is just to validate what we have done but you can explore with lot of things here. You
can include days of autonomy, number of days of charge recharge, replenishing the battery after
the days of autonomy, play around with the day and the night load and see what are the output
results as with respect to the battery and the PV sizing. This will give you more insight into the
design of the PV systems.
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Prof. L Umanand
What is MPPT? what is the concept of MPPT? So we shall do that just now. MPPT stands for
Maximum Power Point Tracking. So MPPT, what does this mean? See in the case of the
photovoltaic modules, there is one single operating point at any given point in time, where
maximum power can be drawn. So, we need to locate this point, track this point and see that the
operating point of MPPT module is always at that point are hovering near and around that point.
The process of doing this, always trying to maintain the operating point of the PV panels at
maximum power point is called the maximum power point tracking.
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Consider this simple circuit, we have the photovoltaic module connected to a simple load R 0,
simple resistive load R0, R0 is a variable resistance. Now, what happens when we sweep R 0 from
a short, virtual, actual short circuit 0 to open circuit, we can see that in the IV characteristic of
the PV panel, that is we measure the V here and I here and then we plot the V on the x axis plot
the I on the y axis. This is approximate the IV curve of PV panel. We see this line here, this line
on which I am drawing, I am moving the mouse along now that is called the load line.
We have discussed this load line in week 2, you can refer back to that. Now this load line is
nothing but the ratio of ∆I/∆V which is 1/R 0. So, if I move this load line along such that it is
along the x axis like this then 1/R0 the slope of that line is 0, therefore R0 has to be infinity so
which means that this is open circuit across the terminals. Similarly, if we rotate the load line
such that the slope is infinite and aligned along the y axis, then the operating point represents R 0
as a short circuit, R0 is equal to 0. So, for any arbitrary operating point, I will keep it like this and
this operating point should represent the peak power that is being drawn.
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Now consider this modified figure. RT is the resistance seen across this terminal, viewed from the
PV module side. So, viewed from here, the terminal resistance is called R T and that is what I am
using for load line. So, this is the load line having admittance 1/RT. Now, this IV characteristic of
this particular PV panel, let us say is like this and the point of intersection of the load line 1/R T
line with the IV characteristic is the operating point.
Now, onto this, let us superpose the power curve, power P versus V. So, this is the P versus V
curve, we have seen this earlier. So, I am just introducing this power curve into this figure. Now,
somewhere here is the peak power point. So, the tangent to that hill that would be the peak power
point. So, we will call that one as Pm and let me mark the peak power here with an x mark. If you
draw that line straight through the peak power point and may get intersect to the IV
characteristic.
So, what is what is the y intercept, that is called I m, whatever is the x intercept that is called V m.
So, Vm is the voltage at peak power operating point. I m is the current at peak power operating
point. Vm into Im will be Pm, So this will be the operating point, this is how it will look like. The
operating point at peak power if the load line is shifted to the right from the operating point
which represented the peak power point as shown here, which means that the slope has decreased
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that is RT has increased, RT has increased implies that R0 has increased, it has gone more towards
open circuit.
And with this operating point which is the point where the load line intersects with the IV curve,
you see the y-intercept is an arbitrary I, x-intercept is an arbitrary V and the intersection with the
P curve or the power curve is here X as shown and it is much away from the peak power point.
So this operating point does not draw the peak power from the PV panel it draws a power much
less than the PV panel.
If we shift the load line to the left, implying that R T has decreased, RT decrease means R0 has
decrease it is going towards short-circuit, so in such a case also you will see that the y-intercept
is closer to the short-circuit current value, the x intercept V, some arbitrary voltage V and it cuts
the and the vertical line drops down and intersect the power curve vat this point X and you see
that this operating, this operating point results in a power drawn which is much lesser than the
peak power. So, it is only at this operating point here you see that the power drawn on the PV
panel is maximum. Let me say that the this operating point is tracking the maximum power point
or its drawing maximum power from the PV panel.
So, it is our job now to see that the load line is always at around this point such that maximum
power is always drawn. Now, the problem would arise what if R0 changes, if R0 changes this load
line has to change either to the right or to the left, the load line slope will either increase or
decrease. If that happens then the corresponding maximum power point will be lower as we saw.
Then in that case, how do we still maintain the operating point to be at this point as shown here
such that the power drawn is maximum?
For that, we need to introduce an interface here, a power interface. Now, job of that power
interface is to see that RT is always at this operating point whatever may be the value of R0 this
block is called a power interface, it can be a DC-DC converter. It needs to have a control input,
the job of the power interface with the control input is as follows if R 0 changes, the control input
should we treat such that the input impedance of the power interface which is same as R T is
maintained constant.
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So input impedance should be regulated. So, whatever may be the value of R0, the swing in R0
the control input should accordingly change in such a way that the input impedance of this power
interface block is made constant. In such a case, RT the terminal impedance as seen from the PV
module will remain fixed or constant irrespective of the value of R 0. In such a case, as the PV
module is seeing RT and that is fixed and therefore this load line will be fixed and the load line
will see to it that maximum power is being drawn from the PV panel.
So this is called maximum power point tracking and this concept of this maximum power point
tracking is very crucial if you want to utilize the PV module to the fullest extent. How does one
give the control input? Now, that is where we need to do some sensing and then we need to pass
it through a controller and appropriately give the control input in such a way that R T is regulated
and kept constant in the face of varying R0. We shall of course look at what are the different
types of control mechanisms that we can apply to this control input.
Consider the maximum power point tracking topology with a power interface, the input
impedance RT which is also the terminal impedance of the photovoltaic module, R0, R0 is the
load of the application load which is varying not under your control, the power interface for a
DC application where the output load requires a DC voltage. We will use a DC-DC converter
which has a control input and the control input for a DC-DC converter is duty cycle D and that is
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the control input. The DC-DC converter can be any of the topologies that you are familiar with,
you have the isolated, the non isolated topology. In the non isolated, we have the primary
topology that the boost step-up, buck converter step-down converter, the buck boost converter
and the isolated topology, you can use probably the fly-back converter, forward converter, push
poles, half bridge converter, full bridge converter and so on. So, all these converters and any
other converters that you are, your application demands, you could use it as a power interface
appropriately such that the duty cycle if it is controlled should be able to control the input
impedance and therefore the terminal impedance as seen by the photovoltaic module.
If the application is an AC application, that is the load demands an AC voltage, then you need to
use a DC to AC converter or an inverter and that also needs to have a control input which is also
duty cycle and we will see that also how we go about doing maximum power point tracking for a
load that demands AC voltage.
Let us see, how we give this control input to the DC-DC converter in a generic way in such a
way that RT is regulated. So, we need to measure two items, one is the voltage across the
photovoltaic module, the other is the current that is flowing through the photovoltaic module. So,
basically the source, the PV source voltage and currents, terminal voltage and current. Now these
two inputs are needed now these two is processed appropriately.
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There are different algorithms to process that. We will discuss that later and then out of it comes
the reference. So, a reference generator, this block can be considered as a reference generator
using the i and v a reference is generated and that reference is compared with another variable
which is the actual variable which is also sensed, measure such that R T will be maintained
constant.
So, generally this will be a power variable, again we will discuss there are different control
topologies. So, what is the feedback variable and what is the reference variable, is basically the
concern in the most MPPT and how it is designed and developed will be discussed in discussions
to follow. So, right now consider that there will be a reference which will be generated
appropriately and there will be a feedback variable.
These two will be compared and the error is passed to a PI controller. A controller like this will
see to it that the error here goes to 0 in which case the feedback will match the reference and
under that condition MPPT would have been achieved. So, this PI controller output will lead to a
PWM block, it will generate the PWM necessary for giving the duty cycle control to the DC-DC
converter. So, this would be the general topological block diagram block schematic of any
maximum power point tracking system.
You, you will need the voltage and the current sensing, you will need a controller something like
this, PI controller and PWM which will be given to the duty cycle control input of the DC-DC
converter. The DC-DC converter, for any general DC-DC converter that fits your application
which you would have pre-chosen. Now, what we shall do is look at this block the power
interface block, first let us consider DC applications, so we will discuss about DC-DC converters
for the primary DC-DC converters so that we get an idea of how we would go about doing
MPPT.
So let us investigate this block, interpose actual an actual DC-DC converter circuit and see how
this whole control mechanism operates to regulate RT in such a way that the maximum power is
drawn from the photovoltaic module.
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Prof. L. Umanand
Let us see how we can use the boost converter as a power interface for MPPT. Consider this
photovoltaic module and this photovoltaic module is now interfaced to the load R0 by a boost
converter, boost converter is having an inductance that is input, a switch, a power semiconductor
switch like this, now this could be a BJT as shown here or it could be an IGBT or it could be a
MOSFET, any of the switches, any of the power semiconductor switches can be used herein
switched mode on/off mode.
So, this point, from this junction we need to use a diode connected to a capacitor, output
capacitor. So, this portion forms a boost converter circuit. Now, to the terminals at the output of
the boost converter, you connect the load, the application load like this. So, let us name the parts,
so that is R0, here is the terminal voltage VT, the inductor L, let us say the current flowing
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through the terminals PV panel IT, the same IT is flowing through the inductor, so IL is same as IT.
We call the switch is Q, diode D, capacitor C and output voltage V.
Now let me draw a timeline t and I will mark by these ticks as shown. The distance between
these first two ticks, that is called T S the time period the switching time period. So, it is with
respect to the power semiconductor switch Q. This is the switching frequency of Q, 1 by the
switching frequency is TS period. Likewise this is also another TS period. Now the TS period
itself is subdivide into two parts, the switch is on and the switch is off.
So, let us mark with another tick here and this period we will say is dT S, d is a value less than 1,
0 to 1. So, dTS the time when the switch is on and obviously (1-d)T S will be the time when the
switch is off. So, we will say this is the on time of Q, Q ON and this is the off time of Q. Now
consider the on time, when Q is on what happens? when Q is on, the current flows through in
this path, during that time. So, current flows like that, not only that this current flows like this,
the capacitor is also continuously discharging to the load.
So, this is also happening, the diode is off because this is at V 0 potential, this Q is on, so this is at
ground potential of the circuit. So, the diode is reverse biased, diode is off. So, you have like two
separate circuits one the PV charging up the inductor like this, the C the capacitor discharging to
the load in this fashion. So, during that time when Q is on, we can observe the voltage across the
inductor and the current through the inductor, these are critical electrical parameters that you
need to know about any converter.
So, let us say you have the voltage across the inductor measured in this fashion, measured with
the ground common probe of the oscilloscope or the multimeter from here and the positive probe
of the oscilloscope here. So, this would be VL and that will be IL. So, VL if you take when during
the time and the dis on, this is at 0, this is at V T, so you will have VT voltage coming across,
during the on time and during the same time, the current flowing through the inductor is same as
IT, the current, because this is VT is constant, the current will be linearly going up, because V L is
equal to LdIL by dt, IL will integrate and you will see the current waveform going up like that
during that time.
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During the time when Q is off, Q is off, but the inductor current has to continue to flow. So, it
will change polarity here and it will drive this diode on and charge up the capacitance and also
the current will flow through the load and supplies the load. So, you will see that the inductor,
the stored magnetic charge in the inductor will discharge both through the capacitor and the load
and charging up, charges up the capacitor.
The voltage across the inductor now will be VT on this side, on this side diode is connected to the
output, so it will be V0, so Vt – V0, as V0 > VT you see that the voltage across the inductor
would have gone negative and this is expected because we need the positive portion to balance
out the negative portion so that the average voltage across the inductor is zero and the current
through the inductor will decay now, because this is discharging now into the capacitance and
discharging into the load, capacitor is charging up, so it will flow in this manner and then repeats
every switching cycle. The waveforms repeat every switching cycle in the steady state and the
average inductor current, the average inductor current, the average inductor current that is
flowing through here will be the terminal current IT. Let us make some space and let us try to
find what is the input output voltage relationship.
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The input output voltage relationship means, relationship between VT and V0, we will use
property that the average voltage across the inductor should be zero, cycle by cycle in the steady
state. So, if you see the voltage across the inductor this is the waveform it is V T positive during
dTS, it is VT - V0 negative during (1 - d)TS. These two areas should balance out, so therefore if we
write here, VT dTS, so the area here is VT into dTS, the area here is V= – V0. So, VT – V0 x( 1 -
d)TS, the time intercept is (1 - d)TS. So, these two areas should add up to 0, so if you simplify that
you will get V0 = VT x 1 by (1- d). Now, that is the voltage relationship between the output and
the input, output V0 is given by VT the terminal voltage across the panel into 1 by (1 –d). Next,
what is the input output relationship with the current, current relationship.
See, for the voltage relationship we used the volt second balance. The Volt second balance
across the inductor, likewise for the current we use the amps second balance of the current
through the capacitor. You see that just like you have the average voltage across the inductor to
be zero every switching cycle, the average current through the capacitor has to be zerom
meaning that they should not be charge buildup in the capacitor the steady state, charge buildup
or charge loss.
So therefore, in the steady state let us say the current through the capacitance, let us look at that.
So, during the time when Q is on, during dT S, the diode was off, current was discharging. If I say
positive direction of current is flowing into the capacitor to charge it up, current discharging as a
negative current, so that is value equivalent to I0 so – I0 x dTS is the capacitor discharging plus
during the time when Q is off, the whole inductor current is flowing in this path through the
diode and a portion of it charges up the capacitance and the portion of it flows through the output
resistance I0, as I0.
So, IT – I0 is what is flowing through the capacitance to charge it up, so as I T – I0 into (1 - d)TS.
So, the charge up and the discharge should balance out cycle by cycle. So that is equal to 0. So,
this on simplification leads to I0 is equal to IT x (1 - d ). This is the second important relationship.
One is the input ordered voltage relationship, the other is the input output current relationship, so
that is 1 and this is 2.
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So if you divide one by the other, let us say 1 by 2, V0 by I0 you will get. 1 by 2, so dividing 1 by
2 you get the resistance relationship and that is what we are looking for. So, this gives R 0 is V 0
2
by I0, V 0 by I0 will be R0 and VT by IT and 1 by (1 – d) by (1 - d ) will become 1 by (1 –d) . So,
VT by IT, VT by IT is nothing but RT as seen from the PV panel side, so I will put it as R T by (1- d
) whole square. So, this is the crucial relationship that we would like to use for maximum power
point tracking. Let us look at this whole circuit from the viewpoint of this resistance relationship.
Let us now see what is the effect of the boost converter on the MPPT through the IV
characteristic curve. So, I am replacing the boost converter by a block and we have the load
resistance R0 like this, so this is R0 you have the voltage across the output V0 and the current
through R0 as I0. the impedance seen from the input side is RT here and the boost converter is
having a control input d and we have just now seen that R T the terminal resistance on the input
side of the boost converter is equal to R0 x (1 – d)2.
So now let us draw the IV characteristic V T the terminal voltage on the x-axis, this is terminal
voltage VT and the current through the terminal current through the PV panel on the terminal on
the y-axis, that is IT. So, let me draw a sample IV curve and a PV curve, this is the IV curve and
the power curve with a peak power point here. I'm also drawing the load line 1 by R T that the
panel has to see for the Peak Power Point operation.
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So, the point of intersection is operating point and the line dropping down to the power curve
will give you the peak power point and this is the peak power operating point. So, let me draw
another load line here what happens to R T when d is varied. So if d is 1, then you know that 1 - 1
RT becomes 0, so when RT becomes 0, the slope becomes infinite, so it is aligned along the y
axis, which is going to result in an operating point which is here which is a short circuit
operating point. So, it is behaving when these made 0 whatever maybe the value of R 0 the load
line presented to the PV panel is a vertical line which is resembling a short circuit, virtually a
short circuit.
So, let me indicate that. So, this is RT, now this occurs at d = 1. Now, what happens when d = 0?
So, when d= 0, you see that RT = R0, RT same as R0, so this happens at d =0. So, from this
extreme load line to this another extreme load line, the load line can be varied by varying d, at
different values of d the load line different values of load line occurs, different with different
slopes and they intersect at different operating points and you have different operating points
coming in here and if I drop down a vertical from the limiting load line down here you will see
that these are all the power points that are accessible.
So, with a boost converter, in the boost converter operation, these are the accessible power points
and these are the operating points that are reachable by the boost converter. So, any of these
operating points can be reached. However, these operating points here which I am showing right
now with the mouse cursor they are not reachable by the boost converter. So, it is very essential
that the extreme 1 by R0 load line falls in such a way that a vertical drop down the power point is
on the other side that is it is on the other side of the peak. It should be noted at the peak is in the
reachable portion of the operating point, then the boost converter has a meaning and you can use
it.
So to all this entire portion, this is called the range of the boost converter. Now there can be a
problem, you have to be cautious and check about that.
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So I have here the IV characteristic with the with a limiting load line 1 / R 0 line here like this. So,
if I put 1 / R0 line like this, then this is at duty cycle d = 0. So, the boost converter all the
reachable points should be on the left side of that, as we saw with argument just now. So, if I
draw a vertical from that point, you will see that all these are the reachable operating points you
can have the load lines of different slopes going on towards infinite slope and the power points
that can be reached or these power points obviously that peak power point is not is not within the
power is not within the zone of operation of the boost converter so it will result in an operating
point which is not reachable, therefore in this case the boost converter if it is used will never give
you a peak power point, will never give you, will never be able to utilize to the fullest extent the
PV module or the PV panel as the converter cannot give a load line, an equivalent load line
which will match the peak power point. Therefore you should be careful and check whether the
boost converter can be used for a given application or not by the load line analysis first checking
the limits of the load line before actually deciding on the type of the converter.
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Prof. L Umanand
Let us discuss now the input impedance of a buck converter and see how the input impedance of
a buck converter can be regulated by duty cycle control. Consider this PV module and let us
interface this PV module of the PV cell to a buck converter. So, the buck converter consists of a
BJT switch like this, this BJT can be replaced with a MOSFET, a MOSFET switch or it can also
be replaced with the IGBBT switch and this is followed by a diode connected in shunt like this.
We have an inductor and a capacitor. So, this would form a buck converter circuit, this portion.
Now do that let us connect the load R0, so we have the load and that is R0 the voltage across R0 is
V0 and the current flowing through R0 will be I0. So, let us have these symbols as indicated. This
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is C, L, D, Q, Q is the switch and here you have the terminal voltage V T across the panel and the
current IT flowing out of the terminals of the panel.
So this is the buck regulator circuit connected to the PV module. In the boost converter,
connecting a capacitor across the terminals of the PV panel is not mandatory though it will be
helpful, but in the case of the buck converter here connecting a capacitance here is mandatory it
has to be connected. I will connect that later after discussing why. For now, let us understand the
operation of the circuit and try to find the input output voltage relationship, input output current
relationship and the input output resistance relationship.
Let us have the set of graphs. So one axis here the x-axis which is the time and the y-axis V L. VL
is the voltage across the inductor and it is measured like this with a common point of the probe
on this end of the inductor and the positive end of the probe at this point and we shall also have
one axis versus time for the current I L, the inductor current, these are important variables and
parameters that we need to we need to observe which we will use for analysis later.
Let us mark the time spaces, so I will mark the time spaces like this. Now this portion is the time
when Q is on and I will call it as dTS like we did in earlier case for the boost convertor, this is (1-
d)TS together this period is TS period, because d<1. Now it will repeat for the second T S period
also like this. Now, we can use this for drawing the waveforms. During the time dT s Q is on
during (1-d)TS, Q is off, so we will indicate that.
This is on time, off time, in the next cycle again on time, off time and so on. So, when Q is on,
what happens? We will have the current flow in this fashion, Q is on. So, this node is connected,
this node potential is the same as this node potential, so this is V T this is positive diode is reverse
biased, it is out of the picture, Q is on, so you have the current flowing like this through the
inductor, part of it goes into the capacitor, another part goes through the load I0 and comes back.
So this is the current flow through the circuit when Q is on. So, when Q is on, during the dT S
portion, so during this time period let us see how the waveforms look like. The voltage across V L
first, this node of the inductor is at potential V T because Q is on, diode is off. This and this will
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have the same potential, so that will be V T, this potential is connected to the output, therefore this
is at V0. So, the voltage across the inductance VL will be VT-V0.
So that is what we will have here VT-V0. So, let us share that and the current through the inductor
is flowing in this fashion. I said this is more positive than this as shown in this graph, the current
will rise up linearly VT-V= is constant and because we L=L dIL/dt, IL is an integral, IL arises up
with a slope (VT- V0)/L. So, it will be like this and I will add one more axis like this and that is to
see what is the terminal current like.
So this is terminal current IT and because this is coming in series with the inductance at this point
because that is out of the picture, the inductor current is same as Q current, same as I T and
therefore IT and the inductor current will look same. During (1-d)T S period, Q is off. So when Q
is off there is no current flowing out of the terminal of the PV and the current through the
inductor cannot stop, it has to continue and part of it goes into the capacitor, part into the load
with appropriate directions and then you see that it freewheels in this fashion through the diode,
diode is now on. So, under this operating mode let us see how the waveforms develop. The
voltage across the inductor during this mode of operation is -V 0 that is because this node is
connected to the ground, so this potential is 0, this node is at V 0 potential so 0-V0 will become –
V0.
So you will have a negative voltage across the inductor, –V 0. This again is expected, because we
want the positive voltage and the negative voltage to balance within the cycle such that the
average voltage across the inductor should be 0 in the steady state and the inductor current, see
the voltage across the inductor is –V 0 and therefore, the inductor current is now discharging
falling down with a negative slope of -V0/L, because VL=LdIL/ dt, the slope dIL / dt will have a
fallings lope of –V0/L.
So this would be the inductor current within the cycle. I T, because Q is off there is no current
flow from the terminal off the PV panel, so this remains 0. So, this repeats the cycle also, so you
will see that the voltage will be a repetition cycle by cycle, so on, the inductor current and the
terminal current of the PV panel will look like this. Now if you take the average of the inductor
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current, so the average of the inductor current, the DC equivalent of the inductor current is
flowing through R0 that will be pure DC, V0/R0 that is equal to I0.
The ripple portion which is having an average about this DC as 0 will flow through the capacitor
because the capacitor should have a 0 average. So, the AC part, the ripple part having a 0
average flows through the capacitance and the DC part flows through R 0. So, therefore we know
that this value here right through the metal would be having a value R0, I0 in the waveform of IT
that is a terminal current. Observe the terminal current is not continuous, it is switched, broken
up okay.
So, if it is switched and broken up, when IT is flowing, the power is some finite value, when IT is
0 during this time, IT is 0 which means the power drawn from the panel is 0, which means you
are underutilizing the panel. For the panel to be delivering peak power, we need I T to flow
continuously. So, now what is the continuous equivalent of I T here, so this would be the average
value of this.
So, let us say the average value of IT, I will call that as IT average, is the DC value or the average
value of this switched current waveform and this average value has a value like this I T average is
equal to I0 into d, I0 into d is the average value like this. Now, this average value has to flow here
always continuously then only the PV panel will behave in a way where you can you can draw
maximum power from it.
In order to make buck converter operation for maximum power point tracking meaningful, we
need to have the terminal current flowing out of the PV module is continuous, so that peak power
point can be tracked at every instant of time. So, which means that through the terminals we
would like to have IT average amount of current flowing continuously from the PV module. How
do we do that? So, let me do some modification here. Let me erase this and also that and here
I will place a capacitor. So, let me place a capacitor here C T, the current that is flowing here I
will name it as IT as it was originally IT which was flowing into the Q when the capacitor is not
there and this current I will rename that as I T average and I am going to draw another waveform
section here and I will call it what is the current through C T. Now, note that the current through
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the capacitance will have 0 average, just like the voltage across the inductor is 0 average voltage
within the cycle in the steady state.
So, in the steady state the current through the capacitance will be 0. Now I T waveform is like
this, the shaded one, the blue shaded. We want I T average to be what is marked here I T average
continuous DC. So, if IT average is flowing continuous DC during this time actually no current is
being demanded from IT, because Q is off. So, what would happen during this time? This portion
of the energy should be dumped into the capacitance.
So, that is what is happening, that portion of the energy gets into the capacitance and during this
portion IT average is coming out from the PV panel and the excess portion is coming from the
capacitance. So, the capacitance current we can draw like this. So, this portion this is the excess
portion above IT average so during the time when Q is on when Q is on, I T average is
contributing up to this line blue line and above that the stored charge in the capacitor is
contributing this.
So these two had up to give you I T and during the (1-d)TS period, IT average is continuing to flow
out of the panel but as Q is off it is going entirely to charge the capacitance C T. So, it is flowing
into CT. Of course this area should balance out the area and it repeats likewise. So, this portion
of the area corresponds to the area here above the I T average line and this area corresponds to this
area below the IT average line.
So if you take IT average line as the 0 line, above and below the wave shape is exactly what
would flow through CT and it repeats for the cycle. This height down will be same as this height
and that is IT average. So, if you connect the capacitor in this fashion, then you can ensure that a
current equivalent to IT average is continuously flowing, a DC current is flowing here, such that
peak power is being drawn from the PV module at all times and when I T does not flow and Q is
off, it is being dumped into the capacitance and the capacitor is acting as an energy buffer.
So this placement of the capacitance here is very important in the case of the buck converter, in
the case of the boost converter this problem did not arise because the inductance was on the input
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side and there was a continuous current flowing through the inductor, however one can put a
capacitance of the terminals of the PV module, it will improve the ripple and it will, it will make
the input voltage much more stable and it will stabilize the voltage.
However, it is not mandatory for the boost converter, but for the buck converter placing the
capacitance is mandatory, is compulsory. Let me mark the voltage across the C T as VT, it is the
terminal voltage and we are interested in finding the input impedance from the PV panel side.
So, as seen from the PV panel from here would be the resistance of interest R T and we would like
to find the relationship between the resistances RT and R0 .
So, let us first find the voltage input output voltage relationship. So, it is given by taking the
average voltage across the inductor zero cycle by cycle in the steady state. So, we know from the
waveform VT-V0 x dTS will be this area minus V0x(1 -d)TS will be this area. So, we will just put
that down because this area should balance out this area. So, we will say V T minus V0 into dTS+
minus V0x(1-d)TS should be equal to 0. This implies that V 0 = VT x d, will mark this as equation
1.
The current relationship and we found that from this waveform I T average is nothing but I0 x d
would give you IT average, IT average is I0 x d or can write I0 = IT average by d and this we will
name it as relationship 2. We are interested in finding the resistance relationship, input output
resistance relationship, so1/2 will give you R0 which is V0/I0 which is equal to VT divided by, VT
by IT average, VT into d by IT average by d, which will give you VT by IT average into D square,
into D square.
We know VT/ IT average, the voltage across the terminal divided by the continuous current that is
flowing through the terminal is IT average is the input impedance RT has seen from the PV panel
so that is RT into d square. So, rewriting you can write it RT is equal to R0 /D2. So, this is the
important relations, relationship between R0 and RT that we have been looking for in the buck
converter. So RT is a function of R0 and d which is the control input to the buck converter so d is
coming as a control input by controlling the on off duty cycle of this Q here.
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Let us now understand the effect of the input-output relationship of the buck converter on the IV
characteristic of the PV panel. So, I will put V T on the x-axis or on the y-axis for the buck
converter case it is IT average because you have to take the equivalent continuous current that is
flowing out of the PV panel. So, let me draw a sample IV curve and also a PV curve, power
versus voltage curve.
And let me take a load line like this, this is 1 /RT, apparently this RT is adjusted such that it is at
an operating point which is the peak power. We would like the PV panel to operate at this
operating point or at this load line. So, for the buck converter we have seen that RT is equal to R0/
d2, d is the control input, R0 is the output resistance or the load resistance which is not under your
control, so if d is made 0, whatever may be the value of R 0, RT will be in finite infinite meaning
open circuit.
And therefore, the load line will align itself along the x-axis. So, if we draw that, this load line is
RT at d=0. Likewise if we make d= 1, then R T =R0, so it will result in a load line with a slope 1 /
R0 at d =1. So, you see for the buck converter all these highlighted zone is the range of the buck
converter. All these are reachable points with different values of d varying from 0 to 1, you can
have different slopeed load lines, from 1/ RT with slope of 0 to 1/ RT = 1 /R0 with RT = R0 at d=1.
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Now, here in this case, in this figure, you see that this line which results in the peak power, the
peak power operating point lies in the zone of operation of the buck converter which means this
point this peak power operating point is reachable by the buck converter. Now if I mark the
extreme operating point at 1/R0 and drop a vertical, you see that these are the powers that can be
drawn from the PV panel at various operating points and you see that the peak power operating
point is within the range.
Therefore, in this picture the buck converter is a meaningful design. However again like in the
boost converter, I am going to raise a question, let me draw another V T versus IT average graph
so you have this typical IV and the power curve and this is supposed to be the optimal load line
for peak power point and I have here the load line corresponding to d= 0, which is where R T in
finite open circuit and let us say I have another load line 1/R 0. So, this is the other limiting
instead of being here R0 value is such that the slope results like this.
So, this is what you would get at d=1. So, for the buck converter apparently all load lines will fall
only within these two limiting cases and this would be the range the reachable operating points
and from the extreme point if I drop a vertical and I will see that only these are the powers that
can be outputted from the PV module but the peak power operating point is somewhere here and
the peak power falls here which is outside the zone of operation of the buck converter and
therefore this scenario would lead to a situation where the buck converter operation is not
meaningful, whatever maybe the duty cycle, the controlling input, the buck converter will not
provide a load line which will give a peak power operating point, so you have to be very careful
when you design the converters whether it be boost buck or any other converter, the load line
analysis has to be done first to ascertain whether that particular converter can really provide
maximum power point operation. You should, for the buck converter how a scenario like this
where the extreme 1/R0 slope line that is a load line slope is such that the range of operating
points should allow for a possibility of peak power point operation such, so that the peak power
point the peak power can be drawn from the PV panel which means the power point operating
point should be a reachable point for the buck converter zone of operation.
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Prof. L. Umanand
Let us now study the input impedance of a buck boost converter and see how we can regulate the
input impedance of the buck boost converter through duty cycle control and let us see it is effect
on the IV characteristic of the PV panel from the point of view of maximum power point
tracking. Let us draw the buck boost converter, interface to the PV panel. So, this is the PV
module, to this PV module let us introduce the buck boost converter.
The circuit of the buck boost converter is like, this it has there is a BJT, power semiconductor
switch, again as I say the BJT can be replaced with a MOSFET or IGBT and in series you have
the inductor, you have a diode connect, connected in this fashion, a capacitor connected like this
and this forms a boost converter. To the terminals of the buck boost converter, you have the load
connected like this, so this is R0. In the buck boost converter, the voltage is reversed, this is
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positive with respect to the other terminals, upper terminal. So, the important bottom termoanl is
positive like this and therefore V 0 is positive if measured in this fashion and I 0 flows goes up as
shown here.
So, this is the character of the buck boost converter. It does give you an inversion in the voltage
polarity. So, that is C, D, L, Q and across the terminals, like in the buck converter, connecting a
capacitance CT like this is compulsory, is mandatory, because of the switch present here on the
input line, the current through this is switched, the current is not continuous and therefore the
current through the PV panel also would not be continuous if you do not put the capacitor and
along similar arguments that we made for the buck converter, we need to put a capacitor here so
that the current here from the panel is smooth and continuous and you can effectively take peak
power from the panel at every instant of time.
So, we will call this VT the voltage across the input terminal. The input impedance RT is as seen
from the PV side, from the PV panel side into the terminals, it is like this. Now, this current here
flowing into the collector of the BJT is called IT, the current here will be called IT average like in
the buck converter. The collect the current through the capacitance, the buffering current will be
the icT current that will be flowing through this. This will have an average zero, this will have an
average and this will be the switched current.
Let us know have the waveform axes. So, axis 1 will be vl, axis 2 is il. The voltage across the
inductor and the current through the inductor which we need. We will have another axis to
indicate the current iT which is going through the switch and we will also see the current through
the capacitor and also look at the reason why it becomes evident that we need to put the capacitor
here so that we have an iT average flowing out of the PV panel.
Now, let us partition these waveform time axis into various time zones like this and mark this
first time zone as dTS, 1- dTS, d is the duty cycle, d is taking a value between 0 and 1. This is one
switching cycle, one switching period TS. Second switching period dTS, 1 – dTS. So, during dTS,
we are keeping the BJT Q here on, so we say that is on, during 1- dT S, Q is off and so on. dT S it
is on, 1 - dTS it is off. Let us consider the period dT S during the time when Q is on. When Q is on
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you will see that there is a flow path for the current in this route. Not only that there, is a current
flow here, the capacitor is discharging through the load. So the capacitor will discharge through
the load in this fashion.
So, you will see that this potential is at -V 0. Observe that the polarity is negative as I told you,
this potential is -V0, this potential is +VT, because Q is on, this potential and this potential will be
same, it will be +VT, it is - V0, this is reverse biased, so this out of the picture. So, you have one
circuit here with a capacitor discharging in this fashion, we have one circuit here with the current
flowing through the inductor in this fashion.
Let us now write down the wave form during this period. So, let us first look at the voltage
across L, so we will mark this VL with the polarity of measurement in this fashion, the common
point of the probe is kept in this terminal and the measuring point is kept on this side as indicated
by the arrow. So, across V L at that point in time, when Q is on, this potential is same as this
potential, it is VT, diode is off, out of the picture. This is at ground potential also the voltage
across the inductor is VT.
So that is why we are going to draw a line like that, constant V T and this is what is going to
appear across L and the current through L using that V L = L diL/dt, il is an integral of the voltage
here. So, it will rise linearly and this is i L, as iL is same as the current through the BJT, current
through the power switch iT is going to be a replica of iL. We will look at icT much later, let us
finish the period, periodic cycle waveform of all these three parameters and then later we will
look at icT.
Now, let us see what happens during 1 - dTs time period and this is the time period when Q is
off. When Q is off iT is 0, there is inductor current but the inductor current will continue to
freewheel by making this diode on so it will freewheeling path and let us draw that path. So, the
inductor current would freewheel in this path with a part of it going through the load R 0 and
another part going through the capacitance to charge it up in this fashion. Let us draw the
waveforms for this part of the circuit during the period 1 – d into TS.
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So, if you look at the voltage across the inductor, the inductor, you see that Q is off, the diode is
on, this is V0 voltage, with this negative, so you have -V 0 coming across the inductor, that is V 0
and this is negative portion, this is the positive portion, negative and positive portion should
balance out so the average is 0. So, during, for the inductor current during the on time we saw
that the inductor current is rising up, inductor that was charging with a slope of V T / L, it will
now discharge with a slope of – V0 / L.
So, it will discharge like this. i T will be 0 because Q is off, there is no i T current, so this will
remain 0. Now, for the next cycle also the same thing will repeat, let me quickly write that down.
So that would be for VL, iL and iT. Before we get to the input-output relationship between RT and
R0, we need to do some analysis on these waveforms because we need some intermediate
relationship which we will be using for finding the input output resistance relationship. Because
we need to know what is iT average and few other parameters.
Now consider the current that is flowing through this branch or the diode branch, one of these.
So, let me mark it there and if you look at the inductor current waveform, observe the inductor
current while the, while the transistor Q is on the inductor current goes in this direction and while
it is off, the inductor current goes in this direction. So, which means this current there is
contained within the inductor current waveform, I have shown hashed in this fashion here.
So, that would be, this portion would be the portion of the waveform that you will find if you
prove here. Now that is actually composed of iC current and i0 current. So, therefore it is i0 + iC. i0
is the DC component, an average component of the current, iC does not have an average
component, so it is a component of the current here which is an AC component without average.
So, approximately i0 would look like this, plus i C would look something like this. This hashed
portion of the current contributes an average value here of value i0.
Here too there will be an average value, the average value will i T average. So, therefore the
average value of the inductor current will be i T average as contributed by this portion and i0 as
contributed by this so this will be iT average plus i0. Now, consider iT, the current through the
BJT. So, this value this line that have drawn here is the average value of the switched the i T
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waveform and that we have called it as iT average and that is what we expect to flow here iT
average this is the switch iT and the buffer current is through CT, ict.
So, let me draw the inductor average current like this, so as we argued just before, this portion is
this line is a contribution of the average during dT and contribution to the average during 1- dT.
So, therefore we have inductor current average as i T average plus i0. The value this line, the
average inductor current line is given by this relationship. So, knowing that this value here
cutting across through this linearly increasing iL waveform is iT average plus i0 and as iT during
the dT portion is same as the inductor current, we can say that the value that cuts across in
between the linearly rising portion of the iT waveform will be iT average plus i0. So, if you mark
those average value, you will see that that will be same as i T average plus i0 both here and here
same value as this. So, if I take this dotted black line every cycle, that would give me a flat
topped rectangular wave shape. Let me redraw that down here and it will appear something like
this and this has a flattop value of iT plus i0 as I have indicated here.
This portion and this portion and there is an average value iT average. Now this we can write it as
iT average is actually this peak value x d, duty cycle. iT average plus i0 into d will give you the
average value iT average. So, if you simplify we get iT average is eqaul to i0 into d by 1- d. So,
this is an important relationship we need. because, this is the value i T average in terms of i0 and d
we need to know what is the value of the current, the continuous current that is flowing out of the
PV panel source.
From here, it is easy to deduce the current flowing through C T, ict. So, you see this is average iT
average. So, if we make that as a zero line, the current through the city is obtained directly from
here so the portion above the i T average line is the charging component and the portion below the
discharging component and so on it repeats cycle by cycle. So, this portion if we write it down
separately here, that portion like that, you will see that i ct will have wave shape something like
this.
So during the dTS period there is current flowing through Q. The average component the dC
component is coming from iT average, the excess varying component is provided by CT and
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during the 1 - dTS time when Q is off, iT is zero, so all the IT average component is going into the
CT capacitor that is charging it up. Now, we are ready to find out the voltage, current and
resistance relationships. Let us write down the voltage relationship, input output voltage
relationship. We look at the inductor current waveform, we know that we need to have a balance
between the positive part and the negative part.
So, within a cycle the positive part will balance of the negative part. So V T into dTS, VT into dTs
plus minus -V0 into 1- dTS should be equal to 0. This implies that V0 = VT d by 1 - d. Remember
that we have chosen the measurement of V0 itself reverse. If we have chosen it in the regular
sense, we would have got a minus sign here, this minus sign would not have been there.
So therefore V0 = VT d / 1 – d is the input output voltage relationship of this converter. Now, the
current relationship, the current relationship we have already seen i T average, we need iT average
and i0, iT average is related to i0 in this following manner d / 1 –d, we just now saw through this
waveform or I will write i0 = iT average 1- d/ d. So, this is the second relationship. The resistance
of the relationship is obtained by the relationship 1 divided by 2, which will give you R 0 which is
equal to V0 / I0, which is equal to VT / IT average into d/ 1- d2. VT / iT average is nothing but RT as
seen from the input terminals, the terminals of the PV module. So, therefore R T is equal to R0,
this will come this side 1 – d/d 2. So, this is the input output resistance relationship for the buck
boost converter and we need to see how this affects the IV characteristic of the PV module and
what is the takeaway that we can get out of this particular relationship for the maximum power
point tracking problem.
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Now let us draw the IV characteristic for the case of the buck boost convertor interfacing the PV
module. So, let us draw the graph. So, you have the x-axis V T the terminal voltage across the
panel, the y-axis is iT average. Let me draw the IV curve in blue, in green you have the power
versus V curve and I have a load line here 1/ R T and at the point of intersection, we have this
operating point and when you drop it down it drops down to the power curve and that is P m, the
maximum power.
So this is a maximum power operating point. Now for the buck boost converter interfacing the
PV module, R T = R0 x 1- d/ d2, so this is the relationship that we just now obtained. Now let us
see what happens at d = 0. So, when d is equal to 0, whatever may be the value of R 0 this works
out to be infinity, so RT will be infinity which means that it presents an open circuit to the PV
panel. So the load line the virtual effective load line is along the x axis so let us draw that. So
here you have 1 / RT at d= 0.
Now d= 1, this is 1, this would be 1 and this is 0. So whatever may be the value of R 0, this works
out to be 0, so RT is 0 implying that it is presenting a effective short-circuit across the terminals
of the PV panel, so which means it is along the y-axis. So, let us draw that and then mark it 1 /
RT at d = 1. So, as d progresses from 0 here, the load line from a horizontal value starts moving
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to a load line which is vertical, which is having infinite slope at d = 1. So, this means that all the
points of the IV curve in the first quadrant are reachable by the buck boost converter.
So, this entire first quadrant portion of the IV characteristic or possible operating points for the
PV module and therefore, obviously the peak power point will definitely come within the range
of the buck boost converter. So, one of the main advantage of the buck boost converter is that it
covers the entire first quadrant and any point on the IV characteristic is reachable by the buck
boost converter interface.
So, this is the important takeaway, entire first quadrant is the range of this converter. So, for
maximum point tracking, from the point of your maximum power point tracking, this would be a
universal converter where any point can be reached for any insolation and any type of load.
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Prof. L. Umanand
Let us gain some insight into the maximum power point tracking by simulating the DC- DC
convertor acting as an interface between the PV module and the load R0. But first, we must know
how to use the PV source in spice. We have to develop the model for the PV source in spice.
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Earlier, we had seen the model of the PV cell. You see that each of the model of the PV cell and
the PV cell modules are connected in series to achieve a higher value of V OC. Likewise you m
ay also connect PV cell modules in parallel to achieve higher values of short circuit currents.
However, for the purpose of simulation, we would like to have some flexibility in deciding the
values of ISC and VOC values.
And try to build the model in this fashion. Lot of this PV cells putting in cascade can be very
cumbersome. Let me say you want to have a 40 volt open circuit module and you need to have
40 such cells in series, not 40, 50 set cells in series so that 0.7 or 0.8 it’s cut in voltage you will
see that you will get 40 volts. But having in cascade 50 units of, each in 50 units of this model
set connected in series will be really cumbersome and the number of components will be really
large and the simulation can be slow. So, we need to have a kind of a generalize model of the PV
cell.
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A PV module in spice or in NG-spice should have an IV characteristic like this. Further, one
should be able to define this point, the short circuit point, I SC and also the VOC point. Now, these
two parameters, we should be able to define for the PV module model which is in spice. Then
only we will be able to perform the simulation of interfacing power convertors with PV module
and further check whether maximum power point tracking is occurring for various different
types of modules, PV arrays or different IV characteristics having different short circuit and
different VOC points.
Remember that the short circuit point ISC, this point, this ISC is directly a measure of the insolation
and therefore definition of this point in spice would mean that you are able to also control the
value according to insolation. So, it is important that we have some measure of control in
deciding what ISC should be for the PV panel and also VOC therefore we need to have in the
spice NG spice source called PV source which is having a symbol like this and a characteristic
the IV characteristic like this which the PV source should be able to emulate.
And such a source having this IV characteristic we will call it as PV source. We need to do two
things one is to write a sub circuit and the sub circuit model should represent the PV source
having this kind of an IV characteristic, so we can use the current source diode model for writing
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the sub set model infact we can leave out the R hunt and R series and have I idealized the diode
and current source model itself that should be sufficient and second we have to make the symbol,
so that you can call it in the schematic editor and let us say that we write the symbol in a file
called DV source. Sym so these two aspects we need to do then we will have the model of PV
source and then we can use this model the PV source as the component within the spice and
along with all other components for example the components in the DC converter and stimulate
the entire system now let us first generate the PV source model.
So recall that we had discussed this model of the PV cell consists of the current source that diode
the dark and dark series RS and Rab or non idealities we can distance with them and then to make
model simple we will try to use only what is the essential most essential the current source and
the diode, and let us build a model along base line with the modified simplified circuit, so let us
have a current source and let us have a diode and the current source will have a constant value
and we have the terminal.
With the terminal voltage VT and we have iT the terminal current here and this what we need to
determine the current source value we will send it as a constant and we will set it proportional to
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insolation which is ISC value, now for this let us write down the model iT which is what want
equal to ISC – the diode current value will be iT and what is the diode current value it is as given
here, so I0 the saturation current into exponential VT the terminal voltage / n, NVT this VT is the
voltage equivalent.
Of temperature - 1 so this value N is 2 for silicon and VT is 0.026 or 4.2500C so I will take it as
a value equal length equal to approximately 2 x 0.025 =0.05 for easy calculation and rewrite our
IT model as I see – I0e VT / 0.05 – 1 so this will be the model of the simplified PV cell or PV module,
here you see that IC is a value ISC the short circuit current is a value that we can set so that is
settable and we can adjust that for module to module what about the VOC,VOC how we will
adjust for the VOC2. But first this module how will you implement it in the sub circuit, so within
the sub circuit we will use what is called as a de source which is size provides and non linear
source call the de source.
Go to the in this spice user manual and refer to the syntax on de source then non linear
dependence source PD is between a plus node wand the minus node you can either a expression
for current or expression for voltage like this D1 0 to 1 is the node ϕ is the current expression and
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goes like this you can also give a conditional statement within here, so let us try to use the de
source module into our PV source module.
So we will use the de source between na to nb and let me call it as Bpv it is nodes na and nb and
let us have current output I normally the current output is positive considered positive for a
source when it is entering the positive node and negative and leaving the positive node and other
case it is to leave the positive node therefore I will indicated as a minus of something some
expression which will come in here, what is the expression that will coming here it will i T this
expression for iT that we have written.
We can introduce one more point at this stage of the modeling we do not want negative current
to sink into the PV cell when i T goes negative that is reveres direction we just want to not allow
that so set iT to 0 during those times, so which means only when i T is greater than 0 then allow iT
as calculated by this equation or l make iT this current i=0, so this is the conditional inline
conditional statement that ngπ’s allows and we can use this equation in our sub circuit model.
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Next comes the point on how to adjust the voltage of the PV module can I increase the voltage of
the PV module. Now let us say here in this point of the equation I divide a v scale value, now let
us say for example when v scale was not there v T terminal voltage was around 0.7 to 0.8. Now if
I make v scale as a value 10 then for the same amount of diode current to flow this numerator
here should be around 0.7 to 0.8 which means vT should go to 7 or 8, 7 or 8/10 will be 0.7 to 0.8
therefore automatically because this is the current source, automatically to achieve the same
current levels vT will automatically scale to a higher voltage or 7 to 8 volt if we make a v scale
10.
If you make v scale for any other arbitrary integer value or non integer value greater than 0 v T
will accordingly scale such that this numerator will be around 0.7 to 0.8. So therefore we can get
a voltage scaling also by adjusting this value, so v scale and ISC will be two parameter values
that we will adjust.
Now let us try to build the sub circuit and see how we incorporate that into the spic schematic I
have created here a folder call PV module and within that folder I have three files one is PV.CIR
file or familiar with what is a CIR file there is a schematic file and then PV.SUB file but I will
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first look at this PV.SUB file where we have placed the sub circuit. So if you recall we had a PV.
SUB file sub circuit file earlier which had only the module of the diode.
Now I have included this part, the PV source so the sub circuit or the PV source is as follows it
has two terminals the positive terminal and negative terminal I am passing two parameters
default value of ISC at 1 voltage scaling factor set to 50. And the first part here setting the ISC
value so I am opening a voltage source between NSC and 0 two nodes and then passing this ISC
parameter here so I will have a node voltage value of ISC likewise I will have a node voltage
value of v scale decoupled independent nodes and I will use that later in this model here. Now
observe this is the DPV model between 1 and 2, between 1 and 2 of the terminals high and I am
setting it has – now this is our IT equation VNSC is an old voltage here which represents ISC,
ISC value-7 this is I0 Ev12 is Vt /0.05 for N VT I also divided by Vndv the V scale value.
Now if these values if this It value is greater than 0 than take the value of I t has calculated or L if
It values is turning negative clip it to 0 so this is the model of the PV source that we will be using
which ahs both ISC and voltage scalable and just able and which is what we need now we have
the model we need a symbol which will call this model.
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So let us now create a symbol before I start creating the PV modules symbols would like to show
you on the browser if you put in the keywords like Geda symbol creation we keep you will have
lot of search outputs Geda gap symbol creation of the project and other is a good point for you to
read and get and making symbols another point of entry for you to learn more is this creating
your own symbols.
This is also a good place for you to start so read up on this and see how the symbols are created
now we will go to making our PV source symbols open the Geda schematic open supply Vat and
for symbol creation you need to remove all this delete them and the extension dot Sch make it
has dot Sym so you save as PV source.
And let us store it here so now we have PV source at sym now very important to note this here
you see at the bottom grid 100, 100 you have to keep the grid at 100 and 100 but you can
improve the resolution at the time of drawing but it time of saving always keep this as 100, 100
and make the resolution like its bigger.
You can always change this by going to auctions scale up grid spacing scale down grid spacing
use that one to adjust the grid spacing here and use this add net add bus add attitude add text had
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component these are the things that you will be suing add pin okay so I can add pin okay and
place it like that okay that is obtained.
Now when I double click on the pin you will see that you will see the properties coming in pin
type unknown pin label pin number pin sequence you need to give the proper attributes here pin
number and pin sequence these can be different but most of the time they are same built pin
number sometimes can be different from pin sequence, pin sequence is the sequence that you
will use an sub circuit so this is associated with the sub circuit sequence pin number here is
associated more with the IC package details, so that is very important for you to provide. So I
added one pin here another pin here, now with the double click you see that I have given pin
number 1, pin sequence 1, you can give pin label it can be α numeric, I can say it is + pin type
power. So these are the attributes that I am giving to this pin, you see the other pin number 2
with sequence 2 – label and again power pin. Now I have added this by going to add attribute.
So go to add attribute you can choose ref desk value, so for this particular label, so I have added
this and given x PV? Can be if you are having many PV sources within schematic you may want
to name it has 1,2,3,4 so add that? x because I am going to refer it to the sub circuit and
therefore for sun circuit the first letter should be x. now we need to draw the symbol, so take the
add line, let me make the drawing, like this such that it represents PV source like that. Say in
between, so after having completed the drawing look at all the labels.
It is label +.- power everything shows up it is to noisy and this is the value, so in value I am
calling PV source sub circuit passing IC value and V scale value, this is important. So what you
can do is mask everything, let there just be a pin and this XPV and then it looks neat, so if you
use EN everything disappears at there it is hidden. Save now do not just quit go to edit select all,
this is a very important step, if you want to get your graphics right when you are doing the lay
out.
So that when your drawing wiring the circuit diagram that should lock to the pins the wires, so
select all and then go to symbol translate very important step. Every edit you do that simple
translate to 0 okay that is it, now you save. After this process you can close it, every time you
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edit the symbol do the select all symbol translate. So I have saved it into the, in your local home
directory you will have a caps folder when you install GEDA.
Inside the gap folder there is a symbols and inside the symbol you can have your own library of
components, so I have created some components I will share them with you the resources, so
within that I have created PV source, there are various other thing also, which I will share and
you can look at them in the leisure. So the PV source this is what we created, so I will put it
back.
So this is created and placed in this place but you have to tell JAD to look at this place where
you tell to look at the place. So in your user home control h , you will unhide the dot files, so dot
JAD configuration file go in, there is a gasp of C5 if it is not there create an empty file and inside
that, if I double click.
You have to write this component/ library/ search within the double quotes /home in your local
home directory gas is the directory where you place this folders symbols folder within that it will
search for all the folders and separate libraries and component libraries that you have created so
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this search part is need then it will recognize and it will put it up so let us now look weather it is
going to look for our symbol that we have created and see if we can sublimate this next I open
the VP . sch we create the semantic we go into the semantic and then here we shall place the
components.
Let me go into the component library I have placed in a components let me look down and see
if PV source is popping up you see PV force is popping that we just now created I will place it
here I will take that close this I will also take a sign source place this here and then let me the
connections let me edit the label let me edit the value parameters I will make i sc short circuit
current and voltage scalars 50.
I have here included PV that 5 fine which contains the sub circuit so you see that PV. sub is
containing the sub circuit which is called by the PV. Semitic with in PV. Semitic we have the
symbol and this symbol is calling the PV source sub circuit by which is residing here so all are
connected well so that is it now we can simulate in this spice now I will open PV . c ir so PV. cir
performance these operations . ran between from 0 to 5ms 0.01 ms as the print out using initial
conditions.
It includes PV. Net which we need to generate we will generate that then this is a set of .control
statements I would like the plots to be on white background and black foreground so you can do
that we have done this earlier run the command then plot what do you want to plot so you see
that I will reduce this so that you can see what we are doing so plot ivsc the current through
this out source verse VnV verse the terminal voltage then VnV the terminal voltage into the
current through that is a power / 40 verse the voltage so we are actually seeing the IV and the
PV current.
Why did I do divide b y 40 so that both can be clearly visible at the same screen you see that if I
am setting this at IC 10 amps and approximately 40 v for the Voc you will see that it is around
400 vats so or less that 400 vats because it is 70% of VOC in to ISC and that divided by 40 will
be around 10 so this is kind of a normalize so that we can see both on the same screen but
mentally you multiply by this value whatever you see on the plot out to get eh actual power. So
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now let us plot this and then see I will close this and then open the terminal window so we will
go to the folder now so first generate the net list g net list all these commands slash out PV. Net
PV. SCH we have seen this command before when we did the spice experiments.
So let us do that and then ng spice PV. CIR so it will rum execute and it will plot this you see it
is plotted this and as excepted short circuit current 10 and open circuit voltage around 46 and see
does not go negative beyond that current become 0 because we have set at clipper limit for IT
going negative. So that is advantages and this blue line is the power cut of course you can try for
various combinations what we have now achieved is that we are able to have a PV source
symbol where I can scale the value of ISC and VOC and the same symbol you can it for any PV
application and it gives you a curve almost IV curve like an excepted photovoltaic cell
characteristic.
As again the original model where we used the diode and current sources and kept on adding
putting them in series and parallel and so huge number of component you will have to include
and for every different specification you will, have to keep changing the set of PV cells in series
and parallel and keep adjusting them which can lead to not only may stitch but a huge PV souse
circuit and number of components which would slot on the simulation, this is very elegant you
do not have to do anything whichever be the experiment that you want to simulate you just have
to give the ICISC the short circuit current value or the insolation value.
And voltage scaling factor and you are done you have a PV source we will use this PV source to
stimulate our MPPT tracking with DCDT converters, so before we put in the MPPT algorithms
we need to first see if our PV source when inter phase with the DCDC convertor lax well.
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Prof. L Umanand
(Refer slide Time: 00:17)
Let us see how we can simulate the dc-dc converter interfacing the PV source and the load.
Earlier we saw how to make the PV source, the symbol and the sub circuit and we will use the
that PV source to power up the dc-dc converter and deliver power to the load R 0. We shall
simulate the PV source dc-dc converter in open loop, we just have a PWM, we will still not close
the loop which we will come to later after having discuss the MPPT tracking algorithms.
So what we can take up for simulation is the PV source, we can have a PWM and the dc-dc
converter. This shaded region we will simulate in the spice.
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In the simulation folder, I have created four more folders. The boost folder for simulating, the
boost converter interface to the pv module, buck boost converter interface to the PV module, the
buck converter and there is an M file here in this folder which will check for reachability of the
duty cycle for any given converter.
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Let us look at the boost converter first. I have here the schematic file, let me zoom that, yeah.
Now you see that this is schematic of the boost converter, inductor, switch, diode, capacitor,
load. So this portion is the boost converter, I have capacitor here across the terminal of the PV to
improve the ripple, input ripple, this is the PV source module, the model of which we design
earlier. PV.sub is the sub circuit file which contains the sub circuit model of these and few
others. It also contains the model for these power switch, it also contains the model for these
PWM.
I have here a current; a voltage source which is set to a value 0. Voltage source set to a value 0
can be used for sensing the current through that branch. So we VIpv is sensing actually the PV
current IPV and VIL is actually sensing the inductor current. This is also a current sense voltage
source value set to 0. I have put some initial condition values on the energy storage elements,
capacitance, I have this initial conditions, inductance I have the initial conditions 1.8 amps and
capacitors also I have put these initial condition 49.5 volts at the output.
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So that the simulation will be smooth and fast, you will not see lot of oscillation during the turn
on process. So, for the R0 of 100 ohms, I have calculated that the Vc value should be 0.44 to give
duty cycle of 0.72. What is the relationship between the duty cycle and the VC voltage, let me
just show you.
Boost converter and the PWM block, here, now V d is setting actual the duty cycle. So, inside the
PWM block, there is an triangle carrier something like this. So, let us say the triangle carrier is
going + - in this passion, this is -1 this is 0 this is +1. So your V d value is at -1 then duty cycle is
0. At Vd here in between 0 and the duty cycle is ½ which is 0.5, and at V d =+1 along the tip d=1.
So, therefore we get the relationship, d duty cycle is Vd plus 1 by 2.
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The PV source, we know what is the value of the short circuit current and the voltage scale
value, and we have simulated the PV source and seen the IV characteristic. So, you know the
short circuit current value and the open circuit current value and also the peak power point value.
So, using those values we can calculate what should be the value of d.
In the PV sub file, sub circuit file, we have power_sw, these is the sub circuit for the power semi
conductor switch. So the power _SW is the sub circuit for this semi conductor switch. This PWM
tri, triangular PWM is the sub circuit for this block here, PWM single phase where we have as
parameter, the carrier frequency, and then we go futher down you have the PV source the sub
circuit PV source is the one we made earlier and that is for these xPV, the PV source. Now, let us
go to the terminal and simulate the circuit
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I have open the terminal, let may go to the folder, boost. I will generate the net list, boost.net
using Gnet list, execute that, now going to ngspice, ngspice boost.cir.
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So it will perform the simulation and then we have the, so on. Now, let us plot what do you want
to plot? I could plot the input current VIpv into the voltage, terminal that will give the power.
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So let us plot VT, terminal voltage into current through the VIpv source, the IPV sensor.
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So you will see that the input power is hovering around 26 watts. You saw earlier that this PV
module that we used had a peak power of around 26 watts. So, at this particular duty cycle, it is
presenting an optimum RT value, terminal resistance as seen from the PV module such that max
power gets transferred.
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We shall observe the wave form here at the input PWM to see that.
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It is 0.44 or 440 mv that we have said. And at this value the duty cycle is 0.72, how did we get
this duty cycle 0.72? Again from the relationship, let me show you how.
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Let me go into the M file. I will open the reachability.m file, an octave script file.
400
So you see here, I am making the R 0 vary from 1 to 100, and this is the characteristic of the PV
module that we are used, it is a 26 watt panel, 14 volt V m, voltage at peak power, Im is calculated
Pm/Vm, RT is Vm/Im, the terminal resistance. Then for every value of R0, we execute this. What we
find out? We find what is the duty cycle for a boost converter, using that relationship R T which is
equal to R0 (1-D)2, find that the duty cycle for boost converter is 1minus square root of R T byR0,
like that you can do for the buck converter, for the boost converter also.
And I will present the results onto the octave workspace. So, let us open octave and run this and
let us see what happens.
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Let me have octave, let me go to the M file where you have reachability.m and let me clear this
workspace screen and type in reachability. So, you see here that we have the PV source details
listed here. Voltage at peak power 14.8, current at peak power 1.8, terminal resistance peak
power 7.6 ohms. Now here, first consider column 1 only. R0, this is R0, for every value of R0 load
resistance, we have some value of duty cycle for the boost. You see these are not valid duty
cycles.
Now, let us see for R0 of 100, we see that the value of duty cycle is 0.72 to achieve peak power
operation according to this equation at peak power point. So, 0.72 duty cycle would mean V C of
0.44 using the relationship that we saw for the PWM triangle which is going from -1 to +1. So,
that is why we had kept the VC value at 0.44.
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Let me now change the R0 value from 100 to something lower, let us say 70. At 70, the duty
cycle is 0.67 that corresponds to 0.67 into 2 minus1, which is 0.34. So, instead of 0.44, we can
change it to 0.34. But first let us change the R 0 value from 100 to 70. So, let me alter the value of
R0 to 70 and let us run the simulation. After running the simulation, I expect now that the input
power coming out of the PV panel will not be peak power. So, it will be less than that, so let us
view that.
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You will see that the peak power was at 26 watts. Now it is lower, somewhere around 23 watts.
Now let us say if we give the matching duty cycle of 0.67, then will the power come back again
to the peak power operating. So, let me alter VC to 0.34, this corresponds to duty cycle of 0.67.
So let me change that, and let me now run the simulation again.
So, now the duty cycle is matching with the R0 and therefore, the RT presented to the PV panel
would be optimum that is at peak power operating point. So, we expect the power drawn from
the PV panel to be at the peak power point. So, you see here that the panel is now back to
supplying 26 vats.
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405
So, in this way you can try to understand the various aspects of the circuit, try to observe the
various currents and the voltages of this boost converter interface to the PV panel and try to get
as much insight as possible. I will leave it to you to workout with as much detail as possible and
as much variation as possible for this ex, for this boost converter circuit that I will also be
sharing with you in the resources section.
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Let me now go into the buck folder and open the buck.schematic file and let us zoom this.
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And you see it is similar to what we discussed in the boost converter only. Now, it is the buck
converter. You have the switch here, the inductor and the L with the freewheeling diode in this
fashion. You have the same PWM and you have the VC control voltage. You have the xPV, this
is the PV source, it is the same PV source ISC 2 Vscale 20. So, now therefore, let us simulate
this. What should be the duty cycle? I have put it at 0.62 for an R0 of 5 ohms.
How do we fine the value of this duty cycle? Let us run the reachability check and then find out
the values. So, you see here for the value of R 0 5 ohms, 5 ohms, the duty cycle for the converter
for the buck converter is 0.81, for the boost converter it is an invalid duty cycle, cannot use it.
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For the case the buck converter it is 0.81. So, that will work out to the 0.62, 0.81 into 2 minus 1
which is 0.62.
So given this, let us save, go to terminal and let us simulate the circuit. First, let me generate the
netlist using the Gnetlist and then ngspicebuck.cir.
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So the simulation goes through and we would like to observe the input power, the power out of
the PV panel.
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So, let us check that out. You see that it is now hovering at around 26 watts which is the peak
power point.
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You can cross check. Plot the voltage of the control voltage, it is at 0.62. What happens if I set R0
to 20 ohms? At 20 ohms, the duty cycle required is 1.62 for the buck converter which is an
invalid value. The duty cycle should be between 0 and 1. And therefore you will not, if R 0 is 20
ohms you will never be able to achieve the peak power. However, at the given same value of
duty cycle, if you put R0 as 20 the power lawn will be vey less.
For example, alter R0 to 20 and the duty cycle control voltage VC is till 0.62 run, and you will see
Vd is same 0.62, and let me plot the input power, you see the input power is not below 10 watts
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which is really poor. On the other hand, let me change R 0 to 2 ohms, 2 ohms where the duty
cycle for the bug converter is 0.51. So let us say, I change, alter R0 to 2 ohms, run the simulation,
you see that it is much lesser than the peak power point.
However, if I change the duty cycle to 0.51, see let us say 0.5, 0.5 corresponds to 0 volt VC, so let
us say 0 volt VC and then rerun the simulation. Alter VC to 0, run, and again if I look at the
power, you see that it is back again to delivering peak power.
So you can always match the duty cycle with the load, and by trying to match the duty cycle with
the load such that RT the terminal impendence seen at the terminals of the PV module is such that
it is placed at an operating point which will give maximum power. I will leave it to you to the
further explore this buck converter circuit and try to get more insight out of it.
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Let us now look at the buck boost converter interfacing the PV panel to the load. So, let us go
this one and open the schematic of the buck boost converter and let me zoom it like this.
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So this is the buck book converter. Observe that there is a switch here in line with the input, you
have the inductor and the diode in this polarity, you see that the inductor will free wheel through
the diode in the fashion, the voltage across the capacitor is negative. Now, same PV source we
have used. So, this is ISA at 2 amps V scale 20. Same as before rest of the circuit similar, I have
CT here, the terminal capacitance acting as the energy storage buffer, PWM 10 kilo Hertz and
the VC control voltage is deciding the duty cycle.
I have set it at 0.56 again from the relationship, reachability relationship. One advantage with the
buck boost is that, for the buck boost, the entire range of the IV curve is reachable and you will
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see that all are valid duty cycles. Now take for example, The octave output, see that here is last
column here, is the duty cycle for the buck boost, and if you go through you will see that all the
duty cycle values are valid values which means every duty cycle value is reachable.
Now for the 100 ohms, 100 ohms load R0 that we have put, the value of the duty cycle for the
bug boost is 0.78. So 0.78 into 2 minus 1 is equal to 0.56. So, therefore we have set the V C value
at 0.56 to give the peak power point. So, this is like before a sub circuit power _SW, the power
switch and we have the PWM triangle. Now, let us simulate the circuit for 100 ohm R 0 and the
VC value set in such a way that duty cycle is 0.78.
So let me open the terminal and I will use Gnet list to generate the netlist for the buck boost
schematic. So, you do that, and then I will use ngspice buckboost.cir. So, it will now simulate
and after that is over I would like to observe the input power. So, you will see the input power
you see here hovering over point 26 watt which is the peak power point of the panel.
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So you will see that there is lot of ripple in the current, this is basically because of charging,
discharging of the capacitance.
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You see that there is this input capacitance, storage capacitance that we have put. One may have
to adjust its value to lesser ripple or higher ripple. So, that is why this ripple is present here.
Now, let us say that I go right down in R 0, let us say will take this R 0 of 8 ohms. For R0 of 8
ohms, in the case of buck boost, you have 0.50 as the duty cycle. So, when you express it for the
VC it will be 0. So, let me first alter the value of R 0 to 8 ohms from 100 ohms. And then run the
simulation, and then after running the simulation let us observe the input power.
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The input power is way below the maximum value, it is settling down somewhere to a very low
value even bellow 10. So, let me now observe that the duty cycle voltage is at around 0.56 or 560
milli as the value, control voltage value. Let me adjust it to this value what is supposed to be 0.5
duty cycle which means VC(0). So, I will alter VC to 0, and then run the simulation, and you
should see that the input power is brought back to the peak power point value, because now we
have given matching duty cycle such that RT is at appropriate load line angel slope.
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Now, you see that the power is back again to, close to the peak power point. So I will leave it to
you to explore this circuit also and try out various things and try to visualize various, observe
various waveforms and try to understand the circuit with the PV source being the input source
with IV characteristics as given.
