PORTAL SYSTEM:

 It is the system where blood collected from organs are carried by portal veins to other
organs (portal organs) except heart. Here, venous blood collected from the organs is
distributed in portal organs. This blood is again recollected and finally carried to heart.
It starts as capillaries in one organs and end as capillaries in another organ. In human,
hepatic portal system and hypothalamo-hypophysial portal system is present while
renal portal system is absent.

HEPATIC PORTAL SYSTEM:

It is the system where blood collected from various part of alimentary is first carried to liver
via Hepatic portal vein. These venous blood is distributed in the liver. This blood is again
recollected and through hepatic vein it is carried to inferior venacava and finally to heart.

It is formed by the union of the following veins:

a. Cystic vein, which collects blood from the gall bladder.
b. Pancreatic vein, which collects blood from the pancreas.
c. Gastric vein, which collects blood from the stomach.
d. Duodenal vein, which collects blood from the duodenum.
e. Superior Mesenteric Vein, which collects blood from the small intestine and Caecum.
f. Inferior Mesenteric Vein, which collects blood from the rectum and colon.
g. Splenic vein, which collects blood from the spleen and parts of the stomach.
Significance of Hepatic portal system:
• The venous blood from the part of alimentary canal contains excess glucose which
is carried in the liver by the process of glycogenesis. (The liver stores excess
glucose into glycogen (glycogenesis). In case of need, glycogen is converted back
into glucose (glycogenolysis) and sent into blood.)

• Liver helps in deamination. ( Ammonia produced during protein metabolism is

converted into urea, which is carried to the kidneys by the process of deamination.
Excess amino acid are brought to the liver where it is deaminated by hepatic cells
by the process by deamination.)
• Fat cells are picked up by Kupffer cells. Kupffer cells of liver helps to engulf
microorganisms.
• Undesired substances are excreted by the liver  Liver helps in detoxification.
 Arterial blood circulation (Arterial System)
 It carries blood away from the heart and is of two types:

a) Pulmonary circulation:
It is the circulation of blood from the heart to the lungs. The RV pumps
deoxygenated blood into the pulmonary trunk or pulmonary aorta, which branches out into
two: Right and left pulmonary arteries, which pump deoxygenated blood to the right and
left lung, respectively.

b) Systemic circulation:
  It is the circulation of blood from the heart to different parts of the body.
The systemic aorta begins at the LV and passing upward, it bends backward and
then descends behind the heart through the thoracic cavity, giving off two
coronary arteries that supply blood to the heart muscles.
 The