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You can also explore with the different values of short circuit current and the voltage scale
values and try to see what happens. This will give you more inside into interfacing the PV panels
to the load by means of as switched mode DC-DC converter. Right now, we have done the
simulation of this entire PV panel, DC-DC converter, load combination system using a PWM
block and it is in open loop. VC is just fixed value, it is not closed, the loop is not closed. So, this
is just to ensure that in under open loop or is the system okay, well designed and working as per
our expectations.
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Prof. L Umanand
Let us see how we can perform impedance control on converters interfaced to photovoltaic
panels, so that we can achieve maximum power point tracking. So, let us connect a PV panel to a
DC-DC converter and the output of the DC-DC converter is connected to a load. DC-DC
converter has a controlled input d. The control input d and the load R 0 are varying, load R0, the
variation of load R0 is not under your control.
However, the variation of d is under your control and that is what we would like to use as the
control input. And we have established that RT, the terminal resistance as seen from the
photovoltaic panels side is a function of R 0 and d. We should now establish how we would go
about generating the appropriate signal for the duty cycle.
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So, we need to design this block, the controller block for performing maximum power point
tracking. For that you need two sensed inputs, one is the current, the photovoltaic module current
that is flowing through the photovoltaic panel, the other is voltage across the array, panel or the
array. So that also needs to be given as signal input to this block. And the output of the block will
provide the appropriate signal for the duty cycle.
So, this block is what we will be focusing on, we will be discussing and that is the MPPT
controller block. This will be the object of our discussion now, and we will look at what are the
control mechanisms and control methods that we can use to achieve maximum power point
tracking. Literature has many methods to perform MPPT. We shall look at few typical methods
that are commonly employed for doing maximum power point tracking.
So, among the MPP methods that we will discuss, one is called the reference cell method. There
are two types, the voltage scaling, and the other one of course is the current scaling type. The
second is the voltage sampling method, the third is called the power slope method, and the fourth
one is a hill climbing method.
So, we shall look at these methods. These are very typical, very common, many of the converters
use one of these are modification of these methods. And therefore, it will try to cover the whole
range of maximum power point tracking algorithms.
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Prof. L Umanand
Let us now discuss the reference cell method and more specifically the voltage scaling type. So,
we know this block diagram topology, you have PV cell connected to the DC-DC converter, you
have a capacitor, a buffer at the terminals of the PV cell, and then the load R 0. So, this is the
DC-DC converter and we have terminal voltage V t and terminal current It as shown like this.
Then you have control input D and R0.
Let me draw the vT versus iT curve. This is the IV curve, and this is the PV curve. Now, the
maximum power point is occurring somewhere here, in this region. So, if the insolation varies,
there is variation in the IV characteristic, you will see the IV characteristic changes. But the
maximum power curve also will change, the maximum power point value also will change, but it
will be within up certain band, it will be within the certain band like this.
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And we can say more or less within this band, the maximum power point, maximum power
operating point lie in this zone. So, we will call this as voc point and we will call this as vm the
maximum power voltage. So, as a approximate solution, we could say that if I choose vT the
panel voltage to lie always within this band which means if I am having a load line which is in
this band here, if I have load lines in that band, then more or less it is hovering around the
maximum power point. It may not exactly be at the maximum power point, but it will be near
around at the maximum power point which is still very satisfactory in many of the application.
So, our literature has taken this approach that we make an engineering approximation, we make
an assumption saying that vm by voc that is this values divided by voc value on the voltage axis is a
constant.
And let us say approximately if you say voc is 100%, vm is at around 70% point, (70-90)% point
but it will vary depending on the characteristic. Once you choose a particular PV panel from the
data sheet, you can arrive at what this constant value is. Let us say it is around 0.7. So, once you
have made this assumption, now this becomes the rule, given the panel and whatever may be the
load R0, I will adjust the duty cycle such that the load line as seen from the PV panel will pass
through in this range of slopes.
And thereby, the operating point when a vertical is drop down on to the power curve, will be
more or less on the flat top, near the top of the hill and you can say near closed to maximum
power transfer is happening. So, this assumption is the basis for this voltage scaling method.
Now let us see how we go about realizing this voltage scaling method.
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So, to this PV system interfaced with DC-DC converter having the d as control input, let us see
how we will give the control signals for this duty cycle input of the DC-DC converter to achieve
maximum power point transfer using the reference cell voltage scaling method. Now, let us
understand the control block schema. Now, there needs to be a reference, now this reference has
to be compared with the feedback signal.
So, in any control system topology, you will have a reference signal and feedback signal + and –
and there will be an error signal. Now, For now, I am not going to tell what is this reference
signal and what is the feedback signal, we will come to that later. But this error signal what you
have here, I can process that, I will process it through a controller, and one of the most robust
controllers is the PI controller proportional integral controller.
So, I will use a proportional integral controller. The output of PI controller, this will be a DC
value. Now, this has to be converted to time in order to get duty cycle signals. So, we need to do
a pulse with modulation. So, depending upon the DC value there needs to be a voltage to time
conversion. So, that involves a comparator like this, and to this comparator another input, we
will give carrier signal, a triangular carrier.
So, when the DC signal in the triangle carrier are compared, the output of the comparator would
be a pulse wet module related signal, and that output is what is given to that d input and d input
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internally will drive the power semiconductors which within the DC-DC convertor. So, this
would be the schema. Now, we need to see what are the values that you need to give and what
variable you would want to give here.
Now, let us go back to the voltage scaling rule which we just now discussed. The rule is we
made assumption that vm/voc is set equal to constant K or vm is the voltage of PV panel at
maximum power point or peak power point. So vm is eaqual to K time voc. So, we now we have a
relationship of maximum power point with respect to voc and a constant, voc is the open circuit
voltage. Now, what is the objective, what is that we want to achieve from this block schema.
What we want to do is that the voltage vT which is across the terminals of the PV panel should be
set equal to, so if I go to this IV characteristic, the voltage vT should be hovering in this band. If it
is hovering in this band, then the operating point is somewhere here and what is the power drawn
from the PV panel will be hovering around this region, so it will be closed to the peak power
point.
So, we need to see that vm is as close to vT the terminal voltage across the panel is as close to the
vm value as possible, vm value in terms of voc. So, that is what we would like to implement. vT the
terminal voltage across the panel should become vm to achieve MPPT. So therefore, now I have
vT and vm these two important variables which we will use here. Now, vm is the reference, we
want vm here to be the reference and vT is the feedback signal.
So, we can sense the terminal voltage across the panel and give it as feedback and ultimately vT
should become same as vm in such a case, when this error is zero vT is same as vm and in such a
case, you will see that maximum power is being transferred to the load. So let us say for example
that vT is not same as vm, let us say vT is less than vm then error is positive higher, PI controller the
output of this increases.
Once the output of this increases, there is this duty cycle a pulse with modulation wave form
coming in here, because this DC compares with this carrier and use a duty cycle. Now, this duty
cycle will change by going from 0 to 1 or 1 to 0 depending upon which type of converter and
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appropriately modulate the input resistance seen from the PV panel which will appropriately
position the load line.
And therefore, change the value of vT. So the value of vT will keep changing and try to reach vm
such that error here becomes zero. The job of this controller is to always see that the error here
becomes zero, the error here is zero vT will be same as vm. And then you have achieved maximum
power point tracking, but how to get vm? We know how to get vm, because we know this rule. So
we will add a block let us say that is K, and then we will submit as input VOC.
So we provide voc, gets multiplied scaled by K and you have vm this becomes the reference, this is
your reference section. vT which is measured gets compared with vm the error is controlled by this
PI controller, and the pulse with modulated signal is provided here which will modify R T and the
RT will change vT, and vT will keep changing till this become zero under such conditions when
under such conditions vT is equal to vm, error is zero, then you have maximum power point
tracking.
But here you have only one problem how to get voc? We do not have a voc value, because if you
measure this voltage, this is a terminal voltage under loaded condition. How to get the unloaded
open circuit value of the voltage across the panel? It will change from panel to panel, it will
change from insolation to insulation. Therefore, how to get this value of voc. Once we have voc
then we know that the entire control scheme will work.
In the neighborhood of this panel which is delivering power to the load, we will place a small
cell called the reference cell, and that reference cell is kept open circuited. There is no load
connected across the reference cell. So, this cell which is placed in the neighborhood of PV panel
wherever this is placed on the roof top. You place this reference cell also, this is a small cell. The
voltage across that is always going to give you always open circuit value of this cell.
And we will take this cell open circuit value to be same as this cell provided this cell and this cell
is also same make, same date sheet spec. So, you choose the reference cell such that it is from the
same manufacturer. And then you start to obtain the open circuit voltage. Now, this open circuit
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voltage is given as input to this scaling block, and this scaled value will provide vm and this will
become the reference for making the vT of this try to reach vm, and thereby achieve maximum
power point tracking. So this is the voltage scaling method reference cell method of maximum
power point tracking.
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Prof. L Umanand
Let us now discuss the reference cell method, instead of voltage scaling, we will now look at
current scaling. We will use this photovoltaic module system, this is the PV cell, there is this
buffer capacitance and that across the terminals and DC to DC converter which is acting as the
interface between the PV module and the load R 0. DC-DC converter is having the control input
d.
Now, let us draw the IV characteristic for this PV system. Now, here we have this IV
characteristic, this is the IV characteristic and this is the PV characteristic. Let me draw a line, so
I have the peak power point and then this line intersecting on the IV curve is the operating point
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corresponding to the peak power point. Now a line which joins up like this, this is the load line 1/
RT and this is the load line at which the operating point gives the maximum power.
Now from this operating point let me draw a horizontal line also, and let me indicate the
important parametric point this is ISC, so I will mark it as ISC just like we had voc here, this is an ISC
point of IV characteristic. And then this point here the Y-intercept is I m, the Im is the current
corresponding to the peak power point. Now, just like we had a relationship between vm and voc,
we have a relationship between Im and ISC where we say that the ratio Im/ISC is constant.
Now suppose if the insulation varies, so we have the changed characteristic for a different
insulation. So, the ISC point varies linearly, whereas the voc point varies logarithmically, and for
this insulation the power curve I will draw dotted like this and you have the maximum power
point somewhere here, and then when you take that up and draw the horizontal. So, you will
have Im new Imn, and this will be ISC new, ISCn. And the load line corresponding to peak power
point for this insulation will pass through this like this, and this will be 1/RT new or RTn.
So this for the new insulation, so for any insulation you will have this type of set of curves. What
I would like to bring you are attention to is this, the relationship between the I m and ISC of that
particular set Imn and ISC of a particular set for the given insulation. So we will use the following
assumption.
In fact, this assumption is much more stronger than the voltage assumption that we made. I m by
ISC which is equal to Im new by ISC new or any other Imn and ISC pair, is equal to a constant value k
and its approximately equal to 0.9 given, once you have chosen a PV panel from its data sheet
you can ascertain what is the value of this constant.
Let us say for now, it is around 0.9 and you will find that I m by ISC ratio is much more constant
than vm by voc ratio. So probably the current scaling method may be much more accurate method.
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I have here for this PV system, the duty cycle, how it is generated, just like in the voltage scaling
method. I have a reference and I have a feedback, what is the reference and the feedback we will
decide, the error goes to PI controller, the output of the PI controller is compared with the
triangular carrier output of which will be a PWM that is connected to the duty cycle input, which
will modulate RT for this particular system.
Now let us see what we want to give as reference and what you want to give as feedback signal.
Consider the rule that we just discussed where Im by ISC is equal to a constant K or Im is equal to
K times ISC. ISC is the short circuit current for the panel at a given insulation. Now what is the
objective, what is it that we want to do? We want to see that the current that is flowing through
the panel should be set to the Im value.
For any particular given in solution, the current that is flowing from the panel should correspond
to the Im value for that insulation. In such a case if I m value is flowing, then the operating point
will be somewhere near or very near to the peak power point, and then the load line
automatically that is presented to the PV is the load line corresponding to the maximum power
point.
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So therefore, we can say that iT the terminal current should become same as Im in value for
MPPT, in order to achieve maximum power point tracking. So, using these two variables you can
say that what I need to give as feedback is the current flowing through the PV panel. So, I can
say that I would like to have as feedback iT and as a reference I would like to have I m. The logic
is that Im is the reference, iT is the feedback value which is supposed to try and follow or meet the
reference value.
If there is any different, there is an error, the PI controller will modulate this carrier and generate
a PWM with the specific duty cycle which will modulate R T in such a way that the error here
goes to zero. Under such a condition iT will match Im. And that means that iT that is flowing here
from the PV panel will correspond to Im value or the current corresponding to the peak power
point meaning that implying that the panel is delivering peak power point to the load.
Now how do you get this I m? So first of course you need to measure the current iT, because this
current iT has to be feedback and given here, this has to be feedback and given here. How do you
measure iT? iT can be measured any current can be measured by putting a shunt resistor here and
taking the voltage which is proportional to the current flowing through that and using that for
feedback, or one can use a Hall sensor and sense the current, even the DC current flowing
through the wire and given that one as feedback.
Now how to generate Im? So Im we know can be obtained from the knowledge of I SC, short circuit
current using this relationship. So ISC into K will be Im. Now this system will work provided you
know what is ISC? ISC is the short circuit current which will keep varying depending upon
insulation. So, how to get the short circuit of this panel, I cannot directly short circuit this panel,
because in that case there will not be any power transfer to the load.
So, therefore, we need to have a reference cell. So, I will put another small cell, a reference cell
which is in the neighborhood of this power delivering PV array or PV module. Now, this
reference cell is not going to deliver any power. It will be a small cell. Now, this cell I am going
to perform a short circuit. You short the terminals and use this short circuited reference cell for
obtaining the ISC.
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You sense the current through hall sensor or similar such method and connect it to I SC, and this
ISC is supposed to represent the short circuit current of the main PV array, if these two cells are at
the same manufacture and similar data sheet spec. Now, this I SC is scaled and becomes Im that
give a reference for this control circuit and iT will ultimately try to match Im.
Now this supposed to give you a much better performance as compared to voltage scaling,
because this relationship is much more accurate I m is equal to K ISC is much more accurate than
vm by voc is equal to a constant. So, this method of obtaining maximum power point tracking is
called the current scaling method reference cell method with current scale.
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Prof. L Umanand
Let us discuss the sampling method, for performing maximum power point tracking, one can do
voltage sampling or even the current sampling.
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One should note that, in case of the reference cell method, a reference cell is used and its either
open circuit or short circuited depending upon whether it is, I m/ISC kept constant or vm/voc kept
constant. In the case the reference cell, this is expected to represent the actual PV array.
But the array is big and it covers a large amount of real estate area and the reference cell does not
actually represent the entire array. So, in cases when there is partial shading due to neighboring
building, the shading due to trees nearby, the voltage that the reference cell gives will not
actually reflect the voltage that is suppose to have been obtained from the actual PV array or the
PV module, same with the case of current scaling also.
Now, the question is can we eliminate this reference cell and then can we get a signal which will
represent the voc of the actual array which is PV array which is delivering power to the load. If
you are able to do that, then we are one step closer to much more accurate MPPT algorithm.
Let us now look at how this sampling method is done to perform maximum power point
tracking. PV panel is connected to a DC-DC converter, and the DC-DC converter output is
connected to R0 as shown. In between here, there is a switch, before that let us place this buffer
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capacitor, which we are now familiar with, and this is switch I will include that, the switch has a
name S, and it has two throws, single pole double throw, throw A and throw B.
When S is connected to throw B, then that is the normal operating condition, when the PV panel
is powering the load through the DC-DC convertor. When switch S is connected to A, B is open
and whatever energy is thrown in this buffer capacitor, will be driving the load. And across this
resistance, this resistance is sense resistance, its high value resistance. So, voltage across this
resistance will approximately be equal to the open circuit voltage of the panel.
And that is precisely the time when it has to be sampled and taken as the open circuit value. So
that precisely is what we will be doing in this sampling method. Let us call this resistor R sa, and
we will sample this potential if the switch is not connected, here it is connected to B, then this
potential will be 0, this switch is connected to A it will be voc value. Let us connected to a sample
and whole circuit the output of a sample and whole circuit will be voc.
And where it you get vT, the voltage across this buffer capacitor will give the actual array. So let
us that is also pass through the another sample and hole, we will get vT, the terminal voltage,
what is expected of the array. Now, when will this switch B connected to A, and when will it be
connected to B and for how long. Let us draw a time axis T and I will mark tick let us say. And
let me place a rectangular pulse, and during this pulse this switch will be enable and connected to
A.
So during this time, this sample and hold circuit for voc is enable and effective. And next again
after certain time has elapsed, you will repeat it once again and so on it keeps continuing. So, this
pulse duration during which the shaded pulse duration during which S is connected A, to sample
voc is very small, so that there is sufficient charge here and load does not miss the disconnection
of the PV panel at B.
So normally, this is having the time duration of order one micro second or tens of micro second,
and this duration, majority of the duration, when S is connected to B, is very large it is also order
of the seconds. So, this will be the order of sections, so you will see that this switch is controlled
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by a duty cycle ds and then this ds, is one micro second by one second which is 10-6, so it is a
very very small duty cycle.
So we will get the value of voc, and then if done pass it through a ADC it can be taken to the
digital domain. And because of this presence of this buffer capacitor, during this very small
duration when S is not connected to B the buffer capacitor will supply to the load. Now this is
called the voltage sampling method. So, once voc and vT are sampled, basically the control block
diagram for achieving maximum power point tracking will be same as what we had discussed in
the reference cell method with voltage scaling.
Let us also look at current sampling, so just like the voltage sampling, we need a PV panel
connected to the DC-DC converter, buffer capacitor, and then connected to load like this, then
we have a switch. Now this switch when it is connected to A, we do not use a resistor now we
just did a short circuit. So when S is connected to A, the panel is short circuited. So any current
that you measure here will give you the short circuit current.
So let us say I measure that current through a hall sensor pass A through a sample and hole, and
the value that I would get there would be ISC, the short circuit current and that instant of time
whatever the insulation at that instant of the time. Now if you have to get the time panel current,
I can sense here and pass it through an average and I will get iT. Now if you look at similar times
can be used for the current sampling method also.
So let us say for one micro second the S is connected to A, and for one micro second the PV
panel is short circuited and the current that is measured, sampled and held will be I SC value and
that instant, then it is released and the load is connected, and for the majority of the time, what is
flowing here would be iT, and for that one micro second time what is captured here by this circuit
is ISC.
So when you pass it through as averager it will average out that for that one micro second the
unnatural short circuit current that will flow through this. So you will effectively get because it
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would cycle is very low. S so you will effectively get IT, because majority of the time what is
flowing here will be the IT average. So this is called current sampling method.
So once you are sample the current the blocks scheme is essentially like what we discuss in the
reference cell, except that this is no longer there, ISC is coming from the sample and hold, iT here
is again coming from, another block which is the averager block, so iT is given here and ISC is
given here, scaled appropriately you get Im. And then the functioning of the maximum power
point, tracking control algorithm will be similar to what we had discussed, in the reference cell
current sampling method.
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Prof. L Umanand
Another method for maximum power point tracking is called the power slope method. Here,
referring to the IV curve, I will draw this vT verses iT, the terminal volte and terminal current
characteristic IV characteristic and this is the PV characteristic. And at the peak power point, I
will draw a vertical, and this point operating point is called peak power operating point. Now at
Pm at the peak power the slope of this power dp/dv is 0.
To the left of the operating point, to the left of the operating point, the slope of the power is
positive, to the right of the operating point the slope of the power is negative. So, this transition
this is change in the slope of the power is used for tracking the peak power point or the
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maximum power point. So, consider power P which is vT into iT and dp/dvT with respect to the X-
axis dvT. We have iT plus vT into diT /d vT. So this is the relationship that you will arrive it.
At the operating point corresponding to this maximum power point, this maximum power
operating point here, you have dp/dvT equal to 0, the slope here is 0. And therefore, applying 0
here, you will see that diT/dvT at the peak power point is given by minus iT/vT, this is the
constituting equation, for maximum power point tracking, which means that at maximum power
point, operating point, you will find that if you take the slope of the diT/dvT, di/dv, if you take
slope of this IV curve, that will be equal to - iT/vT, minus of the ratio of I and V.
Now, if you consider this equation, rearrange it, diT/dvT =dp/dvT-iT/vT, consider this equation, now
here on this region to the left of the peak power operating point, you will see that diT/dvT will be
greater than – iT/vT. dp/dvT the slope here is positive, and this is positive – iT will give rise to diT/
dvT, having a value greater than value – iT/vT. Now in this section of the operating point, dp/dv is
negative, so therefore this will be more negative.
And therefore, dit/dvt is less than – iT/vT. So this is the logic that you could use to identify where
the peak power point or the maximum power point lies. We shall bring – iT/vT to the left side and
together we will have this parameter, diT/dvT + iT/vT, this can be used as the key for doing the
MPPT logic. So if this parameter is greater than 0, then the current operating point is left to the
left of the peak power point.
If this is equal to 0, then the current operating point is at the peak power point. If it is less than 0,
then the current point is in this region, which is to the right of the peak power point. So, this is
the login that one can use for achieving maximum power point tracking.
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Consider this iT, vT curve, and consider this region, let us say the operating point is moving from
here to here, or it is moving from here to here. So, in the operating point is on this side, the
parameter that we just defined diT/dvT + iT/vT will be, that will be positive here, it will 0 at this
point and it will be negative here. Let me call it as a ρ, we will give it as a symbol, while
implementation it would as a digital domain you can do it as ∆iT/∆vT + iT/vT.
So this would be approximately same as this, or the analog domain you can differentiate iT
separately and differentiate vT separately, divide them and + iT/vT. So in this you can this
parameter ρ. Now let us say if I place this ρ and make a waveform for ρ with respect to time,
remember this with respect to time, ρ with respect to time. So let we take at some instant when it
is crossing, when the operating part is crossing this peak power point.
So, here during this time, during the time period, when the operating point is here, ρ is positive
and during the time when the operating point is here, ρ is negative, and then it transits from
positive to negative here, so you will get a time wave shape one thing like this. Now, let us see
how we process this. Let me build a comparator, this is a comparator, ρ is given to one of the
input to comparator, this is the power supply, -VCC and this - VCC and VCC.
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Now this comparator, can consider it as the zero crossing detector here, will have a shape at the
output here like this. So, when this is high, this will become low, and when this is low that
becomes high. And this will go to from - V CC to + VCC. Now, follow this comparator with a
clipper, I want to remove the negative portion, I want to make it 0 to V CC. So, if you have clipper
circuit using diodes, you will get at the output of the clipper, 0 gets clipped, the negative portion
gets clipped, and the positive remains at + VCC.
Then, I would like to now scale this waveform such that it is from 0 to 1. I do not want from 0 to
VCC, let say we kept it from 0 to 1. So follow it up by a gain circuit scalar, scaling circuit and at
the output of the gain circuit, what you expect will be something like this, 0 to 1. So, the gain
will adjust such that it is 1/ VCC, so that you will get 0 to 1. Now, this, let me pass it through
filter, imagine a RC filter, or it could be an open filter.
At the output of this filter, the wave shape will look something like this, now let me draw this
first, what is at the input, this is at the input 0 to 1. And the output, the filter, during this time this
filter will start going toward 0, and then during this time the filter will start going up t o 1. Now,
this we can compare it with a triangle way form, a triangle carrier, and generate a pulse with
modulated wave shape, this will be the d input to our DC-DC converter which is interfacing the
PV panel.
So what is happing, now let us say that the operating point was here, this was high, so this
becomes low. So once this becomes low the clipper has clipped it 0, the gain here that would also
be 0, and the output of the filter is moving towards 0, it will keep on moving towards 0, which
means the duty cycle is decreasing. Consider the DC-DC convertor is a buck boost converter.
We have the extreme to the load line to the buck boost convertor 1/RT this is one extreme at d =0.
On the other extreme , 1/RT at d=1, the load line will be along the vertical. This is coming from
RT = R0(1-d/d)2 this is the resistance input output relationship for the buck boost convertor. So
now consider that the operating point is somewhere, here to left of the maximum power
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operating point. And we saw that it was the duty cycle somewhere here and the duty because of
the filter, the duty cycle is decreasing towards 0, because the input is 0 here.
Now, as it is decreasing, duty cycle decreasing means from 1 to 0 it is decreasing the load line is
shifting like this, the load line is shifting such that the operating point is shifting in this fashion
along this arrow like this. And once it crosses the peak power point, there is a transient in the ρ,
variable once the ρ becomes low this becomes positive, this becomes high, here also this
becomes high and gain makes this equal to 1, and the filter output changes direction.
It will start to move towards 1, which means duty cycle is increasing, the duty cycling that you
are feeding to the DC-DC convertor is increasing. So from here again it is increasing, so which
means it will start moving back, the operating points starts, moving back in this direction. So it
moves back again it cross the 0, then again there is a change in direction, so duty cycle keeps
moving in such a way that operating point keeps shifting back and forth around the maximum
power point.
You can narrow down this back and forth movement as much as possible by setting an
appropriate hysteresis for this hysteresis convertor, if you give a small hysteresis band, then this
will be hovering very much near to the operating point. If you give a wide hysteresis band then
the variation here will be wider. So in this way this particular power slope method can do
maximum power point tracking.
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Prof. L Umanand
In the power slope method, method 1 that we just discussed, there are derivatives diT/dvT, diT/dt,
dvT/dt, and it is generally not easy to obtain derivatives. And therefore, literature has some
solutions where you can do the power slope method without actually taking derivative of a
signal. So that is what we are going to see. Let us first have the basic circuit topology that is a
PV module connected to the load R0 through a DC to DC converter having duty cycle as the
control input.
Now, there is a buffer capacitor we will put buffer capacitor slightly on this side leaving some
space to the right of the buffer capacitor because I want to introduce something here. Now, here I
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will introduce two components. One is, okay, let us mark this vT and iT, now let me put a
component here, a resistance and that resistance is connected to the ground through this power
switch BJT or a MOSFET or an IGBT.
Now, what signal do you give to base or gate of this power semiconductor switch? So, it will be
pulsed waveform something like this. Not necessary it should pulse, but it can be even a linearly
wearing wave shape, a triangle wave shape or any such thing, in such a cases will go through the
leaner region. But it is easy to give a pulsed waveform. So, we will just have a look at the
concept with this type of a wave shape given to the BJT here.
So the BJT is actually acting like a switch. Now let us see how this operates, let us give this
resistor a name and let us call that one as R 1, and remember that R0 is a very large value, this
much, much larger than the input impedance that is presented by the DC-DC converter and much
larger than this R0. So actually this is acting like an additional load on the buffer capacitance, the
buffer capacitance is supporting DC-DC converter plus R 0 as the load, to that now we have
added the additional load.
But it is very small additional load, whenever the BJT is turned on, R 1 comes across the
terminals. Now, what is the effect on the characteristic, IV characteristic of the panel? So, you
have vT and you have iT, let me draw the IV curve. Now, let us say this is not there in the picture,
R1 is not in the picture when the transistor is off, then R 0 when you take it on to the input side as
a function of d you will see RT.
So let us say RT is something like that 1/RT. Now, when this switch on, when this is high, so
during that time the switched on R1 comes across the terminals of the PV panel. So, you will see
that it will take a line like this, a load line will take a load line like this, it will be R T parallel R1.
Now, RT parallel R1 will be corresponding to a load which is lesser than RT, and therefore this
load line moves towards the short circuit depending upon the value of R1.
Now for this operating point let me draw vertical down straight down like this, and for this
operating point also I will draw a vertical line straight down like this. Now let me consider this
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on-off periods during the time when this is high the BJT is on, R1 gets connected. So during the
time this is high R1 gets connected, then this is load line and the corresponding vT terminal
voltage is this.
And during the time this is off, R1 is not in the picture and only RT that is presented to the PV
panel and to this load line, this is the operating point and the corresponding vT is this line. So, if
you see the vT swings between these two lines as shown. So, if I say during this period green,
during the green period here, the switch is on, which means it will be corresponds to this values
of vT and during the period when it is low switch is off it will corresponds to this portions.
So the vT will be something like this and likewise there will be a variation in the current also. So
let as look at the vT verses time curve, so the vT versus time curve will look something like this
that there will be a ripple and there will be a ripple in vT, and also there will be a ripple in iT and
then there will be a ripple in the power P which is equal to v into iT, vT into iT, and we will use
this ripple to actually give a distinction or trying to find the point where the maximum power
occurs.
And that is how we will try to use this ripple to find the maximum power point. Now let us look
about how we will go about doing this using this ripple as a distinguishing feature for identifying
the maximum power point.
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Now consider the static characteristic iT versus vT and the power versus vT, this is the power
versus vT. And let me consider a vertical line here representing a particular operating point and
let me draw the vertical and the horizontal line. This point here would represent an operating
point at a given instant and the corresponding extinction to the IV curve here. So, now here what
I am going to do now is a super impose on the voltage.
Now, this is the zero of the voltage and if you look at it on this voltage which is supposed to be a
DC, I will super impose a ripple. How do you super impose a ripple? Just like we discussed
earlier, I am going to use a resistive switcher, and introduce this ripple. Now, let me take the
peak amplitude of the ripple projected on to the power curve and then extend it on to the
horizontal. So, whenever the voltage ripple increases the power ripple also correspondingly
increases, as you can see.
So, on this slope, where the slope is positive on the left side of the peak, this is the peak power
point, on the left side of the peak power point where the slope is positive, whenever there is an
increase in the voltage ripple, there will be an increase in power ripple too. So, the power ripple
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in the voltage ripple will be in phase. Now, on the right side of the peak power point the slope is
negative.
So, let us have a representative operating point line here having the vertical and horizontal. And
as before I will introduce the ripple on a voltage and if I extent the ripple amplitude you will see
that there is an inversion already. So whenever the voltage is increasing the power is decreasing
and the voltage is decreasing power increases. So you will see that here, because of this negative
slope there is an inversion the voltage and the power ripples are out of phase.
So we would be using this information, on one side of the operating point, the power ripple and
the voltage ripple are in phase, on the other side of the operating point the voltage and the power
ripples are out of phase. And indirectly we are measuring the slopes, so this is also a power slope
deduction. But here we are using the d/dt, no differentiation action is coming into picture. we
need the power variable, we need the voltage variable, power variable is obtained by
multiplication.
Now, let us see in a block schematic way how to build this system. So, let me have a multiplier
block, the input of the multipliers are iT and vT, so you are measuring the panel current and the
panel terminal voltage, and the output of that would be the power. And you are taking the power
and the voltage these two are the quantities that we would like to process. So, first let me process
it by removing DC.
So you pass it through a DC block circuit, so when you remove the DC, so you will see that here
before the DC block circuit the values of the voltage and power signal will be something like
this, so there will be a DC plus on that there will be a ripple. The power signals also will be
something like this similar except the ripple will be either in phase or out of phase depending
upon which side of the peak power point the current operating point is.
So, after it passes through the DC block, how will the wave form look like? So the DC is
removed, so this will come down, so you will see that the average value is 0. You will only have
the ripple content. Now, is the ripple content that we would like to process. Even on the power
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side after you remove the DC block, if you remove the DC from the power form you will a
similar such wave from here to the except for the phase change.
Then after we DC block, we will pass it through the zero cross detector, ZCD is the zero cross
detector, the reason that we pass through the zero cross detector is that what I have shown as nice
rectangular wave form, need not be, it can be triangular or it can have smoother rise and fall, and
therefore, you need to pass it through a zero crossing detector, so that you will get well defined
short wave forms.
So let us see after the zero crossing detector, you will see that I will have well defined wave
forms like this basically this wave form going from –VCC to +VCC, that will be +VCC, this will be
–VCC. So next we will add the signal obtained from the power signal and the signal obtained from
the voltage signal, we will add them up. What do you expect? So, you see that if the operating
point is on the left side of the peak power point, the power ripple and the voltage ripple are in
phase.
So this and this will be in phase, so it will be added up and if this because this is already
saturated it will be the same way. If suppose the operating point had been on the falling slope
that is a negative slope region to the right of the peak power point, you will see that these two on
adding will becomes zero. So, when the voltage is positive the power, equivalent power signal
value will be negative, when the voltage is negative here the power signal value will be positive.
So when you add it will result in a zero value. So therefore, we can see that we have two regions.
One is, if the operating point is on the left side of the power curve peak power point and if the
operating point is on the right side of the peak power point, so if operating point had been
anywhere in the left side of the peak power operating point on the positive slope you will see that
these two will add up because they are in phase and you have still this kind of a wave shape.
Now, if suppose the operating point was on the right side of the peak power point the phases of
the voltage and power are opposite they will subtract and you will have zero. Now, next what we
do is pass this wave shape through an absolute value circuit, so that all this negative portion will
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bring it up, rectify basically. So let us draw the output of the area circuit absolute value circuit
again for the left side operating point and the right side operating point.
So on the left side when this gets the rectified, you see this it is a constant value. So, actually you
will see that this portion gets rectified absolute value were this portion absolute value here. This
will remain zero, the right side portion. Now, this value I can now set a threshold V threshold
and then pass it through a comparator like this. So, I will set a V threshold the comparator and
the output going from either VCC or 0.
Now this waveform is given here. Now you see that whenever it is high, whenever this is high,
the output is 0, whenever it is low, during this period the output is high. So, if you draw that
portion, you will see that, I will again mark left and right left operating point, and right operating
point, you will see that there is an inversion whenever it is high, during the left side it is high
output will be low, and during the time when it was low and it was right side of the operating
point it becomes high.
Now this, I will pass it through a gain block so that it would become 0 to 1 rather than 0 to V CC
or make it 0 to 1, and then pass it through the filter And the output of the filter is what I will give
to the duty cycle input control input of the DC-DC converter. One should note that the filter
output is actually passed through a PWM block, and then given to the duty cycle input of the
DC-DC converter which is interfacing with the PV panel.
Here I will just show the directly at the filter output, because the filter output is directly
proportional to the duty cycle. But in actually there will be in between a PWM block before you
give to the duty cycle input of the DC-DC converter.
Now what would be the filtered wave form like, so let me superimpose this. So, the filter wave
form will fall down here when it is 0, and then rise up gradually with the time constant like this.
Now this is actually representing the duty cycle. Now consider a converter which is the buck
boost converter, in the buck boost converter we saw that the range of the buck boost converter is
the entire IV curve in the first quadrant.
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So RT = R0((1-d)/d)2, and here when d, the load line corresponding to the vertical axis the short
circuit operating point d=1, the load line corresponding to the X-axis vT axis, open circuit point d
=0. So, in between you have the various load lines for different values of d. Now consider this
when the operating point was on the left, means the left of the peak power point somewhere here
the operating point is there.
So, when it is there you see that the duty cycle is decreasing, this red line, duty cycle is
decreasing. When duty cycle is decreasing, you will see that the operating point is moving like
this to the right. It is moving to the right, so let us say this is the peak power point and the
operating point is moving to the right. So, it has crossed the peak power point and then gone into
this negative slope region.
The movement that has gone into the negative slope region, the gain output is high 1, and the
filter output is now trying to rise towards that value 1, or the duty cycle is trying to rise, which
means that this is again going back, the operating point is now moving left. So, you will see the
operating point moving thus and crossing the peak power point.
So if we control this window, this window you can control by putting the proper value of
hysteresis here. So you can make a big window or a small window, so that this will be moving
right left, right left, around the peak power operating point or the maximum power operating
point and thereby achieving maximum power point tracking.
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Prof. L Umanand
We shall now discuss the hill climbing method for maximum power point tracking. It is a very
robust and popular method, it does not use the reference cell, it does not use sampling, it does not
use any resistive switches, there is no d/dt, no derivative terms, only I and V, terminal current
and terminal voltage are measured, and based on the calculation of the power, the hill climbing
algorithm is used for tracking the maximum power point.
Let us now see how we go about achieving MPPT through this method. Let me first draw the vT
versus iT characteristic. So you have the IV curve and you have the PV curve. So, observe the PV
curve, this is the important curve that you need to note here, this is in the shape of hill and then
the operating point, the operating power point will climb this hill either from this direction or this
direction and try to reach the top and stay in the top.
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How that happens, we will be trying to see. Let us consider that you are measuring iT and vT and
you are calculating the power as the product of iT and vT. So you have the power, now let me
draw a base line and I will call this as P base or power base the base power. Now, this is a
limiting plane or limiting line, and let us see how it operates I will also have another component
here, a dot and I will name it as P current. What it basically means that this is the current
operating point, current operating power point, the most immediate one and P base is a kind of
an average the previous powers. So this is a slow moving base, and this is a fast moving point.
Now for the movement consider the base is fixed, and let only this point move. Now why should
the point move we will change the duty cycle.
We saw that as an example in the case of a buck boost converter, the load line along the
horizontal x-axis d=0, the load line along the vertical Y-axis d=1. So, if I swing d from 0 to 1
you will see the operating point moves and the operating power point also moves like that. So let
us say d is increasing, the operating point will be moving to the left. So let us say it moves to the
left like this the moment it encounters the P ways line there is toggle effect.
The duty cycle now starts moving in a direction such that operating point moves to the right. So
the duty cycle will reverse, so the operating point will start like this and the operating power
point will start moving to the right. So, it will move like this and again the moment it encounters
the base line P base there is a toggling effect, d will reverse. So d will now reverse such that the
operating point moves to the left.
So then it starts moving like this, so in this way again when it encounters this P base, there is a
toggling effect on the duty cycle, duty cycle will shift the direction of change and it starts
moving the right again. Now let us say that the P base is also moving slowly, not as fast as P
current, but slowly moving up trying to catch up with P current. So let us say the P current is
moving up and P base is slowly also moving try to catch up with it.
And let us say this is one snapshot, P bases at this point, P current here and the P current is
moving fast, and let us say it is moving and reaches the other end. The moment it reaches the P
base line there will always be the toggling of the duty cycle. Now, the duty cycle moves in the
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other direction, so let us say it moves in the reverse direction, P base is still trying to catch up
with P current, and the duty cycle still continues to move till it reaches P base line were it again
toggles reverses direction.
And this happens and then P base line also moves up trying to catch up with P current slowly and
in this way you will see that there is this P current fast operating point trying to get control
within a arrow region around the peak of the power hill and hovering near and around the peak
power point, and thereby achieving maximum power point tracking. So, the P base will try to
catch up with P current and try to narrow down the swing of the P current and try to maintain as
close to the maximum power point as possible.
So, this is the logic that we will use in trying to build a block schematic for the hill climbing
method. Let us now draw a multiplier, the two inputs of the multiplier are iT, the terminal current
of the PV panel, and vT the terminal voltage of the PV panel, the resulting product is the power P.
Now this power P, I will pass it through two blocks. One block is called a slow filter which
means, this filter has a very large time constant.
Let us say a very large RC time constant I will pass the power through another filter and I will
call it as a fast filter. The reason I call it as fast filter is that this filter has a low time constant
small value of RC, so that this is dynamically much faster than this. So therefore, I will call the
slower one as P base which corresponds to this P base line, and I will call the faster one as P
current which corresponds to the moving operating point dot.
Now, these two I will pass it through a comparator, and I will give the + and – as shown here P
base to the + and P current to the -. And then the output of the comparator, let me give it to the
toggle flip flop, in the toggle flip flop and let us say I am going to do edge triggered toggle flip
flop, the output Q is a filter, and the output of the filter is compared with a triangle carrier. And
the output of this is nothing but the PWM which goes to the duty cycle input of the DC-DC
converter to which the PV panel has been interfaced with.
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So, now let us look at this waveform here in the output of the comparator. Now, the output of the
comparator, we are comparing P base and P current, P current is most of the time higher than P
base. So, which means P current given to the minus, the output will be low. Now, let us say this
op-amp is having a VCC and 0 as the power supply. So you will see most of the time that it will
be 0 except when P current goes below P base. when it goes below P base then this comparator
output becomes high and then it will immediately become low because there is a shift in the duty
cycle and P current again moves up. Why there is a shift? We will see it shortly. Now let us say
it behaves in this fashion. So when this P current goes and hits the other side P base, again it will
go below, and then there is high at the output of the comparator and after sometime again goes
slow and there is a reverse of the duty cycle and P current moves in the reverse direction.
So this is the type of waveform that you will expect at this point here. Now how to the toggle flip
flop we are saying edge triggered. So let us say the rising edge will be used as a trigger, now let
me extent this and then plot this also. So let us have the rising edge, we will, let us say the output
Q is at high, and when there is a rising edge it will toggle low, and again and there is a rising
edge when this operating point is in the other side of the P base, it will toggle and so on, keeps
toggling like that.
So this is the wave form at this point, and what about the output of the filter? So this wave form
gets filtered. So, let me draw that. You will see that this wave form I am going to repeat that
here, and this is the filtered version of this. So, you will see that the output of the filter rising up
to 1 then rising down to 0, and then again rising up to 1 and so on. So, if you look at this portion,
it is a rising up means now that is given to a triangle and then to the duty cycle.
So, as it is rising up, the duty cycle is increasing, so duty cycle is increasing means that the
operating point is moving to the left, so it is moving to the left here and at this point this has gone
down and there is a toggle and there is a change in the state when this goes down which means
now the filter output is going down implying the duty cycle is decreasing. Movement duty cycle
is decreasing this moving to the right.
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So as it starts moving to the right again goes and hits at that point again you will see that there is
a toggle, and this filter output increases. duty cycle is increasing toggles again. So, it moves to
the left. So, it keeps on happening and this operating point keeps moving back and forth like this
same time this P base here is also moving up triangle catch up with P current slowly. And
thereby locks this P current within the narrow and narrow region till it reaches the top in this way
maximum power point tracking is achieved.
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Prof. L Umanand
We have discussed the DC-DC converter acting as the power interface between the PV
source and R0 by impedance control and we have also seen how the various MPPT algorithms
operate. One of the practical points that I would like to mention at this point is housekeeping
power supply. What is housekeeping power supply? It is actually the power supply that will
be powering up this MPPT controller.
Let me mark the power supply positive and the ground point like this. So, this MPPT
controller itself should have a power supply because it needs to power of lot of component
which are there within. You may use analog op-amps, analog circuits in which case you will
need for the VCC here + - 15 volts. So, probably you may need V CC to be a single power
supply of 15 volts, 0 - 15 volts, you may probably need dual power supply of + - 15 volts.
Or if there are digital logic, then you may need +- 15 volts and 5 volt supply. And nowadays
microcontrollers and microprocessors have 3.3 volts and therefore you made a 3.3 volts. So
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like that you depending upon what components going to the MPPT controller, you will need
specific power supplies that will power up the various components. Now, the power supply
that powers up this MPPT controller is called the housekeeping power supply. From where
should it draw the power?
Of course, it has to draw the power from the PV source only, because that is the only source
available. And which is the correct point to draw the power and when. So, that is what I just
want to sensitise you on this practical point.
Consider this PV source and the DC-DC power supply, which is acting as a interface between
R0 and the PV source. You have a buffer capacitor CT and across the buffer capacitor CT let us
tap of a line, and let us draw the input for the power supply from here. So, this will act as the
input to the power supply circuit, so PS is the power supply circuit which will deliver some
output.
Now this PS power supply is itself a DC-DC converter. So, normally you may have an
isolated DC-DC converter for very low power applications and you may have an isolated DC-
DC converter topology for higher power applications. But in general compared to this load
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power, the power drawn for this purpose will be very low, for power supply purpose will be
low power.
Note that, this power supply output which I am showing here, which I will mark as V CC need
not to be a single supply. It can be a multiple supply depending upon the requirements of the
MPPT controller. Now this supply, has to supply not only the MPPT controller circuits, it
also has to supply any gate driver circuits for the power switches which are there within this
DC-DC converter.
So, if I am having power switch an IGBT power switch where the gate driver requirement
needs isolated gate to drain, gate to source drive. Then that case, you need to have isolated
supplies for that purpose also. So, you may land up with isolated power supplying in some
cases depending upon the placing of the switches here, depending upon the switch topology
that you may use and have combination of isolated and non-isolated power supplies at the
outputs here.
This topology, where I am taking the power input from the terminals of the PV is generally
for low power, low voltage, for low voltage kind of an application. So, in low voltage
applications, this here may be around 16 volts to 40 volts open circuit. And therefore, you
may have around 12 volts under normal operating condition if it is 16 volts open circuit or it
may be around 32 to 33 volts operating condition for a 40 volt type of module.
So, that can be directly converted through a power supply and then the required output can be
obtained by non-isolated DC-DC converters too. But in cases, in applications where the
terminal voltage here is very large. Let us say you are trying to put energy into the grid. In
such a case, is voltage may be 700 volts open circuit and under operating conditions it may
come down to 600v.
So you may have a very high voltage here and that needs to be converted to 5 volts, 3.3 volts
of the step down ratio is very large and non-isolated type of supplies will not give good
solution. Therefore, you may have to go in for an isolated topology. That, in such a case, one
may also consider taking from the output side if the output voltage is lower than the terminal,
the terminals of the PV source.
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So, the output voltage is lower. Then you can probably you have a lower step down ratio to
obtain the VCC which will power of the microcontroller and the MPPT controller boardss, and
also the gate driver circuit. But if you are taking from the output side then there is one
problem, at starter there is no power for switching on the switches of the DC-DC converter.
So, no voltage will come to the output. So, there is no power house keeping power supply, in
turn there is no power supply for the gate drive circuit. So, the circuit will never start. How
do we make it start in such cases?
Let us draw the input to the power supply from the output side of the DC-DC converter
which is the power supply and then it provides an output. Now here across the PV source
what we will do is build a small shunt regulator. So, I will provide a switch there, I have a
resistance and zener regulator. Now, I will boost the current by having BJT operated in the
linear region.
And I will interface them in this fashion, I put a diode here, I will put a diode here also. And
that the centre point I will take out, so I will connect this here and this will be V CC. So, how
will this operate? So during this start, you will see that there is no power for the DC-DC
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converter. So therefore, the output of this power supply is also low. So what I will do, I will
press this reset button, you press the reset button, there is voltage applied across this
resistance, zener combination and this will be at some potential.
Now let us say, I will keep this at 16 volts. Now 16 volts - 0.7 will occur here, because this
will now be in the linear region 16 – 0.7, 14.3, 14.3 – 0.7 will be 13.6. So, 13.6 will appear
across here. So this VCC will be used for generating the gate drive for switching this DC-DC
converter. So the moment that switches of the DC-DC converter switches on the output will
start developing.
Now that will be using input to this power supply and that will give the necessary output.
Now that will be at 15v, now 15v -14.3 it will reverse by this diode and power will flow from
this power supply into the microcontrollers and the other components at make up the MPPT
controller board, and also the gate drive for the DC-DC converter. So all you need is for this
to be on for just few milliseconds, so that there is enough number of cycles, high frequency
carrier cycles that will build up the voltage for the DC-DC converter. So, actually when you
press and leave it the human reaction time himself is around 10 milliseconds, there is more
than sufficient number of high frequency cycles possible for the DC-DC converter to build up
the voltage which will build up this voltage and which will then start self sustaining itself.
So, this is the start up circuit that one may use. Because you are just using it for a fraction of
time with very small duty cycle, this portion even though it is a linear regulator will not
consume much, because this is only use for start up. And then after this is released this will
not consume any power at all. So, this is the trick that is done for starting up in case you take
from the output side.
Now, when you take on this output side this power supply can be any type of power supply
and most of the time, this will be an isolated power supply which will have multiple windings
here and each other winding has, as I said, specific load that they need to supply. For example
the 3.3 volts will go to microcontroller, the + - 15 volts will go to the op-amps type of circuits
and like that then power supply here each power supply winding will have a function.
Now, there will be one or two windings for gate drive. So, let us there is one power
semiconductor switch here with floating source, then one of the windings will be use for gate
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drive of this particular semiconductor switch in the DC main DC-DC converter. So therefore,
housekeeping power supply design itself is very very important and then one has to give lot
of thought to it.
Most of this week, we had discussed on the MPPT algorithm and the MPPT issues with
respect to the DC-DC converter. I have not discussed anything on the design of the DC-DC
converter, but there are host of books and lot of literature available in the net and also NPTEL
lectures Switched Mode DC-DC Power Conversation, NPTEL lectures by Prof.
Ramnarayanan and myself. They are also available where lot of information on DC-DC
converter is given where you can refer to that and try to design and get more insight with
respect to the DC-DC converters. So now completing this power supply powers up this
MPPT controller board and along with this house keeping power supply, this whole portion
return is drawn in blue will form the house keeping power supply and that is needed for the
MPPT controller board to work properly.
One important point to be noted with respect to the MPPT controller is that by putting this
power supply and the start up power supply to power of this, there is some power which is
consumed by these MPPT controller board and also the gate drive for the DC-DC converters.
You should note that this power supply itself acts as an additional load either here or when
you put it here. It acts as an additional load, there will not be any change in the function of
the MPPT controller. Because it is sensing the iT and vT at the terminals and the current
flowing through the PV panel, and therefore the power that is delivered from the PV source
also includes, contains the power that is needed by the power supply to supply the MPPT
controller.
So therefore, operation wise, there is no issue with MPPT controller by introducing this
power supply, it will still be tracking to the peak power point. However, I would like to at
this point mention two points, one is the power supply circuit, the housekeeping power
supply circuit should not consume more power than what is being deliver to R 0 because it is
not meaningful, that is one point that you have to keep in mind.
The cost of this power supply and all these MPPT controller algorithm should not be
prohibitively high, it should not be much higher than your main DC-DC converter and R 0. So
then again it is not meaningful to have a MPPT tracker. So, it makes sense to have a
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maximum power point tracker only if the cost of this MPPT controller and the associated
housekeeping power is much lesser than the main power and the load.
And the loss in power to this housekeeping power supply in the MPPT controller should be
very low compare to the amount of power that is to be deliver to R 0. So these two things you
keep in mind before deciding whether MPPT is really required or not for that particular
application.
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Prof. L Umanand
Let me now point out to you some practical point with regard to gate drives. Gate drive of
the power semiconductor switches of the DC-DC convertor which is interfacing the PV
source to the load R0. Consider the PV module and the DC-DC convertor, I am going to
write right now a buck convertor. It could be any other converter which you are using for the
application.
Now these two points are the same points and this is the switch. So, normally I have been
denoting the power semiconductor switch as a BJT with the gate line sticking out the gate
pin, sticking out like this. But actually this itself along with the drive is a quite an involved
circuit. Now, consider for example this NPN transistor. The base drive is given with respect
to the emitter.
Now if it was MOSFET the gate drive would have been given with respect to the source.
Wherever are we used BJTs bipolar junction transistors you can use MOSFET or even
IGBTs. Now this BJT is driven by a gate drive circuit and that is referral with respect to the
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emitter. The drive is given to the base with respect to the emitter, because this emitter point,
is connected to a node which is varying in potential.
So, at some instant of time in the diode is conducting, this is zero, some instant of the time
when the power switch is conducting, this is at vT, and therefore, this potential being not
fixed. You need to see that this gate driver is reference with respect to the emitter only and
this portion of the drive is isolated from the portion of the circuit which is reference with
respect to this circuit ground.
So therefore, you will need an isolation and circuit that appropriately drives the PWM signal
into the gate. Now, this portion of the circuit drive will have a power supply which is
referenced in such a way that they are caught. Now let me show you an example of this
portion of the circuit, this isolated gate drive driving a BJT and also probably a MOSFET.
This is a sample circuit of an isolated gate drive circuit, it is transformer isolated, you see the
transformer here. This QP is the power BJT through which the power current flows through,
the rest are all gate drive circuit. This portion of the gate drive circuit is in the secondary of
the transformer, this portion of the gate drive circuit of the primary transformer. Now
consider this point, this is the input point connection in the PWM block which probably may
be within a PWM IC or coming from an IO port of microcontroller.
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Now this, when this goes high V b goes high, there is drive for the base of Q 2 and Q2 will go
on to saturation R5 and R6 are so designed that Q 2 will saturate and this point, this where I am
indicating by the mouse cursor will get connected to ground. Then the whole V CC will appear
across the primary winding with dot as positive. This portion is out of the circuit because of
the diode.
Now this side dot also will be positive, this will forward bias this diode, this will forward bias
this diode. When this diode is forward biased + - Q1 is assured to be off, because of the PNP
transistor. And it flows through R1 into the base of QP and turns on QP. R2 C is basically a
speed up circuit, when this turns on, C will be a short for turn on, R 2 is very small compared
to R1 very large, surge current flows through it and speeds up the turn on process of QP.
If this portion is not there even then it will work, but it will be with slower turn on. Now
when this goes slow, Vb goes low, Q2 will go off. The base charges will recombine in this
pass through R6 and if the turns off, there will be reversal of the polarity, this becomes
negative, this becomes positive, and magnetic energy will free wheel through this. So
likewise here this got will be negative with respect of this which is positive and this diode D 1
will be reverse biased and out of the picture.
This base is connected to its collector through R 3. So, the potential here is zero. This
potential here because of the capacitance will be positive. It will drive Q 1 on and there is a
recombination base current that will flow through in turn of QP. So this is how this particular
base drive, isolated base drive will work. Of course, you could replace this with a MOSFET
too.
This is the same base drive which has been converted into a gate drive, because it is now
driving the gate of the MOSFET. So this is the N channel MOSFET, so this is the drain, this
is the gate, and this is the source and the gate drive is given with respect to the source of the
MOSFET. Circuit is similar to what we saw for the BJT only I have removed the speed up
resistance and capacitors of the speed up circuit is removed.
The reason is that there is capacitance between the gate and the source inherently within the
MOSFET and that will act as a speed up circuit. So when V g goes high, Vg is currently from
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the PWM block of PWM IC or IO port of a microcontroller and when Vg goes high, Q2 is on.
This is connected to ground the entire V CC at this across the primary, dot positive, dot
positive, diodes are forward by us, diode D1 and D2.
And then it flows through R1 and capacitor is a short during that time and enables surge
current of flow through it and then quickly charges up the capacitor. Therefore, the gate
source voltage builds up and turns on Q P. Now when this goes slow V g goes slow, Q2 goes
off. There is the reversal of polarity it free wheels through R 4 and Df, the magnetic energy.
This dot here also is negative with respect to the other end, diode D1 is off.
And this R3 is connected to the ground here and then D2 is off and you will see this capacitor
gate source capacitor will discharge through Q1 in this fashion. So, in this way the MOSFET
gate drive circuit, isolated gate drive circuit also works similarly. Instead of a transformer
isolation, instead of magnetic isolation, in literature you will find optocoupled isolation too.
Let me show you an optocoupler isolation example.
Here is an example of an optocoupler isolation. See here, this is an optocoupler. It consists of

a diode on the primary side and transistor Q4 as you see here on the secondary side. The
transistor is trigged by the light emitted by the diode. So, now let us say when V g goes high,
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Vg connect from the PWM block goes high. There is current flow through this diode, it emits
light and triggers Q4 and Q4 goes on and this is connected to the ground.
So, this potential here will be grounded and because of that Q 3 will not get base drive and Q3
will be off. So if Q3 is off, this point here as I am showing the mouse cursor, the mouse
pointer will be high, because VCC will come to this point and there will be base drive for Q 1,
Q1 is NPN, Q2 is PNP. There will be base drive for Q1 not for Q2 and therefore, Q1 will be on.
Therefore, from VCC is like this, in this path current will flow, charge up the gate or source
capacitance of QP and turn on QP. So, when Vg goes high, QP will turn on. When Vg goes
low, there would not be current flow in the diode, no light source and therefore, Q 4 will be
off. This potential here will be high, there will be base drive through R 7, R5 into Q3, Q3 will
be on and the collector of Q3 will be high, Sorry, collector of Q3 will be low, because Q3 is
on.
This will be grounded and Q1 will be in the off condition. Now during that condition, the
potential across the gate source capacitance will drive Q 2 and discharge through Q2 in this
fashion. So that way QP will turn on. So this is an example of an optocoupled gate drive
using MOSFET. You could have an optocoupled gate drive for the transistor BJT also.
One important think that you should notice is that on the primary side all this circuits will
have a power supply with reference to this ground. I will show it in this symbol form. And
on the secondary side also there is a power supply requirement unlike the transformer isolated
gate drive. In the transformer isolated gate drive, the power is transferred, there is no need
for a power supply in the secondary side, but in an optocoupled isolation only the information
is transferred.
You need to have a power supply in the secondary side also, that which is isolated and
different from what is on the primary side. So that extra circuitry is needed, then only this
portion of the drive will work.
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So if you consider this and remove the transformer isolation and I have light source, now this
becomes an opto isolated gate drive. This portion of the circuit needs a separate power
supply. I am indicating this and this ground and this ground are separate and different. So
these are isolated supplies, only then it will work. Alternately, if we need to make the gate
drive simpler, especially for low power circuits we can replace the NPN BJT with the PNP
BJT what happens.
So let me erase this portion or remove this portion and let me include PNP BJT there bipolar
junction transistor. Now because it is PNP, the emitter is connected to vT. vT is not a varying
node potential has this point here on the other side. So this emitter and the base can now be
used for driving this transistor. Now let me connect the resistor between the emitter and the
base.
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And then connector resistor like this and then that to the collector of a NPN transistor, and I
will have the base of this NPN transistor connected in this fashion. And let me give the PWM
signal to Vb here. So it becomes a much simple base drive circuit with the same grounds, so
you see that Vb when give the signal when Vb goes high, these two resistance are so designed
that there is enough base current of flow through this transistor.
This transistor turns on which means this point gets connected to ground. So if this point gets
connected to ground, there is a flow of current in this fashion and there will also be a flow of
current through this base, because when there is a flow of current through this is positive,
negative and there is 0.6 volts drop you will see current flow in this fashion also, and these
two values of the resistance are properly designed, this PNP transistor go on.
So that will turn on and when this goes slow this will, there would not be base drive for this
transistor, this will go off. There is no base current flow, chance for base current to flow,
this will turn off. But there will be base current recombination path here. So, in this way this
simple base drive circuit can be used for very low power applications, because you will not
find PNP for very high power applications and power switching applications.
And if you want to replace with a MOSFET, you can use the P channel MOSFET with the
same principle. If the power levels go high and you need to use NPN transistors, because the
PNP transistor and P channel MOSFET are not available for higher powers.
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In that case, there is yet another simple way to have a simple base or gate drive circuit, what
we can do is, okay erase this portion let me joint the portion there, and I will remove this
ground here and place an NPN transistor here. I can use NPN transistor or N channel
MOSFET there. And I will drive the base of that transistor in this fashion and I will get the
PWM signal to Vb from the PWM block coming from a microcontroller or a PWM IC.
You see this is a simple circuit and you take the output across R 0 in this fashion. So here the
load potential, you will see that the load ground is different from the source ground. Of
course, in this case the PV panel being are isolated component you do not need to have this
source ground and the load ground same. It can be different and therefore, it is permissible to
hove the load floating.
So operation is sample. When Vb goes high QP turns on, so when QP turns on this is
connected to the ground here and then there is a flow of current through the inductor,
capacitor load, and then through this into this ground like this. And when this goes low, Q P
goes off, there is only freewheeling action there is happening here this is open. So this
operation can also be used this will give you pretty simple drive circuit for driving the power
switch on and off.
I will now show you a simple circuit diagram with the simple base drive circuit which you
can quickly rig it up and implement in the lab.
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So this is a complete circuit which contain the PV module which is connected to capacitor C,
and the power flows into this portion of the circuit. Recognize this portion of the circuit,
there is a PNP switch followed by buck, so this is a buck circuit, buck regulated circuit and I
have used PNP here and then using R 1 and R2 to drive this Q1 and Q2 just we discussed this
type of base drive circuit.
And then the PWM signal is coming from an IC SG3 525, it is a PWM IC. And you can set
the voltage, you can set the duty cycle of the signal that you are getting here by adjusting this
voltage by, through this spot. Now there is a shutdown pin here it is coming from this portion
of the circuit, there is an optocoupler of MCT2E is operated in the linear region here. I am
having a double branch diode resistor and optocoupler diode in the resistor, these two
resistance are known.
Therefore the current flowing through this optocoupler diode is a measure the total current
which can be used for sensing that and protecting against any over loads. So this diode will
emit the light proportional to the current and the transistor portion will have pass a linear
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resistor variable resistor and accordingly to the potential here will change and that can be
sensed and used as a current protection circuit and used for shutting down the PWM IC. So
this is a simple circuit, very simple circuit that can be easily implemented in the laboratory.
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Prof. L Umanand
Another practical point, that I want to mention is that we have studying MPPT, where the load
resistance R0. But many times the load need not to be resistance, it could be dynamic it could be
comprising of other capacity loads, other DC-DC convertor loads, and similar such dynamic
elements. So, how do we perform MPPT?
So, if we take our normal MPPT topology it is something like this, where you have DC-DC
convertor, which is interfacing the PV source and I have a MPPT controller which takes the PV
current and the terminal voltage, and then, provides the duty cycle inputs to the DC-DC
convertor such that the impedance seen from the across the terminal of the PV panel is
controlled. Now this load R0 is considered resistive, now let us make this into a dynamic load
and see what happens.
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So, if I consider this load and remove this, replace the load with dynamic this load with the
dynamic load consisting of let us say capacitance, now this becomes a DC bus, and that
capacitance is connected to another power convertor, it could be a switched mode DC-DC
convertor or an inverter. So I will just name it as a power convertor which could be DC-DC or
DC-AC, and goes to a load.
So this load is a indicative load which could be resistance, it could be a heater, it could be any
general load or a lighting load. So, any general passive load here. So, what is generally done is
that, the voltage here the output voltage V0 is controlled, because the load demands a controlled
fixed specified voltage. So generally what is done is that, you have a comparator, and the
comparator takes feedback V0 is given as feed back here, V0 and there is a v not reference, you
want your V0 to take a value as set by the reference.
And then this comparator output given to controller, let us say PI controller, output of the PI
controller goes to a PWM circuit and output of the PWM goes as duty cycle input to the, control
input to this power convertors, such that the duty cycle is changed such that this V0 will match V0
in the steady state. So this is in general how this power controller will behave.
And as for this power convertor is concerned it has a DC bus here and that the DC bus is
varying. Now this vT across the PV panel, and the DC bus here both are varying vT varies due to
insulation, and not only that but due to this duty cycle control vT value also varies, because of the
IV characteristic which is, which gives different values of vT and different operating points. So as
you are controlling the input power or the impedance at the input side, the voltage across the of
this DC-DC convertor is uncontrolled.
So this will fluctuate, this will vary depending upon different values of d. In order to regulate the
DC, you put one more power convertor here and give the input varying, non-fixed DC bus
voltage to this power convertor, and then sense the output voltage here, feedback and then
control this output voltage. So, this becomes a voltage controlled power convertor, which will
regulate the output voltage that is given to load to the requirement.
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So this general way in which the MPPT is practiced. The first part, the first converter which is
interfacing with the PV source is the MPPT part. The second part is the load part or the voltage
regulating part for the load. However, the power is to flow through to power convertors and
efficiency is if this is 90%, 90 and 90, totally overall 80% efficiency. So the efficiency will be
lower than the if we operate it with the single power convertor.
Let us now consider the load such that this load is like a battery, like a source which is capable of
sinking, like the battery charging or pumping power into the grid. So, let me replace this load by
a battery, and the battery is being charged. And therefore, it demands a sinking current like this,
so that it gets charged up. So, as a consequence, the battery current will become i0 and this is
what as to be controlled.
So the power converter will behave in such a manner that it will control the current that that is
being fed into the battery to charge it up. So i0 has to fed back, so I will change this portion, i0 is
fed back and I will have an i0 reference. So i0 and i0 reference, are compared, the error is driving
the PI controller, the output of which will modulate this triangle carrier and you get the pulse
width modulated control input to this power convertor which will operate in a manner such that
i0 will try to match i0ref.
Now as the v0, voltage across the battery is fixed, the voltage across the battery is more or less
constant, fixed by the battery, because the battery is also a source. The current that is being
pumped in, the current into the v0 is the power and as v0 is fixed current is representative of the
power, and we can say i0 is proportional to power, being fed into the battery. And as i0 matches
i0ref it will ultimately try to reach the i0ref, i0ref is proportional to the power that is being fed into the
battery source.
So to charge it up, so i0ref being proportional to power, and there is this MPPT controller which is
measuring V and I of the PV panel and trying to give a output here which is proportional to
maximum power, that the PV can deliver, we can connect this to this reference. So let the
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reference i0ref be set by MPPT controller such that maximum power can be deliver to the battery
for charging.
So what we will do, for this current controller, we will give the reference from the MPPT
controller. So the MPPT is finding out which the peak power operating point accordingly the
current reference is being set, and i0 here will try to match it, and maximum power will deliver to
the battery for charging. Under such condition, this portion is now not needed. So we can remove
that portion make this connection and we see that, we just need MPPT controller portion.
And we need the current controller part, and then we need this power convertor. Power is
flowing through the only one power convertor. And therefore, efficiency is greatly improved. So
wherever there is a load like the battery, wherever there is a source type of load which is sinking
to the charge up or the grid where we can sink power, you can use current controlled technique
and MPPT can directly feed into the reference of the current controller.
Ref. 9:39
In this way, you will be improving the efficiency and get the better utilization of the PV power.
The same method can be applied even to AC voltage sources for example, the grid and similar
type of topology can be used.
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Prof. L Umanand
We shall now look at this spice simulation of the hill climbing method of maximum power
point tracking. We will use this algorithm, we will use all these blocks, we will measure the
current, measure the voltage, calculate the power, pass it through a slow filter and a fast filter,
comparator, toggle flip flop, filter, and then PWM and giving it to the duty cycle input of a
DC-DC convertor.
The DC-DC convertor we will choose is the buck boost converter, because it is able to
operate on the entire IV characteristic. So, let us go to spice and see how we will be able to
simulate all these block and integrate it with the operation of the buck boost converter
interfaced with the PV source.
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So in the simulation folder I have one folder call PVMPPT, within that folder, you will see
that there is a MPPT is schematic, the sub circuit, PV sub circuit file with added components,
I will show you what the added components are, and then of course the mppt.cir file.
Let us open schematic file and let me zoom in, observe here that this schematic is linked to
pv.sub, sub circuit. Now this schematic here, we are familiar with, this is the PV source, this
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is the power semiconductor switch, L and the diode. This is a buck boost converter which is
having V0=Vin or VT(d/1-d). The difference here is in these blocks which are ultimately
generating the proper duty cycle signal for switching this IGBT.
Now, how are these blocks functioning and do they agree with what we had discussed earlier.
So, let me put up the set of block diagram that we had discussed while discussing the hill
climbing algorithm and let us compare and try to understand this.
So here at the bottom part of the screen, we see the block diagram that we drew while
discussing the hill climbing method, and on the top part of this screen I am having the
gschem, GEDAS, gschem schematic editor in which I have included these set of block
diagram to generate the duty cycle for the buck boost convertor which is interfacing the PV
source. Observe here in the block diagram that we discuss, iT and vT are measured sensed and
passed to a multiplier to obtain P.
Here also, the voltage of this node T at vT is the terminal voltage of the PV source and V
sense is sensing the current of the PV source which is the current flowing through the VIPV
source which is set to a value zero. So Vsense is basically a sense where it is giving an
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output voltage proportional to VIPV. So it is basically giving a voltage proportional to the
current flowing through the PV cell or the PV module.
I am using a multiplier here. Now this multiplier multiplies vT and iPV and gives with the
power output of the panel. It is multiplier block is on new block, you see that ngspice
integrates very nicely with the Cedar and Xspice. Xspice and Cedar tools, Cedar libraries are
also integrated well within ngspice. These set of blocks here are analog behavioural
modelling blocks and they are obtained from the Xspice library. It is available in ngspice. It
is well integrated and available in ngspice. I will tell you how this can be made, how the sub
circuit for this is and I will share with you the symbols on the sub circuits.
So output of the multiplier gives the power. Now the power is passed through two filters, one
is called the slow filter and another called the fast filter, to obtain P base and P current. Now
here also I am going to pass it through to first order filters, power is passed through a first
order filter. I will call that one is the slow filter and you will get PB to represent P base.
And the same power is passed through another first order filter with a different time constant,
call it fast filter and I will say PD p dynamic. So within the filter, if you see the value here, it
is calling the sub circuit filt underscore order underscore one (Filt_ord_1) is a first order. K
gain of the filter is one and a which is the time constant, it is of the form one by as +1 where a
is the time constant. I am setting it at 100 milliseconds.
So this is the slow filter. The fast filter is much faster with the very low time constant. So, I
am setting the time constant value to one millisecond. So therefore, this is the fast filter. So
output of this slow and fast filters go through a comparator + - and output of that goes
through a toggle flip flop. Here also, in the schematic you have + - goes through a sigma
block, the output of the sigma block is analog in nature but I will not put a comparator here.
Because the toggle flip flop here inside the input is containing Schmitt comparator. Therefore
I can directly give analog signal to that. The output of the toggle flip flop, I will tell you why
this is later, output of the toggle flip flop goes through gain block and a suming block and
then filter. In this block diagram, we are giving the output of the toggle flip flop to a filter
and then to a PWM.
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See in the PWM that we are using, the triangle carrier is swinging from -1 to +1. Therefore,
the voltage here should swing from -1 to +1. -1 should represent zero and +1 should
represent 1 and therefore, this gain block. Remember that the toggle flip flop is going to give
an output from zero to one. I multiplied by a gain of two, the output of this has valued from
zero to two.
I am now subtracting one from this, so it becomes -1 to +1. That is what it is given to the
input the filter and the output that filter can swing from at most -1 to +1 limits which goes the
PWM and goes to the duty cycle input of the buck boost convertor. Now Vset here, why
have I given this Vset, this is given to the S and R asynchronous inputs of the toggle flip flop.
At the time of switch on, we do not know what will be the output state of the toggle flip flop.
In order to be consistent, it is normal to give to the set a small mono shot which will give a
high here momentarily set this and then from there on the tracking continues. So that is
basically what I have done. I have given a very small, a mono shot type of a signal, I have
used piecewise linear. At zero it is one, after one microseconds it is one, after two
microseconds it is zero and after 1000 milli seconds, one second it is still continue to zero.
So it is a very small pulse which I give to initially set Q to a high state and from there on the
close loop will take over. So that is why this portion is come into picture and Voffset here of
one view, I just explain to you in order to get here + and - limits for the PWM signal input.
So here, you see that there are so many new blocks, one is the multiplier I already told you,
this first order filter this is also new block.
These one, two and three, all first order filters have the same sub circuit. There is a sigma
block, summer block + and -, there is a toggle flip flop, how do we do a toggle flip flop,
there is a gain block, this PWM block we have already seen earlier. So these are all based on
analog behavioural modelling and they can be easily included at sub circuits in ngspice.
483
Now I will open this pv.sub file and let us have a look at the sub circuit inside it. Let me keep
it to one side okay. Now look at this multiplier block here, so this multiplier block is given
here. Sub circuit multiplier block node one, node two, output node. So that is what this is.
And all analog behavioural modelling starts with letter 'a' okay, and I am giving the inputs as
a vector output.
And then I am giving a model name and in the model, I have the mult as the multiplier model
which will come in. You can refer to the ngspice manual to get the ideas of syntax of this.
So I have the multiplier model here, I have the gain model, you see that I have use gain, I
have the gain model here. The flip flop I have the summer, summer block, the model of the
summer block is here.
Flip flop block, the model for flip flop is given here. See sub circuit, toggle flip flop, the
inputs clock, then Q, output asynchronous set, asynchronous reset. So you see there is a
Schmitt, all the inputs are pass through schmitt comparator. The schmitt comparator model is
kept here and after passing through the schmitt comparator, they are pass through an analog
buffer.
It is an ADC bridge. Every analog signal has to be passed through an ADC bridge before it is
put into the digital domain. So in any mixed mode simulation, keep this very important thing
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in mind, any analog signal pass it through an ADC bridge, take it into the digital domain and
do the digital domain operation here, model of the toggle flip flop is d_tff, look into ngspice
manual for syntax.
And then after doing the digital, you bring it out into the analog well by using a DAC buffer
and a DAC bridge. So analog to digital conversion is by the ADC bridge and all the digital
work is done and then it is brought back into the analog world by the DAC bridge. These two
operations are very important in any mixed mode signal analysis in spice, okay. So, you have
the toggle flip flop and we can also have a look at the filter, you see this filter 1, 2 and 3
filters are here.
I have a first order filter, it is very simple in implementation, sub circuit first order, filter
order 1, input node, output node, gain of one and 'a' time constant, default one. So this is the
module of the filter, s_xfer, gain the integral initial conditions zero, zero numerator
coefficient 1, denominator coefficient 'a' and 1, so it is 1/(as + 1). This is basically from the
right increasing order of the powers of S. S 0, S1 like that. So in this way the first order filter is
done and the symbols for the like before, I have already done that and kept and then called it
from within the symbols files.
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So you will see that when I open this block in the a block directory, I have see the filter
symbol. I have the symbol for toggle flip flop, the symbol for summing, and symbol for
multiplying. So like that the symbol I made the symbol and placed it the proper place. I will
share them with you, so that you can also work on it, and then make the simulation work.
So now we will go to performing this simulation. So what is it? This is existing which we are
done before up to this point, we have done before. We are now going to give this in a closed
loop way, sensing the voltage and the current. And we except that whatever may be R 0, this
will always go and adjust the value of the duty cycle in such a way that maximum power is
drawn from the PV source.
Now that is what we want to see. So first we will say this an 100 ohms, and see that it will go
and settle at some duty cycle providing maximum power, and then we will change R0 and
then see that will settle at the new value of duty cycle, also providing the same maximum
power, now that would complete our experiment.
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In the octave environment, I have run this reachability.m file again. So that recall that our PV
source has a peak power of 26.1. I have not change the I SC value and the Vscale value. VM of
14.1, IM of 1.8, RTM of 7.6 ohms, and we have to look at this buck boost converter column,
this last column here. Now we have put R 0 of 100 ohms and therefore, you can see that the
last column, the duty cycle is 0.7837.
So 0.78 will work out to (0.78 x 2)-1 which is around 0.56. So we expect the final duty cycle
to settle down at 0.56 and deliver the maximum power point.
487
Now you should remember that this is a closedloop operation now. This filter time constant,
this filter time constant, this filter time constant need to be properly tuned, if you have to get
good results. I have just done a draft tuning is a rough tuning and you will see that the MPPT
is tracking, but I will leave it to you to do a fine tuning and see if you can get better results.
Now let us go back to the terminal and simulate in ngspice.
488
So I will use gnetlist, generate mppt.net from the schematic. We will do that. So the net file is
generated and now I will type ngspice mppt.cir. I have given 1000 milliseconds as a total
time, and it will take some time, but we will run this. So, it will run for some time, few
minutes, let me comeback in a few minutes. So, the simulation is now about to complete and
it has completed.
Now we can plot and see what is the duty cycle value here. The node for that is V G, we can
plot VG and see. That would be switch pulses, instead I will plot V d here which is the DC
input to the PWM. So plot V(d).
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So if I expand that, so observe that the duty cycles starts from zero and then picks up and tries
to oscillate and stabilize around the maximum power point operating point. So you see that I
said that it should settle at around 0.56 or so. So this is settling it around that value. So you
see that maximum power point tracking is happening. It is tracking the max power. We
could also sense plot vT, we will now plot terminal voltage into PV current, vipv.
So this is the power that is drawn from the PV panel. So you see here again that the power
gradually hovers and then finally settles at around the 26 watt value which is the peak power
point of the PV source. So, you see that the maximum power point tracking is happening by
this algorithm, by this hill climbing algorithm.
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What we shall now do is change the value of R0 from 100 to some other value. Let us choose
now R0 of 70. So for R0 of 70, the corresponding duty cycle is 0.75 which will work out to be
(0.75 x 2)-1, around 0.5 will be the value of the voltage input to the PWM carrier. So let us
see if we change, alter the R 0 value to 70 and then re-simulate the duty cycle will settle down
with new value yet still giving peek power, drawing peak power from the PV source.
So alter R0 to 70, now let us run. The simulation will run for some time I will come back after
sometime. The simulation is about to complete, it is completed. So now, let me plot V d again
here and see what is happened to the duty cycle.
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So you see that the duty cycle voltage given to the PWM block. Now it has settled to a
slightly lower value, it is settle to around 0.5, and if you look at the plot of vT into current
through the PV source, the power it is still over around the 26 watt level. There are these
disturbances here which should get adjusted if you tune the filters properly.
492
So you see that the hill climbing algorithm we have implemented, the next step we would be
for you to practically implement them in hardware and try to validate the theory that we have
understood and simulated.
I will now leave it to you for you to explore the circuit in ngspice and try to gain more insight
into maximum power point tracking.
493
Prof. L. Umanand
PV battery interface, this is the very important topic. Especially from the point of view of pv
applications, because pv and battery are very good friends. Batteries are integral part of most of
photovoltaic driven applications. Therefore, interfaces between pv-battery, pv-load and any other
components within the pv application becomes very important.
So among the interfaces, one of the most important and commonly encountered one is the charge
controller, where the charge that is put into the battery or removed from the battery is controlled
by electronic switching mechanisms. So, we will look at the circuits related to charge controller
and then battery charging, this the very important circuitry that we need to have a look at, how
do you charge the battery from pv or outputs of the DC-DC converters which are interfaced with
pv and similar circuits.
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Thirdly, we need to look at problems associated with batteries being connected in series. So,
when you have batters connected in series, there is a problem with charge sharing, all the batters
in series do not share equally the charge while being charged and while being discharged and
therefore charge equalization is an important topic that needs to be addressed with regard to
batteries being connected in series.
The fourth topic is, batteries in parallel. Can we connect batteries in parallel? if so, how do we
connect them? and if there are non identical batteries, how do you go about connecting them in
parallel? What are the electronic that come in between? So, these are the issues that we will be
discussing in pv battery interfaces topic.
Let us see, if we can connect a pv and battery directly. So, the direct connection of the pv and
battery, is it possible or is it not possible? Let us take a pv source and at the terminals of the pv
source, I will connect battery like this. is this possible? is this valid? will the pv source charge up
the battery? Now, consider a battery with a simple model like this. Battery is consisting of an
ideal dc source vB, in series there is an resistant RB, this RB is not an external resistant that we are
putting, it is the internal resistance of the battery, strongly dependent on the battery chemistry.
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This is not a constant value, it varies also with the state of charge. However, let us consider this
model, this simple model and see how the IV characteristics of the battery looks like. So, while
charging, when the battery is being charged, the direction of the current through the terminals of
the battery is like this. It goes through the, goes into the positive terminal and comes out of the
negative terminal and the voltage is measured across the terminal like this here and we will call it
as vT.
So the terminal voltage vT is given by V battery plus, current is coming in this fashion, this is
positive, this is negative, so plus iBRB. So, this is the model equation for this battery model. So,
let us also consider what happens when the battery discharges. So, consider the same model vB
and RB and while discharging, so while discharging, the current leaves the positive terminal and
we still measure the terminal voltage vT and the equation now is, vT is vB, now current is flowing
in this direction, so this is positive and this is negative. So V terminal is, this minus this drop, –
iBRB. So this is the model for the battery while it is discharging. So, how do the IV characters of
these two look like.
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Let me draw the characteristic axes, X axis is vT terminal voltage, the Y axis is iB the battery
current. I will also have one more axis, one for charging, one for discharging. Here also, vT
versus iB. Now let us say this is for charging and this is for discharging and the model for
charging is vT = vB + iBRB, the model for discharging is vT = vB - iBRB.
Now, let us draw the characteristic. Now, when iB is 0, when there is no battery current, this drop
does not come into the picture, it is only vB, so we will mark vB on the X axis here. So, that is vB.
Now, under an ideal condition, when RB = 0, when there is no internal resistance, this term does
not appear. So, it will only be vB straight up. Whatever may be the battery current, vB will just be
constant, fixed, straight up. So, that would have been the characteristic. However, because of this
term iB ˟ RB, which gets added up as the current increases. There is an increase depending upon
the value of RB.
So, let us say we have a slope line like this and this drop is not actually drop, this additional
voltage potential is due to iBRB, So that is iBRB and this slop is nothing but 1/R B. So, in a ideal
saturation RB is 0, so the slope become vertical, merges with the gray line. So, now in the
discharging case also, the point when iB is 0 same, vB and if RB had been 0, it would been straight
up vertical line. Now vT is vB - iBRB as current increases discharging the drop from vB value
increases. So, you will see slope like this and this drop noting but iB ˟ RB as you are seeing here
and this slope is won by 1/RB.
Now this, these two are IV characteristics of the battery. Now let us consider the case of
charging, because when pv is connected to the battery, pv cannot sink. Only the battery can sink,
it can sink and source also. So the pv has to source and battery has to sink. So, the pv is charging
the battery. So this is the characteristic that we need to look at. So take this battery characteristic,
super impose the IV characteristic of pv panel and then discuss and then let us see whether it is
possible directly interface battery to the pv panel.
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Let us now superimpose the IV characteristic of the PV panel and the IV characteristic of the
battery and try to understand how direct connection of pv panel and battery operate. So, here I
have on the X axis vT, on the Y axis I will have the terminal current passing through the pv,
terminals of pv panel and I will draw the IV characteristics of the pv panel. Now on to this, let us
superimpose the charging battery characteristic, because the battery is getting charged by the pv
panel, So let us say that I have vB here, when there is no current, this is the open circuit battery
voltage and let me have this reference line with an ideal battery and the line as we saw the
battery is charging there is this extra potential that appears across the terminals of the battery
because of the internal resistance RB.
Now this would be the operating point for the battery and the battery is getting charged. You see
there is a positive current that is flowing into the battery of this value and charging up the
battery. So, if we take a snapshot at this instant, there is a load line which is passing through this
operating point. So, this would be the equalent load line that is presented to the terminal of the pv
panel.
So, we can call it as an equivalent 1/RT line. Now, let us say current is flowing through it, the
battery is charging. So, as the battery is charging, you will see that the battery voltage from the
discharge to the charge condition is different, the charged condition of the battery will be slightly
higher. So, it will start moving to the right. So, as it starts moving to the right, the operating point
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also starts moving to the right. So, let us say at some point here, when it is closed to full charge,
we will have vB around here.
Let me mark here the battery potential under close to full charge condition, vB and let me draw
vertical and let me also draw the load line of the battery when the current is flowing through that
one. You should also note that as the battery is getting charged, the internal resentence R B also
changes. Generally, the internal resentence RB is lesser at full charge than under discharged
condition. Therefore, as the operating point moves closer to the full charge condition, this slop
will be vertical because RT is lesser.
Okay, so this point here, intersection point would be the new operating point of the charged
battery. So, now let us say if you draw a line, now this would be equivalent 1/R T line when the
battery is close to full charge. So, you see that, for charging the battery, the operating point
moves in this region. If the battery is further discharged, it will come here where the curser is,
and then probably the load line battery will come and intersect here.
So, you can see that there is a region, where the battery charging operating points move. So, it
may goes till further down near the open circuit value. So, as it comes here, this region the
current starts decreasing. So, you see that as the battery is under discharge condition, the
operating point is such that the charging current of the battery is high, as the battery starts
moving towards full charge, the charging current is decreasing.
So this is very compatible, the pv module and battery when they connect together, they are
automatically comparable, because of this nature of charging current decreasing as the battery
starts getting fully charged. Because, when it reaches full charge, the battery has to just need
trickle charge. So, this region here is the trickle charge region or the float charging region or it
basically means is that, when it is completely charged, let us say near the open circuit value,
there is no current flowing through it.
The movement it discharges slightly due to any reason either a load or even during non-
connected periods, the battery can discharge through humidity in the atmosphere and the loss of
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the charge has to be made up. So, therefore we keep providing a trickle current called the trickle
charge or float charging, mans that once the battery voltage slightly decreases, there will be a
slight current to bring up the, to make up the loss of charge.
So, this region automatically behaves as a float charge or a trickle charge region. You see that
you don’t need any extra electronics at all to connect pv and the battery, if the battery voltages vB
under discharge condition and under the fully charged condition are matched properly with the
pv panel VOC and the charging current are matched properly with the ampere hour rating of the
battery, then the pv panel and the battery can be directly connected and there is no need of any
other further electronics or protection electronics.
It is automatic, when the battery is discharged, more current flows through it to charge it up and
when the battery is fully charged, very less current, trickle charge current only flows through it
and there by maintains the battery potation.
So let us now consider an example, where we connect a battery to a pv panel. So, this is the
characteristics of a pv panel, vT versus iT and this is the IV characteristics of pv panel. Now, let us
see how we can match the battery characteristic such that without any electronics, can
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automatically charge or discharge the battery. Now, consider a lead acid battery, the most
popular lead acid battery. Now, let us say, we have 12 volt nominal voltage, it is 20 Ah battery
and it is C10 C-rate, that is C/10, capacity by 10 will be the amount current that you will be
discharging from the battery and also for charging the battery.
Now the battery voltage when the battery is discharged, for a lead acid battery it is around 10.8
volts, when discharged, when it is in discharge condition and the battery voltage when it is fully
charged is around 14.2 volts, when fully charged. So, these are the voltage limits for the battery
and it will be within these two, fully discharged and fully charged and what is the current that
you have to charge it with, you have to use these two values. So, let us say, I charge maximum will
be 20 Ah divided by the C10, C rate, which is 2 amp max.
So when it is in the discharge condition here, let us say its start at 2 amps charging, let us say it is
around here 2 amps and then starts charging, as the battery is charging the current is decreasing,
gradually it decreases to a trickle charge. So, let us now decide the extreme operating points. So,
when the battery is under discharge condition, we would like the operating point to be close to
the ISC line. So, let us say, we have here, a large value of current to charge it and as it charges, the
operating point shifts to the right and then it should come lower down under the full charged
condition, when it is close to 14.2 volts.
So this, we will set it at around 2 amps, max charge current. So, whenever the battery in the
discharge (but speaker meant 'charge') condition, it will draw 2 amps from PV panel. The short
circuit current you see is slightly higher, so let us say short circuit current is around 2.5 amps.
Now, this VOC, you see this operating point should correspondent 14.2 volts. So V OC is slightly to
the right and we will say that VOC is set at 14.5 volts.
So now if you draw a load line of the battery using its R B value, this VB here is 10.8 volts, as the
current increases, you will see the intersection point will be there and here also if you put the
load line this point where intersect the x axis will be V B 14.2 volts when it is fully charged. So,
you will see that the charging occurs between this two extreme load lines for the battery. So, you
can design the panel such that it matches the battery of your choice or you can select the battery
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which will match the panels, pv panel of your choice and if you have done that properly where
compatible one to one, then you can directly connect the pv panel and the battery without any
electronics.
In case for some reason, you are not able to match the battery and pv panels. For an example, pv
panel given to you is 2,5 amps 14.5 volts of having that characteristics and the battery that is
given to you is 24 v. So, apparently it will fall out of range and you cannot use this pv panel and
the battery to be connected directly. Under that condition, we know how to solve that problem,
because we know that we have to operate within this load line, we can use a converter, we can
use a DC-DC converter, something like this. So, you have a pv module and to that you are
connecting a DC-DC converter and to the output of DC-DC converter, you connect the battery.
So this DC-DC converter will do the job of matching the output side load line, load to the input
side load by means of duty cycle control. So, example if you have 25 volt battery and this pv
panel is having 14.5 volt VOC and you are not able to connect directly, then by means of this duty
cycle control, we should be able to connect any voltage and any current rating to appropriate or
available pv module by means of interfacing between DC-DC converter and duty cycle control.
Of course, later on, we will discuss in detail, how we charge the battery by means of DC-DC
converter, especially we will focus on current control DC-DC converter later.
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Prof. L. Umanand
Let us now discuss the charge controller, it is an important PV battery and load interface. So if
we consider a PV panel or PV module and to that we have a direct connection of the batter like
this. So we discussed about this direct connection of the battery, if the PV panel and battery are
compatible, then you do not need any further electronics. However, the PV panels are not used
generally to only charge the batteries.
They are operated to also supplying to the load and most of the time the PV panels are supposed
to be operated at maximum power of point. So in general you would also have the load which is
connected across the PV panel. Now consider the IV characteristic, vt terminal voltage versus the
current. Now if you have a I-V characteristic like that and I will draw the P-V also with the same
color, and say that the operating point, the peak power point optimally should be near here.
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Now let us say the insolation has changed, insolation has changed means there will be a change
in the short circuit operating point, and let us say you have another curve, the V OC point varies
logarithmically, so you will not see that much of change as compared to the short circuit
operating point. So I have this IV curve changed IV curve for the new insolation and the PV
curve.
And the optimal desired operating point would be somewhere corresponding here. So let me
mark that point. Now at still further different insulation, I have an operating point like this. So if
you see the locus of the peak power points or the locus of the maximum power points, the
operating points will be along somewhere in this, almost vertical near vertical line. So if I draw
band like this, this band would be the zone of operation will be the zone of operation for peak
power point or maximum power point zone of operation.
In this region of operating point, you would be at near MPPT and that is sufficient for most of
the applications, because of slight flatness in the hill of the power versus V curve. If we now say
that the region of the operating points should swing in this narrow band near the peak power
operating point, then obviously all these operating points are not supposed to be used, because
you will be rate below the peak power operating point.
And likewise, on this side also these operating points are not suppose to be used. So if the
operating point has to hover around here, direct connection will not work, direct connection of
the battery here will not work, you need to have some electronics here, which will properly
manage the power flow from the PV to the battery, from the PV to the load, between the battery
and the load and all those things.
So you need a unit there and that unit is called the charge controller, because it controls the flow
of charge and controls, it steers the flow of charge. So the main job of the charge controller is
that it steers the power flow from the PV module between the battery and the load.
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Before we discuss the circuit of the charge controller, let us understand the functional logic of
the charge controller. How does the charge controller behave? How does the charge controller
function? Consider this condition when the battery voltage is above a preset max v max voltage, we
will preset this voltage. When the battery voltage is greater than that, then we save to the battery
is in the charged condition. When the battery has reached the charged condition, we would like
the battery to discharge into the load only and not get any more further charge from the PV
panel. So, at that time you can disconnect the battery from the PV array and connect it only to
the load.
So the condition would be disconnect battery from the array or the PV array, but let it be
connected to the load. Now if the battery voltage is less than a predefined Vmin, V minimum
voltage let us defined this. So, the battery voltage is less than that, we do not want it to discharge
any further but we still need to take charge from the PV panel. Then disconnect the battery from
the load, so you know that the battery is not go to discharge into the load, but it is still connected
to the PV panel which means that it can charge up from the PV panel.
Another 3rd condition, if the battery voltage is in between V min and Vmax the preset predefined
minimum and the max voltage, then during that condition, both the PV and the load can be
connected to the battery and they all will be operating within the zone of the maxiuamum power
point of the IV characteristic of the panel. So, under that condition, both the PV array and the
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load are connected to the battery. So, this is the simple functional logic of almost all charge
controllers. So measured to the charge controllers will follow this logic and let us try to see
understand this logic and build the circuits schematic for this.
Let us now put the functional logic into the form of a brief circuit schematic, conceptual
schematic by trying to understand what this V min and Vmax are from the point of view of the IV
characteristic. Now, let me have this vt versus it and I have this characteristic and we said that we
would like to operate in the MMPT zone, so a zone, a region of, the, a set of operating points
here which are near MPPT.
Now this lower voltage point, we will defined it has V min and the higher voltage point we will
define it has Vmax. Now, if the battery voltage is within this, then the PV panel, battery and the
load are contend. If the battery voltage is less than this, then you know that the battery is not in
the charged condition and therefore the battery has to get disconnected from the load. So, for
battery voltage less than this, battery has to get disconnected to the load, it will get directly
connected to the PV panel.
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So it will be charging with almost the full PV panel current and in this region above V max we do
not want the battery to charge any further we do not want the operating pointer any further to this
side and we will connect the battery to the load and disconnect the battery form the PV panel, so
that so the logic. So, now let us draw the conceptual circuit, we have the PV panel. Let me have
the switch, a battery and connect it like this. Now let me have another switch and connect the
load in this fashion.
So let me call this as S 1 and let me call this switch as S 2, switch two. Now, this voltage is the
battery voltage VB, so this is VB, so this is the conceptual schematic. Now let us see the various
mode, we had put 3 conditional statements. One is when the battery voltage is greater than V max
when the battery voltage is less than Vmin and the battery voltage is in between. So just let us see
how this conceptual schematic works in these three modes.
So, in the first mode here, let us define V battery is greater than V max. So, during the mode when
V battery should be greater than Vmax, we saw in the condition that if VB > Vmax and disconnect
battery from the array. So, that is the condition that we have applied. So, we should connect the
battery only to the load, because battery is fully charged, let it discharge to the load and let it not
get further, let this be open. So, the battery will, the PV panel will not be charging the battery but
the battery on the other hand will continue to discharge from the load. So, that is what is
indicated in this flow of the current here.
In the second mode, we had the condition, battery voltage V B < Vmin. So the battery voltage is <
Vmin, meaning it is in this region, the battery voltage which means the operating point will be
somewhere here. So, we need the battery to charge up, so which means we need switch S 1 to be
on and S2 to be off and therefore only S1 will be connected and the battery will be connected to
the PV panel and get charged up. In this condition here, you see that the load is not having any
connection either to the battery or to the PV panel, load will not be supplied with power. Do you
want this? Let me get back to that after the final condition, the third condition.
So, here in the third condition, we say battery voltage is in between V min and Vmax, Vmin ≤ VB ≤
Vmax. So, the battery voltage is in between these two values. So, under that condition, it is, which
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means that it is in the zone of near MPPT. So, all will be connected both S 1 will be connected
and S2 will be connected and there will be current flow in both the load, the battery, from the PV
source.
Now, I am coming back here and I would like to state that during the time of this mode two and
battery is less than Vmin, it is now connected to the PV panel, PV panel is charging up the battery
which mean the operating point is somewhere here. The load is not having any power source
connected to it, what happens to the load? You could connect the load in this fashion and there is
a buffer capacity here, which will do buffering and I will call this as S3.
So, one can have this kind of a structure to see that during the time when the battery is low, PV
panel is charging up the battery and S3 is connected here and it is, PV panel is also supplying to
the load. But understand that this S1 is a unidirectional current flow, current will not flow out ot
the battery and again through S3 into the load. So, that is one caution that you have to apply. S1 is
unidirectional switch there can be current flow only in this direction not in another direction and
PV can supply a current and therefore the power to the load during this time. So, the condition is
that, same condition when VB < Vmin S3 is on. So, we will say S3 is on and during this condition
S3 does not come into the picture, so obviously S 3 is off in this condition and that does not come
into the picture. So, this is the modification that one can do during the time of this condition
when the battery voltage is less than V min then there can be some amount of power flow going
into the load through the switch S3 provided S1 is a unidirectional switch.
However, in most charge controller circuits, you will not find S 3, it will just be only S1 and S2,
keep it simple. We will be discussing the implementation of this circuit. Because most of the
time the operating point will be hovering in this region, both greater than the v max and less than
vmin condition is the extreme condition majority of the case it will be here and therefore, it will be
one of the switches S1 and S2, S3 will not come to the picture.
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I have here the entire circuit schematic of the charge controller circuit. You see these two
switches are relays, they have relay coils associated, the relay coils are actually turned on and off
by BJTs. There is one BJT here, another BJT here and they are driven by op-amps and zeners are
basically used for setting the preset vmax and vmin limits. Now, how does this circuit operate, let us
reconstruct this circuit and you will understand how this circuit has come about.
Let me start with a clean white board, you have the PV panel, PV array and the PV array is
connected to the load R0 and we also have the battery in between like this. So, this is the battery.
So this is how the circuit is, here we had one switch and there is another switch here let us place
that so switch S1 and S2 and now we will make this, both these switches normally closed. By
normally closed means most of the time in operation, we want both the switches to be on.
Battery is between vmin and vmax and the operation is such that PV is supplying both to the battery
and to the load and battery is acting as a energy buffer.
Switches S1 and S2 are relays, they are driven by relay coils. So, there is a relay coil here which
will drive switch S1, so when this relay coil is energized then the switch S 1 will be open, if this
coil is not energized then, that is the normal operating condition S 1 will be closed, normally
closed. Likewise, relay S2 is energized by this coil and as for S 1, when the coil is energized S2 is
open and the coil is not energized S2 is closed normally closed.
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So these are relay coils, I will mark them here and I will indicate that, this is any NC relay,
normally closed relay that is what it means. Under un-energized condition, the switch is closed.
So, this is also NC. So let me now draw a resistance, put a zener here and I will also put another
two resistances like this. So, this midpoint here, midpoint of this attenuator will be considered as
representing vB and the midpoint of this and the zener is considered as vmax.
So this attenuator here, just a voltage division for this batter voltage will represent v B and from
the battery because the battery voltage can be varying, so I will need to take a fixed reference
voltage, so if I use a zener then this would be a fixed reference voltage and I will call that one as
vmax. Now, both this you buffer it with op-amp. So, let me pass v B through a buffer, this is a
voltage follower and vmax also I will buffer it. The reason you buffer it is that, this is high input
impedance, input impedance is high output impedance is low, so any resistance that you use will
not get affect the output side position of the circuit. So, now these two, I will give it to a
comparator, so I will pass vB voltage value through as resistance and give it to the plus input the
comparator and the minus input I will give the vmax and the output of the comparator, I will pass
it through a resistor to the BJT.
Now, the output the comparator and the plus of the comparator, I will put a resistance. This is
important because you need to give hysteresis between the upper trip point and the lower trip
point, I will explained that later. Now, the base of the transistor is given by these op-amps, you
connecting it to the negative rail and the collector is connected to this relay coil and the relay coil
is energized by the battery.
So, let me have that. This is, this battery I will give this symbol and for the ground circuit, circuit
ground, imaginary ground, I will give this symbol, this is what is used for powering of the op-
amps. So, I will power of this op-amps , power up this op-amps by the battery voltage. I will call
this one as Q1 and this is V C control voltage. See the relay coil has a larger resistance and a
larger inductance also. So, when we switch off the relay there will be huge inductive kick.
To prevent that, you have a freewheeling diode here like this. Don't forget to put that, otherwise
your BJT here will blow. So, put this freewheeling diode like this. Now, you see how it operates.
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Now, I have this potential vB which is sensing the battery voltage and I have this Vmax which is a
fixed voltage coming from the Zener terminal, buffered. So, this is v B, this is vBmax, vmax. So
whenever vB is greater than vmax compare it, this is the comparator, Vc goes high, so when Vc
goes high, Q1 turns on, when Q1 turns on, there is a relay current flowing through this, so the
relay is energized, this will open. So, our condition when v B is greater than vmax switch S1 will
open, so that the battery is only discharging to the load.
But one this switch opens out, battery is wholly supporting the load and therefore there will be a
drop in this potential, because this drop in this potential, this will come down and then probably
become lower then vmax and this will keep on switching. This continuous chattering is not good
for the relays, so you put a hysteresis. So, that is why this is hysteresis is coming into the picture.
So the moment vB goes greater then vmax, this will go high, turn on, this will open, this voltage
will go slightly low because it is supporting the entire load and even that goes slightly low,
because of this hysteresis, there is a lower trip point, only that goes one below, only if vB goes
below that lower trip point value as decided by this hysteresis components, you will again see the
NC switch closing again.
So hysteresis is very important here, so use that and put that appropriately. Now, coming to the
other portion of the circuit, let me connect the resistance and zener. Now, this resistance and
zener is used for determining the other reference voltage, which is v min. So, I will buffer that also
and pass it to the comparator.
So I will have the op-amp powered by the battery supply. I will have another buffer. I do not
need this buffer actually, but I am just showing it for the completeness I could always pick up v B
from here, but anyway I will use this vB, output of that buffered, this is vmin. So, the output of vmin,
I connect a resistor and these two I pass it into the comparator. v min I give it to the positive of the
comparator and the minus of the comparator I give vB.
And comparator is powered by the battery and the output of that is given to BJT and as before
the BJT collector is connected to this relay, S2 relay coil and you call this as Q2 and this Vc2, do
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not forget to put freewheeling diode across the relay. Now, this portion of the circuit, how does it
operate? When vB goes less than vmin, when vB goes less than vmin, vB connected to the minus
terminal goes less than vmin, this will go high and when this goes high, Q 2 goes on. When Q2 goes
on, this relay is energized, when this relay is energized, S 2 opens. So, when Vb goes < V min, we
want S2 to open according to our logic S 1 to be closed, so that the battery is getting charged, so
that is the logic that works here. Here also, we would like you to use hysteresis here, so you can
connect a resistance between this and the output and have a hysteresis because as soon as this is
opened there will a shoot up of this voltage and chartering will result.
Therefore, it is good to connect a resistance across this and put a hysteresis so that that trip will
occur even if the voltage shoots up, the again the trip will come back depending up on the lower
trip point and the upper trip point determine by this hysteresis.
So in this way this charge controller circuits works. So, whenever the vB is greater than vmax, you
will see that this will open out. This will continue to remain closed and whenever v B is less than
vmin. Look at this polarity, this will open out, this will remain closed.
So when vB is between vmin and vmax, both if vB is less than vmax and vB is greater than vmin both
these are off and S1 and S2 are closed. So, now that is the logic that we want. And the all the
electronics here are powered by the battery voltage. So therefore, you do not need any other extra
power supply apart from the battery voltage, if the battery voltage is compatible. If the battery
voltage is very large and you will have to have a small DC-DC converter to generate this power
supply which you are using for this op-amps and the relays.
Instead of the switches S1 and S2 being a relays, you can also replace them with power semi
conductor devices. You could use MOSFET or BJT also. But most of the time, the system, the
circuit is operating in the operating zone near the MPPT. Therefore S1 and S2 will be on and
therefore these relay coils are not energized, Q1 and Q2 are off. There is not current flowing
through the Q1 and Q2. So, least amount of the power being drawn during the condition of
MPPT, which will be the majority of the time period that this system will be in that zone of
operation.
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And therefore, this is a pretty efficient circuit and the relays will come into picture only under the
extreme operating conditions, when vB is going greater than vmax and when vB is going less than
vmin only then the operation of these switches come into the picture, otherwise they are not in the
picture. So, only then the operation of the relays will come in and the number of cycles of
operation will be very low it will come for many years.
Because the relays have greater than 10,000 cycles of operation so it will last many years. So,
therefore this is a pretty, using with relays is a pretty useful circuit, simple circuit and very
inexpensive. Let us say that we would like to replace the relay with a power semiconductor
switch like BJT. So, let me erase this portion of the circuit and replace the switch by a power
BJT and I am using a PNP because I am putting a PNP on the high side and I can do rail side
switching. So let me put an resistance like this.
And I need a resistances here between the base and the Emitter and one more modification here,
we need to give vB to this and vmax to here. So now the logic will be okay. You see when, you see
that vmax is given to the positive, v B is given to the negative. So, normally v B is less than vmax, so
this is high, Q1 is on and base current flows, this will be on. Now when v B goes greater than vmax,
negative goes high than plus, this will go low, Q1 will switch off, there is no base drive, this will
switch off.
So when vB is greater than vmax we want this to switch off and then we want battery to discharge
into the load. So, that way you replace the relay with the power semiconductors switch also.
Instead of a PNP transistor, you can use a P channel MOSFET too. I will leave it to you to do the
replacement of this with power semiconductor switch like a PNP transistor or a P channel
MOSFET and appropriately adjust the logic here.
Slide at 31:25
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Prof. L. Umanand
Let us now discuss the battery charger circuit where MPPT is integrated inbuilt into the charger
of scenario. So, let us consider this PV module or a PV array and this PV array is connected to a
DC-DC converter and the output of the DC-DC converter is connected to a battery, that needs to
be charged. So, you will say this is the DC-DC converter, it has a control input D, the duty cycle
input. The voltage across terminals of the Dc-DC converter output is connected the battery and
therefore the output of the DC-DC converter, the voltage is fixed by the battery, because the
batteries are source.
Across the battery, you may have a load connected like this. So, you have a load connected like
this. Now, how do we charge the battery. The terminal voltage is v B and this voltage is defined.
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Then what would be the current charge current, so let us say we want to put the peak power from
the panel into the battery. Now, let us say P m is the peak power, Pm/ vB will give you the iB, the
peak power that is going out of the DC-DC converter.
So iB can be controlled by controlling the duty cycle, because v B is fixed and therefore, power
can be controlled by controlling the duty cycle as v B is fixed. So that is the strategy that we want
to adopt, sense this control, sense this current i 0 which is flowing out of the terminals of the DC-
DC converter. And use that as the feedback, you also provide the PV current i PV, and also the
terminal voltage of the PV, vT which will be used for sensing the power that is being drawn from
the PV module.
Now what is the control algorithm that you need to put in here? Let us consider this boundary
here. The terminals of the DC-DC converter to which the battery is connected. Now, normally if
you consider this terminals and the battery is connected here, all this portion, PV source, DC-DC
converter can be considered as a controlled source. Now let us say if it is a controlled voltage
source plus and minus like this.
If you have a controlled voltage source, you cannot parallel two voltage sources, because there is
no impedance in between and there can be huge circulating current which can blow something in
the controlled voltage source. So whenever you are having controlled voltage source, you need to
have a series impedance which will limit the current.
So if you are having the controlled voltage source, have a series impedance. This is one
possibility but you do not want to control the voltage because the battery voltage is fixed. You
can directly control the current. In fact the controlled voltage source with the series impedance
and if the impudence is inductive, non dissipative, that will form a control current source itself.
So what can be also done is across this boundary where you have the battery, you have
controlled source and that controlled source you make it has a controlled current source. It has
the inbuilt impendence, necessary impendence in build within it, so that there will always be a
current limit current source and the voltage sources can be connected in parallel. So, we will
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follow this model and that is what we will introduce into this control algorithm which is a current
controller, plus the current controller reference will be obtained from the constrain that we want
to take maximum power out of the PV, so plus MPPT maximum power point tracking, both will
be included into this and we will see how we will do that and we can choose DC-DC, appropriate
DC-DC converter. It could be buck, boost or a buck boost converter the control, the control logic
will remain same, similar.
(Refer Slide Time: 05: 44)
Let me draw and discuss the schematic for a buck converter based current controlled battery
charge. Now, what it basically means is that the PV module or the PV array is interfaced with a
buck converter which will charge the battery. So, let us draw the circuit schematic, so you have
the PV module, PV panel connected to a buffer capacitor CT at the terminals.
And this is followed by a buck converter. So, I have a BJT switch, now this BJT switch can be
replaced with a MOSFET switch or an IGBT switch or a semiconductor switch, followed by a
diode and I have an inductor and following the indictor, I am not going to place a capacitor,
insisted of the capacitor I will connect a battery in this fashion. And across the battery you may
have the load R0 like this.
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So because the battery here fixes the potential across the output terminals of DC-DC converter,
the current row R0 is decoupled from the rest of the circuit operation. So, the current i 0 through
R0 is V battery by R0. Now here you have the battery voltage v B, we will call that as vB, the
current through the inductor is has shown here, this will be the current through the battery i B and
this current will be i0 which is flowing through the external load.
Now our point of interest is this current, the current that is going to the battery load combine
should be such that maximum power drawn from the PV array, or the PV module. So, let us
draw the control scheme, schema. I have a comparative here plus minus, so it compares the
feedback signal with the reference signal. I will call the feedback signal as i L, so what I am going
to feedback is the current. Recall our discussion, voltage v B being constant because of the voltage
source connected across terminal. It is sufficient to feedback just the current and use that one to
control the power
And her you will have iL reference, iL reference, reference for this. Now this error goes through a
comparator. So, I will connect this to the minus terminal to the plus terminal I connected ground,
0. Of course there is power supplies for the comparators. The output of the comparator goes to an
SR latch. So, I am going to connect the output of the comparator to the R reset pin of the SR
latch, there is a set pin also and there is a Q, the output in of the SR latch. The output of the pin
of the SR latch is going to get connected to this gate drive circuit or base drive circuit in this
fashion.
So, output of the SR latch Q gets connected to the base drive circuit which will drive this on or
off. So, how does this operate? And before that there is something we need to connect to the set
pin also. So, we will let me have clock block, so the clock output is connected to the set pin of
the SR latch. How does this clock look like? So, let me have the time, so I will mark this ticks,
each of this sticks space is this switch in time period T S, okay. So, the clock is in this fashion, at
the beginning of every switching time period you will have a very narrow very small duty cycle
pulse coming like that at the same period, the period being defined by this clock. So, this, the
moment this small duty cycle pulse comes to the set pin, it comes and sets the output of the latch
on the raising edge. So you have the raising edge. So, at the rising edge, we will see that Q get
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set and at every start of the period Q is set and then switches on the transistors. Now let us look
at the various waveforms to understand how this operates.
So, I will draw the various axes, time axes basically and I will divide this into two portions, this
is the first cycle TS and is the later cycle. So, at the start of the cycle you have a small duty cycle
pulse and that is this clock pulse and it happens every, at every starting of the period. Now, the
moment this clock pulse is given, it sets this SR latch, Q is high. The moment Q is high, there is
base drive for the BJT or gate drive for the MOSFET and this is on and v T gets connected and
the inductor is charging up, the inductor current is growing. Now, let me set some reference here.
Let me, for the moment set a reference which is constant okay. Clock, then I will set a reference
which is constant iL reference.
So and Q is high, it, it is providing the base drive or gate drive to this power-semiconductor
switch and thereby the inductor current is integrating and has, having a positive slope and that
positive slope is vin-vB v battery divided by L. So, it keeps increasing in this fashion. i Lref is higher
than iL, this is iLref which is higher than i L. So, when iLref is higher than iL, the output this algebraic
summer will be positive but that is connected to the negative of the comparator and the output
will be low, the reset pin will be low, no change on Q.
So it keeps increasing till the point when i L reaches and crosses over iLref, so the output of the
algebraic summer becomes negative and this becomes positive, the reset becomes positive and
therefore Q will reset and go low. The moment Q goes low, there is no drive for this power-semi
conductor switch, it will switch off and the inductor will start freewheeling and start falling
current will start falling.
So if you take this portion of the operation, you will see that if you look at the output of the Q of
the flip flop, it would have been high till this point and then it resets. So, during this period when
this is low, inductor is freewheeling, you know the back converter operation, it is freewheeling,
this is connected to zero, because it is freewheeling like this and what is connected to the
inductor is –v0/L or –v0 in this case is vB, -vB/L.
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And then again at the new cycle, there is clock coming in, this will trigger the SR latch, Q goes
high and the cycle repeats. So, you will have the inductor current rising and then at the point
when iL reaches iLref, there is change in the slope, so it keeps happening in this fashion. So,
observe that whatever current value you are setting i Lref, iLref the inductor current and the current
that this is going to be the battery load combine never exceeds the iLref.
So it is always below the iLref and gets controlled in this fashion and this is called current control.
It is as though at every cycle there is a check for the current and the moment there is a over
current within a cycle, it is switched off and then again the power semiconductor switch is
switched on in the next cycle, then it is on till the point when the current exceeds the references
current and again it switches off. So on it keeps doing and cycle by cycle there is a current
limiting and therefore this is a very safe and fast method of doing battery charging through
current control mechanism. However there are some issues which will now discuss.
Consider the inductor current. I will drop the time verses inductor current and I will keep the
markings in such a way that is duty cycle is less than 0.5. I want to show few cycles. Now, let us
say this is one cycle, second cycle, third cycle, fourth cycle. Now, these are the duty cycle gaps.
So, in the first cycle, duty cycle less than 0.5, second cycle, same duty cycle less than 0.5, third
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cycle, like that. So, let me mark the upper and bottom depth of the inductor ripple. So, let me
mark it like that and the inductor current will stay within this ripple. So, during the time of this
duty cycle, vT inductor current is going to rise like this and during the time of the 1-DT, it is
going to fall, rise fall, rise fall so on.
Now this would be the normal expected steady state value of the inductor current. Now let us see
what happens if there is a disturbance. Now I will introduce a disturbance here. I will just offset.
Disturbance could have occurred due to any number of reason. Now let's say, if this disturbance
occurs, the inductor current will start on from here, it is an integrator. It will start on from here
with the same slope vin minus vB divided L, so it go parallel to this line.
So let me draw it to parallel to that line and then after it hits this, top limit, it will go parallel to
the down slope of –vB by L, then up slope, down slope, so on, you see that it progresses in this
fashion. And what is the take away from this is that whatever there is a disturbance, the
disturbance finally decays to zero and then it, disturbance is removed.
And the normal inductance steady state value current flows. Now take the example of the another
case t verse iL, now I am going to increase the duty cycle to beyond 0.5, same time period, duty
cycle is higher, same time period duty cycle is higher and so on. So, when the duty cycle is
greater than 0.5, what happens? Let me again mark the top and bottom of the inductor ripple. I
will keep it same and what is the steady state normal expected value and the inductor current.
Let me first draw that so this will be v in minus vB by L, this will be –v B by L, negative slope,
positive slope, negative slope, positive slope, negative slope, so on. So, this is the normal
expected steady state value the inductor current under duty cycle greater than 0.5 also. Now here
also like here, we will introduce the disturbance the disturbance that occur due to whatever the
reason.
So when you introduce the disturbance, now from this point onwards, it will start going parallel
to this line, it will have the same inductor slow. So let us say it takes this line it hits the top value
here, that is il reference value, then goes down, resets again, this is the time duration when the Q
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of the flip flop is low, hits the time at the end of T S, when the clock again gives the small pulse
and set the flip flop, again it will rise, then goes down, continuous going down.
Here it will get reset, so on and you see that the disturbances starts growing cycle by cycle, it
starts growing, becomes unstable. So, it never converges to the expected steady state value of the
inductor current. So, when the duty cycle is greater than point 0.5 the inductor current will start
diverging and it will not be stable when you do current controlled operation in this fashion where
this is the iL reference. The top of the inductor current ripple is the higher reference, how do we
solve this problem?
Let us seek a solution and try to find out how to do that and implement that? Let me consider the
problem case waveform, here the duty cycle is greater than 0.5 and we see that if we give a
disturbance, it keeps growing and leads to an unstable inductor current waveform. Now this line
here, this top line here, where the inductor current is comparing with that line is the i L reference
line. So let me highlight that with a different colour and let me indicate that, so that is i Lref . So
whenever the inductor current reaches iLref and tries to cross that, then the error changes the
direction becomes negative and then resets the flip flop.
But that is not happening in the proper way when the duty cycle is greater than 0.5. Now let us ry
to change the shape of this iLref instead of being a straight flat line. Let us introduce some slope.
So what I will do is try to extent this axis and let me draw a line which is having this same slope
as the following slope of the inductor. The falling slope of the inductor is – v0 by L or – vB by L
for the case of the buck converter.
So, we will try to use that same slope and continue it upwards. Now this is, the slope line that we
will use for this time period TS, we will repeat the same slope line for every time period, so using
that as the marker let me repeat the same slope line for the next time period, then the next time
period too and so on. Now this saw tooth type of waveform will become the new i Lref. So, when
you use iLref of this nature, you see something nice happening.
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Now let us take the same disturbance and let me allow the inductor current to go parallel to what
is suppose to be the steady state value, so it goes parallel, now hits the boundary here, it hits the
iL reference here and at this point, it tries to crossover and the comparator goes, the error goes
negative, the comparator will, output will see to it that the reset of the SR latch, resets is asserted.
And resets the Q value. So, thereby it will then start having a down slope and the down slope is
going to be along the same parallel, because the following slope for the inductive current is –v 0
by L or- vB by L in this case. So, you see that in just one switching cycle, the error has been
reduced, so the error is, from there on continuous to follow the steady state value. So, you see
that any error quickly converges and the error is removed within a switching cycle. It is the
beauty of having this type of a sloped saw tooth shaped i Lref. So, you should give the slope here
for the iLref same as the falling slope of the inductor current, then you are safe and the error will
be removed within a cycle. So, how to give a slope. Now, this was the old i Lref, to the old iLref, you
have to compensate and see that you have this kind of a slope. So, this is called slope
compensation. So, current control with slope compensation will give you the best results where
even if there are errors, the errors will be removed within a cycle and the system will be stable.
So, this can aloes be proved mathematically, what I have shown by graphs. You can refer to
literacy on DC-DC converters or any of the NPTEL courses DC-DC converters. We shall now
see, how we can generate an iL reference which is of this form. It should in this kind of saw tooth
form and the slope is being same as the falling slope of the inductor current. Once we generate
that then our current controlled converter is ready for performing battery charging operation with
MPPT.
Refer slide time: 27:00
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Prof. L. Umanand
Let us now try to understand what slope compensation is and how to obtain the slope
compensated reference waveform. Let us understand it with the help of some waveforms with
respect to time, I will plot iLref which is nothing but a constant DC value. So the inductor current
waveform is compared with this constant DC and then that is how the current controlled output is
generated.
But this has a problem for greater than 50% duty cycle, where it would become unstable. So
therefore, we need to generate a slope compensated waveform. Let me now draw this type of
wave shape. And this slope should be v B by L, should have a magnitude of v B by L, so this will
have a magnitude of vB by L and this is called I slope let us say. And the new reference will be
iLref-islope and that will look like this.
525
So this will be the new current reference that we need to use for doing the current control. So, the
inductor current should get compared with this slope compensated current reference. So, this will
be the slope compensated reference that we will use. Now, how do we get this wave shape where
the slope is same has vB by L that is the down slope of the inductor current waveform. So, the
question, how to generate this wave from?
So, if we look at the inductor current, the inductor current here what we have drawn, during 1-
DTS period, during the time when the switches off, the slope of the inductor current is – v 0 by L
or –vB by L and the magnitude of that slope is v B by L. So, this inductor, the, by the faraday
equation, the vL voltage cross the inductor is given by L diL / dt.
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Let us write that down vL = L diL / dt and during the (1- D) Ts period iL is – vP / L integral dt and
I slope, because here your talking of a positive slope, by remove the negative sign, taking or
considering only the magnitude of the slope, will be v B / L the integral dt. So, how do we obtain
this current wave shape? How do we get this wave here by implementation? So, what we can
have is, we have a controlled current source like this and that controlled current source is
connected to a capacitor like this and let us say CS is the capacitance and then you can monitor
the voltage we vCS across here, and let us say there is a current I that you have decided for the
current source.
So, what are the voltage across the capacitance? So, the voltage across the capacitance is 1/C S
integral of Idt, which is I/CS because I is constant, integral of dt. Now, observe this and this, the
coefficients of integral dt vB/L and I/CS. Now, comparing these two, comparing these two, we
can write I as vB/L into CS. Now let us make I here v B/L into CS divided by CS into dt would be
the voltage across this capacitance. So, the voltage cross this capacitance will follow in this wave
shape. It is a voltage equivalent value of I slope, will follow this wave shape with this exact slope
vB/L, because CS CS will cancel. Now, this is an integrator and as long as the current here is
constant, this will keep on integrating.
It will not come down to zero. So, there has to be a reset mechanism. So, let us connect across
this switch, so the current source I will set it at vB CS/L, now I will connect a switch there across
527
the capacitance and drive that switch on or off from the clock. So, whenever there is a clock, so
that will switch this on, it will discharge this capacitance, bring it to zero. So, during the period
of clock duty cycle, this will come down to zero, then again it starts integrating and at this point
clock will come into the picture, this will come down to zero.
This clock wave form looks like this, we have seen this earlier. It is a set of narrow pulses
occurring at every TS period, at the beginning of every TS period is a very, very narrow duty
cycle pulse and it is during this very narrow duty cycle, it will turn on this switch, short circuit
the capacitance, the capacitance discharge through this one. You can put a resistance in series, a
small resistance and series to probably to limit the current.
Now this, if you place it along with these set of waveforms, it will look in this fashion. So, let me
draw. So, these are the positions when the clock will appear. So, you will see the clock signal, so
a very narrow duty cycle pulse occurring at the start of every T S period, it will reset the
capacitance and then bring to zero, then the capacitance will keep integrating, it will build up and
at the occurs of the next clock it will rest to zero, again it will start integrating and the occurrence
of the next clock starting of the T S period it will reset to zero, so this will keep happening. So, in
this way we can generate this I slope waveform and use it for obtaining the slope compensated
reference.
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Now, let us take our current controlled convertor charger circuit, earlier we had i Lref from directly
here. iLref here was a constant DC value. So, we will replace it with the slope compensated
reference. So, what we will do is that we will remove i L there and I will say that this point we are
going to give a slope compensated reference.
Now how do we generate that? Let us how iLref here shifted back a bit and I will compare it with
this I slope, so let me have a controlled current source, this control current source will have a
current value I which is dependent on the sensed value of v B divided by L into CS. So, put a
capacitance there and across the capacitance, I will put as switch and this switch I will turn on
based on this clock signal. So, whenever the clock gives high, this will also turn this on, reset this
capacitor and then when this goes off, this will start integrating. This resistance is put here just to
limit the current and it will also put in a time constant Cs into R time constant into the picture.
But it will be a small time constant which will reach 5 times time constant by the time the clock
duty cycle, duty cycle pulse finishes. So, this value what you would be giving there is i slope and
you subtract it from iLref and give this as the compensated, slope compensated reference. Now, if
you look at this wave shape, this wave shape is just the DC and what about this wave shape? So
let us first set the current reference here and the current value is v B x CS /L, observe that vB is the
sensed value. So the current reference here will change according to the output voltage here.
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And if you do that, then here you will get a positive slope saw tooth waveform like this, i Lref
minus this will give you a waveform like this and this will form the slope compensated
references that you will provide to this controller. So, now i L whenever it is greater than this,
slope compensated value, than the other will negative and this will go positive and reset the SRr
latch. So this is how the slope compensated current controlled converter will work and charge the
battery.
Now this iLref here, if it is coming from the output of the MPPT charger, that is you are sensing
the voltage and the current from here and passes through the hill deduction or hill climbing
algorithm, output of that you give it out here, then the current reference here will keep changing
according to whatever peak power the PV panel can deliver and as those reference changes you
will see that current here will increase or decrease depending upon the isolation value, so then
that becomes a MPPT based slope compensated current controller battery charger for PV source.
Including the MPPT block, we can include the MPPT algorithm block here, similar to the hill
climbing algorithm, it needs two inputs, one input is v T the terminal voltage of the PV panel, the
other input is iPV, the current flowing through the panel and the output of the MPPT, we will give
it to iL reference here. So, this value will change as we saw earlier in the fashion and i L refer will
keep changing depending upon insolation and it will try to draw, set the i L reference here such
that maximum power can be drawn from the PV panel. So, as this i L reference get set and the
slope compensated current convertor will make iL value same as the iL reference and there by
charger the battery and the load together at the pest power available from the PV source.
530
Prof. L. Umanand
Let us now see how we go about simulating the battery charger circuit with current control, with
slope compensated current control. So, let me open this charger schematic in gSchem. So this is
the schematic that I have for you. pv.sub, I think you are now familiar with how to include the
sub circuit file, now this is schematic. I discussed, while discussing in theory, I discussed about
the buck converter.
531
But here in the implementation, I thought we will use the buck-boost converter. This is the buck-
boost converter circuit, so that you will get familiarize with one more converter in doing current
mode control. So, we have this for the photo voltaic source, it is the same source that we had
modeled earlier. Short circuit current of 2 Amps, voltage scale factor of 20, and then I am having
buffer capacitor CT, this VIPV with value 0, VIQ with value 0 are the current sensing voltage
sources.
I have a switch here, this is the inductor and the inductor current, inductor current measurement
sensor, diode D and the battery. Observe that the battery is put in position where here it is plus,
1 is plus, 2 is minus, because the buck book circuit you will have a negative voltage coming
cross the output and therefore you have to appropriate connect the battery terminals, and of
course the load. Now how are we getting the PWM signals for duty cycle control, this is the SR
latch. We have discussed about that.
Now there is this summing junction where I am having I L measured. So I am using this sense
there is this source here and I am sensing it from the source, so you see that, this is a B source,
which is giving a voltage equivalent of the current which is flowing in the inductor. So, voltage
is equal to I current flowing through the VIL voltage source. So, here basically I have a voltage
equivalent of the inductor current and I have the I L reference coming in here which is ILref minus
the slope compensated saw tooth wave form.
Now I have interchanged the + and – here, if I zoom in, you will see that I have made this +, I
have made this –, this is to make simulation block simpler. We have put a comparator here with a
– and +, with an inversion here and this comparator block I have removed and then I did a sign
change here itself, – and +, the inversion caused by the comparator is brought forward and I have
inverted the sign here because there is Schmitt comparator at the input to the SR latch itself, so
that is the only change.
532
If you go to the slope compensation thing, now here I am having a B source and B source, I am
getting a voltage equivalent of V0 / L, L is 10 mH, this 1 micro Farad is coming because of this.
VB × CS / L, so that is the formula that I have used that we have discussed. So, inductor value is
10 mH that what is I have used, so this is the formula. Now, this voltage will drive this voltage
controlled current source. So, there will be a current that is coming out through this and then it
will be charging up this capacitor.
And if we monitor the volt, potential here, you will get the voltage equivalent of I-slope and
every time there is a clock giving a pulse, it will also reset this switch, short circuiting the
capacitor and discharging the capacitor. So, you will get the saw tooth waveform, this saw tooth
waveform subtracts from the reference waveform and that is what is given as reference, slope
compensated reference. So, this is exactly the block schematic that we are simulating and here
533
this VC in this case of MPPT case, it will come from the output of the MPPT controller and will
define the Iref. So now let us simulate this.
Here a point that you need to notice that this SR latch is introduced now, the subset circuit of the
SR latch is included is pv.sub and the symbol file for this is also included in the set of files and
folders which I have provided as resource in the last week session. This is the voltage controlled
current source, VC, Cs and it is a spice simulation block itself. So, the rest all you are familiar
with. Let us simulate this.
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So let me open the terminal window, let me go to pvsim, the folder which contains all these files.
I will generate the netlist first, charger.net by executing the gnet list and then now I will run ng
spice, ngspice charger.cir. So, it will start stimulating, let it stimulate and after stimulating we
will look at some important wave forms. Let us plot the I Lref and the inductor current and we will
see.
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So the red one is ILref, which is at 3 Amps and let me expand it, so and the blue one is the
inductor current. Now, you see that the inductor current is not reaching up to I Lref, the reason is
that we have a slope compensated modified reference which is falling down from I Lref value and
when it is falling from ILref value, the inductor current will cross it over somewhere less than I Lref
value and change state and then start into the down slope mode.
536
Let us observe the clock waveform and the voltage across this Cs capacitance, the voltage across
the Cs capacitance is supposed to be like a saw tooth waveform with the positive slope, let us
compare them and see if we are getting waveform like we studied in theory. So, let us plot
voltage of the clock and the voltage across the Cs node.
537
So let me expand that, let me select the very small narrow region and you will see that this red
pulse is the clock pulse, very small duty cycle, so whenever red pulse comes, there is a reset of
the voltage across the capacitance Cs and then it rises again and the starting of the next cycle
clock pulse comes reset and rises and so on.
You have control on deciding the duty cycle of the clock, so this is as per what we are expecting.
Let us now see this modified ILref that is the slope compensated reference here which is the ILref -
Islope and compare it with the inductance current IL.
538
So plot, so let me plot the difference between these two and the I L. So, it will appear something
like that let us take a very narrow region, so that we will be able to zoom it like that.
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Now here you see the blue line is IL and the red line is the modified or the slope compensated
reference. So you see with the falling, whenever the clocks comes in here and then it starts
falling, subtracting, again rises back, the ILref was at 3 Amps, then from 3 Amps, it starts falling
down with the same slope as the down slope. This is the inductor current, the moment it hits this
at the down slope, the SR latch changes state, switches off that device and the inductor is falling
so on, it keeps going. So this is also behaving exactly like what we anticipated and you see that
the inductor current is controlled to whatever value you said.
540
Now let us see the voltage across the PV panel and current through the PV panel and just check
how much amount of power is been transferred to the load, to charge the battery in the load. So,
if we check the power drawn from the PV panel see that.
541
It is hovering around 24 close to the peak power operating point. So, therefore you see that
adjusting this ILref value place a role in actually deciding the amount of power that is being drawn
from the PV panel.
542
Because the battery potential is more or less fixed, more or else constant at round 12 volts. So, in
this way, this buck regulator, buck boost regulator that we have used here can be used as a slope
compensated current controlled charger for the battery drawing power at maximum power from
the PV source. So, I will let you to explore this simulation on yourself and try to gain more
inside from this simulation schematic.
543
Prof. L. Umanand
In photovoltaic based applications, batteries play a very important role, and most of the times,
the batteries are not single. There are multiple batteries and they may be either connected in
series or in parallel. Batteries connected in series are used to enhance the terminal voltage and
batteries connected in parallel are used to enhance the terminal current. We shall now consider
the batteries in series and see what are the problems, because you will encounter batteries
connected in series or parallel in many of the applications, photovoltaic based applications.
So let us say that we have a set of batteries connected in series like this. And across the
terminals, let us say what is the terminal voltage when each of the battery is having voltage V B1,
VB2, VBn, there are n batteries. And the terminal voltage V T is given by VB1+ VB2+ so on to VBn.
Now consider this terminal voltage, what is the advantage, this terminal voltage has increased.
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So, if you want to have increased terminal voltage, many of the applications where the load
demands the high terminal voltage, so that for the same power, the current is lesser and thereby,
the i2R losses will be reduced.
So in many applications, the systems will try to have a higher terminal voltage or DC bus. So this
series connection of batteries aid in that situation, so it results in increased terminal voltage.
Now, if all the batteries have the same spec, then V B1 = VB2 = VBn, that is each of the battery will
have the same voltage and let us call that one as V B. And VT will be equal to n times V B, so this
would be the nice simple relationship.
However, the picture is not as nice and simple as it seems. Even if the batteries have the same
spec, even if they are of the same batch coming from the same factory, V B1 will not be equal to
VB2, will not be to V Bn. They will be different, they will be charged differently and they will have
deferent terminal voltages. So under such conditions, how do we make a balance of charge,
balance in putting the charge to all the batteries and there by improve the battery capacity.
So therefore in practice, each battery will charge and discharge at different rates and therefore
VB1 ≠ VB2 ≠ other battery voltages and therefore we need something to do this charge balancing
where each of the battery will get the required amount of charge so that the voltages will balance
545
out and be equal. Now that has to be done only by means of some electronics. So, let us say that
we have some electronic system and we will sense the voltages across the battery in this fashion.
And we will build the charge equalizations circuit. So, this charge equalization circuit is suppose
to take care of making the charge distribution among all the batteries in such a manner that all
the batteries get equal amount of charges and the battery voltage will be the same, each of them.
So that is the main objective. So, let us put down the objective, to make charge to equally
distributed to all batteries in the series connection and therefore make VB1 = VB2 = VBn = VB and
this charge equalization circuit is primarily a switched mode DC- DC converter and how to build
this charge equalization circuit we will shortly see.
Let us look at a simple charge equalization circuit. So, let us have a set of batteries in series like
this and across each of the battery, I will place a resister, across each battery I will place a
resister, so that around 2% of the load current flows through the resistor branch. Now, if I make
all the resistances R, R, R, equal, if I make all the resistances equal like this, it forms a resistive
attenuator branch. So, this is the resistive attenuator and this has a tendencies such that you land
in the steady state, it will try to go towards equal voltage values across each of the resistor,
however this method is highly dissipative, so approximately VB2/R. See that each of the
resistance is seeing the voltage of approximately VB on an average, so VB2/R is the amount of
power that gets dissipated into the resistor, in each of the resistor. So, that is one of the primary
disadvantages, otherwise it is very robust and has low component count and therefore very
546
reliable. So, if it is a very low power circuit you can use this method otherwise if it is high power
circuit this will not work out basically because of this issue.
Let us now discuss the charge pump based charge equalization circuit which is based on fixed
switched mode DC- DC convertors and therefore the efficiency will be much better than the case
of simple resistive voltage dividers. So, let me consider two batteries in series, for simplicity
rather than by taking up n batteries in series, let us say I have just two batteries to be connected
in series VB1 and VB2. On the left side, the battery chargers are connected which will charge up
these batteries or it may be directly connected to a PV module or PV array which can directly
charge the battery. Now we say that these two batteries are not sharing the charge equally and
therefore VB1 is different from VB2.
But actually, finally, they should become VB1 = VB2 = VB. Now let us put some charge
equalization circuit. First I will consider V B1 let me put in a simple buck boost convertor here,
this is a buck boost convertor. How does this operate? When this transistor is on, it removes
charge from VB1 in this passion, observe the cursor. Where this transistor is ON, from VB1 the
charge is removed and stored into the inductor and then when this switch is OFF the charge
stored in inductor is flowing through, in this fashion and then it has to come up through this. So,
547
we have to provide a path here. So, let me put a capacitor, a buffer capacitor here, I am going to
put a buffer capacitor here like this and complete this circuit in this fashion.
So, now you see when this transistor is on, charge from the V B1 is taken, stored into the inductor
in this fashion. When this is off, inductor current continuous to flow in the same direction and it
will flow in this fashion, charges up this capacitance and into the, through the diode into the
inductor again. So, while it is flowing, see that the inductor is passing through other lower
batteries and also this reservoir capacitor, this is called the reservoir capacitor.
So in this way charge can be removed from battery VB1 and it can be given to VB2 and also to this
reservoir capacitor. Now let me consider the second battery V B2 and let me put the same back
boost convertor circuit here also in this fashion. So, observe here that when this transistor is ON,
when will this transistor go ON? When it finds that V B2 is greater than terminal voltage by 2. So,
we have to sense terminal voltage and if V B2 is greater than terminal voltage by 2, then I know
that this is having excess charge, I will turn on this transistor, it will remove this charge, store it
into the inductor.
Then when I switch off this transistor, during the 1-d, during the T OFF period, inductor current
will continue to flow in this fashion, it will go here charge up this reservoir capacitor and then
come back and complete the circuit. So, in this way, individually each of the battery has a charge
equalizer circuit like this, it is a DC-DC convertor like a buck boost convertor where the charge
can be removed and put into other battery and charge from the lower batteries can be removed
put it to the reservoir.
But when a charge removed from the lower battery, it can go into the reservoir, how can it be put
into the upper battery? So, we need a charge pump. So whatever is there in the reservoir, we will
pump it up and then pass it on here. So let us see how we will build this charge pump. Now this
plus and minus, notice that one and let us build a boost convertor here. So, I will have transistor
and inductor like this. So plus the, this capacitor plus terminal is connected to the inductor to this
boost transistor.
548
And then goes to the diode to the terminal, plus of the battery set terminals. So let me put this
diode and then connect it like that. So now, you see this operation separately. When, let us say,
the voltage across this capacitor is more than a particular value, then we will switch this, we will
switch this, this will store the charge here in this inductor and this is switching off, the charge
goes pumps up in and into the plus terminal of the battery set and in that way, it starts percolating
down again and in this way, in the steady state, the charge the batteries will get equalized
because this is in a closed loop control system, the each of the battery voltage is sensed, terminal
voltage is sensed and I am checking for each of the battery voltage with respect to the terminal.
So, if there are n batteries, terminal voltage divided by n should be each battery voltage. If the
battery voltage exceeds that then charge is removed from that. So that is the simple concept that
is used for driving these transistors. So, whenever the battery voltage is greater than terminal
voltage divided by n, then this transistor is enabled for switching, like that for each transistor.
549
Let us now see how we will give the base drive signals for these three BJTs. Of course, always
note that wherever I use BJTs, you can always use MOSFETs or IGBTs. Now we will call this
one as terminal voltage, VT and VT is pass through again of 1/n to provide an output which is V T/
n, so where n is the number of batteries connected in series. So, in this case, n is two, there are
two batteries connected in series. So VT passes through 1/2 and output will be VT /2.
Now this is compared with a comparator. So, let us say, one of the inputs is V B1which is
connected to the + terminal, VT/ n, VT / 2 here is connected to the – terminal. The output, okay, I
will also connect for the other battery. So, let us say V B2 and VBn. So, both are connected
similarly, VT/n, in this case VT/2 is connected to the – terminal of the 1 comparator, – terminal of
the other comparator also.
The + terminal is connected to the VB1 battery sense voltage. So you need to have battery voltage
sensor and then Vb2 batteries sensed voltage is given to + terminal. You could use differential
amplifiers and then obtainVB2 and VB1 respectively. And the output of the comparators is given to
2 AND gates. So comparator 1 is given to one of the terminals of the AND gate, comparator 2 is
given to one of the terminals of the another AND gate.
And a clock is given to the other terminal. So, this AND gate is acting like a gating block. So,
this clock is having continuously pulses being generated in this fashion of a particular duty cycle.
So how does this operate? When VB1 > VT/n or VT/2 in this case, this goes high. So when this
goes high, this input is enabled, clock passes through and that is given to this transistor. So, this
transistor will be clocked at this frequency and this comparator acts as a gating or the enabling
signal.
Now when this goes low, even if the clock is present this is going low and this will swift OFF
whenever the battery voltage is lesser than V T/n. Likewise for battery 2 also, whenever the
battery 2 goes more than VT/n that enables this AND gate and that will enable switching pulses
to be passed on to this transistor. Now for this reservoir capacitor and the boost charge pump, I
will call this an CR and this as voltage VCR measured in this direction.
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So I will use a comparator, minus and plus in this fashion, where for the minus I will use a V CRSet
a set value for VCR, a reference value some voltage beyond which I want to pump up the charge
and this is the measured value of the voltage across V CR obtained from differential amplifiers and
this will be passed through a gating, through an AND gate, act as a gating signal and clock is
pass through the other input of an AND gate, the output of the AND gate is given to this BJT
thus enabling switching of this BJT and acting as a charge pump.
So in this way this charge pump based equalization circuit operates. You can connect any
number of batteries in series with the same circuit getting duplicated. So, this is a very efficient
way of doing charge balancing especially for very high power level.
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Prof. L. Umanand
We discussed connecting batteries in series to enhance terminal voltage. If we want to enhance

the terminal current, then we can connect batteries in parallel. But can we connect batteries in
parallel is the question. Now, let us say that we have few batteries connected like this in parallel,
we have the terminal voltage VT and you have the iB1, iB2, iBn currents from each of the battery
and the terminal current iT is sum of iB1+ iBn+ iBn so on.
So this will increase the discharge current capability of the whole set of the whole system.
However, you should know that one cannot connect voltage sources in parallel. We have seen
that earlier connecting voltage sources in parallel will cause huge circulating current to flow
among them. Even if there is a small difference in the voltage, even the nano volts or micro
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volts, there can be a huge circulating current, because their impedances, the series impedances,
resources are almost zero, and then there can be a huge circulating current.
And this will lead to reduction, huge reduction in the capacity of the whole battery set. So in
general you do not directly connect two a voltage sources in parallel like this, this is not on.
In order to avoid the circulating current problem, I could connect diode in series in each of the
battery and OR them and then connect it to the load like this. So in this case there will not be a
circulating current between these two batteries, because of these two diodes and the ORing effect
will try to see that current from here and here through the load. But there is no guarantee that
there will be sharing of current between the two batteries.
It depends again upon the internal impedances of the two batteries. Let us say the internal
impedance of this battery is less, so this will try to drive a large current. And if this has a
impedance, internal impedance which is larger then there will be a drop across the internal
impedance, and then this diode may be reverse biased. So only this will be delivering power to
R0.
So these problems may occur and you cannot grantee or ensure the sharing of current between
the parallel connection. Then this defeats the purpose of having enhanced terminal current. So
what do we do? We need to have some electronics come into the picture. Let us have a look at
that.
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Let us now discuss how we will go about connecting batteries in parallel to a PV application.
The typical PV application is like this, the PV module is connected to a buffer capacitance C T
like this and then which is connected to R0, when you have a battery you are normally connecting
the battery here across this terminal but you can connect only one battery, a single battery. If you
are having many batteries and you want to parallel them such that the terminal current is
enhanced then we will have to take the aid of DC-DC converter.
So let us say that I have a battery here now this battery I want to interface it to this point, how
will I do that? So, this battery, let me pass it through DC- DC converter. I will take a boost
converter as an example, but you can take any other converter too, that will suite, match this
battery potential with terminal potential of the PV panel where you can appropriately take the
duties cycle which we have discussed earlier.
It need to be just a boost converter or a buck converter or a buck boost converter, it can also be
an isolated converter like a fly back converter, probably I will show you an example later. Now
let us say that this is the first part of the boost converter, we have the inductor and the switch and
I should have a diode here, let me make this two grounds common. So, let us say this is the same
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circuit ground and here we will put the diode the boost converter circuit now becomes complete
and the diode output should go to a capacitance and that capacitance will be the capacitance CT.
So the boost converter will pump the voltage from here boost it and then puts it into the
capacitance CT so and the transistors switch is on the energy, the power is flowing through in this
fashion, current is flowing through and the energy stored in the inductor and when the switch is
off the current of the inductor will flow through this diode into the CT and then back again.
So this will be how it flows. Now that will be one battery connected in this fashion. Now let us
say you have another battery and let me include one more converter and I will put the boost
converters similarly and battery will pump when the switch is on, the battery will charge up the
inductor and the switch is off, it will flow through and diode like this, and to the capacitor here.
So, in this way this battery let me say it is V B2 will pump the power from the battery into the
capacitors CT, now these two are operating independently and therefore will be ORing of power
and therefore the current will be enhanced.
Now the point here to be noted is that these two batteries need not necessarily be of the same
voltage, this could be a 6 volts battery this could be a 12 volts battery and this could be 20 volt
DC bus at the terminals. So accordingly, depending upon the duty cycle, you can still pump
energy into the CT in parallel. So, that with the advantage of using a DC-DC converter. You
could also as I said, use an isolated converter.
Now let us say I have a battery connected in this fashion, this is the same ground. Now I have
this battery now this battery is VB3. Now that is connected to an inductor and the switch. So,
when the switch is on energy stored in the inductor. Now, I will pass it on to the secondary side
to the inductor in this fashion. So, when the switch is off, so when the switch is on, dot is
positive, when the switch is off, the dot becomes negative, non dot becomes positive, this
becomes positive, this will start pumping the current to this node into the CT and then it will
come back here, secondary of the capacity, secondary of the transformer.
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So you will see that you can pump energy from this battery into this buffer capacitor C T even
from a non isolated the converter. So, it is not necessary that you should have same converter,
same battery. You can in different batteries, eutectic combinational batteries, you can have
different converters, different types of converters, isolated, non-isolated and still pump power
into the bus capacitor in parallel.
One short coming of this what I have just shown is that power can flow only in one direction,
one direction power flow. What it means is that power can flow only from battery to C T VB1 to
CT, VB2 to CT, power cannot go from CT to back VB2, VB2 because when you normally connect a
battery here, if there is any charge that has to be removed that can sink into the battery, battery
can act as a sink, but here with this, because of this presence of these diodes they can only source
and they cannot sink.
And let us say even the PV panel is having a internal diode protection diode and therefore this
also cannot sink. So what will happen if you need to discharge the capacitance C T? So, you have
no sink current capability now. Let us say that, this R 0 is removed, that it is open circuited R 0 is
infinite. So if R0 is infinite and let us say C T is over charged. If CT is over charged, the voltage is
more and needed, even it would discharge the CT.
How do you discharge the CT? The CT has no discharge path. It cannot discharge through this, it
cannot discharge through this, it cannot discharge through this, it cannot discharge through this,
it cannot discharge through the PV because PV is having a protection series protect diode. So
therefore, CT cannot be discharged at all and it does not have a discharge path, this is the one
single drawback of this particular topology that I have drawn.
But we will try to alleviate this problem, we will see how we can remove this problem and we
will try to answer the question how to discharge the CT, if it is over charge under the condition of
R0 infinity or even during any other conditions where you need to remove charge from the CT.
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Let us now see how we can solve the problem of unidirectional power flow. We will make the
power converters bidirectional. So first let me connect the PV source to the buffer capacitance
which is connected to the load this is CT. Now to this CT we need to set up the interface for
connecting the battery. Now consider a battery and like as before we will have a boost converter
and I will common this ground and I will make this ground also same, same points, from here
diode of straight up. So, let me connect the diode. So, now this portion is the converter and
switch is ON energy stored into the inductor and the switch is OFF, energy stored in the inductor
is dumped into the capacitor ct and back.
Now, how do we pump power back into the battery in case there is excess charge on C T either
due to regeneration or due regeneration back from the load. So, what we shall do is make a
connection like this. Now I am connecting a BJT here, BJT or MOSFET like this and across this
transistor a diode, I am connecting a BJT across this diode and I am connecting diode across this
transistor.
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Now you see now, assume that this is the input source and power has to flow in this fashon to the
battery. So, if you look at that, you look at only the red components BJT, diode, inductor,
battery. So, this forms a buck converter in this direction, it forms the boost conductor in this
direction. Battery to CT when the power is flowing in that direction then it is boost operation, it is
a blue components.
CT to the battery, we use the red components and it will be buck operation. So, it will become
buck converter. So in this way if we use this technique, then you can have power flow in both
direction to and fro, and you will not have this sourcing sinking problem. So, we will call this as
enable sourcing.
So, when you enable this and allow the gating pulses to come into this base drive of this BJT,
this transistor is switching, enabled and the battery is able to source. You will have this pin also
and we will call that one as enable sinking. So, these two are mutually exclusive and you enable
sinking than this transistor is switching on and off at high frequency and the buck operation
comes into the picture and the power is delivered into the battery from the C T into the battery, so
this way you can pump power in both the directions.
So now let us mark off this portion, so this is our main interface block between the battery and
the PV terminal and this is called the interface block or parallel connection. Now this interface
block, you can duplicate, let us say I have one more interface block like that, and I connect the
battery, I make this ground connection here and then I bring out this enable sourcing pin out.
Then I bring out this enable sinking pin out and then after that I will connect this interface block,
I will connect that. So, in this way, one more battery is interfaced to the C T in parallel. Now if I
call this VB1 and I will call this as VBn and in-between there can be any number of blocks any
number of batteries and there can be any number of such interface connections in parallel to this
terminal voltage point to enhance the terminal current.
VB1 to VBn maybe same batteries or they may be the different batteries or different types of
batteries, one could be lead acid battery, one could be lithium polymer battery, one could have
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power high density, one could high energy density, so you can have a eutectic combinations of
batteries trying to get connected to parallel delivering appropriate power. These interface blocks
which are basically DC-DC converters which could be boost, buck or buck-boost or fly back
converters enable this interface to happen. And by using these kinds of bi-directional switches
you will be able to make power flow from this direction to CT and CT to this direction.
So now let us say that you are going to source, you will be enabling this, you will make this 0,
you will not allow this transistor to switch, only the diode will be used. So, this is switching,
power is put into the CT. Now once the CT voltage goes high beyond a particular set specified
limit and then we would like to put it into the battery. So you can enable the sinking mode, this
can be enabled, this will be disabled.
So only the diode of this red component diode and this BJT will be used and bucking operation
will happen and then the power will be put into the battery in this fashion. We shall now see how
we will get the signals. Consider the voltage across C T, let me draw that as VT is the terminal
voltage. Now using this terminal voltage let us decide whether we can give the signal for
enabling sourcing or enabling sinking. Now let me draw a comparator and the output of the
comparator, I will comparator output to give a gate signal and I will and with an AND gate.
And the other input of the AND gate, I will give to a clock and that clock will have duty cycle
pulse like this which will actually give pass on the pulses to the switch base drive. Likewise, I
will have one more set, one more comparator and the output of that comparator goes to another
AND gate, it gates another AND gate input and the clock is given there. So, here you will get,
gate at clock pulses in these two places. Now I will connect in the inputs like this okay now the
first input here I will call it as V Tmax, this is something that we need to set. We will say that the
voltage across this capacitor cannot exceed VTmax that is upper limit and the other one is the
sensed value of VT, we will give to this and also there is plus minus, plus and minus. So, let us
complete the naming of the parts, call this one as enable sourcing, call this enable sinking, you
have the supplies. Yeah. The operation is pretty simple, V T is the sensed signal. VTmax is constant,
so whenever VT is less than VTmax, this is high and here VTmax given to the minus terminal, minus
pin, so this is low.
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So, this is high when VT is less than VTmax and this AND gate is enabled, this AND gate is not
enabled, so clock pulses pass on to enable sourcing. So, this will be pulsing and this will act as a
boost converter, so that is why power will flow from here to C T. Now when VT crosses VTmax, VT
becomes higher than VTmax VT is connected to minus here, this will go low, V T is connected to
plus here, this will go high, moment this goes high, this AND gate is enabled this is disabled.
So enable sinking, clock also goes into enable sinking, it will go here and this will start
switching, this will not switch and therefore this will now act as buck converter and power flows
from VT side into VB1. So, in this way, you can have power flowing both back and forth and just
by seeing, sensing VT you can have a measure of regulation of the voltage across C T and the
batteries, as many batteries as you wish can be paralleled in this fashion.
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Prof. L. Umanand
This topic of peltier junction or peltier element as it is called is very popular topic in recent
times. The peltier element is also a semi-conductor material junction, the PV cell is also semi-
conductor material. Interfacing these two to produce the action that the peltier is generally used
for, the peltier is used as a heat pump, where it transfers heat from a cold body to a hot body,
from a lower temperature to a higher temperature.
So this mechanism of heat pump by providing an electrical energy at its terminals has a lot of
important applications, in refrigeration, in cooling, in cooling devices which are generating heat
which we will discuss. But it is a hot topic especially for electrical engineers in the sense that
there is this aspect of electrical circuits interfacing to the electrical port of the peltier element.
But there is also this topic of thermal domain, because all the applications where the peltier
element is used is for cooling, refrigeration where thermal aspects play a very, very important
role. Therefore, understanding thermal aspects and then designing the cooling product, peltier
cooling product together integrated with the electrical and electronic circuits is a very hot
concept.
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Consider two dissimilar metals, let us say one of the metal is nickel like this, it could be iron
constantan and nickel copper, copper alumel. So there are many metal pairs that can be used. So
let us say nickel and copper we use. This red line is the copper wire, blue line is the nickel wire.
and let me connect it to a resistor and a potential source a battery like this.
So there can be a current flow in this fashion depending upon the polarity of the voltage potential
applied. So, let us say that is copper and this is the resistance R and the voltage V. Let us close
the circuit, when you switch it on, you will see the current flow like that as shown. So, current I.
So when a current I flows through this copper nickel, nickel to copper and back, there is a
temperature difference between copper to nickel current flow and nickel to copper current flow
junctions.
So you will say this is one junction, this is another junction. So, one junction will be at
temperature T1 another temperature T2 so junction 1 and junction 2. Depending up on the
direction of the current flow, one of the junctions will be hot and the other junction will be cold.
So, this peltier effect was discovered by a watch maker physicist Jean Charles Peltier. So, he
found that by passing a current through a junction or dissimilar metals there was a temperature
difference between the junctions.
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Now the current flow through the junction of dissimilar metals establishes a temperature
difference, but note that current flow from copper to nickel and current flow from nickel to
copper is different. Let us say copper to nickel, there is heat that is generated, this becomes hot,
nickel to copper there is heat that is absorbed and therefore this becomes cold. So, one of the
junctions will be hot, the other will be clod. If you reverse the direction of the current flow, if
current flows in this direction, here it is copper to nickel, here it is nickel to copper and therefore
the hot and cold also reverses.
The direction of current flow is important so that is one conclusion, determines whether a
junction is hot or cold. Heat absorbed or generated, heat generated, heat absorbed is proportional
to the current flow I, this current. So you can say heat absorbed or generated let us call that as Q
is equal to some proportionality factor into pi. So, this proportionality factor pi is called the
peltier coefficient.
When the power supply is switched on, V by this resistance plus the overall resistance between
the terminals of the peltier element will dictate the current flow and the current flow is in this
fashion. It will take the path through this copper, n block, through this copper, b block, then n
block, p block, so on.
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The peltier element now a days is not made up of discrete dissimilar metals that which as
discussed while discussing the principle of the peltier effect today. Now a days, the peltier
element is a solid state device, it is made up of semiconductor material and it is having P type
and n type materials. So, let us see how a peltier element looks like. So, if you look at this, I have
placed some strips here, imagine them as strips, the tope side and the bottom side in this fashion.
Now, let them be copper strips. Now, these two copper strips sets of copper strips will be inter
connected with blocks of semi conductor material. Now, let us say I inter connect this strip and
the strip using a P block, I will interconnect here with an N block and like that alternatively, I
will interconnect the top and the bottom copper strip with P and N block as shown here and then
let me put as ceramic substrate casing like this and encapsulated in this fashion.
So this is how a peltier element is, with alternate P and N block and there is a kind of
connectivity here, the current can flow in this fashion. So, this is ceramic substrate and this is
copper, copper strips. Now, let us bring out two wires, one from this side and one from this side
and interconnect them externally. So, let me take a wire and use a battery or a DC source or a
photovoltaic source in series with the resistance and connected like this.
So you have a complete circuit, you see the current can flow in this fashion, it can flow in
through this, into this copper strip up, then block copper strip down, the P block copper strip up,
then block copper strip down the P block, copper strip copper and then back again.
So there is a junction formed here on this side of the surface, there is a junction formed this side
of the surface, there is a junction formed this side of the surface, so on. So, there are multiple
junctions that are formed as one set of junctions which are absorbing, heat absorbing, other set of
junction which are heat generating. So, you will have a cold and the hot side. So, let us say this
side is the hot side, the other side will be the cold side. So, this will be hot and that will be cold.
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So this is how today’s new advanced semiconductor based solid state peltier element will
operate, will behave and then how it is internal block look like. Let us now see how a real peltier
element looks like.
Here you see a real peltier element, it is laird make TE31, 56310-503. So, this is the number that
you will have to keen in, to Google and download the data sheet if you are interested and looking
at this characteristic. See, it has two wires, the red wire is connected to the positive of the battery
or the DC source, the black wire is connected to the negative and if there is a current flow
through this element and back through the black wire, one side of it becomes hot and the other
side becomes cold.
Observe that this Peltier element is made up of lot of these blocks, the P and N blocks,
semiconductor material and it is having on the top a sheet, a copper sheet, at the bottom also a
copper sheet, it is sectioned where each block is setting on a copper section, just like as indicated
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in the drawing. So that, when the current flows through the red wire in, so it kind of loops
through each of the P and N blocks and has this multiple junctions coming into the picture and
then you have that cumulative effect of heat absorption, one side it will be cold junction, the heat
generation of the other side which will be the hot junction .
Just like you have a water pump that drips water from lower potential to higher potential, we can
consider this peltier element, the operation of the peltier element as a heat pump. So, let us say
this peltier element is a heat pump, what it does is, you have a hot junction and you have a cold
junction. It pumps heat from the cold junction, the lower potential to a hot junction, the higher
potential.
So it removes heat from this cold junction and passes it through a pump and then puts into the
hot junction in this manner. But in order to pump from lowered potential to high potential, you
need external energy and that is very much analogous to a water pump, when it wants, when you
need to lift the water from a lower level to higher level, you need to external electrical energy to
operate the pump. So, let us say this is the cold junction, the bottom green and it is at temperature
T1 and the hot junction is T2 and there is the external energy, electrical energy needed. Let us say
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Qc amount of energy is removed from the cold junction. You add the external electric energy of
E, Qc and E are deliver to the hot junction as Q h. So, therefore, this peltier junction as a heat
pump delivers Qh to the hot junction and that is equal to the amount of the heat removed from the
cold junction plus the external energy, electric energy needed to do the pumping which also goes
off as heat.
There is the parameter, coefficient of performance, this is the figure of merit, which we can use
for comparing junctions. We will call it COP, coefficient of performance, COP. So, what is that?
It is the ratio, it is the ratio of the amount of the heat that you will remove from the cold junction
to the amount of heat, the electrical energy that is needed to perform the heat removal.
So Qc/E. So, what it just basically means is that, if the electrical energy needed is 0 then the
coefficient of performances is infinite. Higher the coefficient of performance, it is better. With
the least energy, one is removing a large quantity of heat, that is what it would mean, higher the
coefficient performance, greater the amount of heat energy that can removed from the cold
junction with least amount of electrical energy.
So Qc is the energy extracted from cold junction and E is the electrical energy needed to do the
pumping action. The unit of energy is joules and the unit of energy extracted is actually watts,
that is because you are talking of energy flow or heat flow. So, let us just look at this in terms of
the units because in the data sheets you will generally see that Qc is expressed as watts.
So Qc is nothing but energy extracted from the cold junction. So, heat that is removed, heat that
flows out, so it is nothing but heat flow. Heat as the unit of joules, heat flow is basically rate of
energy, flow which is d/dt watt-second or d/dt joules, which is nothing but power. So, unit of
power is joules per second which is nothing but watts. So, without loss of generality, if you say
that the heat extracted in the given time, the energy given to the peltier junction in a given time.
Then you can use the units of power watts everywhere for Qc, E and QH. So, in the data sheet you
will see that Qc is expressed in terms of watts and automatically E will get expressed in terms of
watts, all in the same given time and QH also will be in watts and COP will be Q c energy
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extracted in watts divided by energy needed for pumping in watts. So. we can say it is the heat
flow power divided by the power needed to pump, all expressed in watts.
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Prof. L. Umanand
Let us now have a look at the data sheet for the peltier element. I will download the datasheet of
the peltier element that I showed you recently. And then we shall see what information that we
can gain from the datasheet and what are the parameter that we need to look for in order to
design the peltier, select the peltier element for a particular application.
I have downloaded the datasheet for the peltier element that I showed you Laird technologies,
this is the element that, a similar type of an element that we saw, and it is the same number.
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You see, there is a list if applications, interesting to note that, can be used for medical lasers, lab
science, instrumentation, clinical diagnostics, photonics laser, electronic enclosure cooling, even
component cooling, food and beverage cooling, chillers, any way, let us come to the important
thing, there is this set of performance specification. These are some important numbers and let us
try it understand these number. Here, I will draw a schematic and then try to associate these
number with the schematic.
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So, let us say that I put the hot junction part in the red there and the cold junction part here and
we have a pump, the politer pump which extracts heat energy from the cold junction, pushes it
through the pump into the hot junction and for that, there needs to be some external power input
and that is what is coming as an electrical power into the peltier element. Now let us say QC, QC
is the amount of heat that is extracted from the cold junction, this is the heat flow out of the cold
junction.
Qmax in watts, 25.7 watts, 30.4 watts depending upon what is hot side temperature, this indicates
the maximum heat flow that can be allowed for this peltier element. So, the Q C that you are
going to, the heat that you are going to remove from this cold junction and pass it on out is 25.7
to 30.4 watts. This is the absolute maximum, do not exceed beyond that. If you start exceeding
beyond that then what happens is the peltier element has within it an internal resistance and I 2R
loss, I2R loss increases and the amount of heat power flow will decrease and the temperature
difference between the hot and cold junction will fall.
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So, we are calling here this as the cold junction and it is at temperature T1, we are calling this as
the hot junction and that is at temperature T2 the difference between T2 and T1 is called ∆T, so
let us say ∆T=T2-T1 and that T is specified here, ∆Tmax, so that is also one of the specs. 68 to 75o,
so difference between the cold and hot junction should not exceed 68 to 75 o, that is around the
maximum that this particular peltier junction would allow.
Now this heat pump which I have shown here, let me replace that with a square block which are
represents the peltier element. It has to electrical leads and I connect an external resistance and
the power supply as shown. So, there is the voltage across the terminals of the peltier, we will
call that as Vp and there is the current that is slowing into the positive terminal of the peltier and
we will call that one as Ip. So, this electrical circuit, this electrical circuit here is providing the
electrical energy, external energy for peltier junction to act as a heat pump.
So, if you consider this Ip that is the current flowing into the peltier it should not exceed I ma, here
as given in this data sheet. So, the Imax current for the peltier element is 3 amp in this case. The
voltage across the terminals of the peltier Vp should not exceed the max as indicated in the data
sheet here. Vmax should not exceed 14.5 to 16.4 depending upon the temperature of the hot
junction.
Now, if you consider this peltier element, let me erase this and let me connect a resistance here,
the internally there is a resistance across the terminals of the peltier and that resistance let me call
it as RP, the peltier resistance, this is the model resistance as indicated in the data sheet and that is
given to be around 0.84 to 0.95 depending upon the hot side temperature, T2 and this T2, hot side
temperature is between 250, 500 centigrade that is the maximum operating temperature for the
Pelletier element and that is 800 centigrade.
It should not, on any condition exceed 800 centigrade, otherwise the peltier element will not
operate properly. So let me go down the data sheet, so on the next page, there are couple of
graphs given.
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And then below there are dimensional parts of the data that is given. Observe here, operating
tips, maximum operating temperature 800, do not exceed Imax or Vmax when the operating the
module. So these are tips and hints that we should observe.
======================================================
Now look at these two graphs, they are some important to us. There are two graphs, one
nomograph is thermal and other nomograph is for the electrical. This graph is especially is
important because it relates to the coefficient of the performance. You have Q c and this is the
family of curves with respect to the current that is flowing through the penalty junction and
therefore, we can relate to the coefficient of performances. Let me explain with respect to the
figure that we just drew, this is the cold junction, this is the hot junction. The hot junction
temperature T2 minus the cold junction temperature T1 is Δt.
Observe that the x axis of both these nomographs are Δt, basically the difference in the hot and
cold junction temperatures, 0 to 800 that is what is the graph limits and you see, you see this
graph. Now these are graphs at different values of the currents that is flowing into the peltier
junction iP the current that is flowing into the peltier junction. So, this graph is with respect to an
iP of 0.6 Amps that is flowing, this graph is with respect i P, iP of 1.2 Amps flowing into it, for this
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graph is for 1.9 Amps flowing into the peltier, this graph is for 2.5 Amps flowing into peltier and
this is for 3 Amps flowing into peltier and this peltier is rated up to a max of 3 Amps only.
Likewise, even in the electric monograph, this graph is at 0.6 Amps, this is at 1.2 Amps, 1.9
Amps, 2.5 Amps and 3 Amps. Observe here that greater Δt is achievable as the Amps that flow
into the peltier junction increases.
So you can achieve as much as close to 65, 68 0 when the Amps that is flowing into the peltier is
at around 3 Amps. In general, the nature of this curves are just that when the temperature
difference is less, I can remove greater amount of heat power from the cold junction and shift it
to the hot junction. So, more amount of power can be removed from the cold junction if the
temperature difference is maintained small. If you want a large temperature difference, then you
can only pump less amount of heat power into the hot junction.
Take for example if I have to pump 17 watts of power out of the cold junction, then 17 comes
somewhere here and then it cuts these three lines, the 1.9 Amp line, 2.5 Amp line and 3 Amp
line. One of these can be used. So you could probably apply around 13 Volts, 3 Amps you will
have the operating point here, you could probably apply around 10 Volts 2.5 Amps and probably
have the operating point around here. So, more the power, more the QC that, heat power that you
want to remove from the cold junction, higher must also be the power that you have to pump into
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the peltier element in order to pump that quantity of heat into the hot junction. If you multiply v P
and iP, vP into iP will give the power that you are pumping into the peltier element, QC plus vP into
iP will be the amount of heat power that you are putting into the hot junction.
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Prof. L. Umanand
Peltier based cooling, how do we do it? Let us have a look at this visualization, we have seen this
before, this is the cold junction, this is the hot junction. In between you have a heat pump which
is the peltier element which is taking in the electrical energy and extracting Q C amount of heat
from the whole junction and passing it on to the hot junction.
Let us replace this heat pump with a square box resembling the peltier element having two
terminals, electrical terminals as shown like this. Now to the electrical terminals, we connect the
output of a DC-DC converter. So, this is the output of the Dc-Dc converter, power is flowing like
this. On the input of the DC-DC converter, we have this buffer capacitors and the terminals of
that is connected to a PV source, PV module, PV array, PV panel, all these are PV sources,
appropriately sized such that it is connected to this terminal.
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There is power flow from the PV module into the DC-DC converter, and from the DC-DC
converter output into the peltier. So this is vT terminal voltage of the PV module, you have the
duty cycle which will be used on the control input, and you have v P, the terminal voltage of the
peltier element. There is also another important parameter i P which is the current that is being fed
into the peltier element to achieve the pumping action, the heat pumping action.
So we know the thermal, we know the resistance, electrical resistance in ohms that is offered by
the peltier element which is given in the datasheet, we saw, and then using that, you adjust the
duty cycle accordingly along with the insolation, the duty cycle can be controlled such that the
PV module is operated at the maximum power point, this we know how to do.
So a maximum power point operated PV panel DC-DC controller setup can be used to power the
peltier element. So the duty cycle can be used to control i P the current that is fed to the peltier
junction and controlled the amount of QC that can be extracted from the cold junction and then
fed into the hot junction. So this is the process of heat pumping.
But there is one major problem, let us say that is the hot junction and then I have a cold junction,
and in between I am having this heat pump. QC is extracted from the cold junction and given to
the hot junction as QH, which includes even the energy that is required for pumping. Now, this
hot junction is at a higher temperature than the cold junction which is at a lower temperature.
When heat has to flow from a cold, low temperature to high temperature you need a pump, it is
much more difficult. But from high temperature to cold temperature, the heat flow is automatic,
you do not need the means of the pump. So, automatically heat will find a path like this or like
this, and then reach the cold junction. And the Δt, what you are trying to achieve will actually
come down and the temperature difference between these two junctions will not be that much.
So it becomes very, very important that not only do you have to pump the heat up, you should
retain that heat there or remove it elsewhere, so that it does not come back to the cold junction
and reduce the Δt. It is like, it is analogous to a water pumping, let us say water is pumped from
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a low level to a higher level and if there is a large leak in the over head tank whatever you pump
comes down, it never fills and then all the water is still remaining in the bottom, the water
pumping is not doing much work. Same way here also, if the heat is again coming back, the heat
pump is not of much use. Therefore, it is important that you retain the heat on the hot side or
remove it from the hot side to elsewhere so that it does not come back into the cold junction. So,
the whole of the design of the peltier based application should take this into account and one of
the most important thing is the heat removal and the thermal aspects, these are very important
and then we will have some look into this to see that how we go about designing peltier based
cooling applications.
Let us discuss some examples on applications of peltier based cooling. Consider a PCB, this
green strip that you see here, consider that it is a PCB and on the top of that, let us have a
component which is becoming hot, which is dissipating power. So, let me draw a component
mounted on the PCB which is, which dissipates power and it is our objective to remove the heat
from it and then keep it within a rated temperature, junction temperature such that it operates
properly.
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Now this competent, at the center of the component, within it is core, in the junction, it is
generating heat because of electric current going through it. There is a power that is getting
dissipated and that power has to go out and this point here is, can be considered as a heat source
or heat that is getting generated and it has to flow out from there.
In this fashion, so this is the heat flow and then we call it has QC. So QC amount of heat is being
extracted, that much amount of power is flowing out because of dissipation within this
component and it is becoming hot. Now let us see how we will build some relationship to design
a peltier based cooling. Now let me call this central core where the heat is being generated as the
junction. Mostly, most of the semiconductor junctions or the central core where the heat is
getting generated in many of the components, so I will call that has J and the heat is flowing out
into the external ambient here and I will call that ambient and I will put a dot there to represent
the ambient and I will call that one as A, A for ambient. So, this here is a pictorial visualization
of what is happening.
Let us map this into a thermal visualization. So, let me visualize it in a thermal fashion with a
equivalent circuit. Now I will put a current source, the current source is representing the heat
flow. The heat that is generated and that is flowing out, is extracted out of this component. So,
this current source is flowing in this fashion. This node, I will call that one as J and that is the
junction representing this core here, which is then followed up by a resistance, it is not resistance
from the electrical circuit point of view, it is a thermal resistance and at the other side I have the
completion of the circuit, so that the power flow flows in this fashion, just like an electric circuit
but it is not electric circuit, it is a thermal visualization.
Now this node I will call it has ambient and coming back to this physical picture visualization
this junction her is generating QC amount of power which is flowing out as shown and it is
equivalent to having a current source here, which is having a value QC and that QC current source
is flowing in this direction and there is a drop across this thermal resistance and that is the
temperature difference between this and this. So now, let us say that Q C watt is flowing, this node
is at temperature called TJ that is the junction temperature and this node is at temperature TA.
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And that is the ambient temperature and this element I am calling it as R θJA thermal resistance
from junction to ambient JA. So, now let us try to see what is a relationship between all these
parameters. So, TJ minus TA, I am interested in that, what is the ΔT, TJ to TA, what is the ΔT that
is what is the potential to cause the heat to flow and that is equal to this Q C and thermal
resistance, so I will call that RθJA thermal resistance into QC. In more generic form, I can say ΔT
is equal to thermal resistance into heat flow.
If you want to write thermal resistance in terms of ΔT and Q C, we can write it as thermal
resistance is ΔT, temperature difference between two points, temperature difference across the
thermal resistance, divided by QC the heat flow through the thermal resistance. This is an
important relationship which will be used in most of thermal visualizations, remember this. ΔT is
in degree kelvin, QC is in watts, so thermal resistance is in a degree kelvin per watt or degree
centigrade per watt, because when you take thermal, ΔT, it is a thermal temperature difference,
so you could as well use degree centigrade per watt both are numerically okay.
This component mounted on the PCB is dissipating an amount of power Q C and that is being
given out to the ambient and we saw that the equation is given by this relationship. This is T J the
junction temperature, TA the ambient temperature, difference in junction and the ambient
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temperature ΔT is equal to RθJA junction to ambient thermal resistance, into the amount of power
that is flowing, that is the heat flow Q C in watts. Now let me rearrange, junction temperature is
equal TA plus RθJA into QC.
Now here we know let us say for example T A can be found out. Let us say we will set it at
maximum 400C, RθJA depending upon the component from the data heat we can get R θ junction to
ambient which will be let us say for example 100C/W. QC the amount of power dissipated within
the component is 20 W. So, we need to remove 20 W of power out of this component. Now
using these numbers as an example TJ, the junction temperature works out to be 40 plus 10 into
20, so 2400C. Now this is a tremendously high temperature and most of the time the component
would have blown, by time it crosses 1500C.
So, we should not allow the junction temperature to raise to that temperature, which means we
should see that the heat is removed out of this component much more quickly. So how do we do
that? You have no control in QC because that is dependent on other parameters of the circuit, you
have no control on TA because ambient temperature is not controlled by you, it is decided by the
external ambient. The only thing that you can control is the thermal resistance, so this is what
you can do something about and you can reduce this. How do you reduce this? So, that is where
peltier cooling comes into picture. So, we will initially put heat sink and see how the heat sink
will reduce the junction temperature and later we will put a peltier element to cool this
component and then see how it will improve the heat removal out of the component.
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Let us zoom in here, let us magnify this and then look at the thermal resistance here. So we have
the component placed on the PCB which magnified, zoomed in and we have the core where the
heat is dissipated and from that core, we have a thermal resistance up to the case and that is R θ
junction to case, so I will say junction to case. Then there is a thermal resistance from case to
ambient, so we call that one as Rθ case to ambient. So, you can split the junction to ambient
thermal resistance into two parts, Rθjc that is the thermal resistance from junction to case and
thermal resistance case to ambient, the thermal resistance case to ambient will be the major
contributor to the entire thermal resistance from j to a. This will be small part, this will be given
in the data sheets of respective components. So R θja can be written as Rθjc + Rθca, Now, this will
be around let us say 0.50C/W, it will vary from component to component, but I am just giving the
order of magnitude and the remaining part will be around 9.5 0C/W for the example that we had
just discussed.
So this is what that needs to be reduced. So, how do we reduce this, we can try to put a heat sink,
see that the heat is dissipated, heat flows quickly out into the ambient by putting heat sink and
we could also improve that by peltier plus heat sink combination. So we will see how do we go
about doing that.
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Now imagine this component is sitting on the PCB, we will attach a heat sink to the surface of
the component such that it dissipate more quickly, it enables the heat flow that is generated
within the component to reach the ambient in a much more quicker manner. So, which means we
would like to reduce the thermal resistance from the case to the ambient. So, we will draw a heat
sink, there are many heat sinks in the market, you can look into the thermal resistance that are
given in the data sheet catalogs of the various heat sinks by the manufactures and appropriately
choose a thermal resistance.
So, I make this, draw this heat sink. So, this is a heat sink, it has lot of these fins, because of the
fins the surface area is increased and because of the increase in a surface area, the heat can more
easily go out through a much more larger surface area and we have this core which is actually
generating the heat QC, this is the junction, this we will call the boundary between the entire
boundary which I am representing by this dot where the case of the component comes in contact
with the heat sink at that place I am putting the symbol C, that is the case, represents the case and
this entire heat sink, I am calling it as S and then you have the ambient to which ultimately the
heat as to reach to the ambient temperature, that ambient will call it as A. So, if you see that,
there is a heat QC which needs to be extracted from this junction, passed on to the case and from
case to the sink and from sink to the ambient.
So, if you now visualize the thermal equivalence circuit, so I have a constant current source
which is having a value QC. Now I will put one thermal resistance here and I am calling that one
as junction to case, Rθ junction to case, then another thermal resistance, we will call that one has
case to sink. So, there is an impedance across the boundary depends upon how nicely the contact
is between the case and the heat sink.
So we will say case to sink and then from sink into ambient, you will have the thermal resistance.
So we will call that one has sink to ambient and the ambient is the ground temperature, reference
temperature. So, the junction, case, sink, ambient and we have Q C amount of power, which is
flowing, heat power that is flowing, there is the junction temperature T j, case temperature Tc sink
temperature Ts and the ambient temperature Ta, ambient temperature you have no control because
it is dictated by the external ambient. So, what is the temperature difference T j - Ta, Tj - Ta is the
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drops across, temperature drops across each of the thermal resistances. So, let us write the
relationship Tj minus Ta equals, what is the temperature drop across Rθjc? It will be Rθjc into the
heat flow Qc. So, Rθjc into Qc plus Rθcs into QC, the same QC which is flowing through this thermal
circuit, plus Rθsa into QC will be the drop, temperature drop across this thermal resistance.
So this is our equation, each is the thermal drop. So, this would represent T j minus Tc, this would
represent Tc minus Ts, this would represents Ts minus Ta. So, if we use typical values, then let say
Rθjc is the order of 0.5oC/W, Rθcs is of the order of 0.1oC/W, Rθsa, of course you can buy various
different types from the market with the different thermal resistance. I will take some typical
value 10C/W.
And we know this is Q C is 20 watts from the previous example that we discussed and T a is 400C,
of course this can also vary from place to place, for that particular place you could take the
ambient or you should take the ambient if it is within an enclosure, you should take the ambient
with the enclosure. Normally, if the component is within the enclosure the worst case ambient
within the enclosure is taken as 500.
So now you can compute Tj. So, Tj is 40 plus this value, 40 plus this value is 10, 10 0, plus this
value is 20 plus this value is 200, so that come to 720C. So compare this with the earlier value that
we obtained of a 2400C. So, by putting heat sink, you can actually control the junction
temperature to value which is safe, which is well within the ratings of the particular component.
Now if we introduce peltier, a peltier junction or peltier element in between, then you will see
that the Rθsa actually improves much better and there by heat removal is much, much improved.
So, how do we introduce the peltier junction to this, we will have a look at that.
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We shall now improve the thermal resistance of the sink to the ambient s to a R θsa further by
introducing a peltier cooler in between. So let us introduce this Peltier junction in between. So, I
will lift the heat sink and in between I will put this Peltier element. So this Peltier element will
have 2 terminals brought out like this and to the 2 terminals you connect the DC- DC converter
and DC-DC converter is getting power from a PV panel like this, connected in this fashion.
And the power is flowing from the PV source through the DC converter into the Peltier junction
which is providing the electric energy to pump heat from the cold junction, this component
which is supposed to be the cold junction to the heat sink which is the hot junction. So now, you
could have the DC-DC converter where the duty cycle is controlled connected to the MPPT
controller block, a maximum power point controller block.
So this portion would be a maximum power point controlled DC-DC converter interface to a
photovoltaic panel. Now when you power, power up the Peltier junction by passing the current
through that, now this component which is generating Q C amount of heat, the Peltier junction as
to remove QC amount of heat and pass it on to heat sink. So this block, the component block will
become the cold junction. So, the cold junction portion of the Peltier will come on side and the
hot junction portion of the Peltier should be on the heat sink side. The component will be at
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temperature which is case temperature TC, the heat sink will be at temperature which is the heat
sink temperature TS. How do we select this Peltier element? You need to look at the data sheet
for these important parameters. QC, the component is power QC and the Peltier has to move this
amount of heat power into the heat sink.
So the heat flow will be QC and QC passing through the Peltier should be less than Qmax from the
Peltier data sheet and another important parameter is i P the current that is flowing into the Peltier
and that iP should be less than imax as given in the Peltier data sheet. T S minus TC, ΔT, TS minus
TC is ΔT across the Peltier junctions and this is a design parameter, this is for a particular
application, One must decide how much should the ΔT? How much should be the difference in
temperature between the heat sink and case in this particular example.
So this comes from the spec of this component, how much case temperature it can with stand,
how much junction temperature it can withstand, the designer should appropriate fix the case
temperature and the heat sink temperature. So let us say, ΔT of 15 0C, like that it should come as
the design spec. Now QC is actually the amount of the power dissipated in this component, so it
could be a MOSFET, it could be a IGBT, it could be an IC, a microcontroller IC, it could be a
processing, high power processing computing IC. So the power dissipated here is dependent on
the component from which you want to remove heat and keep it cool.
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So this again is a design spec coming from the other portions of the systems, determined by the
other portions of the systems. iP actually, you can decide from the data sheet after you have
chosen the Peltier element. So, keeping these factors in mind, ΔT is a design spec, Q C is a design
spec, let us look at the data sheet and see what information we can gain in trying to decide on the
Peltier element.
Now, in the data sheet, consider this thermographs, nomographs, now the x axis ΔT, now in our
application it is TS minus TC, heat sink temperature minus case temperature. Now you can define
it some value, let us say 150, 150 means somewhere here. So, let us draw a line up at this 150, so
you see that it intersects the at 15 0, it intersects the nomograph curves which is the family of
curves at different iP currents, currents to the peltier junction. So, here is another point of
intersection, here is the another possible operating point so on. So, if you see from the
requirement, from the design spec of ΔT we have this. Now Q C is another design spec because
QC is the amount of heat that you Peltier junction will have to remove from the cold junction.
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And in this case the cold junction is the component which is dissipating heat. So, the Q C we said
in the previous example of 20 watts. Now let us say 20 watts you want to consider removing
from the component, pass it on to the heat sink. Now 20 watt is somewhere here and almost all
the points here are below 20 watts. So, I cannot choose that. The only point is there above 20
watts which is here. So, if I pass 3 Amp current, then I will be able to remove greater than 20
watts amount of power and push it on to the heat sink for a temperature difference Δt of 150C
So, this is the operating point that you need to consider which is greater than 20 watts QC and
you should pass around 3 Amps of power, 3 Amps of current through the peltier junction so that
it has enough energy to left this heat, Q C amount of heat flow and pass it on to the heat sink. So,
in this way you can decide that the Peltier should at least have a power rating of greater than 20,
around 24 or 28 watts Peltier element can be chosen and appropriately from the nomograph,
seeing thermo nomograph seeing the point of intersection with the Q C and ΔT you can decide
how much amount of iP current should be sent into the Peltier junction.
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It becomes very important now that the heat sink, the heat that is put into the heat sink should be
removed at the rate that the Peltier junction is allowing the heat flow from the junction of the
component to the sink. So this QC rate of heat flow should be maintained from the sink to the
ambient. Otherwise, the sink temperature will rise, once the sink temperature rises, you will see
that the TC temperature will also rise, that is the case temperature will rise, because your ΔT is
fixed by the nomograph and the amount of current that you are pumping into the Peltier element
and as a consequents then the J, junction temperature TJ will arise.
So, therefore it is important that not only enough if you make the Peltier junction to remove the
heat from the cold side, put it into the hot side, but you should also design your system in such a
way that this heat sink is capable of removing the heat out from the sink into the ambient at that
same rate, only then the whole system together will work properly as a cooler.
So, you will see that there are many products where just the plain heat sink is not sufficient. If
sufficient cooling is needed, the heat sink as to be made very big and that may be cumbersome,
it may not fit into the enclosure, so the heat sink is made small, they will add additionally a
blower, a fan, something like this. So, this fan as two terminals and blades and this fan will be
driven from the output of the DC-DC converter, one more set of terminal is available from the
DC-DC converter, so this DC-DC converter should be a multi-output DC-DC converter and that
will get connected to the fan and control the fan.
So, the fan will enable forced cooling, it will enable flow of air through the fins of heat sink and
remove the heat at a much more rapid pace. The fan together with the heat sink will have a
thermal resistance Rθ sink to ambient which is much lower than just only the plain heat sink.
Therefore for given sized heat sink, force air cooling will lead to much faster heat flow through
the heat sink. So, this fan coupled with the DC-DC converter, MPPT all this electronics driving
the Peltier is generally refer to as thermo-electric controller. So, this would be a total Peltier
cooling system that you can find in many products in the market.
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Prof. L. Umanand
When you consider a peltier cooling system, the peltier element itself is only one part of it. You
see here that there is already a system which is generating heat and you want to cool it, you want
to remove the heat that is dissipated, or this, this system here, this red box here could be a box,
the insides of which you would like to cool like in refrigeration.
So you would like to remove the heat from the volume of air which is within this box, or you
may want to remove the heat form a component which is dissipating or you may want to remove
heat from a medicine which is kept within this box so that you keep the medicine in a cool
environment. So, this is one aspect which is the objected to be cooled. Now the object to be
cooled is directly in contact with the cold junction of the peltier element. Now, the peltier
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element in order to pump QC amount of heat from the cold junction to the hot junction, it needs
electric power. So, you need a whole set of electronics like this PV panel, DC-DC converter,
MPPT, fan controller, so on to enable the peltier junction or the peltier element to act as a heat
pump.
Then after that, still the game is not over. The hot junction, the heat has to be removed at the
same rate that the heat is removed from the object to be cold. So, the heat from the hot junction
has to be input out into the atmosphere and not come back into the cold junction part by means
of having a low thermal resistance heat sink is one mechanism, forced air cooling and heat sink
is another mechanism. But unless this portion, heat removal from the hot junction of the peltier,
if that is not done properly, then the whole system will not worked properly.
So therefore, we will spend some time into seeing how the heat is removed from the hot junction
part of the peltier, means we need to understand some theory on the thermal aspects. So, that is
what is we will try to spend some time in discussing now.
So in thermal aspects, mainly we are talking about heat flow, heat removal. The heat flow is
effected by four mechanisms. One is conduction, heat flow through conduction, heat flow
through convection, there is a fluid which is taking away the heat from the surface, this fluid can
be air, it can be water, we will look at these in detail later. Then a radiation, it does not need a
592
medium, just like we get heat from the sun, solar energy that you get is without a medium and
the fourth mechanism is called mass transport, just like we have this engine in an automobile
which is cooled by circulating water, water as a mass transporting the heat along with itself into
the radiator and then it is leaving of the heat in the at external atmosphere by means of blow air
which is blowing away the heat through the radiator fins and the cold water is again circulated
removes the heat and carries the heat through the mass of this water and again through the
radiator and gives it off to the atmosphere.
So, that it one example of mass transport and we will look at these mechanisms. So that we can
design at proper thermal heat sink or a combination of heat sink and forced cooling, so that the
heat is removed from the hot surface of the peltier element. So a combination of all the above is
used for heat removal from the hot surface of the peltier element. So this is an important aspect
and your whole refrigeration or the peltier cooling will work only if this aspect is mastered.
Let us look at the thermal relationships that you will be using frequently in designing the
Pelletier cooling thermal systems. We know that the main constitutive relationship is ΔT is
proportional to the heat power flow, Q and ΔT is equal to R θ into Q, the constant of
proportionality is called the thermal resistance expressed in degree kelvin per watt. There are
some modifications to this relationship, in slightly modified form, essentially it is same
relationship but literature as few variants. I think you should be aware of these variants so that
you can use any of the relationships seamlessly in your design.
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Consider block, a conductive block like this and assume that one side one surface is at
temperature T1 and other surface is at temperature T2 and heat power is flowing in this direction
Q, through this conductive block, that is thermal conductive block, it is flowing through this. So,
it is flowing by this conductive medium.
Now there is a area of cross section consider orthogonally to the flow of the heat power and that
area we will call it as A. Now Q that is the heat power divided by the area of cross section to
orthogonal flow the, orthogonal to the flow of the heat power, Q/A is defined as q and this is
called as the specific power w/m2. Now, consider this relationship Q = ΔT/R θ, now if I divide it
by A, the area of cross section Q/A is ΔT/ARθ.
Now this is q and ΔT/ARθ is defined as lower case rθ and this called thermal resistivity. So, rθ
which is A.Rθ, A into thermal resistance is called thermal resistivity and it has the units, we know
the units of Rθ which is degree kelvin per watt, you have the area uniti also coming into the
picture, so degree Kelvin meter square per watt. Now, there is another form also which is
prevalent in the literature, q = hΔT, where 1/ Rθ is put as h and that is called the thermal
coefficient.
So, you will see many literature using thermal coefficient, what it basically means is it is nothing
but one by thermal resistivity and it has the inverse units of this watts per meter square per
degree Kelvin, so watt per degree Kelvin per meter square. So, these are the three major forms of
the relationship, the original relationship that we put forward, generally used and common in the
literature. Let me just write that down summaries it and write it down.
So, the first one q = ΔT/Rθ, so this is called the thermal resistance form, Rθ is thermal resistance.
Second one specific power q is Δt by lower case r θ and this is the thermal resistivity form where
q is heat flow power watts by area of cross section orthogonal to the heat flow q/a and r θ thermal
resistivity is A into thermal resistance. The third relationship q = h.ΔT, where you can say this is
the thermal coefficient form, h is 1/rθ. So, these are the three forms of the thermal relationship
that is generally used by people, used by, used in the literature for designing thermal systems.
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Indian institute of Science
Prof. L Umanand
Heat transfer by conduction, this is heat transfer mechanism, where in heat flows from hotter part
of the body to a cold of the part of the body through solid. Consider this block which as a cross
section area A through which heat power flows q which is given by the heat power Q by the
cross section area A. The hotter surface is at T 1, colder surface is that T2 and the thickness of the
clock is Δx. Now q is given by h into T 1 minus T2 which is obtain from basically h into ΔT
relationship, the thermal coefficient relationship where h is the thermal coefficient.
Now, there is another parameter k which is defined in the literature and in the physics tables, this
is called thermal conductivity. Thermal conductivity is defined as thermal coefficient h into Δx,
Δx is the thickness of this block or the length of the block which is along, measured along the
heat flow direction watt per degree kelvin per meter. So, therefore h thermal coefficient is given
by thermal conductivity k/Δx. So, substituting k/Δx here, you will find the specific power q is
equal to k ΔT/Δx. Now this is the heat flow rate equation or the Fourier law.
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If you multiply throughout by the cross section area of the block, you will obtain Q which is k
into A into ΔT/Δx and from here you can see that Rθ the thermal resistance is nothing but Δx/kA.
Now. observe that the thermal resistance is inversely proportional to a the cross section area
orthogonal to the flow of heat power. So, greater the cross sectional area, smaller will be the
thermal resistance and better will be the heat conduction through that material.
So in heat sinks, the reason why they have the convoluted fins is basically to increase the cross
sectional area normal to the flow of the heat power without increasing the volume too much. So,
therefore the fins actually give a much greater cross sectional area and as a result the heat sinks
have low thermal resistance. So greater the area, better will be the thermal resistance, lower will
be the thermal resistance.
So this relationship q = kA ΔT / Δx where R thermal resistance R θ = Δ x / kA is very important

relationship in the heat transfer by conduction. So, heat transfer by conduction, this is what
normally literature uses, where k here is call the thermal conductivity, thermal coefficient into
Δx. Now it is a material property, so k = 410 in watt per degree kelvin per meter for silver, it is
385 for copper, 211 for aluminum, 47.6 for steel, 1.05 for glass, you see it is so low for glass,
that is why glass is a good thermal insulator.
Still better thermacol which you would have normally found and packing material and it is
actually polyurethane is 0.025 for thermocol and still air 0.026, so you see that still air,
thermocol, glass are all very good thermal insulators and the at the higher side where k has large
value, they are all very god conductors of heat. So, where you want the heat to be conducted
quickly with as little impedance as possible, you have to use thermal conductivity values which
are higher and if you want to retain the heat, you do not want the heat to conduct out, you have to
packet with materials having low thermal conductivity.
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Prof. L. Umanand
Heat transfer by convection, it is a heat transfer mechanism where heat flow occurs between
solid and a fluid. So let us consider a solid that is hot and it is dissipating heat and there is heat
flow vertically up. So how does this come about, if you see the immediate environment of the
solid there are layers of molecules. So you will have the immediate neighborhood becoming hot
by diffusion, the molecules become hot by diffusion.
And it progressively decreases and the temperature of the molecules quite far away from the
solid will not have that high temperature as the ones close to it. So if you consider the fluid
molecules close to this solid they will be hot, and the fluid molecules away from the solid they
will not be as hot.
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So the hotter molecules those will start travelling up, moving up, because they are less dense.
And the colder, heavier molecules will start moving down, so there is a circulation of the fluid
naturally and this is the convection movement and this is called the natural or the free
convection. You can also have forced convection where you are forcing the molecules to move
carrying the heat away with them by putting a fan here.
So let us now see how we obtain the relationship for the heat flow. So, this is the hot surface and
I will put a measurement called a Δx. Now Δx is the thickness of the fluid, see when we consider
the solid block we said Δx was the thickness of the block in conduction, and it was easy for us to
measure the Δx. But in the case of the fluid what is the thickness of the fluid, now that is an
uncertain quantity.
Now anyway, let us put down the equation, we know that Q = kAΔT/Δx, this is the heat flow
rate equation. Now everything is known, you know the thermal conductivity, you know the area
of cross-section across which the heat is flowing orthogonally, ΔT the temperature of hot
surface, the temperature of external ambient and the Δx is the thickness of the fluid. Now this is
uncertain quantity.
So normally what is done, commonly done is that lot experimentation has been done and then
different geometries of solids have been characterized, so slight modification, a variant of that is,
I multiply and divided by a variable X. Now, what this X is, let me tell you in a short movement.
So, ΔT by that variable X. Now, this is a characteristic X, now this X/Δx, this is called the
Nusselt's number, after the work done by Nusselt on heat flow this is called the Nusselt's
number.
And this upper case X is called the characteristic dimension of the solid, so it could be in a length
or it could be the breath or it could be the height of the cylinder or diameter of the cylinder. So
depending up on the way the solid object is positioned and its geometry, characteristic
dimensions of the solids have been identified for various solids by experimentation.
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So we will use that characteristic dimension to arrive at the value of the Nusselt's number. Now
let us say you have these Nusselt's number by some means, I will discuss how we calculate, how
we determine the Nusselt's number but let us say we have the Nusselt number, then we have this
relationship, kA Nusselt number into Δt by characteristic dimension X. The thermal resistance R
thermal and for convection they use the subscript v, so thermal resistance convection is given by
characteristic dimension X by thermal conductivity, A of cross section, Nusselt's number.
So this is the important equation for convection that you should remember and use. Remember
that there are two variants in convection. One is the free convection, the natural convection and
the forced convection, forced convection is if you put a fan or a blower and speed up the
molecules that are in contact with the solid that is called force convection. A free convection or
the natural convection is the natural circulation that is attained by the movement of the molecules
due to the density movement, when a option of the molecules become hotter than the other set of
molecules which are far remote from the surface which are colder. So, it should be noted that the
Nusselt’s number is not the same for free convection and forced convection. Nusselt’s number is
different for free convection and different for forced convection, how do we go about calculating
Nusselt’s number, I will just now shortly discuss.
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Now let us see how we determine the Nusselt's numbers for various solids, various geometries
this is by series or empirical relationship. Now to determine the Nusselt's number, I said that the
Nusselt's number is different for free convection and for forced convection. So, for free
convection, we have the relationship of another number, this is called the rally number, okay,
where, where each of this are, this is the rally number, g is the acceleration due to gravity, 9.8
m2/s, ß is the coefficient of thermal expansion of the fluid.
So this is given in science tables and for air I will tell you, it is 1/330, X is the characteristic
dimension which I will have to discuss, δ is the thermal diffusivity again this is a property of the
fluid which is given in science tables and for air it is 2.6 10-5 m2/s, η is kinematic viscosity and
again it is given in science tables not to worry and for air I am writing it down 1.8 and 10 -5m2/s
because we most of our experiments will have the air as the fluid medium, so we apply these
values here.
X characteristic dimension, I will tell you how to get that, ΔT is the temperature difference, you
will get rally number and Nusselt's numbers can be expressed in terms of the rally number for
free convection. I will tell you how to express the Nusselt's number in terms of the rally number.
Now, for the forced convection part, another number called the Reynolds number is used, u into
X by η where R is the Reynolds number, u is that mean velocity of the forced fluid, see if you are
using a fan blowers or such device, then the air flow, what is the mean velocity of the air flow
that you are forcing is how what is needed and that is u, you can get that value, X again the
characteristic dimension I will discuss that and η is the kinematic viscosity just like as I have
indicated here.
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So now consider the free convection for standard solids and first we, first important one is
horizontal flat plate. So, many of the heat sinks are flat plates, let us say horizontal flat plate. It
can be, it can rectangular or it can be circular. So, if it is rectangular it has two important
dimensions A and B and it is place flat, the fluid flow is up like that, and if it is circular you have
a dimension d diameter and the fluid flow is like that.
So X the characteristic dimension for the rectangular flat plate is (a+b)/2 and X is d, that is the
diameter for a circular flat plate. Now, if the flow is laminar that you can find out from the rally
number, if it is lying between 10 2 and 105, then Nusselt’s number is given by this empirical
relationship 0.54 rally number to the power of 0.25. For turbulent flow, where the rally number
turns out to be greater than 105, Nusselt’s number is given by 0.14 rally number to the power of
0.33.
So this way you can find out the Nusselt’s number for horizontal flat plate. Likewise, for the
vertical flat plate also you can find out they are based on the experimental results and the
empirical relationships. You have the vertical plate a and b and you have the fluid flow up in this
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fashion, and likewise for a circular vertical plate of diameter d, you have a fluid flow up X=b,
only the vertical dimension is taken and X = d in the case of the circular.
So for the laminar flow which is between 104 and 109 Nusselt’s number is given by 0.56 rally
number to the power of 0.25. For turbulent flow which is between these limits, Nusselt’s number
is given by 0.2 rally number to the power of 0.4. So in this way, you can obtain the Nusselt’s
number for horizontal and vertical flat plate. Higher the Nusselt’s number, lower will be the
thermal resistance and better it is for heat conduction, for removal of the heat.
Another commonly used solid is a cylinder, a solid cylinder. So, consider horizontal solid
cylinder in this fraction which as a length of l diameter d like this as shown and you will have the
fluid flow moving up like this. So, for this the X is d, the characteristics dimension is d. For
laminar flow were the rally number is between 104 and 109, Nusselt's number is given by 0.7
rally number to the power of 0.25.
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And for turbulent flow were the rally number is greater than 109, Nusselt's number is given by
0.1 rally number to the power of 0.33. Now the same cylinder you can keep it vertical, vertical
solid cylinder and you can get slightly different Nusselt's number characteristics. You have the
length l and the diameter d, the flow is up and X is the characteristics dimension is l in this case.
And the laminar flow is, Nusselt's number is given by 0.56 rally number to the power of 0.25 and
for turbulent flow the results given by 0.2 rally number to the power of 0.4
Another commonly used solid configuration is the parallel flat plate. So, parallel flat plates can
be placed in this fashion, where plate 1 could be at a temperature T and the other plate could be
at a slightly different temperature T+∆T and they could be separated with the distance d and
there could be turbulent flow within, or the parallel plate can be placed at an angel to the
horizontal angel θ and then you have T + ΔT for the 2 plate temperatures, separated by distance
d and you can flow within like this.
So here the characteristic dimension is d and characteristic dimension is d in both the cases as
long as the θ is less than 50 0. Now only turbulent flow is found out for this, rally number greater
than 105 and Nusselt's number is 0.062, rally number to the power of 0.33. So, in this way, most
of the geometry fall in this fashion. If it is not, if it cannot fit a standard geometry in a particular
experiment, for a particular solid, then it is better to experimentally find out what is the Nusselt's
number or what is the thermal resistance for that particular solid.
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For the case of forced convention, let us consider two geometries for the solid. One as the flat
plate and the other as the cylinder and if we put a fan, consider this as flat plate and if you put a
fan in this fashion where there is a flow of the fluid along the length of the flat plate which is
having the dimension a like this I have shown, then the characteristics dimension is a. Now for
such a configuration for laminar flow, Reynold's number lessthan 5 into 10 5, the Nusselt's
number is given by 0.664 Reynolds number to the power 0.5, kinematic viscosity by diffusivity
of the fluid rise to power of 0.33. For, turbulent flow where the Reynolds number is greater than
5 into 105, Nusselt's number is given 0.37 Reynolds number to the power of 8 and viscosity by
diffusivity rise to the power of 0.33. The other solid configuration is the cylindrical kept vertical
like this with that diameter of d and I have the fan position in this fashion and you have the fluid
flow shown like that, X for this is given as d.
Now for this also, the lamina flow where Reynolds number is between 0.1 and 1000, Nusselt's
number is given in this fashion and for turbulent flow where Reynolds number is from 1000 to 5
into 105, you have Nusselt's number given like this. So, these are the Nusselt's number value that
you have to use for the various solid geometries in the thermal resistance equation that is,
thermal resistance given by X, characteristic dimension by thermal conductivity K a Nusselt's
number, X/KaN. Now that is how you go about calculating the thermal resistance for convection.
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Prof. L. Umanand
Free convection and forced convection are two of the common mechanisms of heat transfer that
is used for removing heat from heat sinks and components, hot bodies. Let us now consider an
example to crystallize our understanding of this free and forced convection. Let us take an
example of refrigerating a box, a volume of box. So consider this cylindrical box, I will take a
cylindrical box like this, and we would like to cool the chamber inside.
So now, this cylindrical box is covered all round by thermocol let us say. So the cylindrical box
is tightly packed with thermocol, there is no way of heat coming out into the atmosphere or from
the external ambient within the box. Now let us make a small opening there at the top of the box,
so at the top of the box, what I will do is, cut open an opening such that a peltier element can
directly fit in there, just fit in there. So let us place a peltier element there, and the terminals of
the peltier element will bring it out through the thermocol and then there I will terminate it with
605
the appropriate electronics DC-DC converter and I will power it up with a photovoltaic panel or
a module externally in this fashion. So the peltier junction is getting its electric power. Job of the
peltier junction is to remove the heat which is there, whatever heat is there out into the external
ambient such that once the heat is removed from this chamber, this chamber starts becoming
cold. So that becomes something like the refrigerator, a container which is a refrigerator.
Now this portion will be the cold portion and that will be the hot portion of the peltier element.
Now on top of the hot portion I will place a heat sink, I will just place a block of aluminum and
this block of aluminum, because this is a cylindrical box, I will take a cylindrical shape block
and then place it on top of this aluminum like this, on top of the hot part, hot plate of the peltier
element in this fashion. So this is the aluminum block which will act like a heat sink. It will
remove the heat from the hot site of the peltier junction and put it out into the external ambient.
Now all this portion which is in contact call this metal body of the box which is in contact with
the cold junction of the peltier element will conduct the heat into this cold portion and the heat
from the cold portion into the hot junction will be pumped by means of this external electric
power that we are giving to this peltier element.
So the heat flow will be like this, Q C amount of heat from this chamber will be pushed into the
aluminum block which is acting as the heat sink by the peltier heat pump. Now let us say this
aluminum block is having a 11 cm height and it is having a tier it is a cylindrical block aluminum
cylindrical block it is having a diode of 22 cm. Now let us say that we would like to maintain this
aluminum block at 700. Now let us say that after, after one or two hours of working, it has
reached a steady state of 700 and during that time the ambient temperature outside was 300.
So now this is the situation. So, this is the refrigerator that is working. Now let us try analysis it
and understand it from the point of view of forced convection, because when you are putting Qc
amount of heat into the heat sink that much amount of heat plus the heat that is put from the
electrical side through the peltier junction E, the electrical power both those should be put out
into the ambient. So, let us calculate that values and let us see how we go about doing that.
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For this example, let me say that I am measuring the input power from the electrical side. So I
am measuring vp the terminal voltage across the peltier element and ip the current flowing
through the peltier element. So, after measuring I will calculate vp into ip and I am finding it
around to be 10 watts, just for an example here. So, there is no force cooling. I will not placed
any fan anywhere. So, it is a case of a free convection. So, considering this as free convection
problem and this cylindrical block being aluminum block, let us find out how much amount of
heat is going out of this out of this aluminum block.
So in this aluminum block, there are only two possible surfaces. One is the top surface from the
top surface you can have heat going out and on the side, side surfaces, so it is a cylinder, so the
entire side surface there also the heat can go out into the ambient. So, those are the only two
surfaces where the heat can go, remember that we have placed thermocol everywhere, so there is
no chance of heat going for any other direction. The heat can transact with the atmosphere with
the external ambient only through this peltier element, because everything else is covered up
with thermocol and once it has gone into the hot body which is the heat sink, it can go out into
the ambient only through the top and through the sides.
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So, let us find out how much amount of heat is going out from the top and the sides then we will
have an idea of how much of Qc is going out through the peltier element. So, the top is a circular
flat plate, so it is like a circular flat plate and we had studied about these circular flat plate while
considering, while studying discussing free convection.
Recall that we had discussed about this while studying free convection for standard solids the
circular horizontal flat plate, where the diameter will become the characteristic dimension and
then we have the calculation for the Nusselt’s number depending upon whether it is laminar flow
or turbulent flow and to calculate Nusselt’s number we need the rally number. So, the rally
number we had calculated, we had given a formula, formula like this for free convection and we
had listed down all these parameters, what it is like. So, let use these formulas so find out the
Nusselt’s number and there by then later on the thermal resistance.
So the rally number is given by this equation gβX 3ΔT/δυ. So, this is the diffusivity and υ is
viscosity and kinematic viscosity. So, the values, g is 9.81 m2/s, β for air, this is the coefficient of
thermal expansion for air 1/330 for every degree Kelvin, X is the characteristic dimension, the
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characteristic dimension for a flat horizontal plate, circular, is the diameter d which is in this case
22 cm or 0.22 m, ΔT will be 70 0 for the hot aluminum block, external ambient 30, so it will be 70
– 30, that would be 400 ΔT, 400k. Then you have the thermal diffusivity for air and mentioned
2.6 x 10–5 m2/s and the kinematic viscosity 1.8 10 –5 m2/s, all these data available in scientific
tables, β, δ, υ are all available in scientific tables. So, now if you substitute all these into this and
calculate you will get 2.7 into 10 7, now this is a value that is greater than 10 5 and therefore I will
use the Nusselt’s number corresponding to the turbulent flow, equation corresponding to the
turbulent flow, 0.14 rally number to the power of 0.33.
Rea call that what are blend flow horizontal flat plate for rally number > 10 5 we use nosslet’s
number given by this relationship. So, if you substitute for rally number you can find out the
nosslet’s number and it will work out to be 39.69. So, next let us try to find what is the power,
heat that is flowing out, heat flow in watts that is flowing out of the top plate. So, we have the
heat flow equation which is conductivity K, A, area of cross section orthogonal to heat flow,
Nusselt's N number by X, Let me move this up, by x into ΔT.
609
So, this is the heat flow equation, now we know everything, we know the thermal conductivity of
air, we know the area of cross section of the circular plate on top, Nusselt’s number is known, X
is known which is the dia 0.22, ∆T is 40° K. So, if we substitute, let me do that, if we substitute
these values, thermal conductivity for air I mentioned is 0.026 W/°K/m, area of the circular plate
(π/4)d2 which is 0.222, Nusselt’s number 39.69 into 40°K as the ∆T divided by X which is 0.22.
So this works out to be around this 7.13W. So this 7.13 amount of watts is the heat flow out of
the top of the aluminum block, cylindrical aluminum block. We will call it one as Qtop for now.
So now let us calculate what is the heat flow out of the sides of the aluminum block. So let us
now find out the heat flow from the sides of the aluminum block. So, from the sides if you see it
is like a vertical cylinder. So a vertical cylinder is something like this, we had discussed about
the vertical cylindrical solid and the heat flow when it is placed in this fashion and we know that
the characteristic dimension is l which is the height of the cylinder and for laminar flow and the
turbulent flow the relationship for the Nusselt’s number with respect to the rally number is given
in this fashion.
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So X is 0.11m which is the height of the cylindrical block, the rally number is given by 3.38x10 6,
Here it is the same, it is the same relationship that we use for the top, the only difference is in X,
it was the diameter before, it was 0.22 and here it is the height which is 0.11, substituting you
have this relationship. This value, so this value is between 10 4 and 109, so we will use the
611
Nusselt’s number equation which is appropriate for the laminar flow. Recall that for the vertical
cylinder laminar flow and the rally number is between 10 4 and 109, we use the Nussle’s number
relationship here which is given that 0.56 rally number to the power of 0.25, so that is what we
will be using.
Substituting rally number value, you get the value of the Nusselt’s number as 24.015. The area of
the side cylindrical surface, surface area of the cylinder on the sides is πdh or 2πrxh, this πdh. So
now, we are ready to find the Q the heat flow from the sides given by K A Nusselt's number by
X into ∆T. All these values are known. We can substitute 0.026 for air, thermal conductivity, A
is area of the sides of the cylinder πdh, π×0.22×0.11, the Nusselt's number 24.015×∆T. So, this is
40o Kelvin by X again 0.11. So, this works out to 17.26.
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Let me move this up a bit, 17.26 watts, so this is Q side. So, from the sides of the cylinder,
cylindrical aluminum block which is acting as a heat, 17.26 watts is flowing out. From the top,
613
we saw 7.13 watts is flowing out. So, together you see that the total heat flow to the ambient is
QH totally going out of the aluminum, cylindrical aluminum heat sink block which is Qtop + Qside.
So this works out this 7.13 plus 17.26, which is equal to 24.39 watts, so much amount of watts is
going out of the heat sink and that is Q H. Now how much is Qc which is the amount of heat going
from the chamber.
So recall this figure Qc is going to the cylindrical aluminum block is being transferred by the
peltier junction, there is amount of E electrical power which also goes in Q H here will be Qc plus
E. So Qc+ E amount is put into the external ambient and that is 24.39 watts.
614
So CoP, coefficient of performance we have seen earlier that it is Qc by E. Qc is the heat being
extracted from the cold junction in this the chamber divided by the electrical energy fed into the
peltier element, or I can write it (Q H-E)/E which is (QH/E)-1. So QH is known, we know 24.39. So
that it is 24.39 by, we said 10 watts if you take for vp×ip and if we put that value, -1, you will get
1.44, this is the CoP value.
So Qc value can be found out, now Q c is CoP×E which is 1.44×10 which is 14.4 watts. So,
around 14.4 watts of heat power is removed from the chamber the refrigerator chamber
continuously. So, the heat flow power Qc is 14.4 W.
For the same problem, for the refrigeration problem where we want to cool inside of this
chamber, let us keep all things same. Let us say we still want to maintain this aluminum heat sink
block as 700 centigrade and the external amputate is 300 centigrade and we still supply 10 watts
of electrical power to the Pelletier element. Now let us see what happens if we include the fan
and make it as a forced cool system. So let us now include a fan which is going to blow air like
this and we now have a forced air flow.
So now it is the problem of forced convection. Now let us say that this fan, you can get it from
the fan data sheet, at a particular speed, it is giving 3 m/sec velocity of the air, air flow over the
aluminum block. Now, how much amount of heat can you now draw out f this chamber for all
615
things remaining same. So, let us say this is the forced convection problem and let us again
consider heat flow from the top and heat flow from the side.
Because the heat can flow only from the top and sides of the cylindrical block, all other regions
and the spaces are enclosed with the thermocol. So the top is a like a flat plate, flat circular plate.
So, we have studied and discussed the flat circular plate, recall that in the forced convection out
of flat circular plate, the characteristics dimension is the length of that the plate which is, in this
case a circular plate, diameter d and for the laminar flow and the turbulent flow we have the
Nusselt's relationship with the Reynold's number. So let us calculate the Reynolds number.
So for the flat circular plate, the Reynolds number is given by uX/υ, nue is the kinematic
viscosity, u is the velocity of the air flow, X is the characteristics dimension, u is given from the
fan data sheet 3 m/sec, nue is the kinematic viscosity is 1.8×10 -5 m/sec, this we know for air, this
is for air and the characteristic dimension is the diameter which is 0.22 m. Now knowing all this,
by substituting we can find that Reynolds number is given by 0.3667 × 10 5. Now this value is
less than 5 ×105.
Again going back, recall that for laminar flow, Reynolds number less than 5×105. We will use
this relationship, Nusselt's number is 0.664×R0.5, kinematic viscosity by thermal diffusivity raise
to the power 0.33. So, Nusselt's number is given by this, so this is the kinematic viscosity and
this is the diffusivity and we will raise it to the power of 0.33 and calculating you will get
Nusselt's number of 112.62. Now we can calculate Q and we will call that as Q top. Let me move
this up a bit so that you can see.
616
Qtop is given by the heat flow equation now, which is thermal conductivity A, Nusselt's number
by characteristic dimension into ΔT. We know all these values, we can substitute. Let me move
up the page and then let me write, thermal conductivity for Air 0.026, we have seen that, area of
the top plate (π/4)d2, into Nusselt's number 112.62 into ΔT 40 degree Kelvin divided by X, 0.22.
So, this turns out to be 20.24 watts, so 20.24 watts amount of heat flow is going from the top
surface. Now let us calculate for the sides, what is the heat flow from the sides of the aluminum,
cylindrical aluminum block.
Calculating the heat flow from the sides, now the sides are is like a vertical cylinder with a
forced air flow and we have seen the relationship for a vertical cylinder with forced air flow.
Recall this is the vertical cylinder which is having a diameter d, the characteristic dimension is d
diameter and you have placed a fan here and the, for lamina flow, it is this relationship, for
turbulent flow where number bring 1000 and 5×105 we have this relationship.
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So we will find out Reynold's number depending upon where it falls we will use that particular
number relationship. So X is the diameter 0.22 meter, Reynold's number is ux/υ which is
0.3667×105 and this value is between 1000 and 5×105. So this can be considered as turbulent
flow and we will use the Nusselt's number corresponding to that. 0.26 Reynold's number to the
power of 0.66υ/δ and viscosity by diffusivity raised to the power of 0.3. Now if you substitute,
you will get 127.54. Now Qside the heat flow from the sides can be found out from KA Nusselt's
number by X×ΔT. Substituting, you have the thermal conductivity, the area of the sides
π×d×h×Nusselt's number, 127.54, ×ΔT, 40 degree Kelvin/X which is 0.12 and this comes out to
be 45.83 watts.
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So what is the total heat flow from the aluminum block to the ambient, we will called that as Q H
which is Qtop plus Qside, which is 20.24 plus 45.83, 66.07 watts approximately 66 watts are
actually going out from the aluminum block into the ambient and this is the amount of heat that
is coming from a combination of heat Qc from the chamber and E from the pettier electrical side.
So let us look at the coefficient of performance now which is Q c/E which is also equal to (Q H/E)-
1 which we worked out just earlier. QH is 66 by E, 10 watts, let us say is being pumped into the
electrical port of the Peltier element, you have 5.6. Now you see that it is vastly improved from
the 1.44 of the earlier case free conviction case.
So forced conversion improves the coefficient of performances now you see the amount of Q c
that is the amount of heat that is removed from the chamber is CoP×E which is 56 watts.
Remember that we had just removed around 14.4 watts in the case for the free convection and by
putting force convection all else being same, you are able to remove 56 watts out of the, amount
of heat to from the chamber and the refrigeration will definitely be much improved, much better.
So, it becomes important that removal of heat from the hot side of Peltier junction is very
important and you have to give some sufficient attention to that if you want to make an effective
Peltier cooling system.
619
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Prof. L. Umanand
We had discussed heat transfer mechanism by conduction, heat transfer mechanism by

convection, free and forced convection. The third method, third mechanism for heat transfer is
by radiation. Radiation is a transfer mechanism from a hot body through electromagnetic waves,
it does not need a medium for transferring the heat. So let us say that you have a hot body like
this at temperature T1 and it is radiating heat through electromagnetic radiation.
And let us consider an imaginary boundary here at some distance and it is at temperature T 2
which is less than T1. So what is the Q received at this imaginary boundary? The heat in watts is
given by this hr×A×ΔT, this is the thermal coefficient relationship. A is the surface area of,
perpendicular to the radiation. H is the thermal, radiation thermal coefficient and it is given by
another empirical relationship 4σ ε (1-ф)(T1+T2) /2, where σ is the Boltzmann constant which as
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a value of 5.67 -8, ∈ is the emittance, is the energy emitted relative to that of a black body. So, it
is a property of the material and depending upon the material, the value of the emittance will be
different.
Let me list down few of the emittance values, 0.8 for anodized aluminum, black anodized
aluminum, 0.095 for polished aluminum, emittance of polished aluminum is less, then 0.18 for
rough surface aluminum. I am mentioning aluminum because most of the heat snicks are made of
aluminum. 0.33 for Tungsten at 15000c, 0.07 for polished copper and 0.9 for wood, charcoal.
So these are the some of the typical emittance values of common material. Ø is called the
shielding factor, it is, whenever there are many parallel plates, so some of the in between plates
are shielded. But for single and 2 parallel plate system, the shielding value is 0. So, this is the
relationship that you can use for finding out the heat received by radiation.
The fourth heat transfer mechanism is heat transfer by mass transport. So, here movement of a
fluid mass is used for transporting heat from one to another place. It is a common mechanism
used in refrigerators where the free on fluid is used for transferring heat from the chamber to an
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evaporator and then gets to exchanged to the ambient through a radiator. Even in the car, the heat
from the engine is removed by the flow of water and then get removed out into the external
ambient through a radiator. So, these are mass transport examples.
So let us consider a pipe. So it is along pipe, so I am going to indicate this by the symbol that it is
a very large, long pipe. So, this pipe has inlet and exit. So, at the inlet you have the flow of this
fluid coming in, it is cold fluid here and at the outlet, the fluid is going out and it is hot fluid. So,
somewhere in between it has accumulated heat and then it is carrying the heat away.
So the fluid flow here, this is at temperature T1, this is the cold value, this is temperature T2, this
is the hot value. In between, we have a Peltier junction, a Peltier element, the terminals of the
Peltier element and that is connected to a body which is actually dissipating heat and you want to
remove that heat that this body, hot body is dissipating. So, this Peltier element is pumping the
heat from here into the fluid flow, let us say if it is water, into the water here.
So, this is the Peltier element and this is the hot body and the Peltier element, as usual we have
the appropriate DC-DC convertor electronics and the powering up from the PV panel and
delivering the necessary energy for it to act as a heat pump. Now, the heat that is flowing from
the hot junction of the peltier into the fluid is Q H and what is being removed from the body, hot
body that is dissipating heat is Qc and there is the amount or energy that is being pumped into the
peltier through the electrical domain that is E. So, Q h what is being pumped into the actual water
body or fluid body is given by dm/dt, m is mass here, mass flow, cp×(T 2-T1), hot minus cold, the
hot temperature minus the cold temperature. So, this is the heat flow relationship for mass
transport, where dm/dt is called the mass flow rate, Cp is called the specific heat of the fluid.
So it depends upon the fluid and this is ΔT and the specific heat of the fluid is given as J/kg/ 0K
and it can be obtained from scientific tables for specific fluid material. Now, R θm the thermal
resistance for the mass flow rate, if you look at this Q which is equal to ΔT by thermal resistance.
So, you can say, it is one by this value. So, the thermal resistance is given by 1/((dm/dt)×cp). So,
you see that if the specific heat of the fluid is high and then the thermal resistance will come
down. So, if I use a fluid with a very high specific fluid, like Freon, you can have a very low
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thermal resistance. Another important factor that is contributing to heat removal is not actually
the thermal temperature difference as was in the case of conduction convection and radiation.
Here it is more controlled by this thermal resistance which is highly dependent on, inversely
proportional to the mass flow rate. By controlling the mass flow rate, that is if I am having a
pump which is pumping the fluid in, by controlling the speed of the pump, you can regulate the
thermal resistance. So that is the nice dynamic property of this mass flow rate which can be
controlled by effects, external effects other than temperature difference. So, in this way you can
remove heat out of our body through the Pelletier junction by the mass flow rate mechanisms
too.
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Prof. L Umanand
Let us perform an experiment using peltier element. We will try to consolidate our understanding
of both free and forced convection. First, without a fan, we will see how the relative cooling of
the objective to be cooled is and then we will introduce a fan and then see how the cooling effect
is improved.
Let us take a heat sink, this bottom aluminum block is a heat sink and another smaller aluminum
block which I have placed on top here and that is the object to be cooled. We will use the peltier
element. I hope your recognize this peltier element, I showed this earlier. I will introduce it in
between these two blocks and place it in between these two blocks so that the hot surface of the
625
peltier element will be in contact with the heat sink surface. The cold surface of the peltier
element will be in contact with the top aluminum block which will be cooled. So let us do this.
Absorb the heat sink and the block to be cooled. There are two holes drilled in this aluminum
block, they are basically to handle test tubes in order to do experiments with fluids inside the test
tubes. Let me now take the peltier element and carefully insert it in between the two blocks.
After inserting the peltier element between the two blocks carefully tighten the screws on the top
aluminum block, so that the peltier element is firmly held in between these two blocks. Next, we
connect the wires, leads of the peltier element to the power supply. You connect the black lead to
the negative of the power supply and the red or the positive of the power supply is connected to
the red lead.
Now switch on the power supply, adjust the voltage, allow around 1.5 amps of current to flow
through the peltier element. The voltage is indicating around 7.5 volts and the current is close to
1.5 amps. So now, we will take a digital thermometer, place it near the peltier system and use the
probe to measure the temperature of the cold and the hot junctions. We will now allow the
thermometer to stabilize the ambient temperature and then we will leave the system on for some
time, may be around 15, 20 minutes, so that the temperature stabilizes and then we will take the
measurements.
The ambient is at around 27.4, let us now measure the cold junction temperature, not actually the
cold junction, the temperature of the cold aluminum block. You will see that the temperature is
lesser than the ambient, reducing, let us see to what level it reduces. It is fairly stabilizing now,
probably it will settle down at around 22 or may be 22.2. It is fairly stable at 22.2. So, we can say
that the aluminum block is at 22.2.
Now let us measure the temperature of the heat sink to which the hot junction is connected, see
that the temperature is raising rapidly. It is going beyond the ambient temperature of 27.4. So, it
will probably stabilize at around 38 or so, yeah around 38, 38.1. The heat sink is hot, you touch
it. If you keep the probe aside it will try to settle to the ambient. It will go down to 27.4. So, you
see that in this experiment we are not used a blower, it is just free convection.
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The cold junction of the peltier junction is connected to this block and then it is giving a
temperature reading of around 22.2 and the heat sink was hot at around 38 0 C and we gave an
input potential of 7.5 volts across the peltier terminals, passing a current of 1.5 amps. Now, let us
introduce forced cooling. Let us fix a fan and then see if there is any improvement, I have used a
small DC fan just to show that forced convection. Even a small amount of air blowing, controlled
air blow can improve the performance by a great deal.
By will fit a fan to one of the heat sink as shown. I will connect couple of support pillars to the
front so that the heat sink is level. So, now we have the fan and the support pillars connected. So,
now you have two wires coming from the fan and two wires coming from the peltier element. So
let me connect the positive of the peltier element to the positive of the fan, both the wires, red
wires, I will connect together, then I will connect the crocodile clip connected to the power
supply. I will connect he black wires of the fan and the peltier element together and then connect
the negative of the power supply to that.
So we have the connection established. I will turn it around so that it is a convenient position,
you of course now see the fan and we are now ready to switch on. Let us now switch on the
power supply, the fan will start rotating, you see that, now the current is drawn not only by the
peltier element, it is also drawn by the fan. So, there will be slight increase in that current, so
instead of 1.5 amps, it is 1.7 amps, all else remaining the same. Now we will leave the system for
some time and take measurements after 15, 20 minutes.
Observe now that, the voltage is still remaining at around 7.5 volts, the current as more to,
around 1.7 amps. So 0.2 amps is the contribution of the fan. So, I am now taking the readings.
So, I am taking the reading of the cold aluminum block with forced cooling. So, it is at 19.6,
much lower than the free convection cooling, this reaches around 18.7 0 C, probably it will settle
at this value or maybe 18.6. So, it is now fairly stable, the aluminum block is now settled to
around 18.60C.
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We can now see the temperature of the heat sink to which the hot junction is connected. The heat
sink temperature is higher definitely. So, you will see that the heat sink temperature raises, it is
beyond ambient now, but it will be much lower than what it was with the free convection. So, it
has settled around 300, 30.80C around 31 probably. So, we can say that it is around 31 0 C. So, you
see the difference here 31 to around 18.6, close to around 13 OC difference, same in the earlier
case. But now the temperature as gone down. The heat sink temperature is also gone down and
that is the advantage of having force convection.
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Prof. L. Umanand
Let us now discuss about water pumping. Most of you will be familiar with this water pumping
application. It is there in everybody’s home, where you lift water from the underground sump to
the over head tank, almost on a daily basis. So, the objective here is that we would like to use the
PV source, the PV modules, the PV panels to power the water pumping system. So, that is the
objective and that is what we plan to discuss and see how we go about doing that.
Let us see how a water pumping application looks like. It needs first a prime mover, a prime
mover in the sense that it needs to take energy, electrical energy so that ultimately we can drive it
from PV source and then converts it into a mechanical energy so that shaft of the motor can drive
a pump to lift water from a lower level to a higher level. So, that is the objective. So, we need a
motor which can drive a pump. So, I will use a symbolic notation for the pump like this, there are
various types of pumps.
So I will just indicate, let us say we use a centrifugal pump. You have the dynamic pumps,
centrifugal pump comes under the class of dynamic pumps, you also have the positive
displacement pumps, reciprocating pump comes under the class of positive displacement pumps.
So, this pump will have an inlet, it will take water from the underground sump or at lower level
and you have this, this is called the suction pipe, then you also have a delivery pipe where in
delivers the water to a height, to a over head tank. So, you can probably have an over head tank
like this.
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So, in most homes, the water is collected in an underground sump and the water is lifted from the
underground sump and then goes through the center fugal pump and most of the homes have
center figural pumps, there is a pressure difference created between the inlet and the outlet which
pushes the water up through the delivery pipe and then into the ore tank. So, this is normally how
the pump systems are set up and this is the direction of the water flow. Now, the, normally we
are powering the motor through the AC mains. So, it is a AC motor and it is powered through the
AC mains.
So most of the pumps that we have in our homes are single base induction motors and what is
there in the irrigation or irrigation purposes and agricultural fields, they are three phase induction
motors. But for photovoltaic integration, what would be nice to have is a DC motor, taking DC
inputs and pumping the and driving the center figural or reciprocating pump. So, let us say they
have a PV module like this and the PV module is connected to a DC-DC converter, you have the
capacitor, input buffer, you have a control input for duty cycles. So, therefore you can always
control the input of the DC-DC converter to present an appropriate input impedance to the PV
panel. The output of the DC-DC converter is connected in a fashion like this, to the input
terminals of this motor. So, what I have here indicated is the output is DC here and then it is
driving a DC motor which will drive this pump.
So this is the scenario of a water pumping system where in the source is from a PV module,
through a DC-DC converter. So, let us see how we go about putting some numbers and see if we
can design the various components of this pumping system. Consider this water pumping system,
let us say that this pump is supposed to lift water from this underground some to a over a tank.
So, let us mark and identify the various heads. So, let us also mark some quantity of water in the
sump and let me take a point which is just in line horizontal with the tip of the suction pipe, this
is the suction pipe.
And from the suction pipe to the center of the pump, pump axis, we will mark this as h s and this
hs is called the head or the suction head, so in the literature you will see that h s is called the
suction head or even it is called static lift. In fluid dynamics, head is direct measure of the
pressure, indicates that so much pressure is needed to lift water up the static lift. Now, on the
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delivery side, we can use the variable h d for the delivery head, this is called delivery head or the
discharge head.
So we will write it discharge head, it is also called static height. So, remember static lift is water
coming through the pipe up to the pump, that is below the pump, in the section pipe. Static
height applies to the head or the height which is above the pump, up to the point where it is
discharged in into a tank, or the maximum height of the pipe up to which the water is lifted up.
So, above the pump, it is called as the discharge head, below the pump on the section pipe side, it
is called the static lift. So, for the pump for it do work, it is both put together, water as to lifted
through this suction lift, through this suction head height, it should also get lifted up through the
discharge head height.
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So as far the energy is concerned, the total head, the pressure difference should pump water
through hs+hd and there is another term used in the literature which is called the dynamic head.
What dynamic head means is, it is the total head plus that is, it is suction head plus the discharge
head, plus a head equaling to overcome pressure needed to overcome the friction losses in the
pipe and water flows through the pipe, water is in contact with the cylindrical pipe and there is
definitely going to be fiction loss and equivalent to that friction loss, there is a equivalent head or
head loss or pressure loss, pressure drop, all those things in terms of head it is hf.
So this hf is nothing but the equivalent head representing friction in the pipe, due to the flow of
fluid in the pipe. So, that is the dynamic head so in the literature they say suction head, static lift
same, which is hs, discharge head, static height, both are same which is h d, the discharge head
both total together is called the total head, the height to which the water is lifted. Dynamic head
includes also one more term called the loss which is equivalent loss due to the fiction hf.
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Prof. L. Umanand
Let us now discuss the hydraulic energy that is required for lifting water from a lower level to a
higher level that is for pumping water. Now, let us say, we have a mass which weighs M, M kgs
and you want to lift it to a height H. So, we want to bring this mass to this place which is at a
height H from the original location.
So you have increased the potential energy in doing so and this energy is given by mgh that is,
you are going to give force against this gravitational acceleration, so it has to be lifted against the
gravity and you are putting energy into it to lift it and that is mass, mass of this body g × h, the
height to which it is lifted, so is in Joules. So, insisted of it is just being some mass, let us say this
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is a water body. So, if it is a water body, the mass, let us say, can be expressed as density into
volume. Density of water 𝜌 into the volume Q. Density of water 𝜌 into the volume Q. Density of
water in a SI units expressed as kg/m3 and this is equal to 1000 kg/m3 for water and Q is called
the discharge volume and this is expressed in m3. So, if you substitute it here for mass, as 𝜌 into
Q, you will see that energy is given by mgh, which is equal to 𝛿Qgh Joules.
For water 𝜌 is the density, for water which is 100 kg/cubic meter, so let us put that down, Q is a
variable, g is 9.81 m/s2 and Q and h are variables, this is joules. So, if you say 9.81
approximately 10, you can easily remember it by putting it as 10 4 × Q × h Joules. Where Q is a
m3, h is in m. So, many, most of the times, you would like to express energy in units. One unit is
1 kWh, which is 1 kW is 1000W and 1h is 3600 seconds, so 3.6 × 106 watt sec or joules.
So you can substitute it here and then you can write it as E = 1000×9.81/Qh Joules and
1000×9.81×Qh/3.6 ×106, if you want to express it has kilo watt hours. So this, because one kilo
watt hour is equal to 3.6×106 watts seconds. So you can express it in this fashion, this will turn
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out to be 2.725×10-3×Qh kilo watt hours. So, this is one way in which you will find it in the
literature, the hydraulic energy is given as 2.725×10-3×Qh, Qh is in the meters.
In this expression Q is an expressed in meter cube, however the much more general and common
as a unit of Q is the liters and it is much easier to imagine in liters than in meter cube. The
relationship between liters and meter cube is, 1000 liters is 1 meter cube and therefore, if you
want to express this equation, where Q is an expressed in liters, so all you have to do is
2.725×10-6, instead of -3, we make it as -6, Q/1000 basically. So and, Q×h kilo watt hours, where
now Q is expressed in liters, h is in meters as usual. So, this is another expression which people
use because they are able to imagine much better in liters, they would like to have an expression
Q the discharge volume is in liters rather than cubic meter. Another common and very popular
method of, popular expression for expressing this hydraulic energy is as follows, 1000 x 9.81
that is ρ, density x g, 9.8m/sec2 and Q m3 h in meters joules, Q is in m3. Now we would like to
express this Q in liters rather than m3. So, Q by 1000 will come into the picture if you want to
express in liters.
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So 1000×9.81 m/s2, acceleration gravity, now Q in liter by 1000 will make it m 3. So, the very
nice thing about this expression is, 1000 and 1000 will cancel out, so you have 9.81 x h and if
you take this approximately equal 10, you will get a very nice relationship to remember 10×Q×h
Joules, where Q is expressed in units of liters, h is in meters, that is nice relationship to
remember the hydraulic energy.
Knowing the hydraulic energy, we can now estimate the hydraulic power, hydraulic power is
needed to rate the pumps and the motors and the power electronics downstream up to the PV
panel. So, Ph hydraulic power is nothing but d/dt of the hydraulic energy and this is d/dt of ρQgh,
which is the hydraulic energy. Now, ρ which is the density 1000 kg/m, g is the acceleration due
to gravity 9.81 m/sec, they are constants, h for a given application, the total dynamic head is the
constant, fixed, the only variable would be Q.
So, we can bring them out and then d(Q)/dt. Now d(Q)/dt is called the discharge rate, it is the
volume that is moved out, that is flowing through the pipes of the water pumping system per unit
time. So, this discharge rate, or the flow rate is the quantity that is measurable and quantity that
is also is a requirement from the user perspective when you designing a water pumping system.
So, this is the expressed watts, so σg.gh watts, we can. Now we know that σ is 100, we will put
that down, 9.81 for g, Q.h expressed in watts.
Now here Q dot is in meter cube per second, SI units, this is the volume discharge every second,
h is as usual expressed in meters and if you want to express Q dot in liters per second, then
divided by 1000, so this 1000 that and 1000 for the liters conversion will get cancelled, so you
will land up with 9.81 Q dot h watts, where Q dot is expressed in liters per second. How much
more nicer way would be 10 Q dot h watts, a bit approximate but the very elegant way of
expressing the hydraulic power.
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So hydraulic power you know, it is approximately 10 Q dot h, Q dot the discharge rate, or the
flow rate is obtained from the application liters per second and this depends upon how liters of
water you want to transfer from the lower level to the higher level or how much liters of water
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you need for irrigating a given piece of land, so this spec, this value comes from the user
requirement. h, as we know is the dynamic head in meters which is the combination of the
suction head, addition of suction head, the discharge head or the delivery head and also another
component which is an equivalent head representing the friction loss in the pipe. Now, how do
we estimate this these heads, then only you will be able to calculate the hour requirement for that
application.
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Prof. L. Umanand
Let us now discuss on how to determine the dynamic head for a water pumping application. We
know that the total dynamic head h is given by the suction head hs, plus the discharge head hd,
plus another component, a virtual component of the head which is due to friction loss. Now,
these two components hs+hd are determinable from physical measurements, direct physical
measurements.
However, hf is not physically measurable, because this is a virtual quantity, it represents a

friction loss, you need to estimate it. So, this needs to be estimated. So, how do we obtain these
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quantities. Now, let us see the hs and hd part, this is the easier part and then later we will see how
we go about estimating the friction loss component of the head also.
Now consider a water tank at a lower level, so it is filled with water and we need to lift water out
of this tank and put it over a tank. Now, let us have a pipe and that is called the suction pipe, it is
reaching the centrifugal pump, so this is the centrifugal pump, this is the suction pipe, and then
from the other side of the centrifugal pump there is other pipe which is called the discharge pipe
and it discharges into over a tank in this fashion.
Now what are the heads in this case? Now, the pressure required to overcome the height from the
bottom of the suction pipe up to the central axis of the pump is called the suction head. So, let us
mark that. So, all the water that is within the suction pipe up to the edge of the suction pipe and
the potential needed to lift that water from the edge to the suction pipe up to the axis of the pump
is called the suction head hs.
Now, above the pump, from the center axis of the pump up to the maximum height with the
water is lifted up is called the discharge head hd. Now, in this case, the total lift, the water has to
be lifted to a total height of hs+hd, and the total physical head is hd+hs.
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Now consider another scenario, where you have water in the tank as shown like this. So, this
water tank containing water is having a pipe connected like this in this fashion. And it is placed
at a height above common ground reference and the water flows from this outlet of this tank into
pump like this, so the inlet to the pump is in this fashion where the pump may be aware the water
which is being sucked in through the section pipe is at a higher level than the pump itself part the
pump needs to pump the water to a much greater height located in this fashion where the
delivery tank is at a much higher level than the source tank.
But the pipe connection may be in this fashion so let us see what are the section heads and the
delivery heads here. So, take the tip of the pipe and the center of the pump for the source side or
the suction side and we will call that one as h s, by taking the tip of the pipe as the worst case and
the center of the pump, we get has the suction head. Now considering the highest point to which
the water is pumped to the center of the pump.
So this is for delivery you will have the delivery head. So now here actually, in actuality, water is
pumped from this level to this level. So, if you take the highest point, so the water is pumped
from the minimum level this one to the maximum level this one. So, the difference in this height
is where the water body has been lifted. So, energy needs to be given only to achieve a transfer
of the water body to a height of this difference h d – hs. So in this case, the total physical head is
not actually hd + hs, it is hd – hs.
Because the suction side of the source and the piping is such that it is above the pump central
axis and therefore there is a positive pressure which is aiding the pump to push water, this is a
positive pressure which is aiding the pump, to push further into the delivery head. So, therefore
in this kind of a scenario you will see that the total physical head is hd – hs.
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However for the case of sump, if there is a sump which is down below the ground, for the case of
bore well where the water source is below the ground, this is the total head that will come into
picture the delivery head plus the suction head. The suction head and the delivery head will
always add up.
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We saw the we could determine the suction head h s and delivery head hd from physical
measurements and depending up on how the source tank and the delivery tank are placed for a
given application. Now, we need to find hf the equivalent head representing the friction loss. We
will use for this an empirical relationship that was proposed by Weisbach. It is popularly called
the DARCY WEISBACH formula, it is given in this fraction, h f which is the head that you do
the friction loss component, f friction factor into L the length of the pipe and total length of the
pipe by d the inner diameter of the pipe then you have u2 /2g, where u is nothing but the velocity
of the fluid flow m/s, g is the gravitational acceleration 9.81 m/s 2. So, this is the DARCY
WEISBARCH formula.
So, let me list down the various variables h f is the head loss and meters, f is the friction factor, it
is a unit less quantity, L is the length of pipe in meters, d is the inner diameter of the pipe again
and meters, u is the velocity of the fluid flow in m/s, g is the acceleration due to gravity in m/s 2.
Now among all these parameters, g, u, d, L, they are easily measurable. L is, L and d are
measurable, u also is measurable, the fluid flow velocity, f is the friction factor and this is
something which is not so easy to obtain, in fact it was not easy to obtained till we had another
empirical relationship called the colebrook white formula, using that the friction factor was
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established. So, this is the one which is more difficult to estimate but today with computer and
colebrook white formula, we will be able to find the friction factor, use that friction factor,
substitute here in the DARCY WEISBACH formula and we will get the head loss and use this
head loss and substitute into the total dynamic head formula, you will get the total dynamic head
and use that total dynamic head to obtain the power required, the hydraulic power required for
the application. So, now let us see how we get this friction factor.
The friction factor is dependent on the type of fluid flow. See, the fluid is incompressible, most
of the time what we are talking about is water pumping and therefore it is incompressible it is
flowing through a pipe that are cylindrical. The diameter is fixed, therefore we can consider
these two types, we can consider these two types of flow, that is the laminar flow, and the
turbulent flow. So, the Reynolds number will indicate whether the laminar or turbulent, so let us
say if the flow of a laminar.
So then the friction factor f is given by 64 by Reynolds number, a simple equation where
Reynolds number is ux/υ the kinematics viscosity, so here u is the velocity of the fluid, x, u is the
velocity of the fluid, x is inner diameter of the pipe and that is d, υ is the kinematic viscosity and
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for water it is 0.55x10-6 m2/sec. So, we can use this and find out the Reynolds number, substitute
it into the laminar flow equation and obtain the friction factor.
Now if it was turbulent, the flow were turbulent, then we will use another empirical relationship,
Colebrook white formula. After Colebrook white formula was proposed by Colebrook and white,
it became it became quite popular, especially after the computer came into being and computers
were used for finding out the solutions of equations.
See the Colebrook white formula is something like this, let me first write it down. See, this is a
Transcendental equation, you cannot have an analytic solution for this. 1/√f, f is the friction
factor is equal to -2log10 ((ε/d/3.7)+(2.51/(R√f))), so you will not have an analytical solution. So,
you have to get, obtain the value of f̄ through an iterative means. So, you will have to put them in
a loop and then iteratively obtain the value of f.
I will show that shortly how to do that. So, because of that computers are needed. So, only after
computer aided design came into being, this formula became popular and then started and it got
being used into the Darcy–Weisbach formula to determine hf. So, Darcy–Weisbach formula
became quite popular after this became popular. Now, let us see this new variable which have
introduced here what is that ε. So, ε/d is a ratio and that is called as the roughness ratio, this has
come into being because it depends the friction depends up on the smoothness of the inner walls
of the pipe through which the water is flowing.
And ε is actually the height of the bumps on the inner walls of the surface of the pipe, divided by
be the inner diameter. So, this gives you a measure of the roughness and it is called the
roughness ratio. So, you need to use that for the important materials ε in mm, for PVC it is 0, so
now a days in many of the applications PVC is used, the inner wall is absolutely smooth, can
considered it as 0, asbestos cement was used quite some time and some places it is still used it is
0.012, steel 0.1, smooth concrete, so concrete is used in large applications where large flows are
there, so, it is around 0.4. So, you would use these values of ε and substitute here to obtain the
value of the roughness ratio and substitute here, Reynolds number, calculate in this fashion and
you can substitute for this value of the Reynolds number here. The only unknown in this entire
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equation would be f and you have to solve for it. You will not be able to analytically obtain this
value of f, you will have to iteratively do that. So, probably you may how to use octave or
MATLAB and find out this value of f.
How to know if the flow is laminar or turbulent ? So you calculate the value of R, if the value of
Reynolds number R is less than 2000, then it is safely laminar. If the value of the Reynolds
number is greater than 4000, then it is clearly turbulent flow. In between, between 2000 and
4000 is the transition region, the value, the friction factor is not clearly defined. So, we can take
the worst case maximum of these two formulas whenever it is in the transition region.
So between two Reynolds number of 2000 to 4000, we say that the transition region, then we
will calculate the friction factor by this formula and friction factor by this formula and then take
the max value, or worst case value of that one higher friction factor value, so that then you would
have rated it for under worst case conditions. Next important exercise that we need to do is how
to solve this Colebrook white formula and find the value of f for an given value of roughness
ratio and Reynolds number. Before numerical solutions became popular for this, there were
nomographs referred to as the Moody charts, let me show you that.
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When you go on to the internet browser, and in Google you type moody chart, then you will see
the graphs similar to this. So these are the Nomographs, basically there are graphical
representation of the Colebrook white formula. So how do you read this? You see this is the
family of curves, each of these curves that you see is for different roughness ratio. So, for a given
roughness ratio, this is the friction factor. The profile as the Renaults number is changed.
So, the x axis here is the Renaults number and I have given the Renaults number to sweep from
1000 to 10 to the power of 7. So, as you sweep the Renaults number, you see that up to 1000,
this is using the laminar flow equation. Once 2000 is crossed and some where here around 4000
the turbulent flow models comes into the picture and this is where the actually the Colebrook
equation is used, in between it is actually the maximum of the 2 models that is being used as the
worst case. So that is what we have done here and what the moody chart that we have obtained
using octave.
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So, if you look at the moody chart which is there, which you obtain in the literature, it will be
very similar. Observe that, this region is the laminar flow region, this line here is Reynolds
number is equal to 2000. So, this is the laminar flow region and this region is the turbulent flow
region where we use that turbulent flow model and here is that transition region between 200 to
400, 200 to 400, this is the 2000, Reynolds number equal to 2000 line. Now each of these lines
are different roughness ratio. So ε/d is equal to 0.001, 0.004, ε/d roughness ratio, 0.001, 0.004,
0.02, 0.04.
So, like this you have these nomographs, then let us say you calculate the number using R=ud/υ
that is kinematic viscosity, then based on the value and based on the roughness ratio, you can
select that specific curve and take out the vertical intercept and you will get your friction factor.
So, this way people used to work using the moody chart, obtain the fiction factors, substitute it in
the DARCY WEISBACH formula and obtain the fiction loss head. But after the adventure of
this computerization and the numerical algorithm started, becoming popular, MATLAB type of
environment became very popular with the students and the engineers, we can easily solve the
Colebrook white formula using iterative methods and that is what I am going to now show you
using octave environment .
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Prof. L. Umanand
Let us now try to find numerical solution for the Colebrook White formula. First we will look at
the theory and then we will use the solution that we, iterative solution that we arrived at, we will
use that equation in Octave and then execute that and try to find the friction factor. So, we know
the Colebrook White equation, it is like this, you are now familiar with this.
Now 1/√f, let us replace it with one symbol, ε/d roughness ratio by 3.7, we will replace it with
one more symbol, 2.51 by Reynolds number, we will replace it with one symbol, for a given
Reynolds number and given roughness index, this potion and this 2.51 by Reynolds number will
be a constant. So, let us say x = 1/√f, we will use that symbol for 1/√ f and then we will use the
symbol a for ∈/d/3.7 and we will use the symbol b for 2.51/Reynolds number.
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So, now this Colebrook White formula becomes simple to read, x = -2 log 10 (a+bx). So this is the
equation for which we need to find the root and find the value of x. Now let us say g(x) = x plus
this one, we will take x plus this on to the left hand side which will make it 0. So, that is the
function g(x), x + 2 log10 (a+bx) and we know that this should become 0 and that is why we put it
as equal to 0. So, we will try to solve this g(x) equation iteratively and find a value of x such that
g(x) is 0. So that is what we want to do and for that there are ready methods and techniques. We
will use the Newton-Cotes techniques for solving this iterative relationship.
So consider this equation g(x) = x + 2 log 10 (a+bx) = 0. ∂g/∂x, partial derivative of g with respect
to x will give you, gˊ which is equal to 1+(2b)/(a+bx). Now g(x) evaluated at k will be g(x k) is
equal to delta change in x and multiplied by the slope, ∂g/∂x. So, this is evaluated at x = x k. So,
this is the Newton-Cotes rule. This will give you an evaluation of g at x k. Now del, delta x is
nothing but xk-xk+1. So previous iteration minus the next, present iteration minus the next
iteration value.
So this into g prime evaluated at x k. So now this equation if you rearrange them, you will get a
xk+1 = xk-g evaluated at by g prime evaluated at x k. So, this would become our iterative equation
in a more generic sense. Now we will replace this equation for g and g prime here. So, x k+1= xk-
g , is nothing but this part of the equation, x k+2log10 (a+bxk) evaluated at xk diveded by, that
portion divided by g prime which is this portion with x evaluated xk, 1+(2b/(a+bxk)).
So this is the entire iterative equation. Let us do some simplification, on simplifying we get x k+1=
[2bxk - 2(a+bxk) log10 (a+bxk) ]/[a+bxk+2b]. So this is the entire simplified iterative equation that
we would like to numerically compute. Now what should be the starting value of x k, xk initial? So
that I will take it as 1/√f and that f is 1/√0.1, f is nothing but 0.1 what I have taken. How do we
arrive at this value? If you look at the moody chart, this x axis is nothing but fiction factor. So, I
have taken an high value of fiction factor 0.1 here. So, from here it should come down and boil
down to the proper value of fiction factor for different Reynolds numbers, so it should converge.
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So the initial value guess is from the moody chart and you can use this value of 1/√0.1, for any
value of Reynolds number and roughness ratio. Generally from that value, it will converge to the
final resulting value which is desirable for which value the g(x) or g(x k) will become 0. Let us
now implement this equation in octave and obtain the value of x and then from x, the value of
fiction factor, because fiction factor and x are related by x =1/√x and f =1/x 2. After we have
finished the iteration, we will, we would have found out xk+1, for which g(xk+1) is almost equal to
0 and using that xk+1 factor. So, that will be the final value of fiction factor which we will use it
for plugging into the DARCY WEISBACH formula to obtain the fiction loss head.
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Prof. L. Umanand
Let me now describe to you the octave script file that we will use to obtain the friction pattern
using the Colebrook White formula. So, here on the screen I have a script file Colebrook.m, it is
an m file to be run in octave, you could with probably slight modification for compatibility also
run on MATLAB.
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I haven't tried running it on matlab, I will provide this as a resource, you can experiment with it
and then try to see if you can run in MATLAB and Octave. So I am writing a function file,
function, output, f which is a friction factor, I am calling the function name as Colebrook, I will
use the same file name Colebrook.m.
And I am providing two inputs R, Reynolds number, ed. ed is the other input which is the
roughness ratio, ed is actually e by d, ε by d that we have used in the Colebrook equation. Okay,
after the comments then, let us come here. There is a number of input arguments check and now
let us do the main program. So the main program is actually distributed into a if loop. So, there is
one if condition where the flow is checked. So the Reynolds number should be positive, and/or
less than 2000. So between 0 and 2000, we have seen that the flow is laminar and the equation
used is f=64/Reynolds number. So this will give the friction factor, if the flow is laminar. Else, if
the value of the Reynolds number of greater than 4000 and we say that the flow is turbulent. So
we will use the Colebrook equation.
So I am using these identities A which is equal to ε/d/3.7, this is what we used in our iterative
relationship. B is 2.51/Reynolds number, now xk the initial value of the xk I am going to set it as
1/√0.1 as discussed earlier and will use a variable delta and set it has x k, later within the loop I
am going to use delta as the difference between the pervious, present and the pervious. Now let
us enter a while loop, while this delta the difference between the present estimate and the
previous estimate is greater than 0.0001, it is a small value. Because the to find the roots, the
iterative equation should converge and as it converges and goes to a value less than 0.0001, let it
come out of the loop.
So while delta is greater than so much, perform all these operations. So, xkk is what I am using
for xk+ 1 which is equal to the Colebrook equation, iterative equation which we derived. Then
delta is xk+1 – xk, it is basically Δx and I am setting xk to the new value, new estimate whatever
that xk+1 estimate is, so that loop can continue and once delta is come lesser than this value, then
comes out of the end while and the friction factor is 1/xk2.
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This is the friction factor. So, for turbulent flow we apply this Colebrook iterative relationship.
Else, else meaning, what happens if the Reynolds number is between 2000 and 4000? So it will
come into the else condition, So here it is actually a transition between laminar to turbulent,
turbulent to laminar. So, there is no well defined relationship. What I have done is f laminar is
64/R and f turbulent is, I have repeated this equation, set here, evaluated at wherever the value of
Reynolds number that we have passed into the function.
And I am taking the max value, max value of friction factor will give you the worst case hf, worst
case friction loss component, so that we are safe and we are doing design so it will be a
conservative value. So, I am computing the f using the laminar equation, computing the f using
the turbulent equation using Colebrook formula and then taking the maximum value among these
two to take as the conservative value of the friction factor for the transition region.
So, this is the function that we will be using for finding the friction factor. Now for example, let
us go into octave and then call this Colebrook function. So, how will you call it? So, let us say I
want to know the friction factor, Colebrook and let me give the Reynolds number and you see,
we have to give the Reynolds number and ed, e by d.
So let us Reynolds number of 5000 and let us say e/d roughness ratio of 0.001. So, this will give
you a friction factor of 0.038495. Same thing if you had used PVC for the pipes, if you had used
PVC for the pipes, the roughness ratio would be 0 and for the same Reynolds number of 5000,
you will get a friction factor 0.037, slightly lower. So, the Colebrook function can be used now
to find the friction factor for any given value of the Reynolds number.
We can also use this Colebrook function to make our own moody chart, though we may not use
the moody chart for design, we will directly use this Colebrook function to give the friction
factor, for a given Reynolds number and ε by d, roughness ratio, it will give you inside some
inside and understanding to develop our own moody chart not only for only exercise purpose but
also to cross check with the moody chart there in the literature and to validate that Colebrook
function is correct.
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So I have here prepared a very small script file in octave, file that calculates and plots the moody
chart for friction factor estimation based on the Colebrook white formula. So, what I will do, the
x axis I'm defining as the Reynolds number, I'm sweeping the x axis with Reynolds number
value from 101 to 107 and using log space, logarithmically spaced points from 10 3 to 107 that is
the Reynolds number, it is vector now and the roughness factor, I have just given few select
points, points that I, In the literature there was a certain roughness ratios that were used, so I
have used the same roughness ratio values, so that I can compare the graphs I get from this
moody chart with the moody chart of the literature and then I use one for loop for incrementing
the roughness ratio, another for loop for incrementing the Reynolds number vector and after that
within an innermost loop, you call the Colebrook with the value of Reynolds number updated
every time for a given roughness ratio and then you will get an output, where f is a vector, vector
matrix, you will have one row for every value of roughness ratio and then plot.
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So plotting is loglog, normally you would have seen in the moody chart which I discussed
earlier, both the x axis and the y axis are logarithmically scaled. So, it is a loglog graph of
Reynolds number on the x axis verses the friction factor on the y axis. You will get a family of
curves based on the roughness ratio as a variable, as a parameter. So, this is the script that you
will use for obtaining the moody chart, we can execute it and then just see. So, let me type in
moody chart.
So you see that the moody chart is something like this and this is the moody chart that I also
showed to you and discussed with you. This y axis is a friction factor, x axis is the Reynolds
number starting from 1000 to 107, Reynolds, friction factor is from point 0.01 to 0.1. Now you
have this family of curves here, the parameter is the roughness ratio, this is at 0.0001 this is 0.04
like that.
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I went to Google and then went to this particular site here to look at the moody chart, see that
there is a moody chart given here and for similar values of roughness ratios which I have chosen
in the octave script. You can actually compare it with the moody chart that we have generated
using octave script. Both are similar. in fact, the values are also exactly the same for the various
roughness index. So, this actually verifies, you see this laminar portion, this is the laminar
portion, a single line going in there and the turbulent portion starts from here.
This is the turbulent portion and the if you cross check for each of the roughness index, the
values will turn out to be the same as given in the literature. So, our Colebrooks iterative
algorithm is actually verified validated by this and you can now use that for the design of your
pumping system.
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We have talked about many parameters and many variables during our discussion on hydraulic
power. Let us summarize now on calculation of the hydraulic power and hydraulic energy. So,
let us summarized the steps, first, specifications, we need to specify the parameters. Let me come
back to this later, after I list down all the steps and see what are those parameters that we need to
specify. Next we calculate Q dot or dQ/dt which is Q the discharge volume by discharge time,
these two are design spec given by the user requirement, this is in meter cube per second.
Then we calculate the velocity of the fluid, knowing the discharge time and the discharge volume
and the pipe dimension, especially the cross section area, Q dot by A will give you meter per
second, the speed of the fluid within the pipe. Fourth, calculate the Reynolds number given by
ud/υ that is the kinematic viscosity. Fifth, calculate the roughness ratio which is given by ε by
the internal diameter of the pipe, ε here is the height of the surface bumps. So this expression this
in mm and this also in mm. Sixth, find out the friction factor, we have seen the Colebrook white
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formula, we will use that function or the moody’s chart and then use Reynolds number and the
roughness ratio to obtain the friction factor. Seven, use the friction factor to calculate the head
equivalent of the friction loss. So, f × (L/d) × (u2/2g), this is expressed in meters, u is this value
which is the fluid velocity, g is the gravity, d is the internal diameter of the pipe. L is the total
length of the pipe, f is the friction factor as found from 0.6. Let me move this above, like this,
yeah.
Now point 8, What is the total dynamic head h? Total dynamic head is, suction head plus
discharge head plus hf, the friction loss component of the head as calculated here by the DARCY
WEISBACH formula. Then, you calculate the hydraulic power, what is the power requirement?
And this we have found out to be ρ q dot gh, ρ is 1000 kg/m, g is 9.81 into Q dot into h
expressed in watts and energy, hydraulic energy 1000 × 9.81 × Q × h Joules. So here, Q dot is
expressed in m3 /sec, so this is the entire steps, this is the 10 point step for finding out the power
and the energy for any hydraulic water pumping calculation.
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Now what is the specification? Let us have a look at what are the parameters that you need to
specify. So, first you need to specify the discharge volume, how much amount of water do you
want to lift up to the over head tank in a day or in a one hour? These things you need to specify,
discharge volume in meter cube, Δt is the discharge time in seconds, d is the diameter, inner
diameter of the pipe in meter, A is calculated as (π/4) d2 is the cross section area of the pipe
orthogonal and normal to the direction to the flow and this is in meter square, L is the total length
of the pipe, both vertical and horizontal. Because fiction loss needs total length of the pipe in
meters, υ is the kinematic viscosity, we saw that for water it is 0.5.10 -6 meter square per second.
ε is the height of the surface bumps, expressed in mm, h s is the succession head in meters, hd is
the discharge head in meters. So, all these points, all these parameters have to be specified, So
you specify them and automatically every equation will follow. You can in fact put this up in a
script file in a octave or MATLAB and then use this as a design file for calculating the hydraulic
power and hydraulic energy requirement for a given water pumping the application.
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Prof. L. Umanand
Let us now work on some examples related to hydraulic power and let us see what is the
hydraulic power of some common water pumping applications and arrangements. So, let us first
take an example, a very common example, this can be considered as a household example in
most of the homes in the country. You will have a sump and from the underground sump you
will try to lift water, there is a suction pipe and let me put a centrifugal pump and most of the
pumps will be having a single phase centrifugal pump.
The delivery pipe will travel quite some distance horizontally and then up again to deliver to a
over head tank, because the over head tank may be placed at quite some distance from the pump
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and the sump. So, let us indicate some water in the sump and the suction pipe is going almost to
the bottom of the sump tank. And the water is discharged in the over at tank like this.
Now what is the suction head? Suction head is from the tip of the delivery pipe to the center of
the axis of the pump. So, let us mark that and I will mark that one as h s, this is the suction head.
What is the delivery head? From the center of the pump axis, up to the highest point that the
water reaches up from the horizontal would be the delivery head h d. Okay, that is not all, you see
in most of these kind of applications, the over at tank maybe in one corner of the building and the
sump may be in another corner of the building.
And then there is quite at distance of horizontal travel, where actually there is no physical head,
water is not lifted, but there is quite a significant amount of friction loss due to the horizontal
travel. So, let us also indicate what is this total horizontal distance that the water is flowing. So,
let me mark that, so this is around, let us say 120 feet, just pretty common in most of the homes,
traveling horizontally around 120 feet.
Now, let us say this height, this suction head of height is around 6 feet deep into the sump tank,
and then going up close to two floors would be 20 feet delivery, delivery head. Now, let us talk
about the pipe diameter. Most of the homes, in recent times use pipe diameter of 1inch and again
depending upon the number of people in the household and mostly PVC pipes are used.
So recall that for PVC pipes, the surface is very smooth, inner surface, the surface bumps are
negligible. And therefore, the roughness ratio is 0. So, that is an advantage. So let us put down
some specs for which we can calculate the hydraulic power. First is Q, discharge volume, the
discharge volume most of the time would be the size of the over head tank.
Now let us say you have a 1000 liter tank, so let us say we want 1000 liters. And this 1000 liters,
how soon do you like it to be filled up. Most of the bumps in our homes will be able to fill up
this in 10 minutes time, so I will just put in some time here, the discharge time Δt is 10 minutes.
So actually Q dot works out to be 100 liters, 1000 liters by 10 minutes which is 100 liters per
minute, that is the discharge rate of the flow rate.
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Now if you want to convert it into m3/sec, so you have 100 liters by 1000 to convert it into m3, by
60 seconds, so you will have 0.001667 m 3 /s. So, you have the discharge rate in m 3/s, what is the
diameter? Diameter is given is 1 inch, we need to convert it into SI units. So, 1 inch into is 25.4
mm, mm to meter is 25.4 /1000, 1000 mm is 1 meter, so you can covert inch to meter by
multiplying by factor of 25.4/1000. Suction head is 6 feet, converting the feet to meter, 6 feet
contains 12 inches, each inch is 25.4/1000. So, that is how you convert it to meter, let me make
some space.
Then the delivery head, 20 feet, 20 × 12 × 25.4/1000 in meter, because each feet contains 12
inches and each of that inch contains 25.4 mm/1000 and therefore the conversation to meters.
Now the total length of the pipe, so the total length of the pipe is needed, because we need to
calculate the loss due to friction. So, it is not sufficient you just take only the suction, suction
head length and the delivery head length, you should also take all the horizontal portions of the
pipe too, because they contribute to the friction loss. In fact, they contribute a significant portion
because 120 feet is not small, it is much larger compare to the heads.
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So therefore, 120 feet plus 20 feet plus 6 feet, 146 feet is total pipe length water has to travel
through and there is going to be friction loss in this much amount of the length. So, convert that
one into meters 12 × 25.4, so this will be the meters and you can also now find the area (Π /4) d2.
Now, next, find the fluid velocity, velocity of the water and the pipe u in m/s. Now we know that
discharge rate, this is m3/s.
Now this volume of water is flowing through the pipe every second. So, much m 3 is flowing
through the pipe every second and that pipe is having a cross section area A and you cloud divide
by that A to obtain m/s, the velocity of the fluid. So therefore, Q dot by A, this is m3/s, this is m2,
therefore you will get it in m/s. So, this will turn out to be, if I use Q dot value which we have
calculated and A value here calculated using the D value, you will get 0.001667 m 3/ s for Q dot
divided by A, which is (Π /4) d 2 which is in m2, whole thing when you calculate and substitute
the value of d as we found out here, it will come out with 3.3 m/s.
Next let us find the Reynolds number which is given by ud/ν. So, 3.3 m/s x d, which is 0.0254 m
divided by ν, which is 1 × 10 -6 m2/s. So, this Reynolds number, we have used this term ν which
is the kinematic viscosity, this kinematic viscosity for water is a function of temperature, for
different temperatures, you have different viscosity. So, for water at 200 c, you can look into the
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science tables, you will see that it is around 1.0004, approximately put it that around 1 × 10-6 m2/
s and when you apply these results and calculate, you will get 83820, so eighty three thousand
eight hundred and twenty, much larger than 4000. So, the flow is turbulent, you have to use the
Colebrook white formula for this. We have already done that exercise and have the function for
that in octave, you use that function readily. So, before that, calculate the roughness ratio, ε
which is the height of the surface pump for PVC is 0 and therefore ε /d the roughness ratio is 0
and now you can find out the friction factor first using the Colebrook formula.
8, Reynolds number you have to provide, 83820 and the roughness ratio which is 0, so for that
when you run the Colebrook’s iterative algorithm, you will land up with 0.018683. Now that is
the friction factor. Now using that friction factor, we have to calculate what is the head loss due
to friction and for that we will use the DARCY WEISBACH formula, f into L /diameter, inner
diameter u2/2g, so if you substitute the values, you will get 18.05 m. Now, what is the total
dynamic head h? Now, this is 6, 6 feet of section head, convert into meter using this factor, 12
into 25.4/1000, plus 20 feet of delivery head, 12 into 25.4/1000, plus 18.05 m of the friction the
head loss.
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So if we calculate this, you will see that it is around 25.97 m, which is approximately 26 m.
Compare this 26 m of total dynamic head loss, 18.05 m is contributed only by friction loss. So, it
is not juts sufficient for you to calculate the power based on the only the height difference, the
horizontal flow of water in the pipe also cause a significant pressure loss and you have to
account for that, otherwise your pump power will not be sufficient to pump the required amount
of water, in the required time to the required height.
So what is the hydraulic power 1000 × 9.81 𝜌g Q dot h. Q dot into h watts. So, 1000 × 9.81 into
Q dot is 0.001667 m3/s, all in SI units, h the total dynamic head h is 26 m, we just calculated. So,
this all comes to from 425 W. So 425 W of hydraulic power, worst case is needed for pumping
that water from the sump to the over a tank which is 20, 20 feet above the ground level, you will
need 425 W. So, probably a most of the homes will have 1 HP single phase pump to do the job.
Let us now work on example two. This example two apparently looks exactly like example one,
it is the same system all parameters are the same, except a small modification. I will mention
what that modification is. And you can see a lot of things that you can achieve by that. We will
go for a solar photovoltaic solution. So, it is a solar based solution, we want to use the sun power
and this pump is powered from, is driven by a motor and that motor is not actually powered from
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that mains, 230 mains as in the earlier case when we said that probably a single phase motor will
be driving this pump.
Let the motor which is driving this pump be a DC motor and let it we directly connected to the
PV modules. Let there not be even a battery. You will see that the solution is so much more
advantages, because instead of storing it as chemical energy in the battery, we can store it as
water at a lifted potential pumped hydro. So, consider a typical household, the requirement of
total discharge volume of let us say 1000 liters in a day. So, if let us say that household is
requiring 1000 liters in a day, instead of putting a 1000 liter tank, you put 2000 liter tank, so let
us say this tank is 200 liter capacity.
Now, fill up this tank for complete 2000 liters, So in a day 1000 liter is utilized by the household,
1000 liter should be put back into the tank by the end of the day. So that is the logic that we will
be using. So ∆t instead of 10 minutes in the example one case, we will link it to the insolation at
the place. So, we know how to find out the insolation at the place, so if I plot the insolation
versus time, it looks something like this and this is the peak is occurring at noon and the area
under the curve is kWh/m2/day, insolation is in kW/m2.
Now this is equivalent to saying the Hat the insolation, the energy incident at a place with
atmospheric effects, I will, once I have obtained that value, on the time verses insolation curve,
let me mark the standard insolation of 1kW/m 2. So, the same area, I will achieve here by a
rectangular component there which is having a width of Hat or Hat minimum. Now, this area
which was Hat for that width equivalently the same number of hours, I will keep that width, the
height I will keep in a standard insolation of 1kW/m 2 and I will achieve the same amount of
energy and that is which is in kWh.
Now these two are equivalent as for as the energy is concerned. So, I should, I will use this
particular concept. So, let ∆t, instead of being 10 minutes, I will make it equivalent to this time
interval. So, which is Hat minimum hours numerically. So, let us say for Bangalore, if H at
minimum is around 4.58 kWh/m2/day, this we know how to find, you can look back into the
topic on week 3 and 4.
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So, I will set ∆t to a value which is less than 4.58 hours numerically. So, let us say for example I
will set it to around 4 hours, you can set it to still lesser hours also but let me take this example
of around 4 hours. So, I know that in 4 hours time there is sufficient energy to provide 1000
liters, pump it into that one. So, I will have to accordingly rate my other centrifugal pump and
motor components. So, let us see how much amount of hydraulic energy, hydraulic power is
required. So let us say a Q dot, which is Q/∆t, now Q/∆t is 100 liters by 4 hours, which will work
out to be 0.0694 liters per second and which is 0.07×10 -3 m3/sec. Now, the discharge rate of the
floor rate has come down drastically.
So let me now make some space, now all other parameters being same, I will expect you to go
through the same sequence of calculation. I will now point out only the difference. Now you will
see that here hf is calculated using the Darcy Weisbach the formula, f (L/d)×(μ2/2g) in meters. f is
the friction factor, you will have to go through the same sequence of finding the Reynolds
number, the roughness ratio, in this case roughness ratio is 0 and the appropriately find f using
the Colebrook equation, L and d is known same values.
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u would have changed, the fluid velocity, because Q dot has significantly low, become low, u is
Q dot by A, A has not changed and therefore u would also proportionally reduce. μ 2 would be
still further less and then this gives you 0.07 meters, the head loss due to friction is .07 meters
which is very, very small compared to the 18 meters that you saw in the earlier case.
And the total dynamic head is around 8 meters, compare this, in the earlier case the significant
amount of total dynamic head is contributed by hf, due to friction loss. Here the friction loss
countdown is contributing very insignificantly, in fact negligibly. Almost the entire amount of
head is due to the section and the delivery head.
Now what is the hydraulic power required? 1000×9.821×Q dot×h. S,o if you plug in these
values, h is 8 meters, Q dot as here, you will see that the power requirement is only 5.45 watts.
Now this is dramatically low. Compare this with example one where we had calculated 425
watts, all being all parameters being same.
Now only thing is that we have made a change in Q dot, reducing the discharge rate and then we
have linked the discharge time to the isolation. So, that basically the discharge of the flow into
the over head tank as been spread out through the whole day rather than just only 10 minutes and
that is why you have, you see a very low hydraulic power requirement, because the flow has
been spread out, the discharge has been spread pout throughout the day instead of just only 10
minutes and that is the advantage that you can gain if you link it to the solar isolation.
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Let us now consider one more example, this time we will take a bore well example. Let us say
this is the ground level and this is beneath within the ground and deep within the ground, there is
water available for us to put a pipe, a deep pipe like this and try to extract the water from deep
within the bowels of the earth. Now let us put a pump, as submersible pump here. So this will be
submersible pump, motor and pump combination.
And through a pipe you will be drawing out the water. So, this is actually the delivery pipe, there
is no suction pipe, because the pump is submerged in the water and water is put into a storage
sump here. So, that is delivered here, this is at ground level. So, there is some horizontal
movement flow of water at ground level and then deliver into the pump into this sump here. So
this is a very typical bore well system, and let us take some typical depths, around 600 feet. So,
600 feet depth bore well is pretty common. So this entire depth is called the delivery head, there
is no suction head, then the water has to travel this horizontal distance in the pipe depending on
where this sump is located.
And let me take a typical example of around 200 feet distance horizontal travel. Let us consider
the dia of the pipe, nowadays people use PVC pipes, but steel pipe are also in use. Let me
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consider a steel pipe so that we will have some ratio of roughness to calculate. So, the dia of the
pipe is 4 inches, you also have 6 inches dia and depending upon the amount of the water that you
need to discharge, one will choose the dia of the pipe.
So this is the bore well example, bore well system that we will try to look at. One important
thing is that pump, there is no suction head, h s = 0. Now Q, typically the discharge out of the
bore well is the order of 100 liters in half second, in half a minute. So, which means 30 sec. So,
this is the order of magnitude of the discharge that will be coming out of a typical bore well, but
this is a not a strict value. It depends upon the amount of the water that is available, the depth to
which the pump as been placed.
So therefore, this is only a representative value, 100 liters and a half of minute, sometimes you
have bore wells giving much more, and some will give less. So this dia 4 inch boils into 4 x
25.4/1000 convert into meter. Q dot, the discharge rate or the flow rate is 100 liters in 30sec
which will give you 3.3 liters/sec, which is 3.3 × 10 -3m/sec. hs is 0, hd is 600 feet, which can be
converted into meters by this conversion factor, 12 × 25.4/1000, so this works out 182.88 meters.
So now, the fluid velocity, or the water velocity in the pipe is Q dot A. So, this 3.33.10 -3 meter
cube per second by (π/4) d2, so this is around 0.41 meter per second. So this, from this we can
now calculate the Reynolds number, so we follow the same process. So, let us calculate the
number ud/υ, υ the kinematic viscosity, 0.41 meters per second, 0.1016 meter and 1.10 -6 meter
square per second for the kinematic viscosity, which is equal to 41656 and that is the Reynolds
number, which is greater than, much greater than 4000, therefore the flow is turbulent and you
have to use the Colebrook white formula.
ε or the height of the surface bump for steal it is 0.1 mm. So therefore, the roughness ratio ε/d is
0.1 mm by 01016 meter, converting it to meter by multiplying by 1000, will give you 0.01 as the
roughness ratio. Now the fiction factor using the Colebrook function that we created, for, we
give the Reynolds numbers and the roughness ratio and then you will obtain the fiction factors
0.024654 and the head due to the fiction loss is f.(L/d).(u2/2g), 0.51 meters.
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The total dynamic head is hs+hd+hf, 0+182.88+0.51+183.4 meters. Now, you can calculate the
hydraulic power 1000.g.h, which is 5991.2, roughly 6000 watts. So, roughly 6000 watts of power
hydraulic power is needed to do this hydraulic work. So, probably you may have to rate your
motor pump combination at probably around 7.5 kilowatts or 10 kilowatts depending upon the
availability. So probably at 10 hp motor pump system can be used.
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Prof. L. Umanand
In order to make our task easy for calculating the hydraulic power, because we have so many
steps, we have 1, 2, 3 up to 10 steps, that we need to pass through in order to obtain the hydraulic
power, I have put them in a octave script file. I will just explain that and then I will leave it to
you to explore it and I will also keep that script file in the resources section.
So, I have here, this is a text file. Look at the name, hydraulic_power.m, it is a m file that can be
opened in octave and run in octave. You can also probably use it in matlab with the minor
modifications and syntax, but essentially it should be able to work well in octave. So, this file
calculates the hydraulic power required to pump water. Clearing all the variables, I have broken
down the script into 3 main parts.
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The first part is specifications, you have to give the input specifications taken from the field and
the users. Then there are some unit conversions, you see that not all the input specifications are
in SI units, that is because the user is conversant in a particular set of units, like as I said the
discharge volume, even though we need to finally express in m 3 and use the formulas, various
equations in IS units, the input has, is in the form of liters for discharge volume, sometimes, it is
in the form of liters/s for the discharge rate. The lengths like the suction head, delivery head are
most of the time given in feet and the dia of the pipe carrying the water is given most of the time
in inch. So, these are what you would call common usage. So, getting the user inputs in the
common, commonly used units in that neighborhood, you take it and do the conversion, you will
have to do the unit conversion such that everything is expressed in SI units and then you apply
the hydraulic equations.
Then I have a fourth part, which is the displays. So, you display them, the results in a appropriate
form. So, let me just explain to you this script so that it will convenient for you to use when you,
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when you want to explore it. So, I have here Q L, QL is the discharge volume in liters. Because,
most of the time we get the value in liters, d t is nothing but ΔT, it is the time, discharge time. Dia
is the inner diameter of the pipe, it is normally given in inches. So, you have to convert it to
meters. Lf is the total overall length of the pipe including the horizontal part, vertical and the
horizontal part
υ is the kinematic viscosity, you will have to look into the science tables. It is a function of
temperature. So, at 20°C, it is 1×10-6 m2/sec, at 50°C I mentioned earlier it is 0.55×10-6 m2/sec.
So, look into the science tables to get the kinematic viscosity value. ε is the height of the surface
bumps, hfs is the subsection head given in feet, hdf is the delivery head given in feet, g is of course
the acceleration due to gravity and 𝜌 is the density of the fluid, here it is water which is 1000 kg/
m3.
Now, we come to the unit conversions. So, in unit conversions, Q the discharge volume has to be
converted from liters to meter cube. So, it is Q L which is expressed in liters by 1000 will give
you discharge volume in meter cube. d, the inner diameter, you take the value which is given in
inches into 25.4/1000, will convert it into meters. Area is πd 2/4, if you take the value d in meters
then a will be mater square. The total pipe length including the horizontal part, which is given by
Lf in feet, convert it into meters by multiplying with the factor 12×25.4/1000. h s the section head
in meters would be hsf section head heat into 12×25.4/1000 likewise for the delivery head. Once
you have converted the units, now everything is in the SI system of units, you can now apply the
hydraulic equations.
ed is the roughness ratio which is equal to ε/ d and d, if it is in meters, multiply it with 1000 to
express it in mm, because ε is a mm and express d also in mm to get the roughness ratio. Q dot is
Q/dt, if you use Q in m3 then Q/dt will be meter cube by, per second. u is Q dot by A, then r the
Renaults number which is u×d/υ. Once you have all that you can now use the Colebrook function
which we developed earlier to obtain the friction factor. The inputs to the Colebrook function
will be the Reynolds number and the roughness ratio.
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Once you have the fiction factor, you can obtain the head due to the fiction loss using the
DARCY WEISBACH equation f (l/d)(u2/2g). Once the head due to fiction loss is obtained, the
total dynamic head is obtained, which is delivery head plus suction head plus head due to fiction
loss all expressed in meters. Then the hydraulic power is 𝜌 into g into Q dot into total dynamic
head.
So in this way, you can, you can streamline the process of designing or obtaining, estimating
hydraulic power by appropriate scripting in octave and then you can output the values you want
to see. So, I have used fprintf and first the specifications, all the variables related to
specifications, in the user units and the SI units, both you can express, so that you will be able to
compare and then hydraulic variable like the roughness ratio, the discharge rate all in SI units,
pipe fluid velocity, Reynolds number, fiction factor, head due to the fiction losses, total dynamic
head hydraulic power and energy. So, all these things can be obtained just in.. The bore well that
example that we just now discussed, I have put in those values here and all I have to do is,
hydraulic power, I will run that, you will get the output, you see that, we had calculated
something around 6000 watts, hydraulic power requirement, that is what you have got, you have
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the various parameters being displayed here. So, I will leave this to you, I will leave this script
file in the resource session, you are free to explode it and then try to apply it and find out the
hydraulic power for various installations.
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Prof. L. Umanand
Let me discuss now about two important pumps, centrifugal pump and the reciprocating pump.
The centrifugal pump comes under the class of dynamic pumps, it has a set of impellers within a
casing, it has a suction input pipe where the water is admitted in, and a delivery pipe where the
water goes out, it is called the discharge of the fluid or the water. The operation is based on the
centrifugal force, this is rotating at high speed, the vacuum, a pressure difference that is created
due to the high speed rotation, sucks in the water and it routes the water towards the center and
because of the centrifugal force, it is pushed out, out into the outlet. And as a result, a pressure
difference is created, vacuum is created which will suck in more water and so on it goes.
So, higher the speed, impeller speed, larger be pressure difference and then more the discharge.
So this is how it goes on. Let me plot on the X-axis discharge rate of the flow rate, and on the Y-
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axis head or the pressure. Now the static characteristic curve in the hydraulic domain is
something like this. At a particular given speed, if the speed is reduced, you will see the
discharge static characteristic curve like this, further reduction in the speed, you may see
something like this. So, as the speed is increased in this fashion, ω angular speed is increased in
this fashion, you will see the family of static characteristic curves for the pressure versus
discharge rate in this fashion.
The torque felt on the shaft of the motor will be something like this and why is it like that?
Observe that, I will mark these points here, now these points are the best efficiency points as
indicated in the datasheets of the pumps. What it means is that, when the head is 0, which means
that there is no hydraulic pressure difference needed, then the hydraulic power is 0, when the
flow along this axis, when the flow rate is 0, even then the hydraulic power is 0. So somewhere
in between, the hydraulic power is maximum. So, these are the points where you have the
maximum hydraulic power and those are operating points at which the efficiency would be
maximum.
So therefore, it is recommended that you operate the centrifugal pump at these points of best
efficiency points and therefore, if you plot the locus of that, the torque that should be seen the
shaft of the motor will be something like this. So, this torque is proportional to ω2. It is having a
square angle of frequency dependency. So, some important points, suction head should be less
than 10 m, because by pressure suction you cannot have greater than 10m. In practice less than
6m is what you may achieve because of friction losses.
Priming is need, you need to fill up the centrifugal pump with water first and then switch on the
motor. The shaft torque as seen on the shaft of the motor is proportional to ω 2, that is this
particular torque as a function of ω. Head is dependent on flow rate and speed. At speeds below
threshold, no water is pumped. So, what it means is that, this portion here, this new
characteristic, static characteristic which are drawn, below this threshold, everything goes into
friction loss no water will be pumped. So this is at threshold speed this characteristic is a
threshold speed.
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So now, let me just discuss with you about 2 important aspect. There is something called the
single stage and motile stage. Most of the pumps, especially for low heads, we use a single stage
pump, which means the impeller is the single impeller. So, if this is the casing, the impeller is
housed in the casing like this, this is where the water is admitted and we call this one has
admission and the water exits like this. So, when the water is a routed, admitted through this,
routed like, through this, through this impeller, the impeller is rotating at high speed and the
centrifugal forces force the water out through this outlet. So, if I draw the direction it look
something like this. So, this is the casing and this is the impeller. Now water is admitted only
from one side, it is called the single admission.
You also have double admission. So, it will look this, the impeller looks like this. If I draw the
casing, it look like in this fashion, so water can be admitted this way and this way and then water
comes out because of a pressure difference between this center and the outer periphery, water is
pushed out by the centrifugal force. Now, the direction of flow will be like this, this is double
admission. Now double admission of course is more advantages, because the water getting
admitted through this port and water admitted getting admitted through this port will balance the
impeller wheel.
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So therefore the double admission is more advantages from that point of view. It has reduced
impact on the bearing. There is also multi stage where you have very deep well, very deep wells
and then in the case of submersible pumps, where you have to pump to a very great head
especially from bore wells like the bore well examples that we discussed, multi stage impellers
are normally used in the pump. So then it is called a multi stage pumps.
Let me just show you how the schematic looks like. This is a single stage impeller, this is a
single stage impeller. I will place one more impeller set like this, place one more impeller set
like, so if I keep on placing impellers set like this, this becomes multi stage. So, this is the
admission point, this is the single admission point where water is admitted, routed in and it is
routed as it goes in and it is rotating, centrifugal force, forces the water to the out, outlet of the
impeller. So, it goes out of the impeller like that and then water is routed by a diffuser and it
comes in, into the second impeller, it is admitted into the second impeller, and from here it again
through centrifugal force goes out and then it is admitted to the third impeller and so on and
finally to the discharge point.
Like the single admission multi stage, you have the double admission multi stage. Let me show
you two stage double admission. So, if I say this is where it is admitted, it will go in on both
sides, then it will come out through this, it is routed and then goes into the double admission
impeller of the next stage goes out so on. So in this way the double admission multi stage
impeller works.
Now actually if you see there is a pressure P 1 at this point and then P 2 at the periphery of the
impellers. So, P1-P2 is what is focusing the water to the periphery. Likewise, here also you have
P1 and P2 and the pressure P1-P2, the ∆P is forcing the water, because of the rotation and the
centrifugal force. Now here in the multi stage, you see the pressure starts adding up. So, there is
P1 and this P2 and here at P2 it is admitted into the next impeller stage, P 3 must be, P2 will force
into P3. P3 is the pressure at the admission of the third stage, P4 so on, so actually the ∆P is keep
adding up, likewise in the case of the double admission you have P 1, P2,P3 so on. So, because of
the addition in the power, addition in the pressure, there is sufficient differential pressure from
the first to the last stage which will pump the water to much greater heights. So, that is how the
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multi stage pumps start working and generally used in submersible pumps in bore wells a type of
applications.
Let us now see how we interface the PV to the pump. So, we have the PV and at the output
terminals of the PV, we have CT the is the buffer capacitor and from the terminal, I will make a
chopper, which means there is a switch and the diode, that is it. I am not putting the dc, dc
convertor, meaning an inductance and the capacitance, I am just having a chopper to switch.
The motor, dc motor itself has in built energy storage, has in built inductance. Okay let me see
what happens. Now the motor has the series winding resistance R a, it is the small value, than the
series inductance La, magnetizing inductance, all the inductances lumped together I am putting it
as La and the motor itself which is at controlled voltage source like that.
Now this motor is a permanent magnet dc motor. So, you need a dc drive. The shaft of the motor
is coupled to one another shaft, the is the shaft of the central fuel pump like this. So, this central
fuel pump has inlet and the outlet and this is the impeller with the wings like this. So, this is the
system. We have vt here, terminal voltage and across the armature of the motor, I am having v a,
this is Ra, La this is the back EMF eb.
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On the mechanical side, I have developed torque Td, that is ω speed of the shaft. Now we know
that Td is equal to, Td the developed torque has to supply, overcome jdω/dt, any inertia reflected
up to this point on the shaft into dω/dt, change in speed plus, there is bearing on this side, on this
side, there will be bearing friction B×ω plus the load torque, the hydraulic load of the centrifugal
pump, we saw in the characteristics just before, TL and what is TL? Okay, let me put it down. The
dω/dt plus Bω plus some α ω2, we said TL was proportional to ω2. Now, this is the kind of load
that this dc motor will see and then it has to develop the torque to overcome all these torque
components. Now, how does this operate? Let us see, this is switching, on, off, on, off which
means the voltage here will the either connected to v t or it will be 0. Because it will be
freewheeling.
So, when it is on, there will be a current flow like this, through this and then it will start driving
the motor. It will have a armature current, armature current will produce the torque, because the
torque in the DC motor is proportional to the armature current and this torque will cause the shaft
to rotate and this ɷ will cause pressure difference, head and which will cause the flow of water
and therefore, the discharge rate or the flow rate comes into this. And because of this, ɷ you will
have a back EMF induced here and this back EMF is going to oppose the flow of the current and
it will all settle at some state value.
Let me just draw the important waveforms so that we get an idea of, insight into the operation.
So, this is time axis, I will see 2 waveforms, va and current ia through the motor. So, let me divide
them into time zones va. Now this is during the on time, off time. During the on time, v t will
come directly at this point, so, va is vt. During the off time, va is 0, because the diode is
freewheeling, any current flowing through this, the inductor will freewheel like that. So on it
repeats, period of period.
Next, we have this duty cycle, that is this BJT or MOSFET or IGBT is switching on for dT s time
period and switching off for a 1- dTs time period. And the average value of v a here is vt × d. Now
let us see the current here, the current here the equation, the governing equation v la, the voltage
across this La dia/dt, this is the Faraday equation. Now, what is vla? Potential at this point minus
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the potential at this point. Potential at this point is v a minus iRa, va would be either 0 or v t. So let
us say, when this is on, it will be v t minus Ia Ra on the one side and the other side it is e b, minus
eb. So, I can write as vt – ia Ra minus eb is proportional to ɷ, so is the k ɷ. So, this would be the
relationship, integrating this would be giving me ia. Now, let us say Ra is very small, negligible,
then it will vt minus kɷ or vt minus eb. As ɷ is rotating with mechanical time constant, there it is
initially J, this is not going to vary quickly, as quickly as the electrical parameters like the
current, because electrical time constant is very fast.
So vt is fairly constant, eb is also fairly constant for the period T s. So therefore, vt minus kω is
sufficiently constant and I will say this is rising. The current i a will rise, with the slope of v t
minus eb by La, ω I am taking it as varying very slowly compared to the electrical parameters and
Ra is almost negligible. So, during the time when it is off, this is 0, it is only e b which is coming
across La, so it is –eb by La. So this one is -eb by La, so with this slope it goes.
So let us say, this is the current, the armature current that is flowing through the motor. So, this
current value, I can adjust up and down by controlling the duty cycle. So, if the duty cycle is
small and then the ia value will be small, if the duty cycle is high, then i a value will be high, so
this can go up and down. So, by controlling i a, I am controlling the torque. Because torque is
proportional to ia in DC motor and by adjusting ia I have adjusted Td, so if you adjust Td then the
speed gets modified, as the speed gets modified, the pressure difference between the inlet and
the outlet gets modified and therefore the flow rate. So this is how you control the flow rate by
adjusting the duty cycle here.
And the eb is proportional to ω as I told here, so the ω is actually acting as in opposition to i a and
this steady state will settle to some value and vt minus eb, we are taking that into account vt-eb/La
is what will determine the current. So, in this way, adjusting the duty cycle will adjust the
average value of va, which is, which will become dvt, which in turn will adjust the value of i a
flowing through this, ia flowing through this will affect dv t which will affect ω and so on. So, the
ω will affect the pressure difference across the pump which will affect the flow rate. So this is
how the centrifugal pump is interfaced with the PV cell or PV module and this is how it operates.
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Prof. L Umanand
Let us now discuss briefly about the reciprocating pump. The reciprocating pump has a case like
this, this is an enclosed case, cylindrical this is the inlet and this is the outlet, this is on the
suction side and this is on the delivery side. It has a piston on one side and this piston moves to
and fro, creating the pressure difference in this chamber. This piston is attached to a crank shaft
which is attach to a cam of the wheel and that wheel is rotating by means of a DC motor or AC
motor.
So as this wheel rotates, this crank shaft reaches a distance here, and that is when this would
have gone maximum and then when the crank position comes to this position, this would be
maximum out, so that would be, the maximum in and out would be the stroke length. So, this is
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the diameter, I will write that one, d. Now there are two valves, one is the inlet valve and the
outlet valve, there are two stoppers.
So which means, they are unidirectional valves. So, let me put a valve there and a valve here. So,
the valve can lift and allow water to come in, likewise here the valve can lift and allow water to
go out, but the pressure of the water on the pipe will see that the water does not come back in to
the chamber, likewise here there is no reverse flow. So, this is the inlet and this is the outlet.
Now this would be the stroke length if we take that this piston moves from here to here. So this
volume keeps changing.
Now Q dot is the discharge rate or the flow rate and that is proportional to this area of the
cylinder into the stroke length, that is the volume that it is going to displace, into the number of
strokes per second would be the discharge rate. Number of strokes per second is basically
dependent on the speed of this wheel rotation. So, a is π/ 4 d2 × s × ω, so it is proportional to ω. d
is constant, fixed quantity, stroke length it is a fixed quantity, ω is the only varying quantity. So
you will see that Q dot is proportional to ω and observe that it is independent of pressure or
independent of head. Now that is the beauty of this reciprocating pump. It is truly a constant flow
rate pump.
So, if you draw the flow rate versus the heat, it will appear as though it is, it just goes vertically
up in the ideal sense. So, independent of the pressure, it can deliver a particular flow rate. So, at
different powers, you will get different flow rates and the flow rate can be maintained
independent of whatever is the head in the ideal sense, but in a practical sense, as the head
increased towards the head the flow rate reduces slightly. So more or less, it is a constant flow
rate pump. It operates at low speeds, this cranking is at low speed and therefore, the motor
connected to it, generally they are at higher speeds and then you need to have a gearing
mechanism and therefore, a gear box is needed, which makes it expensive and therefore
reciprocating pump is not commonly preferred in low power and low expense pumping
applications, that is where the centrifugal pump scores and as the advantage over the
reciprocating pump.
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Prof. L Umanand
Consider now, the generic water pumping system. Now, it is a cascade of all the components,
starting from the PV source, PV source is, output is connected to a power convertor, a power
converter maybe a DC converter, DC to DC converter or a DC to AC converter depending upon
whether it is deriving a DC motor or a AC motor. Then the output of the power converter is
powering the motor and the motor is driving the shaft of the pump, it could be centrifugal pump
or a reciprocating pump.
And the pump is actually taking care of the hydraulic system, containing the suction head,
delivery head, friction loses and all those things. We know how to estimate the power for the
hydraulic system. We have done that all the long in few example and that is P h, this is the
hydraulic power based on a particular amount of discharge, within the specific discharge time,
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diameter of the suction pipe, delivery pipe, with all those concentrations, we have seen how to
calculate the hydraulic power.
Now, the pump will have an efficiency np, motor will have efficiency nm, converter, power
convertor will have an efficiency nc, then the PV power, P PV is what? So, motor output should be
capable of delivering Ph/np, power convertor output should be capable of delivering P h/nmnp and
the photovoltaic panel or the module should be capable of delivering P h/ncnmnp, all taken care, all
the efficiency coming out to the picture.
Typical values of efficiency are, for the pump 70%, for the motor 80%, for the power convertor
90%, you see the motor, even 85% efficient motors are available 90% efficient motors are
available, but take a conservative value of 80%, so that you do not feel that the later on that the
PV panels size is not sufficient to handle the entire system, once you change the motor or a
motor as deteriorated with time, all these factors.
The power convertor efficiency also you get for 98% but it is safe to take a 90% conservative
value, so that you are on the safe side. Now P pv will be Ph/0.9, 0.8, 0.7 and if you calculate all
this, it is two times Ph. So, whatever hydraulic power that you calculate here, when you size the
PV panel, it should be twice the hydraulic power that you calculated. So, you have to rate the PV
panel for this power requirement and also for the entire year you find out the H at minimum, the
minimum energy incident on a given day at a given place and that H at minimum, you have use
for sizing the PV panel, we have discussed this in week 3 and 4, go through that.
And if you do that than on any day in the year, your system will be capable, your PV panel will
be capable of powering this hydraulic water pumping system for this particular hydraulic power
requirement.
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Prof. L. Umanand
Another application of water pumping is in energy storage. Recall in week 5, that we had
discussed other forms of energy storage, where pumped hydro was one of it. Here, you lift water
from the lower level to a higher level and store the energy in the form of potential energy, the
lifted up potential energy of the water. And when you need it, you would like to convert that
potential energy into kinetic energy, make these impellers rotate and then the shaft of the motor
which is rotating, the motor will now act like a generator which will transfer the mechanical
energy into electrical energy. So in this way, we will get out the electrical energy, which can be
used for powering of the loads.
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So to do that, we place a pipe in this fashion, this is called a penstock and at the end of it, there is
a jet, by controlling this valve, you can control the jet here which will make the impellers to
rotate and thereby get the mechanical power, which will get converted to electrical when this
machine now acts like a generator. In this system the pumped portion and the hydra, hydel
portion, both use the same machine, machine pump configuration. When it is pumping up, this is
a motor and this will be a pump, a centrifugal pump let us say. And when you are generating the
electrical power output, this will become a turbine and this will become a generator.
So here, if you are using a DC motor then you will get a DC output. Alternately, if you would
like to get an AC output at different power levels, so the pumping power could be at one rating,
the power at which you will take out the power, retrieve the energy can be at higher power.
So a decoupled system like that will be something like this. So you have the PV panel pumping
using the DC motor and a centrifugal pump in this fashion here to pump up the water from a
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lower level to an over head tank, a reservoir that we could say. And then from this over head
tank, I use a penstock and then use it to run another turbine and the shaft of the turbine is
connected to a generator and the output of the generator is a DC output or it could be a 3 phase
AC output depending upon whether you want to have DC generator or a AC generator.
So, another advantage with this is that you can pump up the water at a lower power, you can
spread it over the whole day, the water can be accumulated over the whole day, so the power, the
hydraulic power needed will be low and then you may need the electrical output during the night
time, let us say for a shorter period, let us say you pump up in 4 hours and then you would like
utilize this electrical energy which is stored in 1 hour, then this rating can be higher, the power
rating of this can be higher and you could probably have the output AC, you will pump up using
a DC motor and then you will take out the power in the form of an AC using an AC generator
and alternator and this AC can directly been used powering up many loads. So. if you decouple it
you will see that it is much more advantageous but only thing is that you will have to pay for an
extra turbine and a generator. So this also another scenario.
We have discussed at length about this part, pumping up water from a lower level to a higher
level, we have discussed about how to calculate the hydraulic energy for this part, let me briefly
discuss about this part. Now for this particular application of pumped hydro, the right side
portion, which is shaded is called a hydel system and depending upon the power rating, it could
be called hydel, a mini hydel a micro hydel or a pico hydel. Pico hydel, the ratings are the order
of 5 kilo watts, micro hydel of the order of 50 kilo watts. So, let me discuss a simple pico hydel
system for small homes and community usage kind of a thing and let us just look at briefly the
important equations.
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Consider a reservoir and from the reservoir a penstock and at the end of the penstock, there is a
jet and the jet of water is impinging on the blades of the impeller and this acts as the turbine
which converts the kinetic energy of the water at this jet to the mechanical shaft energy and we
know this height here, now I will give a symbol upper case H, because lower case h we have
used for total dynamic head in the case of water pumping, so this for retrieving the energy, I will
use this upper cases H and this point here at the jet, we will say Q dot is the flow rate or the
discharge rate.
We know the hydraulic energy Eh which is ρQgh and we also know the hydraulic power ρQ dot
gh, only difference note that, the height is different, this is the height up to the center of this axis
of the jet.
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Consider this turbine, this pelton wheel and where the jet at the end of the penstock is impinging
on the Pelton wheel and converting the kinetic energy to mechanical energy and this is Q dot, the
flow rate. The hydraulic power ρQ dot gh, ρ is 1000 kg/m 3 as before, 9.81 m/s2 is g and we have
the hydraulic power at this point and we can take it has approximately 10 Q dot h kilo watts,
flow rate is in m3/s and if you take flow rate in liters/s, then it will become 10 Q dot H Watts,
where flow rate is liters per second. So, all these remain the same, except the value of h. So, as
an example, 100 m head, 5 liter/s flow has hydraulic power of 5000 W or 5 kilo watts at this
point.
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Now let me define that, this is the fluid velocity at his jet, jet velocity u j, now the turbine velocity
is ut, the angular speed of the turbine ωt, this is the tangential velocity. Now Ft, the force,
tangential force on the turbine is given by 2ρ Q dot (u j - ut), uj is jet velocity, ut is the turbine
tangential velocity, uj-ut having a unit of m/sec, Q dot having a unit of m3/sec and ρ having unit
of kg/m3, so you have overall kg m/s2 as the overall unit, so m/sec 2 having the acceleration units
and you have kg so mass into acceleration, so this is having the unit of force, so this can be
derived. So tangential force is this much.
We also know that the hydraulic energy ρQgHa, I will say Ha is the actual measured physical
height from the center of the jet to the center of the outlet of the reservoir. So, this potential
energy is converted to the kinetic energy as 1/2 ρQuj2. This is of the form 1/2 mv2 , ρQ mass, uj2
jet velocity. Now ρQ and ρQ, I can remove, so you will have 2gH a is qual to uj2. So now, at this
fluid velocity, I know the cross, jet cross section area is aj let us say, aj x uj will be Q dot.
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So, I have these three relationships, from these three relationships, let us say a Q dot can be
expressed in terms of uj, uj itself can be expressed as 2gHa, so when you replace Q dot and uj here
so you will have Ft as a function of only ut, ut is the only variable the tangential velocity
everything else. So you say, the power, the mechanical power is efficiency times jet power which
is the hydraulic power here, which is efficiency times Ft x ut, Ft x ut is the jet power.
Now, this because this whole Ft itself is a function of ut, x ut, so you will have ut2 term and a ut
term, so I will in general put it as P m=α1ut-β1ut2. So Q dot and uj replace it in here and F t you
replace it here, you will get the mechanical power in terms of ut that is the tangential jet velocity.
Now ut itself can be expressed in terms of the angular velocity. So, I have the radius r, so u t is
equal to ωt×r which is the radius of your impeller. Now P m can be expressed as α ωt-β ωt2, now
this would be the power equation, the mechanical power available at the shaft. The α and β are
given, this one, this can be as I said, you substitute, you will get this relationship.
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Now using that power equation, the mechanical shaft power Pm which is equal to α ωt-β ωt2, see
that torque and power are related, torque into ω is power. So therefore, torque, the shaft torque
can be obtained as power divided by ωt angular velocity which is equal to α-βωt, so this is the
falling, this is linear and falling slope. Now when t is 0, when the shaft torque is 0, you will see
that ωt is α/β.
Now, that should correspond to, see if you are using it for generating and generating 50 hertz, 50
hertz is the synchronous frequency. So, that should correspond to two times the synchronous
frequency. I will tell you why. Therefore, you need a gear ratio, so that two times synchronous
frequency and α/β correspond and at the output, after the gear box it will be Tt/gear ratio.
Now let us just plot and see what I mean. This line red line is the torque line. Consider this, you
will see here α-β ωt, so one, ω is equal to ωt is 0, you will have the some value of torque and that
value of torque keeps on increasing till it becomes 0 at some point when t is equal to α/β. Now,
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power here is a square term, this is parabolic, so you get a parabolic thing where the maximum
power is here.
So when you have the maximum power there, I would like my ω s, when I am using it as
generator, my AC motor, alternator or induction generator should have a frequency
corresponding to ɷs, corresponding to my 50 hertz component here. Then this should correspond
to 2ɷs. So, that is why we used 2ɷs should correspond to α/β when the torques becomes 0. So,
that is how this gear ratio is calculated. So at this point the shaft torque which becomes 0 is α/β
from this equation.
But we want the value to be 2ɷs from the frequency of the alternator that finally should be given
to the user load. So using that we get this clear ration 2ɷ s = α/β and have your operating point
somewhere close here where you can get the peak power.
So, a generic hydel system consists of a turbine, a gear box, gen set and the sink. Sink will be
load, any type of load. So this portion, the turbine with the gear box is the turbine portion, the
generator, gen set can be a DC generator or AC generator, could be an induction generator or
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alternator in the AC case, so synchronous and asynchronous and then you can have, the sink as
the load or you can pump back into mains grid also. So, these are the different application which
are there.
Let us see a very common popular hydro mechanism where the induction generator is used to
interface the turbine with a sink. The sink could be the mains grid or even standard alone load.
So typically what is done is, so you have a induction generator, it is Δ winding, there is this
neutral and this is line, the wiring is done in this way, from each of phase of it, it is brought out
to this RCD. After the residential current device, you have an MCB, circuit breaker, switch and
follow it up with capacitor like this, C to C, connected in the same fashion and make sure it is C
to C.
This will form a open Δ, you do not need 3 capacitors, just use 2 capacitances, it is the open Δ
configuration, it will be able to give slightly less power than complete full Δ configuration, but it
is much less expensive, then I can draw out a single phase line across this capacitance C and that
goes to an IGC, IGC is nothing but an induction generator controller, it is basically something
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that will see to it that load which is presented here is more or less constant. So, what is done is
this will keep switching between ballast and the actually load, so there will be ballast and then
there will be the actual user load.
So this will see to it that, if this load decreases, the actual user load decreases, it will increase the
ballast load, so that the load presented here is always same. If there is no load, the full ballast
load is applied here and then same amount of power is drawn and when this is full load, this
ballast load is cut off and still the same load will be presented to this terminals. The reason that is
done is the induction generator, the frequency swings widely with variations in the load. So,
therefore it is always ensured that almost constant the load is presented to the terminal here so
that the frequency of the induction generator does not change.
So that is function of the IGC, that is the induction generator controller, it basically tries to see
that between the balsas load and the actually load, it is appropriately switched and presents
almost constant load across the terminals of the generator system. So, in this way, hydel micro or
a pico hydel system works and this is the very simple configuration, idea of pumped hydro n
where water pumping is one half of the part of the pumped hydro application where the PV is
used for pumping water at any particular rate to a reservoir and the other part of the application is
from the reservoir, the stored potential energy is converted and made available in an electrical
form compatible to particular loads so this is the pumped hydro concept.
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Prof. L Umanand
We shall now discuss a very important and very popular topic and that is Grid connection of the
PV power. So, the PV power is a fluctuating power, it various over the day, it reaches a pick at
noon and it is dependent on the insolation. So it is not a fixed power. So therefore, you need to
use an energy buffer like a battery or like pumped hydro or compressed air. Some such energy
storage or energy buffering is needed for most of the applications.
Now if you consider grid, grid power is available and any amount of power can be drawn from it
within reasonable limits and it is something like an ideal source where the impedance, where the
output impedance is almost negligible. Now, how do we interconnect such a PV power and the
grid together and bring some use out of it. So, if the PV power, whatever power is available from
the PV output, whatever power the PV module are capable of capturing and delivering it at the
output, all that power let us supply it to the grid and let the grid appropriately distribute it to the
various loads. So, it acts in the role of a supplementing source. So, if it is happening from your
building, let us say the PV modules are on your rooftop and from your rooftop, you have wired
it and connected it such a way that you are pumping power in to the grid, you will be benefiting
in terms of lesser electricity bills to be paid. So therefore, grid connection has become very
popular and it is, it is supplementing the grid in a very, very significant way.
So what we need to see is, how to we connect the PV modules to the grid? What is the sort of
electronics that will come in between which will make this possible and that is what we would
like to study. But first let us look at thee principle of grid connection.
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Consider a grid, a single phase grid, something like this. I have line and neutral and in between
line and neutral, I am representing the grid as a voltage source. So a sine wave voltage source,
and let me make the measurement in this fashion as shown by the arrow and I will call it as v g, vg
represents grid voltage. Now to this grid, you cannot another voltage source in parallel, you can
definitely connect a current source in parallel like this, where the current source here is
connected between this common, which is the neutral point and this line. So, the current source
is a high output impedance source and therefore, it can pump current at a preset level in to the
grid and therefore power is pumped in to the grid. So if you have a current source and this
current source deriving power from a PV module, you can definitely connect it like this.
However, note, caution, very important, you cannot connect a voltage source like this in parallel.
Let us say I have a voltage source and I use this symbol v i, because most of the time, the voltage
source that v will be building, this is what v will be building, is coming from the output of an
inverter. So, I will name it as vi, inverter output. So this voltage source, if you connect it in
parallel like this, there is bound to be huge i g, a circulating current between these two, either in
this direction or in this direction and something is going to blow.
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So do not connect these two voltage sources directly like this, instead you will have to interpose
an impedance L like this in between. So, this inductance is a non dissipative energy storing
element. So, it will act as the impedance and will try to match this voltage source and this, these
two voltage sources. Alternately, you can view it as, this voltage source along with the
inductance, in conjunction with the inductance, together they would form a current source and
therefore now, these two together is a current source which I can connect it to the grid.
So now, let me look at the wave shape of the grid voltage that you have no control, it is decided
by the grid and the ig, the current you decided to pump into the grid. So, let us have a look at
these two voltage wave shapes versus time, that is, So x axis is time and the y axis is basically
the magnitude of the voltages and the current.
So let me draw first the magnitude of the voltage vg. So, it is a 50 Hertz signal here, it is having a
period of 20 ms and this vg in an ideal sense is a pure sinusoid and I will write it as V msinωt, but
in a practical sense, vg the grid voltage is not a sinusoid, it has lot of harmonics. So, there is lot of
total harmonic distraction, THD present in the grid voltage waveform. But for now, assume that
this source is a sinusoidal, it is just containing the single fundamental Vmsinωt.
Now how would you like to have the ig that you are going to put into the grid. We would like to,
for maximum utilization of the PV panels from which you are drawing power, we would like the
ig to be fed into the gird in such a way that maximum active power is put into the grid. So in,
under such conditions, you would like to put ig in phase with the voltage waveform, at unity
power factor, at whatever amplitude Im as decided by the maximum power point of the PV panel
which is driving this voltage controlled source.
So this is ig, which is Imsinωt, so both the voltage and the current have the same phase, same
wave shape as shown here. What is the power? The power is (V m × Im)/2. This we know, you can
intergrate, integral of, 1/t integral of vg ig dt, you will get the power average power is V mIm/2.
Now, let me consider the voltage across the inductor, I will measure the voltage across the
inductor in the fashion, call it as vL, and then let us look at this loop and write down the voltage
equation.
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So vg + vL, vg + vL should be equal to vi. vi is the voltage coming out of the inverter. Now, what is
vL? vL has a direct relationship with ig. If ig is sinusoidal, vL should be cosinusoidal, if vL is
sinusoidal, ig should be cosinusoidal. So, we want i g to the sinusoidal, so that it is in phase with
the vg. Therefore, you will see that v g + L dig/dt is vi. Now, if ig is give in this fashion, I msinωt,
dig/dt will be ωImcosωt, we will replace this equation appropriately. v g is Vmsinωt + ωL Imcosωt,
after differentiation, which is equal to vi.
So this is the crucial relationship, if I have vi here, in this fashion. So, the voltage across the
inductance would be this minus this, and the current through the inductance or the current that is
going to be put in to the gird ig is given by 1/L, integral of (vi – vg )× dt. This is coming from trhe
inductor equation. Now vi, if I set it equal to this Vmsinωt + ωL Imcosωt – vg, which is Vmsinωt,
the Vmsinωt's will get cancelled and what will be appearing across the inductor will be ωL
Imcosωt. Now that is the cosine wave.
Now on integrating, ig which is the output of the integrator will be a sinusoidal wave and that is
what we need and that is what we except. So that it in phase with the voltage. So, the take away
from here is that, this source is a controlled source, we are making it and how would you like to
control it? We would like to control it in such a manner that vi is taking this value. So, output of
the inverter that we are controlling should have this value, which means I should appropriately
set the reference such that output vi is coming to this much. So, under such conditions, then the
current that is flowing through i g will be as given by this and it will be sinusoidal and in phase
with vg, because vL will be co sinusoidal, so this is the basic underline principle.
So instead of using voltage controlled inverter, where I said the reference voltage of the output
the inverter to be like this, I could control the current directly, of the inductor or the inductor
current ig which is also the current that is going to be pumped in to the grid. So, if I feedback the
current ig and set the reference current ig reference such that I am drawing the peak power from
the PV modules, then the controller will do the job of appropriately giving the control input such
that vi is at a value here, such that ig what you desire will flow.
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So at current controlled inverter, comprising of the inductor and the inverter and the feedback
given by measuring the inductor current back and setting the reference current according to the
peak power of the photovoltaic module would be a very effective way of connecting the PV
modules to the grid. So we will see how we will go, how we will go about achieving this both in
single phase and three phase grids.
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Prof. L Umanand
Let us now discuss some topologies for PV grid interface. There are many topologies available in
the literature. They probably may be classified in the flowing way. One of the main classifiers
would be, isolation. There are many topologies based on isolation, where one places the isolation
and whether isolation is needed or not, so you will find low frequency transformers being used
for isolation, high frequency transformers being use for isolation.
You will also find circuits without transformer isolation, they are called transformerless PV grid
interface. Each have their pros and cons, we will discuss them. There is also classification based
on the number of power stages. We will see, you may have one power stage, one DC-DC
converter to do, take care of maximum power point tracking for the PV modules, source
modules, there is another DC-DC converter which can be used for current control or voltage
control of the output, there can be another converter for doing the unfolding. So, if you, you will
see that there are some topologies which use a two or three converter stages, some topologies
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which will use just one power converter stage. So, it has an impact on the efficiency of the whole
system. So, you will see in the literature, topology is based on the number of power stages too.
You will also see converters based on control dynamics. So, you will see scalar control, where
the control is done inter cycle, with inter-cycle dynamics, that is it may take more than one 50
hertz cycle for the dynamics to settle.
If you use the DQ axis theory, then you will obtain intra-cycle dynamics, that is the dynamics
will settle within a cycle. So, these are control blocks which are popular and which are in use, we
shall also discuss some of these things while designing, while even looking at the PV grid
interface circuits. So one by one, let me introduce the different types of PV grid interface circuits
and let us spend some time discussing them.
Let me take up the following topology, where we have the PV module connected to a DC-DC
converter and the DC-DC converter output has a capacitance, DC-DC converter has a control
input like this and this control input is used for MPPT control. Now this portion, we are familiar
with, you have the buffer capacitor CT, DC-DC converter and then output capacitor.
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What we want to do here I will discuss. Up to this portion, we know and this DC-DC converter
can be any DC-DC converter, either non-isolated or isolated, which will appropriately do the
matching of the load line to the PV terminals in such way that maximum power is drawn from
the PV. The output of this DC-DC converter is given to input of another DC-DC converter. So,
the job of this other DC-DC converter is to control the output voltage on the downstream side,
the job of this DC-DC converter was supposed to control the input impedance for maximum
power point tracking.
So each of this DC-DC converters is doing different functions. So, outer of this DC-DC
converter is suppose to give an output which is unidirectional, it is still DC. But it is a varying
DC and the variation is such that it is in the shape of rectified sine wave. So, you can control the
duty cycle of this dc dc converter in a wave which will give you an output which is giving you
rectified sine wave.
The output of that DC-DC converter will go through a unfolding circuit, I will call this one as an
unfolding circuit. And what it does is, alternately it will unfold this full rectified sinusoid, so that
you will get a sinusoidal wave shape at its output. So, job of the unfolding circuit will be such
that, it will provide the positive first positive will still remain positive, the second rectified sine
will become inverted, so that together it becomes a sine wave.
Now this sine wave will be passed through an isolation, transformer isolation, low frequency,
because this is that now 50 Hertz. So, you will use a low frequency transformer isolator and then
output of that it going through an inductor and that will get connected to line and neutral of the
gird. Observe that, this DC-DC converter is also having a control input, but this control input is
used for modulating the output voltage of this, it can be used for voltage control or current
control.
We are quite familiar with this portion of the circuit. we know how to interface the PV module
with the DC-DC converter for MPPT control. Let me discuss about this portion of the circuit.
Now, let me put down a typical circuit for this portion. Starting from this capacitance onwards,
let me redraw the circuit here. So, I have the capacitance, let me follow it with the simple buck
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converter like this. So this is a buck converter. So, I have a power semiconductor switch, here I
have used a BJT, you may use a MOSFET or you may use an IGBT, have the diode and you
have an inductor and the capacitance. Now, you should remember that this portion, what I have
used, this topology of a buck converter, you may use any other DC-DC converter topology. This
is just only a representative topology for explanation, I have used a puck converter.
It could be a flyback converter, it could be a isolated converter, it could be a buck boost

converter so on and so, it could be a Z source converter. Now, the output of this should have a
wave shape like this, full wave rectified, sine rectified. So, appropriately I will have a duty cycle
here which is varying such that it will produce an output wave shape in that fashion.
Now the output of this, I will give you to a push pull converter which is connected in this
fashion. Now, I have this transformer winding and this is a push pull circuit. So, recognize this
push pull circuit, there is a switch here, there is a switch here, I have not a diode here purposely,
because this reverse body diode is used, if the current flow direction reverses. But we are talking
of pumping in current always in phase with the grid.
So it is only the active portion of the power which is flowing through always. Therefore, I have
not any reverse diode, but you may put a revere diode if it is a BJT or if it is a MOSFET or a
IGBT, the reverse diode is already inbuilt within the body of the switch. So now, this voltage
output coming from the DC-DC converter is now connected to the center point of the push pull
transformer. The secondary of the push pull transformer is passed through an inductor and output
of that connected to the grid line and neutral as shown here.
So now, this duty cycle here, I will modulate this duty cycle in a sine fashion such that at this
point, the output, I will get a voltage in this fashion. You see this v0, for a buck converter v0 =
dvin. Now, if d is made sinusoidal in nature, there is only rectified sinusoidal in nature, you will
get an output v0 which is vinsin(ωt) and therefore, you will be able to get this kind of a wave
shape. Now, this kind of a wave shape is given to the center of the push pull.
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Now let us say, this half sinusoids are having 10 ms width. So, 2 sinusoids, 2 half rectified sine
waves will make 20 ms, which is 50 Hertz. Now we will unfold this. So, what I will do? This is
Q1, I will switch on Q 1, so which means during Q1, this is the operative sinusoid, half sinusoid
and the dots, observe the dots here, and I will, I am supposed to get this. So, when this is
switched on, this dot is positive, this dot is positive, so the positive comes in here.
Now when Q2 is switched on, Q1 is off. So, this is the Q 2 portion, so when Q2 is switched on,
non-dot end is positive, non-dot end is positive, which means dot end is negative, this is the
portion, it gets inverter like this. So, alternately you keep switching Q 1 and Q2. So, these are
switched in the 50 Hertz fashion. For 10 ms, this is on, next 10 ms, this is on. So, these are
switched on low frequency.
And this unfolding happens and then this 50 Hertz signal is now interfaced to the grid through
the inductor. So, this is one way of interfacing. This portion, this portion is called the unfolding
circuit that I mentioned here and this is the unfolding circuit and this portion is the isolation. The
push pull transformer is used for isolating. So, this, this and this portion is what is actually
indicated in this whole circuit. This is one such topology.
The unfolding stage here, I have indicated using push pull stage. Q 1 and Q2 along with the push
pull transformer. This unfolding stage can be replaced with the bridge circuit which is much
more popular, because the bridge stage is decoupled from the isolating stage. Here the push pull
stage is tightly coupled with the isolating stage. So let us have a look at that.
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What I will do, I will remove this portion of the circuit and redraw that. Let me reduce this and
here I will use a full bridge stage, which is switched at low frequency. This time, instead of using
a BJT, I will draw a MOSFET as the power switch. See, the MOSFET, this is the n channel
MOSFET with the internal body diode. You see, why I normally use a BJT for switches,
representing the power semiconductor switches, it is much easier to draw a BJT then draw the
power MOSFET.
But when I use in the lab and the experiments, most of the time, it is always power MOSFETs
and power IGBTS. Very rarely I use BJTs. Okay, so we have this full bridge, made of power
MOSFETs, this is connected to ground, this point and this center point of this one is connected to
this point, which is actually getting the full wave rectified sine power signals. So, I will connect
it like that and then the center of the bridge, I will connect the transformer like this and the
output of a that transformer, secondary of the transformer go through the inductor and then to the
line and neutral of the grid.
So, let me complete this internal body diodes of the MOSFET. So, you have the body diodes, the
MOSFET, complete dot polarities, so this would be the complete circuit. Let me now name the
switches, I will call this one as switch S 1, this is S2, this is S3 and S4. Now, let us say, during this
period, let switch S3 and S2 be connected. S2 and S3 be on, S1 and S4 are off during this 10 ms
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period here. So, during that time this dot end of the transformer is connected to the positive of
this DC-DC converter. The non-dot end is connected to the negative the DC-DC converter. So,
the dot end is positive, this dot end is positive and therefore, you will see this portion appearing
here. Then, for the next 10 ms, I will switch on S 1 and S4, switch off S3 and S2. S1 and S4 are
switched off (professor said OFF instead of ON), S3 and S2 are switched off. So, when S1 and S4
are on, you will see that the non-dot end is connected to the positive the DC-DC converter, the
dot end is connected to the negative of the DC-DC converter.
Therefore the dot end is negative, so you will see an inversion here, you will see full sine wave
appearing across the primary of the secondary of the transformer. The primary and secondary
turns, the turns ration is decided depending upon whatever this voltage of the DC-DC converter
and whatever the voltage would be of the grid and in India this grid voltage is 230 volt RMS or
325sinωt. So, you can adjust this ratio to match the grid voltage.
712
Prof. L. Umanand
Let me now discuss another topology here. What I will do is, I will remove the DC-DC converter
plus unfolding stage and replace it with a single power stage which is called the inverter stage. It
is a DC to AC converter. Let us have a look at that topology. We have the photovoltaic module
as usual connected to a DC-DC converter and the DC-DC converter output is connected to a
capacitor, this is a buffer capacitance, and that acts as an input to the inverter.
So the inverter will take the DC input from here which is the output of this DC-DC converter and
the output of the inverter will get connected to an isolation stage which is a transformer isolation,
followed by an inductor which gets linked to the grid line and neutral of a single-phase system.
So, if you look at the inverter output, the inverter output will be switched, a switched AC, if I
713
draw the waveform versus time, you will see pulse width modulated switched waveform in this
fashion.
So, you see the pulse width modulated waveform is switching at high frequency, but the
fundamental is 50 Hertz. So, which one filtered by this inductor will give you a filtered current.
So, if I plot the current, the current will be filtered because of the inductor and it will have this
kind of almost both and 50 Hertz waveform, but it will have some switching harmonics.
Now let me see what goes into this inverter, how this inverter look like. Take a single phase
inverter, let me draw the single phase inverter which is a full bit circuit, I am using BJTs now,
but remember that you can replace the BJTs with MOSFETs or IGBTs as depending upon the
power and switching frequencies. So this point, I will connect it to the negative of the DC-DC
converter and the positive of the bridge, I will connect it to the positive of the DC-DC converter.
This forms the Vdc bus or the Vdc link voltage applied to the input of the inverter. There are of
course diodes which you need to put, reverse conducting diodes, they are needed here to provide
freewheeling paths, I will explain that. So now, let us say that you have this inverter and from the
centre point I will bring it out to a transformer and the transformer secondary, connected to an
inductor which is connected to the grid in this fashion line and neutral.
Let me now name the switches Q1, Q2, Q3, Q4. Let us see how you would like to give the drive
pulses for Q1, Q2, Q3, Q4, so that we get a voltage waveform across the primary and the
secondary of the isolating transformer in this fashion, and the current along this wave shape line.
So therefore, I would like to draw few axes, time axis. So, I will take 3 time axes, this one is for
Q1 and Q3 gate, base drive, this is for Q2 and Q4 base drive. And the last one, third one is to see
the voltage waveform across the primary of the transformer.
So let me divide the graph into two portions, ten millisecond portions. So, this is one
fundamental, this whole thing is one fundamental 20 millisecond period. I have divided into two
half periods, ten millisecond, ten millisecond, and let us see how the switching waveforms look
714
like. So for Q1 and Q3, I will use the top okay. So during this period, where I am showing the
cursor, let us switch on Q3 and during the period when this waveform is low, I will switch on Q 1,
what it basically means is that I will invert it and then give it to the Q1.
This wave shape, this base drive will go for Q 3 inverted base drive will go for Q1. So Q3 and Q1
are switched every 10 milliseconds, switched on every 10 milliseconds, which means they have a
switching period of 50 Hertz. Now for the bottom MOSFETs, now let us take Q 2, now Q3 is on,
so I will drive the diagonally opposite MOSEFT Q2. Let us say when Q2 is given a pulse like this,
during the time when Q2 is on, during the pulse time, this point is connected to minus of the DC-
DC converter. So, Q3 is already on, which means this point is already connected to the plus of
the DC-DC converter. So, across the transformer, you will see the full DC bus voltage. So, if I
say this is Vp, then you would see VP, the full voltage.
Now, let us say Q2 has gone off, Q3 was on, Q2 has gone high and low, what will happen to the
voltage across Vp, there was a, when Q3 and Q2 were on there was a current flow like this and
when Q2 switched off, current flow continues, because the reflected inductances and leakage
inductances, it will flow through this path. I am showing through the cursor, from here Q 3,
through the primary winding, flows to the other node, Q 2 is off, therefore it will go up through
the body diode and then keeps coming back, because Q 3 is on. So this potential and this potential
are same now and therefore Vp is zero.
So even if Q2 is on, we will have V p 0 during that time when the Q 2 is off also. So, let me
complete the Q2 wave shape, so this is the base drive we will give for Q2. So, whenever Q2 is low
also, you will see Vp going to zero, because of freewheeling action and these two potentials
being same. So I will draw that in that fashion. And now, the next 10 millisecond, Q 1 has come
into the picture, Q3 is off, Q1 has come into the picture.
And you have to switch Q4. So, Q4 will be switched on in this fashion, pulse width modulated
high frequency and because Q4 is switched on, this dot end point is connected to the negative.
The non-dot end is connected to the DC bus. Therefore, we see a negative voltage when Q 4 is
715
being switched. So, during the time when Q4 is on, you will see a negative voltage coming across
Vp, because dot end is connected to the negative and non dot and is connected to the positive.
And when Q4 is switched off, you will see that there is a path for it to freewheel in this fashion
up again like this. So, you will see that both are at same potential V p is zero, so like that it
continues and you will get a pulse width modulated waveform like this. So, you will get this
positive and negative pulse width modulated switched waveform like this, and the currents, this
waveform is available here, minus the grid voltage waveform which is vmsinωt will be available
across the inductor which will integrate it and integrate the current and current will be in this
form, kind of a smoothened waveform with switching harmonics.
So therefore, this is another topology where we have removed the DC-DC converter and the
unfolding stage. Two stages, power stages have been clubbed into one single inverter stage,
thereby, improving the efficiency.
Consider this topology, where we have used an inverter and an isolating transformer. This
transformer is a low frequency transformer, it is an LF transformer. Because the currents flowing
716
there is 50 Hertz and the flux within the core is 50 Hertz and therefore, you have to design this
transformer for handling a flux at 50 Hertz. So it will be a low frequency transformer.
Now this will be big bulky expensive and very heavy. So, that is one of the major disadvantage
of this transformer. So, there are topologies in the literature, which does away with this
transformer, something in this fashion. I have duplicated this, I will remove this transformer and
then I will just put an inductor, and then connect it to the grid in this fashion, line and neutral.
Now this topology does not have any transformer right from the PV module to the grid. But still,
it will work, it will pump power into the grid, and this is called a transformerless interface. One
problem with such an interface is, though it will work, one has to be a bit more careful with
respect to safety. Now, let us say that, I have a ground here, and a person is cleaning the PV
modules and he's in contact with the PV modules, and the edges of the PV modules have
aluminum beadings.
And if there is an electrostatic discharge and it could discharge through him, into the ground
which is the physical ground, which is at absolute zero potential. Even if there is a neutral and
the earth at a different potential, there are chances of shocks for the person who is cleaning the
PV modules. Therefore, it is recommended not to go in for a transformer less interface, but to put
the organic isolation, magnetic isolation, somewhere in the path in between, even if it is not a
low frequency, at least a high frequency transformer, so that the person cleaning the PV module
is protected.
So therefore, in some of the topologies you will see that the transformer has been shifted to the
high frequency portion, that is in the DC-DC converter, One can use a high frequency
transformer here isolation here, and still have isolation along with a much more compact
component count compared to this kind of a very heavy big and expensive LF transformer. Let
us briefly look at how this DC-DC converter with isolation looks like.
717
Consider this topology, let us look at this DC-DC converter portion where we would like to
introduce this high-frequency isolation. Now, I will use a fly back converter topology, which is
the isolated version of the buck boost topology. Because the buck boost topology can handle the
entire first quadrant of the static curve of the PV module, fly-back can also do that similarly.
But there is no hard and fast rule which converter you will have to use here. You could definitely
use a forward converter, half bridge, full bridge converter, push pull converter, one of them, one
of the isolated topologies. Now, this capacitance is same as this capacitance. Let me indicate this
point is same as this point and this point is same as this point. So, this is actually a fly back
inductor which gives you the isolation, this switch is switched on and off at high frequency, this
is a high frequency magnetic.
The secondary of this fly back transformer is connected through a diode to a capacitance, so that
you get a DC voltage across this capacitance. Now, be careful with the dot polarity, in a fly back
capacitor these two are opposite poles, when the transistor switch is on, it will charge up this
magnetics, this dot is positive, it will charge up this magnetics which is acting like an inductor .
And when this is switched off, whatever magnetically stored charge is there it will get released in
this fashion.
718
When this was on, this was positive. When this switch is off, this becomes negative, the non-dot
end becomes positive. So non-dot end will make the diode on and charge up this capacitance. So,
that is how the fly back converter works. Now, observe these two points, this point is same as
this point, I will put that, this point is same as this point as well. The rest of the inverter and the
inductor are connected here.
So in this way, you have shifted the isolation to the high frequency point, thereby, making the
whole system more compact, because the high frequency transformers are very compact.
719
Prof. L. Umanand
The PV module can also be connected to a 3 phase grid. Let us have a look at the topology for 3
phase grid connection. We have a PV module, the output of which is connected to a DC- DC
converter. This, we are very familiar with now, the DC- DC converter is a having a control input
here, which will modulate the input impedance and the output of the DC- DC converter is
connected to a link capacitor that is a bus capacitance and from there you pick off for a 3 phase
inverter.
Now the 3 phase inverter is also a bridge, it consist of 3 half bridges like this, 3 bridge arms, one
for each phase and these switches, I have shown symbolically, they may be MOSFETs or IGBTs
with appropriate gate drives, they are controlled switches. So, you connect them to the DC bus in
this fashion and from the center of each arm, you pull out the wire and connect it to each of the
720
phases of a transformer, a 3 phase transformer. So, this is a 3 phase transformer, with one end of
each winding, all connected together and that would be the neutral point for the transformer.
So, the primary and the secondary, they are all coupled. So, this whole together forms a star-star
connected transformer, this is connected in star with one end of the winding connected to the
common, the secondary also, one end of the windings are connected to the common, the other
ends are coming out, so this is the primary and this is the secondary. From the secondary, you
pass it through 3 inductors, separate inductors and connect it to the R, Y, B phases of a 3 phase
grid.
So in this fashion, you can have the PV module interfaced to the 3 phase grid. Only difference is
that you need to have a 3 phase inverter, a 3 phase transformer and 3 inductors. We can further
improve on this topology. If you are using a inverter and if you are using especially a current
controlled inverter, then we can eliminate this DC-DC converter which is doing the job of
maximum power point tracking too. We can integrate the maximum we point tacking into the
inverter control.
So let me draw that topology. Let me duplicate that and then we will remove this. So, this
position, let us say we remove and then mark this and then push that forward, make the
connections appropriate and then we have the topology, where this DC- DC converter is not
there. Now, how do we do the maximum power point tracking? If this inverter is doing current
control, that is the inductor current which is actually being pumped into the grid is being
controlled, then the maximum power point algorithm can be used, the terminal currents of the
PV panel and the terminal voltage of the PV panel can be measured and the power that is
obtained can be passed through the maximum power point tracking algorithm and then output of
that can set the reference, current reference for the inverter. This will be sensed back, fed back
and the controller will see to it that the voltages will be appropriately modulated in such a way
that the desired current flows through here and maximum power will be drawn from the PV
panel.
721
So in this way, we have now here a topology where there is only one power stage which is
coming between the PV module and the grid. You can also apply this for a single phase case,
where you have a single phase inverter a single phase transformer and a single inductor
interfacing the PV panel to the grid.
Let me make some space and then I have indicated here for a current control inverter, the MPPT
can be integrated within inverter. Now, let me draw the single phase topology also. So, in the
case of single phase topology also, the PV module can be connected to a single phase inverter
which is containing just two bridge arms and the center the bridge arms are connected to a single
phase transformer like this and the secondary of the transformer is connected to an inductor
which interfaces to the grid line and neutral in this fashion.
So this is a single phase equivalent of this 3 phase circuit doing the same function and the MPPT
is integrated in the, into the inverter provided we have current controlled inverter. For the 3
phase case, here I have shown this 3 phase transformer, symbolically as a star-star connected
transformer, but you can also have a start-delta connected inverter, in case the line, the grid is
unbalanced and has harmonics, the 0 sequence components of the currents can circulate in a Δ
connected inverter, so sometimes you will see that the transformer is star-star but star-delta.
722
We can further improve on this topology. You see, this inductor is carrying the low frequency
that is 50 Hz component of the current, full load current and therefore, this will be pretty large,
huge, expensive and it is a low, made up of low frequency laminations just like this low
frequency transformer. Now you have two big components, one is this transformer and this
inductor, likewise in the 3 phase case also, this is a big transformer and you have a set of 3
inductors.
No one can include the inductor within this transformer in the form of leakage inductance. If the
leakage inductance of the transformer is large, then the leakage inductance itself will do the job
of the inductance, inductor here. in that case, you do not need to have a special indicator.
However, it is not easy to control the value of the leakage inductance. So, you make the
transformer, check for the leakage inductance and then if the inductance is not sufficient, leakage
inductance is not sufficient, for the difference amount, you can put has smaller inductors. So that
is also a approach that one can take. So, let me draw the these two topology without the inductor
and let me explain with the equivalent circuit the transformer, how the leakage inductance can
help. Now consider this portion of the circuit only, let me explain that one with equivalent circuit
of the transformer.
723
Let me draw the transformer position, the inductor and you have the terminals connected to the
grid. Now, this is the transformer, let me draw the equivalent circuit of the transformer. If you
have a primary resistance, primary side leakage inductance, you have the mutual inductance of
the magnetizing inductance, the secondary side leakage inductance, secondary resistance and
then this transformer, through the inductor, the same inductor is connected to the grid.
Okay, now, let me name these parts. This is r p, this is Lσp this is Lm, the mutual inductance, this is
a pretty large value of inductance, that is the leakage inductance of the secondary, secondary
resistance. Now, when a current flows from the primary to the secondary slide, you will see that
it take this path, flows through the inductor and the grid load and then back again. So, this
leakage inductance, Lσp and Lσs come in the series path of the current flow and therefore, they act
as a series impedance.
Now, this Lm is a very large inductance and therefore, this impedance will be very large
compared to the inductance of LσS and Lσp. if Lσp plus Lσs is greater than this inductance value L,
then this value L can be removed, can be eliminated. Now, how do we know the value of L σp and
Lσs? Now, once you have the transformer, you do this experiment offline.
You remove the transformer out of the circuit, short the secondary. Once you short the
secondary, this is shorted. Then what comes as the impedance seen from the peripheral
terminals? You will see that Lm in parallel Lσs, I will make rs and rp negligible, Lm in parallel Lσs,
as Lm is very large compared to Lσs, therefore the parallel combinations will be almost equal to
Lσs, Lσp plus Lσs will appear when measured across, so measure across the primary terminal after
having shorted secondary terminal, offline. Then you will get the equivalent inductance,
equivalent inductance, leakage inductance as seen from the primary. If you want from secondary
side, what you do is, short the primary, remove the transformer out of the circuit, short the
primary windings and then measure from the secondary terminals.
724
So what will, what you will get is that, the equivalent leakage inductance as seen from the
secondary terminals. On shorting the primary terminals, making, let us say r p and rs are
insignificant Lσp in parallel with the Lm, the impedance of Lσp so low compared to the impedance
of Lm that this can be neglected, it is it will be L σp and Lσs coming in series, these two impedance
and that is what you will see in this secondary terminals.
So you can measure, the leakage inductance as seen from the primary terminals or to the
secondary terminals as a appropriate, depending upon where you would like to put this
inductance or replace this inductance. So therefore, if I mark this 1p, 2p, 1s and 2s, short 1s and
2s, short these two, that is all this experiments to be done, this measurement experiment to be
done offline, when the circuit is not operative, you have remove the transformer out to the circuit
and separately you are doing this experiment. Short 1s and 2s, these two, you short and measure
the inductance as seen from here and the value of the inductance that you obtain is the equivalent
leakage inductance as seen from the primary side.
Likewise if I shaft 1p and 2p and measure the inductance across these two terminals, then you
will obtain the equivalent leakage inductance value as seen from this secondary side. So in this
way, you can find out the equivalent leakage inductance, use that value, compare it with the
value of the L that you has earlier put. If it is of the same order, if it is equal to or greater than,
then you can remove this L and just use the leakage inductance of the transformer.
If it is lesser, then only put the difference amount and you will land up the smaller inductance.
The same thing can be done for the 3 phase transformer also. You have to short, let us say you
want to see the equivalent inductance as seen from the secondary side, short all the primary sides
and then measure the inductance as seen from each of the secondary side a, b, c or R, Y, B
phases of each of the secondary side. You will get the equivalent inductance have seen from the
secondary. Likewise it could also do from the primary by shorting the secondary side, secondary
windings. So, in this way you can replace even this inductance and have very sleek, small circuit
which will give you good efficiency.
725
Prof. L. Umanand
Let us now discuss the three phase grid connection of PV along with the control blocks. Now
consider this PV, PV module which is connected to an inverter, now I am starting with the three
phase grid connection. Later on, I will discuss the single phase grid connection, actually if you
see, the three phase grid connection is much more easier than single phase grid connection.
Therefore, I have kept the single phase grid connection discussion to a later point in time.
Now, the three phase inverter output is connected to the primary of the transformer, the
secondary of the transformer is connected to three inductors and then the RYB phases, like this.
So, you have the nomenclature, PV, the inverter, three phase inverter and the transformer. Now,
the three phase inverter, the gates, you have six gates, gate to source, let us say I'm using IGBTs
726
or MOSFETs, the gate drives, six gate drives are there and they have to be driven by a gate drive
circuit, six of them like this.
And the gate drive is getting the control signals from a PWM block, in this fashion. For the R
phase, Y phase, B phase or ABC phase. Now, the input to the PWM will be the control signals
coming from the output of controllers. Now, what do we want to control? Now, let us say that I
would like to control the inductor current, or the current that is being pumped into the grid. Now,
let us start with a comparator, let me compare an i g reference. Now, let us say that I have by
some means, ig reference, what I would like to give to the grid and I have the sensed value of i g
reference (Professor meant to say ig, not ig reference), I can sense that, compare them and then
pass it to controller block, it could be a PI controller.
So, if I am having three phase, I will be having for each phase this compare and control. So, let
us say this is for phase R and this i gR, what I am having here is actually from that particular phase
current. Like this, I will have for the other phase also, I will have a controller which, which will
take a reference value of ig, now in this case it is i gY and the feedback value of i gY from here and
output of the comparator given to the controller. And the third phase i gB and igB, that has a
reference, feedback value and the output given to the controller. Outputs of the controller, we
will give it to the PWM block. So, let us say, each of the controller we will give it to the PWM
block in this fashion.
So how this work is that, the currents are sensed, compared with a reference and based on the
error, the controller output will send the signal to the PWM, which compares with a triangle
carrier and then appropriately gives the PWM drive to each of the arms of the inverter. Now,
how do you get these references? These references are obtained from the MPPT algorithm. The
currents, all the three currents are sensed in this fashion, you could use a hall sensor or you could
do it with resistive shunts and deferential amplifiers, instrumentation amplifiers, but measuring it
with hall sensor is recommended because it contactless and has a very large bandwidth.
Now coming to the reference setting through the MPP algorithm, let us say the voltage across the
PV terminals is vt and the current through the PV is measured with another hall sensor let us say
727
and is called it. Now let me have a MPPT block and we have seen the MPPT algorithm, one of
the MPPT algorithm we will use and inputs to that will be v t and it, and what will be the outputs
from the MPPT algorithm? It will be the reference value of the currents igR, igY and igB stars,
command values. Now these are all sinusoidal values, theses references. How did you get the
sinusoidal? See the MPPT output will give a value which will relate to i m, imsinɷt. So, once you
have im, sinɷt is basically a unit sign term, where ɷt is actually the frequency of the grid voltage
waveform.
So, grid voltage waveform you have the grid frequency, from that you take the sinɷt, unit sinɷt
term and MPPT outputs will give what is supposed to be the i m value, the peak value and im
sinɷt, sin(ɷt-120), sin(ɷt-2400), you will be setting these references, these references will come
in here. You will measure all these three currents and then based on that, the control action will
happen and then the control will take place.
However, there are a lot of drawbacks in this particular type of circuit. First of all, the references
igR*, igY*, igB*, they are all sinusoidal, they are not DC, they are set point values, DC set point
values. Therefore, the controller becomes a tracking controller, it is no longer a set point
controller. So, there is the major difference between a set point controller and tracking controller.
The reference current ig* and the feedback signal current, they are all sinusoids, AC signals in
general. And therefore, the tracking controller will have to handle large signal deviations, as a
consequence, the bandwidth of tracking controllers will be lower compared to a similar set point
controller, if ig* the reference and the feedback signals have been DC. So therefore, design of
tracking controller will be much more complex compared to a set point controller. One will also
be able to achieve intra-cycle dynamics if one uses set point controller, but with the tracking
controller, only integral cycle dynamics can be achieved.
Another issue here is that you have 3 separate controllers, you need 3 controllers, one for each
phase and the dynamics are coupled. So, tuning the 3 controllers simultaneously will become
difficult as the dynamics are coupled. So, these are some of the issues that one will encounter
728
while trying to build the controller for 3 phase PV grid connected inventors in this control
methodology. Let us see how we will solve this by adopting the dq axes control methodology.
729
Prof. L. Umanand
So this, in this 3 phase grid connection system, we would like to replace all these controller
blocks and we would like to have all the variables in the control, controller region as DC. How
do we do that? Because all the signals that you are sensing are AC signals. How to go about
doing this transformation.
730
So, let me remove this and let me draw a line. Above the line all the variables on AC. Below the
line, I want to convert all the signals through some transformation where it becomes DC here. So
that is the AC domain and this region will be the DC domain. So, I will put a transformator and
convert all these signals, let us say the currents that you are sensing are sinusoidal signals and
after you pass it through this transformation, what we call frame transformation, the variable
here, even the current variable here will appear DC.
So to the controller as the variables are appearing DC, I can now make a set point controller.
Now, that would give a much better response and the controller will also be simpler and have a
better bandwidth and better performance.
731
To do that we will discuss this d-q axis theory. There is this d-q axis theory, whereby, it is a
transformation principle, where you can convert AC signals into DC, AC sinusoidal signals into
DC and then operate upon the DC values and then back again transform it into the AC domain,
where they will become AC signals. So, this process of transforming from AC domain to DC
domain, DC domain to AC domain is what is popularly known as d-q access theory which we
will see now.
Consider an axis here like this, I will not name it now, I will name it later, just consider an axis
here and consider a time axis here as shown and another time axis also I am drawing here by the
side of it. Now let me draw a sine wavelike this on this time axis, likewise, I will repeat that time
wave on this time axis too. Now here, not only am I drawing a sine wave, I will also have a
cosine wave, cos wave. So, let me mark and draw cos wave like this. As the sine wave is
evolving with time, at every instant of time it is having a value and project that value on to this
axis that we drew first. So, if you see that, there will be a projected image on this axis as time
evolves and that will be in this region depending upon the amplitude of this sine wave. Now, I
will draw another orthogonal axis like this, I will still not give this also a name, I will give that
later, but it is an orthogonal axis. So, this sine was placed on a plane which is vertical. I will have
a horizontal plane like this and on that horizontal plane, I will place this cos wave like this.
732
So you have to imagine the cos wave is placed on the horizontal plane, the sine wave is placed
on the vertical plane. So, they are placed on two orthogonal planes. Just like you did for the sine
wave, as the time is evolving, the cos wave, the projection of the cos wave is seen on this axis,
this orthogonal axis as we are seen, as I have shown here. So, in a cycle as the cos wave has
evolved like this, you will see the projection as a line on this axis like this.
Consider the cos and sine signals here. Now, assume that, this line, vertical line, gray shaded line
is moving with time along like this. I am going to move this gray shaded line at different points
in time, I am going to sweep it in the time axis. So, let us say, at this point in time, let us say this
is 0, let us see what is the projection. When it is here at this point, the sine wave value is 0, the
cos wave value is maximum. So, if you look at it, the sine wave value is 0, its projection is on
this axis, it will be here, the cos wave magnitude is maximum and on this plane, its maximum, its
projection is here and I will put a mark here to represent the vectorial sum of the, this point, on
this coordinate axis and also this point, on this coordinate axis. Now, I will shift this reference
line right, like this.
Now, at this point in time, the sine and the cos values are like this, at the point of intersection.
Now, if you take the sine, which is on the vertical plane, the point, corresponding point is here
and on the horizontal plane, the corresponding point for the Y is here, both is at the same time.
Now project that onto, project the cos point onto this axis, project the sine point on to the vertical
axis and you will see that, those two combined and the resultant will be a vector like this. So, this
would be a cos value, this is a sine value and therefore this would be root of cos square plus sine
square of the angle, which is 1, if both the sine and cos are unit sines and unit cos's.
Now, I have moved this reference line further and I see that here, the cos time signal is at 0, at
this point and the sine time signal is at maximum. Now, coming back to this orthogonal plane
representation, you will see that the cos signal has reached 0 in the horizontal plane, the sine
signal has reached maximum on the vertical plane and now, you project the sine signal onto this
axis, project the cos signal onto this axis. Then you will see that, because the cos signal value is
0, the resultant marker will be there and the vector will be at this point. Here again, cos signal is
733
having 0, sine signal is having a maximum value if they are unit sine and unit cosine, then the
max value will be 1.
So you see that, the vectors are all amplitude 1, amplitude 1, amplitude 1, so on and if we
proceed, you will see that it will start moving along this locus, the tip of the vector will move on
this locus and the radius of this circle will be 1. It will in fact be a circle. Because every other
intermediate point can be reached by root of cos square θ plus sine square θ, which will be 1.
So, this coordinate axis, which I have here, this coordinate axis is a spatial coordinate system. I
will now call this axis by a symbol named α axis and this vertical axis, I will call it as the β axis.
So, this coordinate system is not connected with time, both these axes are not dependent on time,
they are just two axes, orthogonal axes in space, therefore it is called the spatial coordinate
system. Because, they just represent projections of some time signal and because these are
vectors in the space coordinate system, these are called space vectors. These vectors, at a very
instant of time, which are forming a circle here and continuously rotating, they are called space
vectors.
This signal, which we started with, these two signals the sine and the cosine, which are evolving
along time, they are time signals and these time signals were then put into two different frame or
two different planes, the sine signal was put on the vertical plane and the cos signal was put on
the horizontal plane. So here, the time signals are represented in orthogonal planes. So two time
signals, then these time signals were represented in orthogonal planes, here also the axis of
evolution of the time axis and then we projected the instantaneous amplitude on to a spatial
coordinate system, α β axis and we saw that the projected equivalent resultant vector had an
amplitude of 1, provided these two waves were sine and cosine waves of unit amplitude and this
vector kept rotating continuously with the time evolution, it started along the alpha axis and in
900, it reached the β axis, when the sine has reached the maximum and then as time progresses,
this vector completes a complete circle. So, once the sine wave has progressed and completed 1
complete cycle, this vector, the space vector has started from the α axis and made a complete
circle and come back to the α axis again.
734
So, what we have achieved? The takeaway is that time signals are now converted into a space
vector. The time signals can now be represented as a spatial vector or a space vector, a space
vector rotating in space. Now, this is the concept that we would be using to convert AC signals to
DC.
Consider the α-β spatial coordinate system, I have α and I have β. Consider a vector in this
spatial coordinate system, this is a space vector. Now, let the space vector have an amplitude R
and it is at an angle θ, so in this fashion and this space vector can be represented vectorial form
as R like this. Now this R can be written as amplitude R, e to the power of jθ in polar form, is
nothing but R cos θ + j sin θ, in this fashion.
Now, this is the representation of this r using the variables R and θ. Now, consider another
coordinate system and I am calling that one as the d axis and the q axis. d and q are orthogonal,
this is another coordinate system having the same origin, only it is displaced from the α-β
coordinate system by an angle ρ. Now, in this new D-Q coordinate system, how do we represent
this same r in terms of the α-β representation? Now, the vector R in the α-β coordinate system is
represented as R e to the power of iθ, same as here.
735
Now this R in the D-Q coordinate system can be written as R e to the power jθ minus ρ, this is θ,
θ minus ρ is this angle and I can write it as jθ, into e to the -jρ. Now, Rr e to the jθ is nothing but
the α-β representation. I will write it as α-β representation into e to the power of -jρ. So, ρ here is
the only variable coming into the picture and that ρ is the displacement of the new coordinate
system from the old coordinate system. or I should say the displacement of the d-q coordinate
system from the α-β coordinate system.
So using only the displacement angle of the two coordinate system, you can write the
representation of the vector in the q-q coordinate system is equal to representation vector in the
α-β coordinate system into transform factor e to the power of -jρ, this is one thing. Or I can say
representation of α-β, representation of R in the α-β coordinate system is given by representation
in the d-q coordinate system into a transformation factor e jρ, so here it is -jρ, here is jρ. So, one is
the forward transformation, another is the reverse transformation. So, this first 1 is α-β to d-q, α-
β to d-q transformation, the second one is d-q to α-β transformation, reverse transformation. So,
these are the two transformations that we will be using to go back and forth.
What we are going to do is this vector, we saw was a vector which was rotating in a circle and
then we will make d-q also to synchronize with R and keep rotating. So, the vector is rotating in
a circle, it is going at speed ɷt, so the angle θ is going at ɷt. We will make 𝜌 also go at ɷt. So, it
looks as though d is following this vector R synchronously, then the angle between R and d will
be same at every instant of time though both are rotating. So if someone were to jump on to this
d-q axis and then they are sitting on here and viewing, always the projection of this R vector onto
the d axis is a constant, projection of our vector onto the q axis is a constant.
So instant by instant you will see that there is no change as long as R does not change and you
will, for someone sitting on the d axis, everything is seen as DC. Once, the person jumps back
onto the α β axis, this is rotating and then for everything will be seen as a sine and a cosine wave.
So, this is the principle that comes into being and this is how we convert AC signal to DC and
then do the controller control action here and then jump back, so all the controllers are kept in
the d-q axis reference axis, which is rotating at ɷt or at the rotating at the same speed as the R
736
vector, so this is the d-q axis theory principle let us consolidate with few conversion equations
and then we can write down the block diagram.
737
Prof. L. Umanand

Let us now look at how we will transform a three phase waveform abc to α-β coordinates and
from α-β coordinates to d-q coordinates, that is the DC coordinates. Now, consider this three
phase waveform, let me draw them. Now, this is a three phase waveform along the time axis, a
phase, b phase, c phase, a phase, so on. So, each is individually a time wave shape. Now, this
also can be represented in the spatial coordinates just like before. Now, you can have three
planes, a phase can be in one plane, let us say the horizontal plane, b phase can be at 120 degrees
plane, c phase can be at another plane which is 240 degrees from the a plane.
So their projections will be on the spatial coordinates will look like this. So, let us say I have
three axes, a axis, b axis and c axis. They are distributed spatially 120 degrees apart or 2π/3
radians apart. Let me also draw the negative portions of the axis and in a light color. b phase is
738
2π/ 3 radians apart from a, c phase is 4π/3 radians apart from a, all measured anti-clockwise.
Now, consider a reference line like this at a given time instant. At this instant, a phase is at a
maximum, b phase and c phase are at negative 0.5.
So, I will put the a phase value, this is the a phase vector along the a phase line, because this is
the projection along the a axis, horizontal axis and that has a value 1. Let us say, all these are
sine waves of unit amplitude, so this has amplitude 1. Now, the b phase and c phase both are at a
meeting point here and they are at amplitude 0.5. Now, I will put negative 0.5, so b phase axis is
here, negative 0.5 is here and c phase axis is here, negative c phase axis is on that side, so as I
will say c 0.5.
Now, these two contribute to the overall resultant vector, this is 60 degree, this 60 degrees, cos
60 is 0.5, so 0.5 into 0.5 is 1/4, 0.5 into 0.5 1/4, 1/4 plus 1/4, so totally 0.5 gets added to one, so
you will have a total amplitude of 3/2, 1.5. So, you will see a vector resultant vector of 3/2
results if you are have all unit sine's. Now let us say, these are the phase, as an example, this
could be phase voltage or phase currents. If you move this reference line along the time axis,
smoothly along the time axis, this vector here will transcribe as smooth circle of amplitude of
radius 3/2. So this is how it will come about, just same like the two-phase system that we saw α-
β system.
Now this three-phase system, we have to convert it into an α-β system. So, you will get it into a
two-phase system, orthogonal system and from the α-β system, let us translate it into a rotating
d-q reference frame. Observe that, along this I have a resultant vector in this direction and then
let us say I shift the time and at this point c is maximum negative, so it is along this line, so it
will be like this, the reference, the resultant vector, then if I shift to another time, here b is
maximum B is along that one, so you will see the resultant goes in that fashion and then negative
a in this direction, the resultant. Then here c is maximum, you will see it is in this direction, then
here b is negative maximum, it is in this direction and then a again, one cycle is completed. So,
you see the resultant vector makes a complete rotation. So, it transcribes this circle in this
manner.
739
Now, let me draw the α-β axes. Now, I have α-β axis, on that I will superpose the a b c axes and
let me take a vector ra vector rb and rc in this fashion. So, this is just an arbitrary vector. So, r a is
along the y axis, rb is along the B axis, rc is along the C axis. Now our job is to convert the abc
vectors, this could represent ia ib ic or va vb vc. So, any arbitrary abc vectors to α-β coordinate
system. So, abc to α-β transformation, let us do this.
Now, the vector R which is a composition of r a rb rc. raej0, polar coordinates, rb, rb is referred with
respect to b axis which is at angle 2π/3, r be2π/ 3 and rc refer to the C axis, which is rce2π/ 3. So, this is
the vector, resultant vector R. Now, expand that, you have [r a + rbcos(2π/3) + rccos(4π/3) ]+ j
[rbsin(2π/3) + rcsin(4π/3)], this is the imaginary part. Now, put the values for the cos and the
sines. ra - rB/2 - rc/2. Because cos(2π/3) is -1/2, cos(4π/ 3) is -1/2. So, this would be the real part,
plus jrb × √3/2, this sin(2π/3), minus r c √ 3/2, sin(4π/3) is -√3/2. So this will be the imaginary
part.
So, this is of the form rα+jrβ, so this will be rα, this will be rβ. Now, let us represent this rα, rβ in a
matrix form rα+jrβ. So, rα, rβ goes through a transformation matrix, which is, now r a, 1, minus
half, this is minus half and then for rβ, there is no contribution from rα, that is zero, contribution
from rb is √3/2 contribution from our rc is -√3/2 and then you multiply it with this vector, ra rb rc.
740
So this is our transformation. So, from this, we see that, we can get rα rβ, so this is the vector Rαβ
which is representing in the α-β coordinates and the inputs are r a rb rc and pass it through this
transformation matrix, you will get r α rβ in the α-β coordinate system. So, this is abc to α-β
transformation.
Now, let us convert the αβ coordinate vector to dq. So, αβ to dq transformation, dq is the
synchronous reference frame which is rotating, α-β is fixed, stationary. So, let us say R dq is equal
to Rαβ e-Jρ, where ρ is the angle between the αβ coordinate and the dq coordinate system. So, this
is (rα + j rβ)(cos ρ - j sin ρ). So, you expand that, you will see that, you will get it in this fashion.
Now this is rd and this is rq, so that it is rd+jrq.
So, what is rd and rq? I can put it in the matrix form, r d is this one, cosρ will come in, sinρ will
come in, rq is minus sinρ and cosρ, and I can put in the input vectors which is r α rβ. So, this thing
has been put into this compact matrix form and this will be the αβ to dq transformation and this
is a vector, can say is in the dq reference frame. So, let us have a look at that dq reference frame.
This is the αβ coordinate system.
741
Let us take an arbitrary vector like that and this red line is the d axis of the dq reference frame,
this is the q axis orthogonal and the dq axis is shifted from the αβ axis by an angle ρ. If this
angle ρ is a varying angle, let us say, it is varying at ωt, where ω represents the radian frequency.
So, if it is rotating at 50 Hertz, then 2π 50 Hertz into t will be this angle and this angle will be
rotating, increasing at the 50 Hertz rate and this dq coordinate system is rotating. If this vector is
representing current or voltage, again rotating at 50 Hertz, then this dq reference frame will be
synchronized with the voltage or current vector and any projections onto the dq axis reference
frame will be constant, fixed and there will be DC in this dq coordinate system.
Therefore if you place the controller, circuits and controller algorithms in the dq reference frame,
all the parameters will appear DC. So, if I project this vector onto the dq reference frame, r q and
rd, this relative values of rq rd will always be fixed. However, if this vector is projected with
respect to the fixed and αβ axes, now with respect to αβ axes, this vector is rotating this vector
is moving and therefore α value and β value will change sinusoidally, if it is a sinusoidal wave
shape and as this dq reference frame is also rotating with the green vector here, r d and rq will be
constant and so therefore, in the dq reference frame everything will appear DC. Now, this is the
concept. So, this is how we have converted abc sin waves, three-phase sine waves into αβ two
phase, sin wave quantities and from the α-β we are converted into the DQ reference frame
quantities that is rd rq which are DC in nature. If you are setting in the dq reference frame and
looking at the vector.
742
Prof. L. Umanand
We have discussed the three phase abc ac signals to α ß ac signals and we have also discussed
transforming α ß, that is the two phase ac signals to the dq domain, dq dc signals. Now, we
should be able to transform in the reverse direction, dq to α ß, α ß to abc. So, we will see look at
that a reverse transformation. So, first let us see how to go about doing dq to α ß, that is dc
domain to two phase ac domain.
We, know that a vector in the α ß coordinate is given by vector in the d q coordinate system,
multiplied by a transformation factor ej𝜌, where 𝜌 is the angle between the 𝜌 ß coordinate system
and then dq coordinate system. This can be expanded as (rd + jrq) (Cos𝜌 + j Sin𝜌) and expanding
it further, you have rdCos𝜌 – rq Sin𝜌, this will be the real part and the imaginary part rd Sin𝜌 + rq
743
Cos𝜌. So, this will represent rα, this will represent rß and you can say rα + jrß and therefore, in the
matrix form I can write, rα rß as follows, and rd Cos𝜌, so Cos𝜌 will come in, minus Sin𝜌 for the
second term here, and for r ß and put in Sin𝜌 and Cos𝜌 and the vector, input vector rd rq. So,
knowing rd rq, I can get rα rß using this transformation matrix. So, this will provide you with a
vector representation in the α ß coordinate system knowing the vector representation in the dq
coordinate system. You can visualize this, let me draw the two coordinate system, α ß coordinate
system like this. This is α and the ß and I will also draw the dq axis, this is the d and the
orthogonal q. Now, the dq coordinate system is displaced from the α ß coordinate system by an
angle ρ, this ρ can be a varying ρ, let us say it is varying, at ρ = ωt, at 50 Hz frequency.
Now consider that I have two vectors. One rd along the d axis as shown and another rq along the q
axis as shown. Now, these two vectors r d and rq can be composed and you will get the resultant in
this fashion. Now, this resultant can be decomposed along, resolved along the α ß coordinate
axes. So, if you resolve it along the α axis, project the resultant on to the α axis, you will get r α,
project this along the ß axis, you will r ß. So, this rα rß is what we want as the output having r d and
rq as the input. So that is what this transformation has done. r d and rq is the input, knowing these,
we will use this transformation and find out r α and rß. For this ρ, the angle between the d and, dq
coordinate system and α ß coordinate system should be known.
744
Now, let us discuss how we transform a vector in the α ß coordinate to the three phase abc
coordinate system. Now, let us go by the graphical means. It is easier to understand that. We
draw these two orthogonal axes, α axis and the ß axis. I will also draw the a b c coordinate axes,
the 3 axes which are displace 1200 apart. So, this is the a axis in line with the α axis, this is the b
axis, this is the c axis. So, the b axes is 1200 or 2π/3 displaced from the a axis, b, c axis is 4π/ 3 or
2400 displaced from the a axes. Now, you take an arbitrary vector, and this vector let us resolve it
around the α β coordinates and you have here α and β as shown.
Now, let us say this vectors α, Rα Rβ, now these vectors have to be transformed in the a b c
coordinate system and they have to be converted in to ra rb and rc vectors, vectors are along these
three axes. So, how do you shift r α rβ to ra rb rc. So, now let us take first r a. ra is a vector along a
axis. Now, what are the components of r β and rα that are contributing to vectors along the a axis.
rα is contributing completely because α and a are aligned. The β axis is orthogonal to the α axis,
and therefore, orthogonal to the a axis, there is no component of r β along the a axes. Therefore it
is 0, so component of β is 0, so r a is equal rα. Now, what is the component along the b axis, r b.
Now, rα component along the b axis, now let us say your project rα on to the b axis. So, this will
be the projected value on the b axis. Now, this component here, as I am showing in the cursor,
will be the component contributed by rα by its projection on to the b axis. It is falling on the
negative portion of the b axis.
745
Now this angle is 600, how it is 600? You see that, we know that b is displaced from the a axis,
this angle is 1200. therefore, the remaining angle will be 600. So therefore, I can say the
contribution of rα minus, because it is on the minus axis, minus r α cos(π/3) or cos(60). Now, we
take the Rβ, Rβ, drop a perpendicular to the b axis, so this component will be the R β component's
projection on the b axis, it is on the positive side, so you can write Rβ, and this angle is 300
because this is, this overall is 1200, b axis from a axis, β is at 90 so this will be 30, so that is cosπ/
6. So, Rα minus cos(π/3) is minus half, π/3 is √ 3/2. Now r c, what is the rc vector? So, let us take
the projection of rα on to the c axis, so this is the component, and this angle is 60 0. So, rα cos(π/3).
Now, this is falling on the negative part of the c axis, so therefore the minus. Then, projection of
rβ on to the c axis, this is the r β component, and that is again falling on the negative apart of the
axis, minus, rβ cos(π/6), because this portion is 30 degrees. So, now when you put the values for
cos(π/3) and cos(π/6), we have rα(-1/2)+rβ(-√3/2).
Now, there is another important point that you have to know, remember that, while we
converted, while we transformed the vectors from the abc to αβ and when the a, b, c amplitudes
are, let us say unit amplitudes, that is the sine waves, the 3 120 0 phase shifted sine waves ra rb rc
having unit amplitude, then the amplitude that resulted was 3/2 in the αβ domain. So, we have to
make, when you do the reverse transformation, when you are having a value 1 in the αβ domain,
it will be 2/3 in the a b c domain. So, to make that correction, you can multiply each of the
vectors by 2/3, because now rα if it is one amplitude, then it is multiplied by 2/3, so each of them
is multiplied by 2/3 to bring in that factor of 3/2 which comes in and when you transforming
from abc to αβ domain, because of the algebraic addition. A unit sign will become 3/2 amplitude
sine in the αβ coordinate system. Likewise, when we do the inverse transformation, a unit sine in
the αβ coordinate system will become 2/3 times the amplitude in the a, b, c coordinate system.
So now, when you put it into the matrix form, so what I need is r a, rb, rc and what is the
transformation matrix, you can look at it, now rα into 2/3, so I will put 2/3, r β component 0. Now
-1/2 into 2/3 will be -1/3 and √3/2 into 2/3 will be 1/√3. This will be -1/3 and -1/√3. So, this
multiplied by αβ, so this will be our transformation matrix for converting a vector in the αβ
coordinates, the resolved components, rα and rβ can be converted into the three phase AC
quantities ra, rb, rc using this transformation matrix.
746
So now summarizing, we can say, first we know a how to do abc to αβ transformation. abc is 3
phase sine, αβ is two phase ac wave shapes. So, three phase ac to two phase ac transformation.
Next αβ to dq. So, what do we do? αβ is two phase ac, dq is rotating along with the vector
keeping in phase with the vector. Therefore, the vectors projected on the dq coordinate system
will appear DC. So, it becomes two phase DC domain. So, this is the forward transformation. We
can also have the reverse transformation, dq to αβ. The dq to αβ, dq to αβ, DC quantities in the
dq coordinate system get converted to two phase ac quantities in the αβ coordinate system.
So it is two phase DC to two phase AC transformation. Now, the fourth one is from αβ to abc,
that is what we just last did. αβ is two phase AC to three phase AC. So, if you take a set of
variables, signals, let us say sinusoidal signals, 3 phase sinusoidal signals 120 degrees apart, you
can go through the whole process of going to two phase, two phase to DC and then DC to two
phase AC, two phase AC to 3 phase AC back by using this transformation. Now these are the
transformations, these are the core transformations that will be used in the dq axis control for
747
grid connection. We will now go back to the grid connected inventor, three phase grid connected
inverter and see how we will apply this transformation there.
748
Prof. L. Umanand
Let me now revisit the three phase grid connection topology that we discussed earlier and see
how we can apply the various transformation that we learned into this and then see if we can do a
set point controller. Now, let me remove these, unwanted lines. Now, because we need to
introduce new blocks. We are measuring the currents, now I would like to rename this RYB into
abc, let me do that.
And induced of igr, I will just use i a ib ic. So, let me female that, I will mark that one as i a, I have
put them as abc. So, fter having done that renaming, here also I would like to change, change that
later at a proper time. Now, this ia ib ic are the feedback signals, these are AC signals. Now what
you want to do with them? Let me put a block. The inputs are i a ,ib and ic. Now, this ia, ib, ic which
749
are measured, a 3 phase AC currents. I would like to convert them into i ∝, iβ, two phase AC
currents in the ∝β coordinate system. So, what should I do? I should use a abc do ∝β
transformation and output will be i∝ and iβ. Now this ∝ and β, I would like to transformed into
the dq coordinate reference time. It has one more input and that is 𝜌, the angle between ∝β
coordinate and the dq co-ordinate. So what should I used here? I should use ∝β to dq
transformation. The output this block will be i d, iq. Now, as the dq coordinate system is rotating
along these space vector, the current space vector i. id and iq will be DC quantities. id and iq are
the projection of the current space vector on the d axis and the q axis respectively. So, these are
DC quantities. Now, we will setup the controller here, now let me have a current reference plus,
minus, I will call the current reference as id*.
And what do I feedback? I will feedback this id here. I will not draw the line so that it will clutter
up the place. I will just indicate id. So it means that I have connected this line. Now, output of the
comparator goes to a PI controller. So, simple PI controller. Now, I will do that for i q also. So, I
will have here iq* and feedback iq which means I will be feeding back this line here, plus and
minus and goes to another PI controller block.
Now, outputs of these two are supposed to actually generate, finally the PWM, which will
generate the voltage to appropriately drive the current. So, the output of the PI are basically the d
and q axes voltages, the voltages in the d and q axes. So, let me do at dq to αβ, the outputs of the
two controllers. One of the controllers, the d axis portion of the controller is giving you v d, let us
say, q axis portion of the controller give vq, this will go through a dq to α β transformation and I
will get two outputs. These two outputs are, let us say v α and vβ, this is the same ρ which I have
used here, because the dq and αβ are having the same different angle. Now, αβ to abc, I will do
one more transformation which will give me the reference va vb vc.
So I will draw these lines, so this will be giving me the reference va, vb, vc to the PWM which
will have the carrier triangle compare and then generate the necessary PWM signals for the gate
drive to go and switch on and off these switches accordingly and supply a voltage here such that
ia, ib, ic flows according to this control which we have given, such that this error here and here
becomes zero.
750
So this is the control principle that we use. Now, I will remove those three quantities and output
of the MPP, I will use a single output of the MPP to indicate, to represent i mpp, i at maximum
power point and let me see what I have to do with that, ultimately I have to give it as a references
to id*, I will discuss that a bit later, but right now, the MPP will taking vd and id and use the power
calculated to, and the MPPT algorithm to give out an output which we will call it as i mpp which
represents the current at maximum power.
Now, what is remaining is how to obtain and give the value of 𝜌 to these two blocks. This is
undefined as yet. So, 𝜌 we said was the angle between the αβ axis, coordinate axis, and the dq
axis and we know that we want that the dq axis to be rotating along the space vector, current
space vector. So, if the dq coordinate system is also rotating along the current space vector, then
the current space vector and the dq axis are synchronized and rotating together and therefore the
id, iq will be DC.
Therefore what we will do, we will take i α iβ and generate ρ, so the angle of the current space
vector will be ρ, let us say. So let me say, cos -1 (iα /√(iα2+iβ2)) is the block, will give me ρ. So,
what should be the input? I will take the input from i α and iβ as indicated, the output will be ρ and
that output, I will use here and the same output I will also use here. So, I have ρ. So, in this case,
the id will get aligned along the current space vector i q will be 0, because id is aligned along the
current space vector itself. There will not be any quadrature component, so this can be zero and
the only the id controller will exist.
However, this is one way of obtaining ρ, but we would like to see that the currents which are
flowing here are in phase with the voltage. So, it is, it would be appropriate to take in the voltage
wave shapes, waveforms va, vb, vc and use the voltage waveforms to obtain ρ, then i d and iq will
be such that it will be with a respect to the voltage space vector as the d axis. What is the
advantage, we will see and I will discuss that shortly.
751
Let me now focus on this aspect on this generation of ρ. Consider the spacial coordinates αβ, this
is the αβ coordinate system and in that coordinate system, let me have a voltage space vector
shown like that, that is a resultant voltage space vector and this voltage is the grid voltage and
likewise, I will also have another space vector, the grid current. So, this is the resultant, meaning
that it is composed of va vb vc and this is composed of ia ib ic and resulting in this space vector. In
fact, you can write down, the vg vector is given by vae0 + vb e j2π/3
+ vcej4π/3, we know how to do
this. You will land up with vα+jvß. Likewise, I can also get the current space vector iae0 + ia ej2π/3 +
ia ej4π/3. In this study state both the voltage space vector and the current space vector or rotating at
ωt angle.
Now let me position the dq axes. Let me position that d axis. So, I am positioning that d axis
which is aligned along the voltage space vector vg. So, this is our d axis and the q axis is
orthogonal to the d axis and that is the q axis and if you do this, you will see that because the dq
axis is aligned along the vg space vector and it is rotating along with the v g space vector, there is
no quadrature component of the voltage space vector. The voltage space vector only v d is there.
Because there is no projection on to the quadrature axis. So v g magnitude will be vd and it is a dc
value. Now ig is, let us say lagging vg by some angle, it is having two components and the
projection of ig on to the d axis and the orthogonal component. So, this portion, this projection
will be id, the direct component and that would be the quadrature component i q. So, the current
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space vector can be resolved into id and iq. Now, let us say we put the requirement that the
current that is pumped into the grid ig should be in phase with vg, then ig and vg should be aligned.
So, what does it mean from the control point of view? It means that i q should be 0. So, I go and
set the iq* set point to zero. Then in the steady state iq will be zero, so id will be same as ig and it
will be in line with vg and then you will see that the current is pumped into the grid in unity
power factor. So, this is the advantage you would get if you align d axis along vg. So, now let us
do this updation in the three phase grid connected block diagram, grid connected inverter.
As we discussed just now, let me make the update for the 𝜌 generation block, instead of align,
aligning it along the current space vector, I will align it along the voltage space vector. For that
modification is as follows. Let me first remove the current inputs. I will shift that out of a bit,
make some space and then I will measure the phase voltages, va vb and vc. I will have block here,
I am going to take an input va vb vc and have a abc to αß transformation just like this and output
how the abc to α ß will give me va vß and I will use vα by square root of vα2 + vß2 to generate ρ.
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So now, this ρ is giving the space vector position of the voltage v a vb vc composed into... I will
now update this ρ generation block, instead of ρ being the current space phasor angle. I would
like to replace it with the voltage space spacer angle. So for that, let me remove this, let me move
this up to clear up some space and then let me take in the voltage measurements, these are the
phase voltages va vb and vc and I will have a block here and this block will take an inputs v a vb vc
and I will use a abc to αß transformation.
I will get, at the output of this block vα and vß. I will use vα vß to determine the ρ which will be
the angle of the voltage space phasor. vα/√(vα2 + vß2) will give you the angle ρ. This angle ρ will
give the displacement of the voltage space vector from the αß, from the α axis.
Now when you have to look at this voltage space vector, so now the d axis is aligned along the
voltage space vector vg, because we have taken this ρ and we see that the current has now to be
controlled in such a way that iq is made 0, so that the current space vector also aligns itself. So,
we can now go to the block diagram, make this set point 0. If you make this set point zero, then
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in the state, you will see that iq will reach 0. The PI controller will see in to that the error here is
0, which means iq will become 0.
iq is 0, then it means the currents that are being fed in will be in phase and i d is representing the
current space vector, because iq is 0. Now in that case, the output the MPP can directly dictate the
set point for id or id*. So now, id* actually is the set point which defines, dictates the current that
are being pumped into the grid.
It dictates the total overall space, current space vector that is fed into the grid. As the grid voltage
is fixed by the grid, the current actually will dictate how much amount of power is being put into
the grid. Therefore, if id* is actually representing the peak power point of the PV panel, then the
maximum power is put into the grid.
So let us say this MPPT block which is taking the terminal voltage of the PV modular and the
PV current into it and the power calculated based on v t it is used for determining the maximum
power point, the output of that is now connected to id* like this say and id* is representing a value
which is indicating the maximum power point. So, this i d* is used as a set point and the i d will try
to match it in such a way that maximum power flows, maximum current can be fed into grid at
that given grid voltage which means that maximum power is being fed into the grid. So in this
way, MPPT is also integrated tightly within the inverter control.
The computation of this 𝜌 by this method here is algebraic. It is also open loop, so it is not
resilient to harmonics which are there in the mains voltage waveform. It is not resilient to surges,
to spikes, noise, and due to various many uncertainties which may cause the ρ value to drift. So
to make it more robust, a closed loop modification is suggested, it is also call the PLL, let us see
how it works.
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Consider the phase voltages, va vb vc, I will pass it through abc to α β transformation. I will get v α
vβ, and I will pass that to αβ to dq transformation and I will get v d vq. Now, there is a ρ
requirement here. How will I give this ρ? By the following method.
So let me build a small controller here. I will set v q*, I will say this is the set point, v q*= 0 and
then I will feedback the vq which is coming out of this αβ to dq block and the error, I will pass it
through a PI controller and give it as ρ. How does this work? This is like a PLL. It is also called
PLL in many literature. Let me visualize the coordinate system and I have αβ coordinate system
and let me have a voltage space vector like this, vg of the grid voltage. Now, let us say that the d
axis is miss aligned like this, it is not aligned along the v g space vector. It is misaligned by some
angle and as a consequence the projections on the d axis will give the v d and vq, so there is a vq
component also. If it had been aligned along v g, if d axis had been aligned along v g then vq
component would have been 0. Now this is ρ. ρ is nothing but the angle between the αβ
coordinate and the dq coordinate.
Now let us see how this works. Now let us say due to some reason, due to many uncertainties,
the dq axis is miss aligned with respect to the voltage space vector, which means v q is non-zero.
Then this compares with the vq it goes negative the PI controller will become active, it will
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initiate a ρ, 𝜌 change. It will initiate a ρ change in such a direction that the input to the PI
controller which is the error will 10 to 0.
If this tends to 0, then vq here will tend to vq*, that is the command value or the reference value.
We have said vq* to be equal to 0, therefore, vq will tend to 0. So, the PI controller will see to it
that vq will tend to 0, which means the ρ will keep adjusting, it will adjust such that it will align,
it will align the d axes along the voltage space vector and such a value of ρ will come about
because of the control action such that vq here will become 0.
Under such condition, the ρ value here is the correct value of ρ, which will give you the value of
the difference between the dq axes coordinates system and the αβ coordinate system, such a way
that d axis is aligned along the voltage space vector, which is what we would like to have. This is
a very robust mechanism, because it is closed loop and then there is a PI component, there is
history in it which will, which will have filtering effect on harmonics, surges, spikes and such
other uncertainties. So if we incorporate this modification in to our entire 3 phase grid connected
inverter block diagram, then it will be a complete workable solution, let us do that.
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Let us now modify this ρ generation, which is open loop and not very robust and this is also
algebraic. We will replace this with the closed loop PLL based type of technique that we just
discussed. Let me do that, let me erase out this blocks, let me clear. Now, let me first start with
the abc, va vb vc which are the phase voltages, I will do a abc to αβ conversion, transformation,
which will give me vα and vβ, and I will pass it through an αβ to dq transformation which will
give me vd and vq, I will not do anything with vd.
I will now introduce a control mechanism. This is the reference, plus, minus, v q is given as the
feedback to the control mechanism. The error is given to a PI controller which will generate the ρ
for the dq block. It will generate in such a way that vq will go and take the value set by this
reference. Now this ρ value, I can take it up and then connect it here. Now, this v q* set point for
this control mechanism, I will set vq* to 0 as I discussed so that eventually v q will reach vq*. So vq
will become 0, in which case vd will be aligned along the voltage space vector and because you
are going to use this ρ for all your αβ to dq conversion, that dq axis will be taking this value of ρ
and therefore will be aligned along the voltage space vector.
So, we have now here the complete block diagram of the three phase grid connected inverter
topology and which takes into account all issues and this is an implementable block. It contains
dq transformation, it contains the dq axis theory principles, frame transformations from the 3
phase to two phase AC, from two phase AC to dq and having set point controllers, the number of
controllers are only two as against three in the AC control, tracking control. We now have MPPT
integrated in to the inverter and the power block is simple it has just only one power stage and
then we have a robust PLL based ρ determination algorithm.
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Prof. L. Umanand
Let us now discuss the single phase grid connection. The PV module is being interface to a
single phase grid. Let us first draw the topology of the PV module being connected to a single
phase grid. The PV module terminals being buffered, is connected to a single phase inverter,
which is consisting of a bridge having four switches, full bridge having four switches and from
this center of this bridge arms, we will connect it to a single phase transformer like this and the
secondary side of the transformer is connected to an inductor and through the inductor is
connected to the line neutral of the grid, for single phase grid.
So this is the basic topology of the single phase grid which we have discussed earlier. This is PV
and this is the inverter, let us name this parts. Now the gate drive here unlike the three phase
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case, we need to drive only four switches. So, let us have four gate drives and the signals for the
gate drive are coming from a PWM module. The PWM module will give two signals depending
upon the type of the PWM which will be used for driving these four switches.
Let us now sense, sense the current that is flowing through the inductor into the grid, that we are
pumping into the grid, we will call it as i g and let us also measure the phase voltage, at the line
and neutral and I will call that one as vg that is the grid voltage. Grid voltage vg is vm sinωt, it of
course contains lot of harmonics, but let us say that vg is vm sinωt and ig we wanted to the im sinωt
that is we would like to inject the current into the grid at unity power factor.
So the moment you say this is vm sinωt, this is im sinωt, this is actually iβ, this is vβ, there is no vα
or iα. So we have to generate it, we have to create the α component so that it will fit into the α-β
co-ordinate axis. Let me consider a phase shifter block. So, let us say this phase shifter block
does the job of taking the input signal and shifting the phase by 90°. We will see how we can
realize that, but that is the objective of this phase shifter block.
So to the input of the phase shifter block I will give i g, ig which is considered as iβ because it is a
sinωt and the output of the phase shifter block will give you i α so after this im sinωt is passed
through the phase shifter block, it will become i m cosωt shifted by 90°. Now I have i α and I have
iβ also, so which I can pass it to a transformation, this is αβ to dq which will give me i d and iq. So,
now I have this id and iq which are DC quantities due to this αβ to dq transformation. There is a ρ
input which has to be given, so we will provide that ρ input.
Now what is that ρ? ρ is the angle between the αβ coordinate axis and the dq co-ordinate axis. I
will come to, I will come and discuss later on how we will generate this ρ. Now that I have, let us
say id and iq, the DC quantities of the current, I will now have a control mechanism like this. So, I
have id*, id just like in the case of three phase and the error is passed through a PI controller.
Similarly, I will have another control mechanism for i q*, iq is fed back and I will have a PI
controller.
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So we will see what we have to set for i d* and iq*, id is basically this transformed current which is
given here iq is this transformed current which is given here, coming ultimately from any input
measurement. Now this PI, these two PI outputs will be passed through a transformation, this PI
controller outputs will represent voltages which need to given to the PWM to control the
inverter. So, this would be a dq to αβ transformation, it also needs ρ information, ρ which is the
angle between the dq axis and the αβ axis.
The output of this will be vα* or reference, vβ* and these two will act as a reference for the PWM
generation. Means this, this will be given as the signal for comparing with a triangle and generate
the pulses for giving it to the gate drive. Now, we do not need to use both v α* and vβ*, see that vg
here is vm sinωt which is vβ. Now ig is also iβ, vg is vβ, that is a β axis components we have, we
generated the α axis components by this phase shift, we generated i α and then the id and iq were
obtained. So, we need to use only the β axis components, α axis components where created just
to provide us the transformation, so that we could go into the dq domain that is the DC domain
so that you could so set point control.
So here, we will use only one of these, which is v β here for now because we are taking this as v m
sinωt not vm cosωt, so we will use that. Now this will go to the PWM, it will generate the PWM
signals, gate drive and then it will drive the current, pump the current into the grid. Now, this
current ig which is being pumped into the grid is the one which is actually being controlled.
Because these are current controllers and we are doing current control. We need to set these
references. Before we set these references, let us see how we are going to get this row, these two
rows.
Let me use another phase shifter. The input to that is v g which is vβ and I will use αβ to dq
transformator. The phase shift output is going to give me vα because it has shifted it by 90°
which is vm cosωt this was vm sinωt and I can use vg here so this will give me vβ and vα and I will
pass it through αβ to dq which will give me v d and vq and this will have a row input. So, how do I
get this row input? I will setup a control system here, I will have a reference and the feedback
point is vq the converted, transformed vq, the output of that the error is given to a PI block, the
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output of the PI block is given as ρ to this αβ to dq transformation just like as we did in the three
phase system.
Now this vq* here, I am setting it to 0, then eventually this control mechanism will operate in
such a way that this PI controller being high gain controller will make this error 0, which means
vq will become 0, match with the vq* and therefore, we can say that the ρ is such an angle that the
dq axis is aligned along the vd which is the voltage space vector. So, once it is aligned along v g,
then I can set commands to the current set points or the current references.
So, I would not like to have any quadrature component of the current, I would like to inject only
active current which means in phase current. So therefore, i q has to set to 0, there should not be
any quadrature component, then the current space phaser will become in line with the voltage
space vector, which will be in line with the dq axis of the rotating, dq axis co-ordinate system,
just like in a three phase system.
So we will set iq* to be 0 and id*, whatever value that is being set here will be the amplitude of the
current that will be actually pumped in here which is directly proportional to the power being
pumped into the grid because the voltage is fixed by the grid. So therefore, i d* set point should
actually have the output of the MPPT control algorithm.
So therefore, I will set up this MPPT block. Now, this is v t, the terminal voltage of the PV, I will
measure also it the current through the PV, we will have an MPPT block, the inputs are vt and it,
power will be calculated and an MPPT algorithm can be used to obtain an output which will be
proportional to impp, current at maximum power point and that will be given as a set point to i d*,
So output of the MPPT will determine id* and id will try to match that, meaning the current that is
flowing here could corresponds to the, will correspond to the maximum power point of the PV
panel.
There by achieving MPPT, integrated MPPT control and grid connection. So, this would be the
entire block diagram for a single phase grid connected inverter. Now, what about this two phase
shift blocks? How will you make the phase shift? I will just tell that now right now.
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Let us now see how we obtain the 90° phase shift. So, consider this graph where the x-axis is ω
frequency, not time. Now this graph has magnitude as the y axis and this graph has phase as the
y axis. Now, consider a first order filter, now first order filter will have a magnitude verses ω
plot something like this, this slope is -20 dB/decade and find out the 3 dB point below the flat
portion of the magnitude curve, that is 3 dB below the magnitude at ω which is DC.
So this is the 3 dB below point. Now at this point the gain is 0.707 with respect to the flat
portion. Now take the frequency, take this vertical line which cuts the frequency and look at the
phase curve, the phase at that 3 dB point will be 45°. So this is 0°, - 45°, eventually this phase
curve will reach 90°. So for us, the grid frequency is very stable, it varies between 49.5 to 50.5
Hz, which is a very small margin, it is more or less 50Hz.
So this line should be at frequency which is 50 Hz. Then we can say, now at this point the gain is
0.707 with respect to ω DC or the flat portion of this magnitude curve. Now, we can say that if I
have this first order filter and at 50Hz it is so designed that it is having a gain of 0.707 or an
angle of 45°, then I will use two such first order filters, each providing 45°. If I am biasing in that
fashion designing in that fashion where the 3 dB point is at 50 Hz, then this first order filter will
give gain of 0.707 and 45° shift, another first order filter will give again a 0.707, 45° shift,
overall I will have a 0.5, 0.707 into 0.707 will be 0.5 gain and 90° shift.
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Now pass this through a gain block, gain of 2 and I will get 1 gain, same, same as the input and
with the 90° shift. So, if I am having xm sinωt, waveform at the input, it will pass through and at
the output here you will get xm cosωt. So this is how you will generate a 90° phase shift, the one
that I had indicated here, this and this. So, with this, this entire single phase grid connected
inverter topology can be implemented.
764
Prof. L. Umanand
This is a 3- phase grid connection topology, we have discuss this and this topology, we have
implemented here at our department and on the rooftop. We have around 25 kW of PV panel and
they are connected to the grid using this same topology. So, I will discuss about the various
components that go up to make up all this blocks, that will give you an idea of what goes into
asking a 3 - phase grid connected inverter.
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Now, let us see where this block, this PV modules are located on the roof top. So this figure
shows you, the way the PV panels or amounted. There is a set of panels here and there is set of
panels here. The one to the left where my curser is moving, this is around 10 kW worth of panels
and they are connected to the commercial grid connected inverter. Now, there is a set of 25 kW
panels here, that is designed and developed, the inverters are designed and developed entirely by
the students and then maintained by the students and it is powering, putting power into the grid
for the past two years and that is what I would be showing. How this picture was taken? We use,,
we used technology, we use the IOT, internet of things technology. Observe the string here, the
string is actually connected to the balloon which is having the camera mounted on that and that
cameras is actually taking the shot and beaming the picture back to our server here.
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This is another perspective of the same roof. The one mounted here, where I am showing the
cursor movement, these are the 25 kW set. There are 100 panels, each of 250 W rating. This is
another angle of the same panel set.
767
In the floor, just below where the panels are mounted, a room, there is a room called the power
room in which it comes and links up to the grid. This is where the building grid is and this is the
panel which actually interfaces the lines, the power lines coming from the grid connected
inverter and the actual grid through the switch gear and the metering for how much amount of
power that is being input into the grid is being done here. You also see that there is switch here,
there are five inverters each of 5 kW and the data from the DSP board from each of the inverter
is routed through this switch into the Ethernet and the server and then we keep capturing the data
of how much energy that is being put every day.
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This is the power panel which interfaces the power lines coming from the inverter, PV inverter
and the power lines coming from the grid this actually interface panel.
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These are the racks, the 19 inch rack system onto which we have placed the inverters. You see
this is one inverter, there is another inverter here, there is another inverter, this rack also contains
inverters, there are two inverters in this racks. We have taken a strategy here that we make it in
the form of racks, modular, so that we will be able to have redundancy and if anything fails, even
for the repair purpose, we can take out only that inverter which is not functional, repaire it and
put it back.
And we have made it using the 19 inch standards. So, this is where each inverter is 5 kW, there
are 5 of them, so totally 25 kW is being put it into the grid. There is some thermal design also
that has been done. You see there is a duct which is coming in, it is coming from outside like the
ac duct which feeds the air, fresh air into the rack system. There are blowers mounted on the
bottom which blows air to the top, there are fan on the top which will suck the air and then push
it out. You see the duct going out. So, thermal considerations are important, because they can
become hot, 25 kW and even if there is 10% loss, then you are the talking of 2 kW+ amount of
power loss that can be very hot.
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And you see here transformers. Here we have not used separate inductors. We have use the
leakage inductor, inductance of the transformers itself and use them as the interface component
to the interface the grid and the inverter. No special inductor has been made, the transformers are
acting as isolators. Here is a view of the transformers. They are 3 transformers, they are 5 of
them, 1, 2, 3 here and 2 on the other side.
This picture shows the rack door open. So, you see this is the 19 inch segment and the height is
100 mm, the cords are 100 mm, now there are various cords inserted into the sections. Each is
one inverter. The DC bus capacitor, you will see the fan blowers here, which is taking the air
from the bottom and then pushing it up, forcing it up through the rack and on the top there are
another set of fans which will suck the air and push it out.
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This is another close up shot of the grid-tied inverter. This is where the main DSP controller
board is located. You see the internet cable which is going to this switch and there is a small
display here. The DC bus capacitor and the various cords here, each section is a cord, I will
explain it to you what those cords are.
This is the back side of the rack, on the back side of the rack you see the heat sinks, the IGBT’s
are mounted 1200 volts, 75 amps IGBT’s are mounted on the heat sink and the heat is dissipated
through the spins plus also the forced, forced air cooling that is flowing through the rack by
means of blower, the duct and the blowers and there is a din rail system and we have use the
elmex connector and there is the whole lot of wiring that one has to do.
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A close up shot of the back side of each inverter. So you see that din rail and elmex connectors,
the ferrules, naming the parts, naming the wires, they are all very, very important.
So when you open the inverter, when you look at it from the top, you will see that arrangement
of the cords, like this and each section is a, is a cord and the cord is made to 19 inch standard,
they are 100 mm in height and the depth can vary. There is the back plain bus also which is
connected to the IGBTs, the IGBT’s are connected on the back and then the heat sink.
So you see there are various cords. What are the cords that we have used? Let me show you the
pictures of this cords. Here you have the sensor cords, this is the DSP board, the main control
board, these three are the gate drive, in each cord you have gate drive for top and bottom of each
arm. So, you have three cords for the six IGBT’s.
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On the lab table, setup for testing the various cords, the grid inverter has to be tested on the lab
bench before putting it into the rack.
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This is the control board. So, this is the TMS320f28x series, this is the processor that we have
used. The power section here which powers, which does the house keeping power, power for the
entire board. In generates the 1.8 volt, 3.3 volt, 5 volt, ±12 volt for analog section here. All that is
done by power section. This is the DSP section.
This is the gate drive cord, one gate drive cord is having 2 gate drives. One for the top MOSFET,
one for the bottom MOSFET, they are isolated gate drives. So, this portion, this half is for one
switch, this portion is for another switch.
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This is one sensor cord, senses the voltage. So, it senses the output voltage. Recall that we need
to sense the output voltage va vb vc and we also need to sense the currents that are being fed into,
injected into the grid, ia ib and ic. So, you need a sensor cord for sensing the voltage, you need a
sensor cord for sensing the grid current injection. So this board is actually sensing v a, vb, vc, this
is the sensor cord, voltage sensor cord.
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So this is another sensor cord, this is for the sensing the current i a ib ic. So, these are hall sensors
and we are sensing the three grid currents that are been injected. See that, with respect to the, this
block diagram, all this portion which I am sweeping with this mouse, all this portion is within the
control cord DSP processor. Gate drive is one cord, sensing which I have just shown by three
lines here is one cord, voltage sensing is one cord, we saw the inverter, we saw the transformer,
now all this portion that is the DSP board, the gate drive and the sensor board and sensor cord,
they all need power for workings.
So, there is an input power which is been drawn from the grid side and stepping it down to 15
volts and then supplying to the various cords and from those points, local power supply is
generated, for example the DSP board may be need 3.3 volt, 1.8 volt, 5 volts. So from that 15
volts which is given to each cord. the local power supply is generated. So, the house keeping
power supply for the entire control circuit is generated by one single cord, I will show you that.
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This is the power supply cord. So, this gives you a single output which is fed to various boards
and the various boards generate local power supply from the power that is coming from this
board output.
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So like that, you see that there are various components. So, this is only a topology and next we
have to draw the circuit schematic, then after that things that will not get reflected in the circuit
schematic, like the thermal issues, that is an separate angle that we have to look at, then the
wiring, wiring diagram, that is the another angle that you have to look at, the enclosures the
enclosure that is designed all this needs to be integrated.
So it is lot of work from the electronic design engineers, the electrical wiring people, the
enclosure, mechanical people, the thermal people, all these peoples should collaborate and
coordinate to make this nice, wonderful system. So, all this were done by different groups of
students, they collaborated as a team and together made this particular project and then for the
past two years, it has been delivering something like 60 to 100 units every day to the local
campus grid.
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Prof. L. Umanand
Another important block in this topology is the PWM block. We have not discussed about this
for three-phase. We normally use a space vector PWM method and let me describe to you how
this is done.
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Most of the control logic the dq transformation, the PWM, PI controllers, all are implemented in
the digital domain, mostly in microcontrollers and DSP processors. So therefore, it is important
that we try to understand the space vector PWM, the discrete implementation version. Later I
will talk to you about the analog implementation also, if you want to implement it using op
amps.
So here, to the input of the PWM, we have three inputs, v aref, vbref, vcref. So, that is our starting
point, we have three phase reference voltage signals and the output would be pulse width
modulated signals to the gate drive. Let us now generate the three phase reference signals. v a* vb*
vc* and I will try to do it in this in this way, simple.
So now you have, we stopped v a* vb* and vc*. So these are the three phase reference signals that
are going as input to the pulse width modulator. Let me now mark the boundary of the
modulation. So, this would be 100% modulation and that would correspond to the entire v dc of
the bus, the DC bus. Let me extend the extreme modulation limit line, like this and let me
shorten those lines so that I have some space here.
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Now let me have a window here. Now, I am having, this is the carrier signal is there in this one.
So, this there is a triangle. The three-phase AC signals are at 50 Hertz, at lower frequency, if it is
motor drive, but if it is for grid connected inverters, this is fixed at 50 Hertz. It will be more or
less at 50 Hertz. But you could use the same space vector PWM generation, what we are
discussing even for motor drives where it could have a, this could have a varying frequency. But
for now consider that this is the grid frequency.
So these reference phases and here I am having a triangle. There is a small window, where there
are triangle carrier, we will zoom it up and then see. So, we will zoom that so that we will be
able to see what is in this narrow band that we have drawn. So, it consists of a triangular carrier
which is like that. So, this time, this time is T S, one switching frequency period or carrier
frequency period. We will call that one as T S. So, you see, because of this triangular, this linear
conversion, the voltage can be converted to time, because of this linear portion of your triangular
waveform.
Now we will mark the intersection point. So, the c which is at the maximum now, there is a
intersection point. There is an intersection point here for the v a waveform and there is an
intersection point here for the vb waveform. So, let us extend that, so that it cuts this voltage to
time conversion ramp like that.
So this height is va height let us say, this height will be v b height and this height up to this would
be vc and we could say using a linear relationship, t a is equal to the ratio, the v dc will get
converted to TS, full period, because of this linear ramp. So, T S by vdc is the conversion ratio or
transformation ratio into va would give you a time corresponding to va. tb is TS by vdc into va
would give a time corresponding to v b, then tc is (TS/vdc)×vc would give a time corresponding to
vc.
So if you drop down that, so you will see that these times are t b, ta and tc should be, but there is
some small modification, I will come to that later, but essentially the principle is that the voltage
amplitudes are converted to times, in the time scale by this converts a conversion ratio TS/vdc.
783
Now let me draw the time axis signals here, a b c which are supposed to be the output of the
PWM. Now we will, this is a compare thing, this is comparing with some kind of a counter, this
ramp triangle is nothing but a timer moving up and down, up down counter. So, anything below
that, let us make that high, anything above that is low. So, let us say v b is the lowest, this one. So,
it will be high here and low elsewhere. So, tmin, let me say that tb is tmin because that is at that, at
that instant, at that instant where we are looking at, that is the v B is the minimum, at a minimum
and vc is at the maximum and ta is a mid value, tmid.
So let us now draw the PWM waveform. So, for the b, it is cutting here, so it will be high here
and low elsewhere and for the a, this is the a ,so it will be high until that point and for the c, it
will be high till this line here. So, let me hash them. So, these can be extended further, because
this window has many triangles and I can also drop down the cutting points here. So, this is in
dark because this is another TS period and third TS period so on.
So you can see depending upon the points where it cuts, you will get the a, it is mirror image
because this up down counter, this counts up, linear ramp up, linear ramp down, linear ramp up,
keeps going in that fashion and following, first let us finish the a b c, so you see that it is like a
mirror image and for the c phase also, you will see a pulse width like this and then continue
again up, you will see that it continues without a seem, seamlessly without a break like this,
portion gets repeated here, like that, let me hash that and this portion will get repeated here,
because this is also uprising ramp, we have drawn the uprising ramp here and the c phase also
comes in like that, let me darken this so that you can make out a difference.
Observe nice thing is that, this is TS period, this period is TS, let us say, this period is TS. But as
far as the switching is concerned, you will see that there is no change in the switching state of the
inverter when it is crossing the boundary. So, this remains high, this remains high and this
remains high, so on also, if there is a down, there will be a down slope here, so this will continue
to remain high.
So it looks as though, the switching period, switching of the switches is at half the frequency,
even though the carrier frequency is twice as much. So therefore, you will see that the switching
784
losses are less, so that is that one of the advantages of the space vector PWM. So this way, we
can implement the space vector PWM, this in fact would be the analog implementation, just
compare and then pass it through a comparator.
But the digital domain, we need to give values, numbers to a compare register and it will
compare with this counter or timer and then make a port high or low depending upon the value,
compare value. So how to calculate and give? We have calculated ta, tb, tc but observe that,
Let me draw this inverter, scheme up the inverter like this, so you are having the v dc across the
inverter, these are the 3 arms of the inverter, this is arm a, arm b arm c. So, at the center points of
this, you will have the pick off points a b and c going to the load. Now, if you observe, observe
this, during this time, a is high, b is high, c is high, this is high, this is high, this is high. All are
connected high, which means the space vector is 0. So, this would be corresponding to zero time.
Another time is here in the same period T S period, this is 0 ,0, 0 which means the switches are
connected to, all the lower switches are connected. a is 0, b is 0, c is 0, then also space vector is
0. So, this time and this time, or time durations during which the space vector is 0, so you can
say that this is, I am splitting it half and half, T 0/2 and this is T0/2 and from the maximum value
785
phase to the mid value phase, we call T1 and from the mid value phase to the min value phase we
call it as T2. So, that is the designation that we use in the space vector.
Let me now indicate a problem to you. See that, this a b c phase waveform, AC waveforms, they
are AC waveforms, where the 0 is like this. So, above the 0, v a vb vc are positive, below the 0 va
vb vc are negative. So, when you, when I directly use this equation t a = (Ts/vdc)×va, tb=(Ts/vdc)×vb,
tc=(Ts/vdc)×vc, TS is positive, vdc is positive, va can be positive under some conditions, can be
negative under some conditions. So, you may get values of t a which are both positive and
negative and in the time domain having a negative time value does not make much sense.
So, we need to make a shift and we know the reason in the sense that we have taken centre point
as the 0. This is a 0, we are saying this is minus time, this is plus time. What we do is, we shift
the 0 to this point, this axis. So, basically what we are doing, we are giving an offset. So, we
make an offset down, using the minimum value, so I have a minimum value, so I know this is the
minimum value and this region out of the envelope, both these regions out of the envelope is the
time corresponding to T0, 0 space vector time. We saw here, this is T 0 and this is T0. This is the
time corresponding to T0. This is the time also corresponding to T0. Both, both together add up as
0 space vector time, outside the envelope. So this is T 0/2 we say, T0/2 and this is tmin we said, so
team in here is negative.
So, most of the time that tmin will be negative because when, wherever you make the window cut,
the minimum time will be in the lower than 0, so it will be negative. So, we just add this absolute
value plus T0/2. The whole DC will shift and the 0 line will come in here. So, we just add an
offset to every calculation of ta tb tc. The offset value should be -tmin + T0/2. The reason why I put
minus tmin is, tmin value itself is negative, minus of minus will become plus. So, you will have a
shift.
Now the actual value that you have to put to the compare register would be t aon will be ta plus
toffset, all will be positive, tbon will be tb plus toffset and tcon will be tc plus tcffset. So, this is the value
that you will be sending to the compare register of your timer in your microcontroller or DSP.
786
So let us just have a look at the algorithm that you would implement. So first, calculate t a tb tc.
So, the input is you are getting va*, vb* vc*, from, as input to your PWM block, using that you can
define a constant TS and vdc and TS, the carrier frequency, calculate ta tb tc according to the
equation that we just discussed. The nextm calculate t max which will be max of ta tb tc and then
calculate tmin, which will be min of ta tb tc and fourth point will be calculate t effective, which is
tmax - tmin, this is basically the region within the envelope. So t max minus tmin will be this region. So,
the region within the envelope is called the effective time, the region out of the envelope is the
region where space vector is zero, that is T 0 time and from the max value to mid value will be
time corresponding to T1, from the mid value to min value is the time corresponding to T 2. So,
that is the nomenclature. Next, calculate T0 which is TS, we know is the carrier switching carrier
period minus t effective and then calculate toffset which is -tmin +T0/2 and then finally calculate taon
tbon tcon using this relationship and then use that one to load to the three compare registers of the
timer and then that will count, compare and then make a, make the three digital ports up and
down, high or low depending upon the values. So in this way, you can generate this kind of a
three-phase PWM waveform. So, here for every arm, for the top switch and the bottom switch,
you will give a, a bar and when you give you a bar, you do not just give one, just an inversion of
a to the other device. One you will give a, another you will get a bar. It is not just a plain
787
inversion. At the transition, you will make a small time period called the blanking time period
where both will be off for sometime because this has to account for the rise time and fall time of
these practical switches. So, that is called the blanking time or the dead time in the literature. So,
when you make the inversion, you do not do a direct inversion and give it to the other,
complementary switch. You will have a delay mechanism built into your algorithm, so you invert
and then that goes high, delay it and make it high, so that the rise time and fall time will pass and
there will not be a direct shoot through period where a huge current can flow. So, this is this is
what is called the dead time inclusion, when, when, when the, in a real circuit when you are
giving it two complementary switches, these signals.
788
Prof. L. Umanand
Let us now discuss the space vector PWM generation by analog implementation. This would
mean, imply that we will be using op-amps just like in the case of the discrete, the principle
remains the same. Instead of compare registers, we just will use op-amps as comparators and
instead of timers, we will be using a triangle wave generator.
Consider a triangular carrier like this of period T s and then from this triangular carrier, I will
generate another triangular carrier which is slightly offset in this fashion. Reason will become
clear shortly and let us say that I am now comparing this with some modulating signal v c. Let me
789
now drop the intersection points, drop down the intersection points of the modulating signal with
respect to each of the carrier.
The blue, the top carrier and the green, the bottom carrier, the intersection points are like this, I'm
dropping them down and let me have two axes, time axis, both are time axes and let us say, one
is representing for the top switch and the other is representing for the bottom switch of one arm
of an inverter. So let us say, this is the a of the inverter, this is the top switch, this is the bottom
switch.
So let us say, the top switch, I will use something like this, a comparator, plus, minus, like this
and let us say, if I am calling this as vc, I will give vc to the positive and to the negative pin, I will
give the blue triangular carrier in this fashion. Now what is the output which is supposed to go to
the top switch, call that as ea. Now whenever vc is greater than the triangular carrier it will be
high. So, vc is greater than triangular blue carrier, it is high. You see the intersection point the
blue is here, it will go down and then again come up at this point and then go down here, come
up in this fashion. Now for the bottom switch, I will use another comparator like this and now, I
will give for the minus Vc and for the plus, I will give that green triangular carrier, the one which
is offset. So, if that was a, this will be a bar. So now, a bar, so whenever the triangle is higher
than vc, it will be positive. So, you see here the intersection points, it will be positive at this, in
this fashion, like this.
So now, you see the beautiful aspect of this is that, during the transition, this is not a direct 180 o
inversion as I was saying before, you have to give a dead time, when this transiting down from
on to off and this is transiting from off to on, there is a period called a dead time. Likewise when
this is transiting from high to low and this is from low to high, there is a period where there is a
dead time when both are off. This is called dead time so that the top and bottom switches are
given enough time for changing the state. Because they are having finite rise and fall times. They
are practical switches. So, this is called the, this time interval is called the dead time. You
include the dead time in analog case by this manner, by introducing this small offset between
two carriers of the same frequency, where as in the case, in the discrete case, you include the
790
dead time by having a small low bit count counter and introduce the dead time by adjusting the
count value.
This would in principle be the way it is implemented in analog. There is one more small item
that you need to include, which is injecting third harmonics, triplen harmonics. Why and how? I
will tell that. So, let us say this is done for each of the phase, each of the arms, that is, you have
their arms for the three phase, let me just show this implementation first in Ngspice schematic
and then I will come back to the modification that we need to do on this
So you see here, this schematic in gschem, svpwm.sch and within be the page boundary, I have
the circuit and outside the page boundaries, I have some portions of the circuit, like this sources,
the dc power supplies and some filter here outside. These are actually not part of the PWM
circuit. Because if I have to make a PCB out of it, I need to use only what is inside the page and
then put connectors to wherever these items attached. So, I have put all these external
components for simulation purposes and what is there inside can be directly sent for making
791
PCB. Okay now these op-amps, the symbols of them and the models of these op-amps are in
idt01.sub, the symbols, I have already provided for you in your, in my earlier resource.
Now, I will explain this part. For now, this internal square block, forget it. Let us just see the
triangle and comparison. Now, this portion is the triangle generator. So, it is nothing but if I
expand that, zoom in, so I have op-amp here. This is nothing but an integrator and output of the
integrator is compared, hysteresis comparator. So let us say, at a given point and time, when this
goes high, this starts integrating down. Because of the capacitor, this will discharge and this
voltage is going down and as it is going down, once it crosses the, whatever the hysteresis lower
drip point limit, this will go low and again this will start rising, because there, there is a change
in the state here.
Now the current flows, charges up this capacitance and this will rise and then again it goes above
the upper trip point, this will change state, so on. So, you will get here at this point a triangle
waveform, you can simulate and then check that out and next what I do is, I am introducing this
offset, shift, I am using this triangle and adding. Now let us say, there is the resistor divider
network here, another resistor divider network here. I am making the attenuator point, not 10K,
10K. One is 10.1K in one case, the upper resistor is 10.1K, in this case, the lower resistor is 10.1
792
K. So, this will be slightly higher value and this will be slightly lower value compared to 0,
because this is the positive and the negative.
And the higher and the lower values, I am going to add to this triangle. So, one of the adder, I
will take this triangle and add it to this offset. I will get one triangle it is a blue. Then to the
another one, I will add the other offset and I will get the lower triangle. So, these two triangles
will be having as slight offset between them and that is what we want to use for comparison.
So them after that, I will, I use set of comparator. We need two comparators for each arm. So,
arm 1, arm 2, arm 3, so like that. So for the a phase, the b phase, and the c phase. So, and top
switch, bottom switch. So for one, you will compare, you will use triangle up and for the other,
you will use triangle low. Triangle up, triangle low, triangle up, triangle low, just like I have
discussed.
So with hysteresis you will get the PWM at the output which you will give for the top, bottom,
top, bottom, top, bottom like that so each other arms. So, this is the basic working. Now in a
normal, in a normal PWM, this is fine, sinusoidal PWM, this is fine. But in a space vector PWM,
a third harmonic is injected.
793
Now why is a third harmonic injected? Consider this, a time line and signal, I have this time line.
Now, I have these extreme limits, this is 100% modulation, these two limits are indicating 100, a
sine just touching this line will give you 100% modulation. Now let us say, I have a sine like
this, it is shooting over the more than 100% and can I modulate this?
You will see that, once this 100% modulation reached, it is no longer, it goes to over modulation,
it is no longer linear and proper way, PWM will not be obtained. Now what we can do is, now let
us say, I have this third harmonic, okay. This is the third harmonic, triplen and I will use this, I
will subtract this from this.
So if a triplen is injected in a three phase system, it is not going to affect, because it does, it is not
providing a rotating phasor and therefore, when I subtract it, you see that the top portion gets,
gets down, subtracted because of this. So, you will see that the wave shape takes a shape
something like that. So, you will see that this is just within the 100% modulation.
Now, this triplen compensated wave shape, the red one, if I use as a modulating signal, then it
contains within it a fundamental which is more than 100% and therefore, I am able to get more
than this 100% modulation possibility, if I am inject triplen. So, in space vector modulation, we
794
use this technique of trying to get more fundamental out of it. And normal sinusoidal will give
you at just about 100% and where as space vector PWM, because of this, can give up to 114%.
So that is extra mileage that you can get. So that is why a third harmonic is added.
So coming back to our schematic, this portion of the circuit is, how to add the third harmonic
component. So here, the carrier is this triangular generator here and the modulating signals v a* vb*
vc* coming from here. Now, one can add that triplen, third harmonic to the input reference wave
shapes themselves and then use it for modulating or you can add the correction to the carrier
itself and then, not add any corrections to the input reference wave shapes. It is easier to add
corrections at single point, that is instead of adding correction to every, all three phases, you can
add it, add the correction to just the carrier and then get the same effect.
795
Let us understand this by going to octave. I have small script written sppwm.m. So here, what I
am trying to do is, what is the effect of third harmonic triplen injection into the fundamental and
what are the advantages you gain, gained in SPPWM because of the third harmonic. See in that
discrete case, because of the offset, we had included -t min + T0/2. The T0, T0 is the zero space
vector case time corresponding to that.
And it is not equal on both sides, T0/2 and T0/2. They are varying by the, as the envelope is
changing. So, there automatically, the third harmonic gets into picture and because of that, you
get that extra mileage of 14% more fundamental as compared to the regular sinusoidal PWM.
796
So here in the script, I have first point is, generator the three vectors v a vb vc which is sin(2π50×t),
t-2π/3, t-4π/3. So we have the four sine, three sine waves. So, let me execute this, sppwm, so
I first plot these three sine waves, that is what I am plotting here first. Now consider this wave
shape, the max of va, vb, vc would be this envelope. This torque envelope here and the mid of the
va, vb, vc would be the bottom envelope. So, you take the top envelope separately, take the
bottom envelope and then take the average of those two, the bottom envelope is having negative
values, the top envelope is having positive values. The positive values plus the negative values
by 2 and that would be this wave shape. Now, this wave shape is actually the third harmonic, you
see that there are three peaks, we can have a cycle, so that is the triplen. So, I have the triplen
here. Now what I have do with this triplen.
797
Let us say, I have the fundamental, this fundamental, minus this triplen, see the third harmonic
will not contribute to the rotating space vector, because you have this -2π/3, -4π/3, three times. If
you do, it will become 2π and therefore, there is no contribution. There is no phase difference
and no, contribution to the rotating space vector.
So you can safely add triplen harmonic. So to this, fundamental, I subtract this triplen, what
happens? So, if I subtract, you see that to each of the original waveform fundamental, I subtract
this triplen, you see, it becomes something like this. The top is flattened out and then you see
that, let us say, the level, the modulation level has come down.
So for a fundamental of one unit, the modulation required with the triplen injecting modulating
wave is much lower, let say 0.86. Now, if this modulating ratio had reached 100%, then the
fundamental that you would have gained also much more, 14% more, you have got, 114%
fundamental. So, that is the extra mileage that you would by injecting triplen into the modulating
signal and then doing the PWM. So, that is why SVPWM or the space vector PWM has that
extra advantage. Now, one can inject this triplen, in this fashion, as I have done. So, I have
calculated all the positive envelope, by taking the max of va vb vc at any incident and the bottom
envelope, t negative, I have calculated by taking the minimum of va vb vc vector.
Now the triplen, I had is, take the average of these two, the positive plus negative by 2 and that is
the triplen wave shape that we saw here. This is the triplen wave shape. This, I subtract from the
original sinusoidal modulating wave shape. What I do, the triplen injected v a would be va3 is va
minus triplen, vb3 is vb minus triplen, vc3 is vc minus triplen, like this.
So now, va3 vb3 vc3 are containing triplen and then if you plot that, the triplen wave shapes, you
get something like this. So, if I plot it alone, you will see that, let me remove this. Plot t, v a3, t, vb
t riple, t, vc3. So, you will see the wave shape something like that, with the top flattened out, which
gives the extra mileage for the modulation. Now, one can add, one can minus, subtract the triplen
from the original sinusoidal modulating signal or one can add the triplen to the triangular carrier.
798
Both are fine. So in the analog implementation case, we have added the triplen to the triangular
carrier. If you come back to this schematic and if I zoom into the triplen correction part, you will
see that this portion is actually an adder. So what is it doing?
Now, there is the diodes and the inputs are the references, the three input reference waveforms.
And this will take out the top envelope and this circuit will take out the bottom envelope. So, this
minus this, so this is positive, this is negative, so I can add here, along with that triangle, I will
then scale it, invert it. So this point would be the corrected triplen. In fact, that is what I have
actually used for doing the offset shifting. So that would becomes the triangle for actually
shifting the offset a bit high.
Another triangle, you obtain, you obtain the triangle low by shifting the offset low, but the input
I am using is the triplen corrected triangle. So, this triangle is used for getting the triplen
corrected triangle and the triplen corrected triangle is used to create two triangles, one up and
one down and that is used for comparing with the op-amps, with the modulating signal and then
you get the PWM.
799
Now we can say, try simulating this and see the waveforms at various points. Observe that as
before, I have here, edt01.sub which links to various models, the op-amp model is also within
that.
800
Now let us go to the terminal and I will use the gnetlist to obtain svpwm.net file from the
schematic file. So, I now have the netlist available with me. svpwm.cir file important. So, I am
doing the transient analysis. It is including this svpwm.net file which got just generated and then
I am as usual having some control statements and setting the background color to white and
foreground color to black and then initiating the random action once I go into the environment.
So this I will do, I will close this and then go back to the terminals ngspice svpwm.cir. So, it will
go in and execute the svpwm circuit, the whole entire circuit will be simulated. Now, let us plot,
what do you want to see? Now let us see whether this triangle is generated, there is an n, there is
an node I have, ntri and ntri3. This is triplen compensator and this is the original triangle. So let
us go in there, and plot ntri and ntri3, triplen with third harmonic. So, if I blow it out, you should
see, let me take the very small portion because this is the carrier.
801
802
So you see that one is the constant 1, the red one is constant, that is our original triangle and the
blue one is gradually increasing and that is the triplen compensated one. Let me quit that.
Let us now see in the a arm, Na and Na bar, these two we can see the dead time effect. So, we
can go to the ngspice environment and plot that and look at very small portion and expand that.
So, you can see already that, there is of course, these are display times, if I may, If I increase the
number of display points, you will get much sharper waveforms. Effectively there is a portion of
the time, there is no overlap and that is due to the shifting of our triangles giving that small
offset, the two triangles, one up and one down.
803
I have included to filters here, one taking from this output nA and other taken from nAb, passed
it through simple RC filter, just to have a look of what is the kind of waveform that is there, what
is the modulating waveform. We have introduced the triplen, does it also have that triplen
harmonic in the waveform. Then I have executed it, then I would like to show you the plot of,
observe that this is nlA and this is nlAb, so I will subtract tha and take, nlA minus nlAb.
So you see that it is containing the triplen portion, the flat topping effect. So, the fundamental
would definitely be much higher and because of the introduction of the triplen, there is this flat
topping and because of the diodes that we have introduced, there are some nonlinear effects
which has come in, opt-in. But in practice these things will be there, non linear effects due to non
idealities of the components.
804
So in this way, svpwm can be accomplished even with, in analog domain using op-amps. I will
share this schematic with you, you can work on it and then try to get more insight with svpwm..
805
Prof. L. Umanand

PV and SUB-MICRO
GRID INTERACTION.
Today's sub microgrids, sub-microgrids, something like our campus, something like your
campus, small communities. There are various types of sources, renewal sources and non-
renewal sources that are connected to the grid and then they need to interact harmoniously. So let
us have a look at PV and sub-microgrid interaction along with various many other sources that
are linked into the grid.
806
Now what is the sub-microgrid? Now, if you take a sub-microgrid which could be a large
building, a large community, a large campus, schools, colleges, they all can be examples of sub-
microgrids. There is one important port in the sub-microgrid, the source port, ports from where
power is drawn, input to the sub-microgrid. There is a sink port, loads are connected, various
different loads are connected to the sub-microgrid and that is another important port and then
you can also have bi-directional ports like the battery, where under some condition it is pumping
energy to the grid and under some condition drawing energy from the grid for charging. There
could be many sources, source ports and there could be many sink ports.
And the sources and the sinks can be from different energy domains. So in a sub-microgrid,
today sub-microgrid, these are some of the challenges that you will see. There are different
sources. Before there was a single source coming from the grid well defined, but today there can
be PV on the building, there could be a small hydel system, there could be a wind mill on the
roof. All these pumping energy into the grid. There is the regular mains grid also pumping
energy into the grid and then the various loads, batteries and UPSs which sometimes give power,
take power, all these are complex systems that are connected to the grid.
So you have multiple sources and sinks and sometimes in this cases, the bidirectional ports, we
do not even know which is a source, which is a sink. At a given point, it can be source, at a given
point in time, it can be a sink. So, all theses aspects and still how to maintain the quality of the
grid? Can the grid have THD less than a particular value? Can it maintain the wave shape? Can
we provide, inject power into the grid at unity power factor? Can we draw power from the grid at
unity power factor?
And extensibility of this sub-microgrid, can, if there is not much load requirement in my
building, let us say a neighboring building needs load, can you transfer some amount of power
from this building to the other building? These are extensibility issues that will come in. So the
sub-microgrid is growing area also linked tightly with the smart grid, smart grid area. Let us look
at some of these issues and we will take in this case, the help of integrated magnetics for an
example case.
807
Consider this, flux rate switch, it is a magnetic switch. Now, let us see what it is and how does it
work. Now, consider a core in the fashion, so this is an EE core, two EE cores jointed together
and let us say I have put some winding on the arm and likewise, I am going to put some
distributed winding like this across this. Now across this, let us connect the grid. So, if I connect
the grid, I am imposing a voltage, a fixed voltage, it is a voltage source across these terminals.
So, magnetically what is happening? So, this is a magnetic equivalent circuit what I am trying to
draw here. So inside in the magnetic core, magnetically there is a dϕ/dt.
See if the voltage is fixed into the magnetic domain, by the faradays law, v = N dϕ/dt, N being
fixed, dϕ/dt is directly linked to the voltage, so the voltage sources on the electrical side. So it is
like in the magnetic domain, I have a dϕ1/dt source. Now across these terminals, I will connect
the load, some load. So magnetically also, it will look as though I have connected a load across
here. So, dϕ1/dt which is the flow, flows through this magnetic circuit, through this coil, it
divides part in this fashion and part in this fashion.
808
So accordingly, there will be a induced EMF here and induced EMF and together the electrical
domain they will have an impose on the load. Now, I will introduce one more coil here on this
arm. I will introduce another sources here, like this, which is going to provide dϕ2/dt. So
equivalently, it will look like, for this load, it is having a voltage here propositional to dϕ2/dt,
another voltage propositional to dϕ1/dt and they both add up and it is a coming across this
source, so that is what is happening here? Now let us say, I include one more winding here. Can I
include one more winding? Now here, dϕ1/dt is being decided by this voltage source. Here, I
cannot put another voltage source to decide another dϕ1/dt because this is a single arm, the
dϕ1/dt can be decided by only one voltage source, this is reflected.
So here, I can place a current source and decide only the MMF and NNI, NI across this winding.
So therefore, a current sources something like this in parallel can come. So this can have same
dϕ1/dt but it can be decide the NI that comes across this point across this, across this winding. So
thereby, the amount of current that I inject here. So this could be like a current source. So this
can be a voltage-current source, a voltage controlled source. This has to be a current controlled
source. So this gives us an idea of how we can use this magnetic element here.
Now, let us say I feed in more current, then, the, here the voltage is fixed, the load is damaging
power. This will provide MMF which will drive power into this load and that much less can be
taken from the grid. So both these units can supply power to the load and the third component
here, the voltage controlled source can also supply power to the load. So let us see how we can
make use of this concept.
So looking at this equivalent circuit and this, this voltage control sources is affecting this series
sources component. So therefore, I can say this is a series compensator. This will compensate the
dϕ2/dt, this series part, this series EMF and this is a shunt compensator, this will come into effect
on this component here and therefore, it can draw more current or give out more current and
therefore, it can behave like this shunt compensator. Now, let me take the case of just only the
two source. One is the series compensator which is a voltage control source and there is this grid.
Now for the moment, let us say that the grid is switched off. So the grid is not there and let me
809
introduce one more winding into the central arm here and I will put a switch there, direct one
simple single pole single through switch.
Now if you close the switch, the voltage across that is 0, v= N dϕ/dt, therefore, the dϕ/dt here has
to be 0 because N is not 0. So, once the dϕ/dt is 0 here, it is as though, this arm, core arm has
vanished, although it has been switched off. So, this is the concept of the flux rate switch. When
I short circuit a winding here, the other winding should exist so that there will be transfer of
MMF and dϕ/dt to the other arms, there should be a path, just like inductance free-wheeling. In
that case, when you short this, dϕ/dt for this arm becomes 0 and this is out of the picture. Now as
though it is only these whole core.
Now the grid is not there. This will be supplying the entire dϕ/dt in this single, similar to a UU
type core. So this entire core, only the voltage equivalent dϕ/dt corresponding to this voltage
equivalent will be circulated and also the load is connected directly to this. So as though, the grid
portion is shorted. On that condition let us grid as gone off this source can power the load.
810
So this is the entire integrated magnetic scheme, the basic principle. So I can have a current
controlled source and the grid in one arm and they can share power and put to the, put power to
the load. Now, suppose the grid goes off, then I will use this flux rate switch to remove this arm
from the picture. Then the current control source and the voltage control source can together
supply to the load. So in this way, you can make it operate like a UPS, when the grid is not there
these two will be supplying to the load. When the grid is there, this will act like a series
compensator and make it look like stabilizer and the shunt compensator, the current control can
be made to look like VAR compensator. This can, current control source can take up all the
reactive part of the power and the grid can give only the active part.
So once the current control source takes, takes away the reactive part, automatically only that
active part is drawn from the grid. So you can see that you can do VAR compensation with this
current control source. So, these are the many uses that one can have in this kind of an integrated
magnetics type of schematic. Now there is no limit to the number of current control sources that
you can put here. You can put any number of current control sources here.
So this will be like many, multiply sources. Likewise, here also I can have any number of current
control sources separately. There can be only one voltage control source, the remaining can be
current controlled sources. That way one can accommodate in the same core, the power being
generated and transmitted from other renewal energies, other distributed energy resources too.
Let us see how this can be used for applying for grid interaction.
811
Now consider this integrated magnetic system and I am going to place it here, there is a grid here
and I have a voltage controlled source and a current controlled source here and there is a flux rate
switch and this is the load and to this current controlled terminal, I have a PV module and the
inverter and the inverter output through an inductor and integrating to this terminal and the
control for the inverter is a SP, SPVWM, SVPWM. You measure the line current, line voltages,
DC link voltages and then I can shift the AC to the DC. We know how to do the transformation,
ABC to αβ, αβ to DQ and then here we are in the DC, DC control domain. Just like we discussed
earlier and this synchronous angle estimation can be done from the line voltages.
So I will have isd, isq, vsd, vsq and you could do voltage control or current control. So, if you have
to do voltage control, you need to have two extra controllers. v s* or vsdref, vsd is fed back, vsqref and
vsq fed back and isd and isq, the current control by another set of PI controllers. All these
812
possibilities, so you could do MPPT, you can do unity power factor by setting i sq 0, you can also
do harmonic cancellation, many possibilities for each of these inverters.
Maximum power point tracking, how I introduce it, let us say we take one of the algorithms,
remember the hill climbing algorithm where we had a p base and the current value of P moving up,
similar algorithm. So you sense from the PV, sense circuit, then you give the v p and iP, slow RC,
fast RC to get the pbase, and the pcurrent, the fast power and the slow power, use it through the
comparator. We know this block diagram, a toggle flip-flop, averaging circuit, comparing it with
a carrier and then drive to the switch, to the inverter. So this is the normal thing. But what we can
do? What we have been doing, we cut this position and give this directly to the current
references. So you see that isd, vsd and this MPPT algorithm will come in here. This is i sd* or id*
and from this you have, you know how to go back from DQ to abc domain, DQ to αβ, αβ to
ABC. This goes and power up this inverter.
813
814
So once the inverter output voltage is according to our reference, there is an inductor and then it
interfaces at this point. So this will be the current injection, so current controlled injection to this
winding, there is already voltage defined by the grid. So, we also could do series compensation,
so we could have a inverter here and PI controller. You can measure from the output and let us
say, we define a pure sine like this and then we can take the feedback from the output here. So,
this series compensation operates in this way.
Now let us say the grid is not the full 230 volt and then it is probably distorted too. Now dϕ1/dt,
this is dϕ1/dt, this is the portion which is coming directly from the grid reflection. So, you feed
that here, so this is the distorted grid representation. This is what we want, total pure sine wave.
So this minus this would be by how much the grid has to be repaired or the difference by amount
of which the grid has to be added in such a way that the voltage across the load will become pure
815
sine wave. So this too, the subtraction of pure sine and the distorted sine coming from the grid
would be the difference make up, that will become the reference here.
So voltage output here is actually coming from this inverter, the series compensator. This is dϕ2/
dt. So this is being fed back here and this will try to ultimately reach whatever this value is,
which is actually the difference between the pure sine and the distorted sine coming from the
grid. So, this value here will actually be making up for the difference. So, this difference which
is made up by this plus the distorted grid will make the voltage across the load a pure sine wave.
In this wave series compensation can be achieved.
Observe here, in the experimental result of this, the grid voltage is distorted, flat top. So, the
disserted voltage compared to the pure sine and the difference between them is actually used for
compensating here and this plus the distorted grid will make voltage across the load to pure sine.
So that is what this load voltage is, scaled down load voltage and the difference between the
816
distorted grid and the pure sine, this is what you would see. Winding 3, this is across here,
winding 4, this is the difference between the distorted and the pure sine. So these two when
added up will give the pure sine to the grid voltage and the load voltage.
Operation of that flux, flux rate switch. So let us say up to this point, you had the grid voltage,
then this was a voltage, a series compensator was making up for the difference to make the load
sine, at this point the grid went off, now this is taking up the full load, because the flux rate
switch has operated and removed this R out of the picture and the whole winding is coming
across this series compensator which is now acting as the single and only source and providing
the sine wave, sine wave voltage to the load. Observe here that, here there was no grid, the
complete load was supplied by the series compensator, voltage controlled inverter and then at
this point when the grid came into picture, this switch flux rate switch opened out and then the
grid is pumping power through winding W 3 and the difference power to make up for the
distortion in the grid voltage is pumped through W 4 and then this is going back again to series
compensator mode like a stabilizer. So this would be UPS mode and this would be the stabilizer
mode. Now stunt compensation effect, you can see, by having this current controlled inverter. So
without the compensation, you would see that this is the grid voltage and then this is the grid
current and there is active and reactive component by the lagging power factor. Now, once this
stunt compensation is enabled, you will see that the reactive part is taken over by the stunt
compensator and automatically the grid, will, from the grid, you will draw only the unity power
factor.
817
So you see that, this integrated magnetic circuit can be a very nice contribution to the sub-
microgrid system. I could have many sources, current control sources here, current controlled
sources here coming from different renewal energy resources feeding to the loads which are
connected here across and this could be the grid port. So, this could be one unit and then there
could be many units, you see, sinks, sources, bi-directional units and many such units can be
integrated to form an extensible sub-micro network, something like power internet.
818
Prof. L. Umanand

We shall now discuss on a topic that is not very much related to the electrical engineering
aspects that we have been discussing till now. However, this is nonetheless a very important
topic. Especially, if you want compare, bench mark, reference the many systems that we have we
been discussing. You see, in a photo-voltaic renewable energy systems, take for example, the PV
modules, the PV panels, they have the lifetime for around 20 to 25 years. Take for example,
batteries, they may last for around 5 years, so which means that you may have to replace the
batteries sets in between. Take the electronics, electronics may also have a large life span. So,
photolytic system contains many sub-systems and the sub-systems have different life spans. So,
when you have comparable systems, how do you bench mark them? How do you compare them?
What is the value of the particular system? What is the value for the money? and what is the
value for the system? What are the economics for the various systems and how do the variables
play and how do you obtain the unit cost? Unit cost, meaning that, if it is water pumping system,
what is the cost of the unit of the water? If it is the electricity generation system, PV connected to
the grid, what is the cost of the 1 unit of the electricity?
So how do you arrive at that? So for that, you have to construct the lifetime of all the sub
components, the replacement, maintenance, all these issues will start coming into the picture. So,
it is that point that we would like to address. It is from a engineering perspective that we will
look at it. It is not exactly to arrive at the exact cost, more from the draft economical analysis, so
that we would be able to compare many systems and that is what we would aim to do in this
topic of life cycle costing.
819
Consider an item, now this item has a value and this value is related to time. So, it has a value at
a given time instant or we could say at a time frame of reference. It could now, it could
tomorrow, it could be 10 years from now, but the value of the item is coupled directly with time.
Now, this item is either bought or sold. So, there is the transaction where you will buy this item
or sell this item and the medium through which you will buy or sell would be, by using this
money as an item, money as the medium.
So the money is also having a value and that value again is time dependent. Now with time, the
value of the money can grow. So, there is growth in the value of the money with time. Of course,
the growth can be positive or negative, but most of the time it is positive, as time progresses, the
value of the money increases and that is what we tell interest. So there is an interest, interest rate
which can be used for calculating for how the value of the money is grown.
Likewise, an item also with time, its value can increase or decrease, there is growth or change in
the value of the item and it is called inflation. So, let us look at this growth profile of this item
and money and try to bring in that relationship and use that relationship to measure the lifecycle
cost.
820
The interest and the inflation have various growth profiles. So, one can model it with different
growth profiles. One simple way is the linear growth, another way is called the compound
growth. A third way, exponential growth. The compound growth, very popular, it is also called
the discrete compound growth and the exponential growth is called the continuous compound
growth. We will see how these relationships come about.
821
First, consider the linear growth. Simple interest is the typical example of linear growth. There,
the key variable is, i which is called the rate of interest, n is the number of the intervals. Now, the
rate of interest is for an interval of time Δt and n is variable also associated with the number of
time intervals Δt under consideration. So, if you say Δt, the time interval is 1 year, which is what
most commonly is used in banking.
Number of years under consideration, n will number of years. You can visualize this with
timeline. Let me draw the time line versus t, x axis and I will put several equi-spaced tick marks
like this to represent the intervals. So, this intervals is Δt and I will this one as interval 1, interval
2, interval 3, interval 4 and so on, this is interval n. Now, there is another variable that I will
introduce, this is called the variable S. now let us I had this point at the beginning of the interval
of ending of the previous interval, I will mark it as S0.
At the end of the 1st interval I will call it as S 1 and the end of the 2 nd interval is called S2, then the
3rd interval S3, S4, so on, at the end of nth interval it will be Sn. Now what is the meaning of Sn? Sn
is sum of after nth interval, sum after n intervals of time that have elapsed. So, if S 0 was the sum
of at the end of the 0th interval, this is the sum that you have at the start, at the beginning. After n
intervals have elapsed, the sum at the end is Sn, so that is called the sum of the nth interval.
If each interval is 1 year, then it would be sum after n year. Now S1 is given by the relationship,
linear relationship, S0+(S0×i), where i is the rate of the interest for the interval. So Δt is the
interval and it is just one interval S0+(S0×i), which is S0×(1+i). Now S2 is S0+ S0×..., two intervals
have elapsed, so 2×i, so that is S0×(1+2i) and if I move it up, so on. S n would be S0+(S0×ni), it
will S0×(1+ni). So this is relationship that you would get for the sum after n intervals or time
periods have elapsed with the rate of interest i and with the starting value of S 0, this is termed as
the simple interest equation.
822
Let us now discuss compound growth. An example of this, of course is the compound interest.
You may be aware of the compound interest formula. Here too, like simple interest, there is
variable i which represents the rate of interest for Δt interval of time, n is the number of intervals,
Δt intervals that are being consider. Now, let us visualize again like before, on a timeline and I
will mark equi-spaced tick marks like this and each interval here is what I will call Δt.
Now that will be interval 1, interval 2, interval 3, interval 4 and now this is interval n. So, this is
n+1. So, let me take this at this point, you have S 0, the sum, that the staring sum, at the end of the
0th interval or the beginning of the 1 st interval. Now, at the end of the 1 st interval, I have sum S1 at
the 2nd interval sum S2, at the end of 3rd interval sum S3, sum S4 and at the nth interval it is S n, at
this point, it will be sum S minus 1 and here sum S plus 1.
So now, let us try to find out what is S 1. Now, S1 = S0+(S0×i), this is same like in simple interest
or linear growth case and then it is = S0×(1 + i). Now, S2 is S1+(S1×i), 1 step application. So for
S2, S1 is the previous, previous sum. So if you do one step application, S 1+(S1×i), and S1, we
actually know S0×(1+i), so it is S0×(1+i) and (1+i), so it is S0×(1+i)2. So in the same way S n will
be S0×(1+i) n.
823
So this formula, this equation is the compound interest equation. So, if S 0 is starting value to start
and i is rate of interest for each interval, n is number of intervals, so if Δt is 1 year, n will be
number of years. So, if you begin with S 0, at the end of nth year, the sum would have become,
would have grown to S0×(1+i)n.
Now let us consider the exponential growth model. So in exponential growth model, basically
they would expand the compound interest model, in this fashion. Here let i be the rate of interest
for 1 year and m be the number of intervals 1 year it is divide into. So, note the slight difference
in the definition. i is the rate of interest for 1 year, whole year and m is the number of intervals
that 1 year would be divided into. Then Δt is nothing but 1 year by m and the interest in the
interval would be i/m. So this is the rate of interest per interval.
Now, let me draw the time line as before. Now, I am going to mark off equi-space ticks on the
timeline. Now, each of these spaces will represent the year. So this is m 1, this is m2, so on. This is
year n and each year is divide into m intervals, smaller intervals like this, so on. And then the
time period between these intervals is Δt which is 1/m. Now I can say this is sum interval 1,2,3,4
so on, upto m and the 2nd year is also divided upto m intervals, mth is also divided into m
824
intervals, each of the Δt. Now at the beginning of year 1 we will have S 0, at the end of year 1, we
have S1, at the end year 2, S2 and the end of year n it is Sn, we are interested in finding what is Sn.
(Refer Slide Time: 18:30
Now let us apply the compound interest model. S n equals S0, the starting, 1 + i, was the original
compound interest model, here the interest per interval is i/m, so 1 plus i/m and how many
intervals are there, there are n years and each year has m intervals, so m×n intervals. So this
would be the discrete compounding formula. Now, let us reassign i/m to x, some other variable x
equal to i/m and then what is m?
m is equal to i/x. Now substituting, you have S n = S0×(1+ x)(i/x)×n. So now in this, as m tends to
infinity, x will tend to 0, x tends to zero. So let us apply the limit of x tends to 0 for this equation.
The limit of x tends to zero, Sn will be, limit as x tends to 0, S0×(1 + x1/x)i×n. So, this is actually
split into 1/x, i×n, so that is come about. So, this can be written as, S 0 × limit as x extent 0, this
limit is (1+ x)1/x. Now this limit x to tends to 0, (1 + x) 1/x is the definition of e, so this is defined
as e. Therefore, I can write it as S0 × ei.n. Sn=S0ei.n is the exponential growth model, it is also
continuous compounding, because discrete intervals, because m, number of intervals has tended
to infinity, so it is called continuous compounding.
825
(Refer Slide Time: 19:42
826
Prof. L. Umanand
Let us put some numbers and make a simple comparison of the three growth profiles. Let us take
i = 5% per year and n = 5 years, and let me make a tabular column, n, the simple interest model,
the compound interest model here and the exponential growth model in the last column. Let me
use Sn=S0(1+ni) for the simple interest S n=S0(1+i)n for the compound, Sn=S0ei.n for the
exponential.
You can take S0=1 without loss of generality, because S0 is appearing here as a factor every, in
fact you can normalize Sn/S0 to see what is the growth profile that comes. So, let us take Sn, 5
years and if you calculate, you will see that it is 1.25, 25, in five years, you have 25% more,
1.276, 1.284. So, exponential model gives you the largest interest. Now in 10 years, you will see
this is going in a linear fashion 1.5, 1.628, 1.648.
827
In 15 years, this is 1.75, 2.0, 2.12, the exponential model is increasing faster and much more, and
in 20 years this is going linear fashion 2, 2.65, 2,72. In 25 years, 2.25, 3.38, 3,5. So like this you
will see that you can plot the curves, the exponential will give you the largest interest rate. The
compound model gives you in between and the lowest interest rate is by the simple interest
formula. Just to, this is just to give you an idea with the numbers, a comparative understanding of
the three growth profiles. Most popular, used mostly by the banks would be the compound
interest formula and the discrete compounding formula.
Let us further consolidate our understanding of the growth profiles. Now, let us say this is the
present time, this is now and along the time line, let me put the equi-space ticks and this red line
here is a future time of interest. So, if you say these intervals, interval one, interval two, interval
n this will be at the end of the n th interval. Let us consider the two aspects, one is money and
another is the value of the item.
The value of the money at the start of now, that is start of this time evolution, now is S 0, the
value of the item is, let us say C 0. Now after n years the value of the money would have become
S0 (1+i) n and the value of the item would have become C 0(1+f) n, this f is nothing but inflation,
828
inflation rate. So the value of money has grown because of i, which is the interest rate and the
value of the item has grown because of the f that is the inflation rate.
Let us take for example S0 and C0 of same. So today, now you are able to buy this item with
money S0, because the value C0 and value S0 are same. If the interest rate and the inflation rate
had been same, then S0(1+i) n, C0(1+f) n would have been same. So, even in future and after the nth
interval or n years, your money, whatever escalated money would have bought the escalated
value of the item.
Now suppose, i and f are not same. if the interest rate is more than the inflation rate, then the
value of the item would not have increased as much as the value of the money. So, you will be
able to purchase this item and still be leftover with some money. On the other hand, if the
interest rate had been lower than the inflation rate, after n years, the value of the item would
have, would be higher than the value of the money. So you will not be able to purchase the item
with this, even with this escalated money value.
So let us say that we are able to purchase after n years with this money this item. So, we will
equate it S0(1+i) n = C0(1+f) n. So to purchase the item, we need to equate this. Now S 0 would be
C0(1+f)n, (1+f)n or I can write {(1+f)/(1+i)}n. So what this means is that this is the present worth
of an item.
What it means is that S0 is the present worth. Now let us say that you want to purchase an item
after n years, the item has an inflation rate of f and the money has an interest rate of i, then you
need to save S0 amount of money today, so that after n years you will be able to purchase this
particular item which is today costing C0. So say S0 amount today with interest i, so that you will
be able to purchase the item in the nth year having inflation f.
829
Let me take a simple example. Let us say, an item costs rupees 100 today, and in order to buy the
item five years from today, how much should one should one save or set aside today, if i is 8%
interest rate is 8 percent and inflation rate is 5%. So, if you use S 0=C0×{(1+f)/(1+i)}n. 100
(1+0.5/1+0.08)5, you will get rupees 86.86. What it means is that, I should save 86.86 rupees
today, so that five years from now I can buy that product which costs 100 rupees today. If
inflation were not there, if inflation rate were 0, f=0, then for the same problem you will see that
rupees 68 only needs to be saved today which for an item it costs 100 today, so that you may buy
it after five years.
830
Prof. L. Umanand
Let us now look at the topic annual payment and present worth factor. This is a popular topic,
common topic which you would encounter commonly when we are paying installments for items
that we purchase, monthly installments, annual installments, equal annual installments. So, how
do we calculate the present worth for such cases? Consider the timeline once again, now timeline
there is a start point and then I am going to mark ticks at equal spaced intervals.
So the space between the ticks are supposed to represent the years. So let us say this time interval
is one year, year one, this time interval is year two, year three, year four, so on up to year n.
Now, at the end of each year, the end of every year, I am going to pay an amount D, at the end of
831
the second year, pay an amount D, third year, you pay an amount D, at the end of fourth year
also similarly. So till the end of the nth year, you are paying the same amount D. Now what we
need to calculate, what is the worth at this time frame? See, it is like transformation across
different time frames. So let us say, this is our time frame of reference now, today. So one year
later, whatever the value of D, what is its present to worth. Two years later, whatever the value
of D, what is its present to worth so on, after three years what is its present worth, after n years,
what is its present to worth.
You bring it all to the same time frame, then there you can add. So, then there we algebraically
add them and then you will get the equivalent value for the present work. So, that is the principle
that we are going to follow. So this D are the equal annual payments that one makes. Now, S n,
we know this equation, Sn, we will use the compound interest formula, S n that is the value of the
money after the nth year is S0(1+i)n where i is the rate of interest.
So this is the future worth and i+1 to the power of n is called the future worth factor. So S 0 is the
present value, worth, (1+i)n is the future worth factor. Now suppose, we know what is the
amount at the nth, at the, at the nth time, can you calculate the present worth of that? So it is like
saying that what is S0, given Sn is known. So, it is just that it is equal to now S n[1/(1+i)n], so this
one goes down. So 1/(1+i)n is called the present worth factor, S 0 is now representing the present
worth of the future value S n and 1/(1+i)n is present worth factor. Now, let us apply this to this
problem and see what is the present worth at this time frame which is not the present time frame.
Now, S0, the present worth here, of this value D which has been a payment that is made after the
first year would be D/(1+i)1 plus at the end of the second year you make another payment D
which is 1 the present worth here would be D/(1+i)2 that is as I am using this equation.
Then the present worth for D at the end of 3rd year will be D/(1+i) 3, so on if I keep doing, the
installment D which is supposed to have been paid at the end of the n th year, if it is reflected back
to the present it will be D/(1+i)n. So all the reflections to the present time frame are added up and
that would give you the present worth taking all the installments together
832
Now simplifying it, you have D{[1/(1+i) 1]+ [1/(1+i)2]+ [1/(1+i)3]+ so on, [1/(1+i)n]}. Now, if
you look at this pattern, you see that this is a geometric progression, and this is the sum to n
terms of a geometric progression and geometric progression is well known and understood in
sum to n terms it is of the form a(1-rn)/(1-r), sum to n terms, where a is the first term, and r is the
common factor which in this case is 1/(1+i), every term with respect to the previous term is
different by a common factor 1/(1+i). So if I apply these to this formula, I will get the sum to n
terms of the geometric progression, let us do that.
833
So I will put a 1/(1+i), 1-[1/(1+i)n] that is 1-rn/1-r which is 1-1, 1/(1+i). So this on simplifying
will lead to 1/i{1-[1/(1+i)n]}. So if you substitute this for the sum here, then we will have S 0 the
present worth is equal to D{1/i(1-[1/(1+i) 1])} and this is the present worth of all future annual
installments up to nth year taken together and this factor D is the equal annual installment. This
factor here is called the present worth factor. So if an item cost S0 today and one needs to pay
yearly installments for the next n years at an interest of i, interest rate of i, then, the equal yearly
installments D is nothing but S0 by the present worth factor. This will give you the amount D that
has to be paid every year, at the end of every year till the end of n th year. So that it has a present
worth of S0.
834
This principle can be extended to consider even inflation. We saw earlier that we know how to
get the present worth with inflation included, inflation is having the symbol f. So let us say, in
this time line, where each interval is one year, this is year 1, year 2, year 3, year 4, year n and
you are paying equal annual installments D, D, D, D at the end of every year and we are
interested to find what is the present worth today.
835
What are the present worths of all the future installments, equal future installments, annual
installments at one would pay. So, this can be reflected to the present time and the present worth
is D(1+f)/(1+i). The present worth for, the second year end the D value would be D{(1+f)/(1+i)} 2
so on. So it would be equal to D{[(1+ f)/(1+i)]+ [(1+ f)/(1+i)] 2, so on, [(1+ f)/(1+i)]n. So, this
again is a geometric progression and it is of the form Σ to n term is a×(1- rn)/r.
And this can be written as, a is (1+f)/(1+i) which is the first term, r is the common factor, [(1+ f)/
(1+i)]n, (1-r). So, this can be simplified as (1+f)/(i-f), because there is an i-f, there is a chance of
this being 0 if i=f. So, this equation will not be valid for i=f, (1-(1+f)) whole to the power of n.
So this is the present worth factor if i is not equal to f. If i=f, each term will be 1, 1, 1, 1 add it up
for the n terms, so you will get value n. So this would be for i=f. So, if you include that into this
equation, D into the present worth factor. 1+f by 1 minus, all those things, this is for i not equal
to f and is equal to D.n for i=f. This is the present worth factor, and for i=f, the present worth
factor is n. So in this way, with inflation included also, you can find what are the equal annual
future installments that needs to be done for an item that is costing S0 today.
836
837
Prof. L. Umanand
Let us now discuss about life cycle cost. It is called LCC for short. It is an acronym. With an
example, we will also see how we will go about doing the lifecycle costing analysis. What are
the various components of lifecycle cost? First, we need to know about capital cost, we need to
know about a replacement cost. So, the capital cost is the initial investment that you would put at
point zero, time zero, which is now, today. Replacement cost are actually after some years down
the line, some of the subsystems which have lesser life than the overall lifespan of the system
needs to be replaced. So, they will have to be reflected back to the present, for comparison, for
adding and comparison.
Then there is the maintenance cost. You will have the annual maintenance cost coming to the
picture or maintenance cost in general. Sometimes, you will have energy cost and then the scrap
838
value, or the scrap cost. Scrap cost is actually the salvage value at the end of the life, if there is
any amount, any cost, any price that you can recover from it, that is subtracted. These are all
investments from your side, scrap cost is actually coming back to you, whatever left, whatever is
remaining.
So, let us give some symbols. Capital cost will call K, replacement cost as R, maintenance cost
as M, energy cost as E and scrap cost as S. Energy cost and scrap cost need not come always.
Sometimes, you will not have any scrap cost and sometimes, you will not have energy cost in
particular system. It will be insignificant. So, but most of the time, you will definitely have
capital cost, replacement cost and maintenance cost in most of the renewable energy type of
systems.
Now LCC, lifecycle cost is given by K capital cost, plus R replacement cost, plus M
maintenance cost, plus E energy cost minus scrap value. So, this is the lifecycle cost. You will
generally define a period of life. So, 15 years, do the analysis for 15 years, 20 years life of the
system, entire system, perform a life cycle costing. So generally, that is how it goes. We will try
to understand this by working out a simple example.
839
Let us consider an example, calculate lifecycle cost for a PV based pumping system which has
the following data. Now, what is the data? Let me tabulate that. So what are the subsystems? I
will list that down. Then in one column, I'll give cost and another column, I will give life, in
years. So, in the PV based pumping subsystem, one of the main items would be PV array plus
balance of systems. Now, I will put an approximate value rupees 80 per watt-peak is the cost for
the PV array and balance of system and the life is 15 years.
Motor plus pump, motor pump set, it is around approximately rupees five per peak watt, 7.5
years. Miscellaneous, for transport and such, I will put rupees, 3 rupees per peak watt. Then
piping cost, rupees 100 per meter and the pipe have a life span of five years. Then cost of well,
this is a normal well, rupees 300 per meter and then no life. So, I just put some representative
costs, probably at the point of, at the time of calculating, you will have to go to the market, check
and then put the actual costs to get a more realistic value. Anyway, here we want to study the
concept.
I have just put approximate values of the cost. So, this is the data that is available to you. Let us
specify the system. So, PV array ratings is 500 watt peak, the pipe length is 30 meters, the well
depth, the depth to which the well is dug out is 10 meters. The period of interest, the period for
which the analysis has to be performed is 15 years, means 15 years lifespan of the entire PV
based pumping system. Let us take interest as 10%, 10% is on the higher side, but does not
matter, easy for calculation. Annual maintenance charges, there is AMC, annual maintenance
charges for the entire system is rupees 1000 every year for the total 15 years lifespan of the
system.
840
So, now let me draw the time line to understand what this whole system is. This is time zero and
that is where all the capital investment is made. Now, I am going to split the entire time line into
three intervals, five years, five years, five years so that you get a total of fifteen years entire life
span. So, I will mark that five years, five years, five years. Right at the center here, 7, 7.5 years
from here, you see that the life span of the motor plus pump is 7.5 years, which means, at the end
of 7.5 years, you have to make a preventative replacement for the system to function.
Pipes, five years, at the end of every five years, you are to make a replacement for the pipe. So,
we will do that. So, let us note down that. 7.5 years, we have to make one replacement for the
motor plus pump. Then at the end of the first five year, you have to make one replacement of the
pipe set. At the end of ten years, second five years, pipe replacement again and then you see the
end of the life span, so you do not need to make any further replacement. So, two pipe
replacements and one motor pump set replacement.
Next, I am marking tick marks for every year. So, now you have one, two, three, four, five, so on
up to year 15. Now, this is for the annual maintenance. We have an AMC of 1000 rupees that we
need to give every year. We need to give 1000 rupees here, at the end of the third year, fourth
841
year, fifth year, so on, at the end of the fourteenth year and at end of the fifteenth year. So, like
that AMC hat to be given every year. So, this is geometric progression, we know how to solve
that, we will do that at that point in time.
So now we need to calculate what is the capital cost, what is the replacement cost in red, what is
the what is the AMC cost what we have written in green. So, let us do that exercise. So first, let
us calculate the capital cost K, so array cost, rupees eighty per peak watt × 500 watt peak, is
rupees 40,000. Then motor pump cost, rupees 5 per peak watt × 500 watt peak, which is rupees
25,000. Then, we have the miscellaneous cost, we had put rupees, we had put rupees 3 per peak
watt. Let me, yes, × 500 watt peak. This is rupees 1500. The pipe costs, rupees 10, rupees 100
per meter into 30 meters, which is rupees 3000. Then the cost of the well is rupees 300 per meter
into ten meter, this is rupees 3000.
So when you add up all these things, you get K, the capital cost, which is rupees fifty thousand.
Next, let us calculate the replacement cost, R. We saw that we need to replace the motor pump
set at the end of 7.5 years, one replacement in the entire lifespan R 1, I will call it. 2500, this is the
motor pump cost, as there is no inflation, we have not given an inflation value. We should
assume inflation rate f = 0. So, 2500 into 1 by 1 + i, to the power of 7.5, will be the present
worth.
So whatever 2500 rupees you are going to put at 7.5 th year, present worth, bring it, reflect it to
the present and you will get rupees 1223.2. Then, pipes replacement, we need do two
replacements, one at the fifth-year and other than the tenth year. So, we know that the pipe cost
is 3000 rupees. So, let us, 3000, 1 + i to the power of five, so the fifth year replacement reflected
back present worth will be 3000 by this month plus 3000 by 1 + i to the power of ten. So, the
tenth year, present worth reflected back to the present is this value, you add both of them,
1862.76 plus 1156.63 comes to, rupees 3019.4.
So when you add all the replacements, you will get R is equal to rupees 4242.6. So next, we will
calculate the maintenance, maintenance cost M. So, maintenance, we saw that the annual
maintenance, we are paying 1000 rupees every year. It is like the equal installments payment
842
every year. So, M is equal to AMC×{(1/i)(1-(1/(1 + i)))} to the power of n, which is the present
worth factor, so, which is 1000 into present worth factor, if you substitute for i, 0.1, you will get
7.6 and n as fifteen. So, 15 installments will give you, distributed over fifteen years will give you
rupees 7606.
Next LCC, which is K+R+M, capital cost + replacement cost + maintenance cost, which is
50,000+4242.6+7606, which will turn out to be rupees 61,848 .67 rupees. So, this is the life
cycle cost, total life cycle cost, taking fifteen years life span. Now, it will be interesting for us to
distribute it over the entire 15 years in an annual way. What is the equated annual installment
that someone would pay for a present worth value of this? So, let us use the timeline, t, now at
time 0, then year one, year two, so on. One, two, so on, to 15, year 15, that is our lifespan. Now
at that time zero, we have the LCC value of 601848 0.67 rupees that is the worth of the entire
system as of now, as of today. That is the lifecycle cost, taking into account all replacement,
maintenance, everything has been reflected back into the present. Now, this value can we
distribute it as equated yearly annual installments for the next 15 years that will give you what is
supposed to have been the payment, annual payment, equal annual payments for this particular
system, which could give us a reference or a benchmark. So we would like to have ALCC,
843
annual LCC value, so which is at the end of every year, annual ALCC value. Something like
equivalent annual payments for this particular system in operation.
So this, we know how to do. LCC is equal to, the present worth is equal to, annual equal cost,
this is a geometric progression, into the present worth factor and we know the present work
factor how to calculate. Therefore, ALCC, the annual LCC is equal to, ALCC, which is equal to
LCC divided by present worth factor and LCC is 61848.67 divided by 7.606, which will give
you rupees 8131.5. So, this is the annual LCC. What it basically means that, this value of 61848,
total system cost as of today, all reflected to the present timeframe is equal to saying that, every
year, for the next 15 years, I pay 8131.5 every year, 8131.5, 8131.5, till the end of the fifteenth
year. This is equal to saying that, this is the equated annual installments for a fifteen year period.
So, this would give a nice benchmark for comparing other similar systems.
844
I have here a small script file. I will share this with you, for working out example one, that we
just discussed, calculate the LCC for a PV based pumping system having the following data. So,
we discussed, I have just classified the script file into subsystem data part, where I have listed
down the data, the cost of the PV plus array, of the pump, the life of the PV array and all those
data which we just tabulated. Then, I have the system specification which states the array rating
of 500 watts, pipe length, well depth, the number of years of interest, then the interest, rate of
interest, AMC, all these things are specified and then, I have the life cycle costing calculations.
First you calculate the K which is the capital cost. So, I have calculated here, the array cost, the
motor pump cost, miscellaneous cost, pipe cost, the well cost and then you add up all these costs
to obtain the capital K. Then you calculate the replacement cost, recall that we had one motor
pumps replacement at the end of 7.5 years and we needed to replace the pipes once at first, at the
end of five years and other at the end of ten years, that is calculated, the present worth. You add
up the motor pump set replacement cost and the pipe replacement cost, the present worth of both
of them and obtain R, the total replacement cost.
845
Then you calculate M, the maintenance, calculate the present worth factor and calculate the
maintenance present worth, which is AMC, the annual charges that you are paying every year ×
the present worth factor and then finally calculate LCC, K+R+M and distributed equally over all
the fifteen years to get ALCC, the annual LCC. Then I have the display part, display the various
costs. So, this will perform the calculations for that example and give you the results here. I can,
I have octave environment opened, run the example ex01.m. I have stored it as ex01.m. I can run
that and I'll share this script file with you.
So after you run the calculations are displayed and observe that, all these values which we had
calculated is what will be displayed and then you can take conclusions on that. I will leave it to
you to try out for different system data and different system specifications along these lines you
can modify this script file to suit your needs.
846
Prof. L. Umanand
Let us consider another example and in this example, the objective is to use LCC, life cycle
costing analysis for finding out unit cost of water or unit cost of some item. We will consider a
pumping application and then see, find out what is the unit cost of water, rupees per liter or
rupees per m3. Let us first then define the problem. We will take a community of 100 people and
the source of water is bore wells and they are hand pumped by means of 6 hand pumps, 6 bore
wells to met the requirements of the 100 people in the community and each person consumes
about 40 liters per day.
The bore well depth is 20 m, the cost of each hand pump is Rs 5000 and the cost of digging each
bore well is the rate of Rs 250 per meter. The life of the hand pump is 10 years, the annual
847
maintenance cost work so to be Rs 1250 per hand pump. So, if the rate of interest is 10%, what is
the unit cost of water for a life cycle period of 20 years. So, this is the problem. You must note
that, the numbers that have given or contrived numbers, typical numbers, but they are not market
numbers. So you will have to focus on the process of our calculation, how we proceed to
calculate.
These numbers, you have to, at the time of executing the LCC analysis, you will have to actually
go and get these numbers these rupees, price, maintenance cost, from the market. We will have
to get the realistic values. For now, focus on how we go about doing LCC. So therefore, let us try
to achieve our objective of finding the unit cost of water. As before, let us draw a time line, time
and I am going to have this starting point and I am going to mark tick points, the this tick point is
10, 10th year, and this is the 20th year.
Now, we see that there is a life of the hand pump given as 10 years, which means at the end of
10th year, we will have to make a replacement of hand pumps. There are 6 hand pumps,
therefore, 6 and pumps need to be replaced. So, this is a replacement that will come in here, so
replacement cost of 6 hand pumps, then the annual maintenance cost, works out to be Rs 1250
per hand pump.
So annual maintenance cost means, every year one is paying the AMC throughout up to the 20
years, 20 times we will be paying AMC. This is geometric progression. We will, we know how
to do that. We will appropriately use the equations and then at the beginning year, we have to
take care of the capital cost. So, these are the calculations that we need to do. Capital cost,
replacement cost R, annul maintenance cost taken together, all reflected, whether it be the
replacement cost, the maintenance cost, all the time frames, values, should be reflected to the
present time frame, that is the concept.
848
Let us now calculate the capital cost K. So, we should invest in digging 6 bore wells and we
know it cost around 250 Rs / m x 20 m and 6 of them and therefore, that works out to be rupees
30000. Then we have to invest in the 6 hand pumps and that is rupees thousand , rupees 5000, to
6 of them, and another 30000, add up all this, you get K is equal to rupees 60000.
Next, let us find out the replacement cost R. So, you see that, we need to do replacement of 6
hand pumps after 10 years. So 6 hand pumps to be replaced in the 10 th year. So, R = 30000 is the
cost of the 6 hand pumps and let us multiply it by the present worth factor 1/(1 + i) 10 which will
shift the value there to the present and that is rupees 11566.30 and therefore, R is 11566.30
because that is the only replacement.
849
Next we will do the maintenance cost M. There is annual maintenance. We know what is given
is Rs 1250 per hand pump. So, into 6 hand pumps will become 7500 and present worth factor,
PW, I will call it, (1/i){1-1/(1 + i) 20}, n is 20 and that works out to be 0.51. This is the present
worth factor and maintenance is basically refection of all the annual maintenances into the
present time frame, which is AMC into the present worth factor which is will be 7500 × 8.51. So
maintenance is 63851.73.
Now LCC can be calculated, K + R + M, which is 60000 for capital cost plus 11566.3 for the
replacement cost plus 63851.73 for the maintenance cost. Everything works out to 135418. This
is the LCC, life cycle cost of this particular system. Now, let us find out what is the annual LCC.
Now, if this value, the LCC, which is the worth, today, of this whole life cycle cost, today of this
whole system, let us see how we can distribute it equally for every year from today onwards till
20 years, which is supposed to be the life term, end of term.
So the annual life cycle cost, ALCC is, LCC by present worth. We have done this before in the
previous example, similarly LCC value by the present worth factor, which will give you Rs
15906.15. Now, this is the cost that would be in, current, every year for this particular system.
850
Now, let us try to find the unit cost of water, the unit water cost. Let me move this up. So, annual
water requirement, how much water is required in a year?
So, there are 100 people and we know each person take 40 liters, so 40 by 1000 m 3per day, into
365 days in year and this will give 1460 m 3.This is the amount of volume of water that will be
required and now, we can calculate the unit cost of water, which will be the ALCC, the annual
cost for this whole, entire system, divided by the water required Q. So, this will be 1000,
15906.15. This is the ALCC value by 1460 m 3 will give you Rs 10.9 per m 3. So, this is the unit
cost of water.
What it means is, for every m3 of water that is used by the community, the cost incurred is rupees
10.9 or if someone wants to charge for, would like to do a water billing for the households in the
community then they have to charge at least, so that they recover Rs 10.9 per m 3. This does not
include the profits that the organizations, the building organizations would like to have. So, in
this way, we can calculate unit cost of water, unit cost of electricity depending up on what type
of system that we are actually doing the life cycle cost analysis.
851
I have here for you, a script file, ex02.m. This is the script for solving the LCC example 2,
calculation of the unit cost of water. A community has 100 people, it has 6 bore wells, 6 hand
pumps, what is the unit cost of the water for a life cycle period 20 years. Data is given, like
before, I have classified into sub-system data, hand pump cost, bore well cost, life of the hand
pump, then systems specifications, number of people, what is the quantity of water required per
person, 40 liters per a day, or 40 by 1000 m 3 per day per person, number of wells 6 wells, well
depth, number of years for life cycle costing, interest, AMC, the annual maintenance, charges
rupees 1250 per hand pump. So, these are this specifications. The life cycle costing, calculate K,
we have found the bore well cost, we have found out the hand pump cost, add up these 2, you
will get the capital cost K. Then calculate the replacement, there is one replacement only for the
10th year, that is you have to replace 6 hand pumps.
The hand pump cost includes 6 hand pump divided by (1+ i) n, i10, you get the replacement cost,
then calculate the maintenance, the present worth factor is calculated and then maintenance is
852
AMC into, AMC here is 1250 per hand pump, into number of hand pumps, into the present
worth factor will give you the maintenance. Calculate AL, LCC, then calculate ALCC, the
annual cube, the annual water requirement is basically number of people and per person how
much he consumes per day, into 365 days and the unit water of water cost ALCC by annual
requirement, which will give you in rupees per m 3. Then I have the display section where I
display the various parameters.
So, if you execute a example 2, you will get the ALCC calculations for that, the bore well cost,
capital cost 60000, replacement cost, whatever we have calculated, present worth factor,
maintenance cost and the life cycle cost, again what we had calculated, annual cost and then you
see the unit cost of water is 10.89 Rs per m3.
So I will leave it to you here again for you to experiment with the different values for the system,
put in realistic numbers and try it for your water pumping system and try to calculate the unit
cost of water using the script file and modifying this script file, I will share this script file with
you in the resources section.
853
Prof. L. Umanand
Let us now consider one more example. In this example, let us see if lifecycle costing will help
us in performing a break-even analysis. Consider this situation, I have a community and at some
distance, there, there is a stream which can generate some amount of power, let us say, we have a
micro hydel plant and this micro hydel plant can transmit power through lines and reach the
community to power the community's electrical requirement. Now let us say the distance
between this micro hydel plant and the community is d kilometers.
Now the other option is, within the community we could have setup a PV system. So one
possibility to have micro hydel plant, transmit power to the community and other possibility to
have a local PV system to take care of the community's electrical requirements. Now, there is an
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LCC of the hydro system and then there is an LCC of this PV system. Which one to select, is the
question. So, the LCC analysis will give an economic analysis and then we could also perform
break-even, so that we can say what is the breakeven point, beyond a particular kilometers, I
should go for PV system, less than this particular kilometers, I should go for micro hydel system.
So, this kind of decision can be made from a the help of this lifecycle cost analysis. So, let us see
in this example, how we can benefit from LCC in this respect.
So let me now put on the data for the micro hydel plant and the PV plant, side by side. For the
micro hydel plant, let us say, the power is 1 kW, the plant installation is rupees 16,000. Cost of
transmission and distribution is rupees 18,500. Again, these are conceived values, one will have
to do a market survey and obtain realistic values. Cost of the line is 4000 rupees/km run. And
again, I want to stress that the importance here is in trying to follow the process of this LCC to
determine breakeven. These exact values we can always determine from the market forces.
The transmission efficiency is around 30% and for the PV, the following data is available. So,
the PV plus balance of system cost is Rs.100 per peak watt, the H at minimum at that place is 5
kW/m2/day, this means that, if you take standard insolation of 1 kW/m 2 for 5 hours, you will get
855
this insolation available to give you the same amount of energy, incident energy. Now, the life
term for both, we will consider 25 years and for both, we will take interest rate of 12% per year.
Now, let us perform this LCC, which is K+R+M. Now here, let us consider only the capital cost,
again just for understanding the process of this breakeven analysis, there will definitely be
replacements in both the systems and there will definitely be maintenance cost in both the
systems. But for the purpose of this analysis, because we have seen in previous examples, how to
go about calculating for replacement and maintenance, I would like to focus more on how to find
the breakeven points.
Therefore, for the purpose of this example, I will take R = 0 and M = 0 for both these systems
without loss of generality. So, let us just think about the capital cost for now and see how to do
breakeven analysis. Now, for both the systems, hydro and PV, let us find out the capital cost.
Now, the capital cost is, the installation cost, plus the transmission distribution cost, plus the line
cost. So, we saw that it is 16000 rupees for installation, 18500 rupees for transmission-
distribution, line cost 4000×d, d is the distance between the hydro electric power plant, the micro
hydel plant and the community.
856
So, we land up with 34,500+4000d. Now, in the case of PV, the PV cost × the power rating of
the PV. So let us say, the PV cost is given as 100 rupees per peak watt × x peak watts. Now, let
us say, the power in the PV is x, you will see that the x will cancel out for our breakeven. So it
could be any PV rating for now. Probably, it could be 1 kW rating. So, these two are the capital
costs. The capital cost will depend upon how much power you want to decide for the PV array.
Now we are taking R = 0 and M = 0, R = 0 at M = 0 in both the cases and now we will calculate
LCC. LCC for hydro electric plant, micro hydel is 34500 + 4000d and LCC for the PV is 100 ×x,
x is in Watts. The present worth is given by 1/i{1-(1/(1+i) 25)}. Now, remember that we are again
taking inflation as 0, one can as well take the inflation values from market forces and apply the
formula which contains inflation. So, you can find the present worth. We have discussed that. So,
this is 7.84 for the interest given, interest rate given and this is same for both the systems.
So, this is the present worth factor same for both in systems. Next, let us find ALCC for hydro,
which is LCC hydro by present worth, which is (34500 + 4000d)/7.84, which will be 4400+510d.
857
So, this is the ALCC, annual LCC, lifecycle cost for the hydro, micro hydro system and ALCC
for PV is LCC PV divided by present worth, which is 100x /7.84. So this is 12.76x. So, this is the
ALCC for the PV system.
So next, let us calculate, estimate the energy generated annually. Now for the hydro, we know it
is a 1 kW system × 24 hours. Because it is capable of delivering 1 kW in 24 hours. Its a hydel
system × 365 days × transmission efficiency of 0.3. So, we will get the energy that is actually
usable, generated, 2628 kWH. Now, for the PV plant E PV, we know x Watt is the rating, so
(x/1000) kW × hat minimum hours of operation × 365 days will give you, × 5 × 365, which is
1.825x, x being the rating in wattage.
So, this will be the this will be the energy generated by PV. Now, let us look at the cost/kWH.
The cost per kilo, kHW is also called unit. So cost per unit. So for hydro, Rs per unit or Rs per
kWH is ALCC hydro by energy generated annually by the hydro. So, both are annual terms,
(4400+510d)/2628. So, you will get 1.67+0.19d. This is the linear equation. It will be straight
line when you draw a graph of the unit cost versus d. Now for the PV, Rs per kWH or Rs per unit
858
is ALCC PV by energy generated by the PV which is 12.76x/1.825x, x will cancel out and the
Rs/kW is 7 Rs. So, this is the cost per kWH.
Now, the important thing, let us see, how to find the breakeven point. So, you equate, this cost
should be equal to this cost. So, let us equate and find out what is the value of d, that is 28
kilometers approximately. So, this 28 km is the breakeven point. If the distance of the
community from the micro hydel station is less than 28 kilometers, you will see that the micro
hydel plant is beneficial. If the distance of the community from the micro hydel plant is greater
than 28 kilometers and you will see that the PV plant is beneficial.
So that is basically the take away from this breakeven analysis and if the distance greater than 28
kilometers, a local PV plant would be more economical. So, this is how you could use LCC even
for doing a breakeven point analysis.
859
I have here with me a script file. Ex03.m, this is actually the script for solving the third LCC
example and here, we just now discussed how to find the breakeven point when you want to
decide between two systems which on would be the better one for application and under what
conditions. So, this is the statement of the problem. Estimate the unit cost of power from micro
hydel system as a function of transmission distance, also estimate the unit cost of power of a
comparable PV base system as a function of the PV wattage, find out the breakeven between
these two systems.
Now, we have worked it out manually. Now, this script file will also do the same job, but you
can change all these specification and then try to find out the breakeven points for different
conditions and different specifications. I will include this, I will share this file also with you in
the resource section. What I have done here is basically is to classify it into the following.
860
First, I have the sub-system data of the hydel and sub-system, system specification, this is the
hydel system. So, this is for the hydel, then I have the sub-system data and the system
specification of the PV. So, I have marked here in brackets, PV. So, the hydel cost, transmission
cost, distribution cost, line cost, all these things, I have put together in the system data and
systems specifications like the power rating 1000 watt, transmission efficiency, AMC for the
hydro, I kept it as 0, you could include later on to find out what happens with the annual
maintenance charges, d, I have kept it at 0, I will just, we will just see what happens.
x the rating of the PV system at 1000 and hat minimum 5, AMC for PV also kept At 0. Then there
are common specs like, the life, the LCC life term is for 25 years and interest of 12%. Then you
do the LCC costing. First for the hydro system. Calculate K, R, M, in this fashion. Of course, M
and R will turn out to be 0, because we have taken them as 0. Find out LCC, find out LCC,
ALCC, then annual energy, just like we calculated. This will give in watt hours and the unit
energy cost is ALCC by annual energy Rs per watt hour. You can convert it to kilo watt hour,
like as I have displayed here by dividing by 1000, multiplying by 1000.
Then, the display section does the display of all the parameters. Then you do the same exercise
for the PV system, calculate the capital, replacement cost, maintenance cost and the LCC, ALCC
for the PV, annual energy generation capability and the unit energy cost and then display them.
So, this is what actually script file contains. It automates the process for calculation therefore you
can quickly change the specification and find out for your systems.
Now, let us execute this and see Ex03. When you execute, you will see the display, first you
have the LCC calculate for hydro and the second part contains the LCC calculation for PV. Now
see here, the unit cost Rs/kW, 6.9 or 7 Rs in the case of the PV, we calculated and in the case of
the hydro, it is a function of d. 1.67 was and when d is 0. So, it is 1.67+ 0.19d. So, d is 0, it is
now only 1.67. Now, let us say d, I change into 50. it is greater than 28 km, 50km. Therefore,
hydro will become more expensive.
So if I re run this, so you will see that hydro is 11 Rs, 11.38 Rs, more as compared to the PV, PV
is more economical. So, if you are around that 28 point, both should be of similar values, you can
861
re-run them. So, you see, its 7 Rs, this is also 7 Rs, both. So, breakeven comes around that point.
So, in this way you can try to use this for solving breakeven problems.
862
THIS BOOK IS NOT FOR SALE
NOR COMMERCIAL USE
(044) 2257 5905/08 nptel.ac.in swayam.gov.in

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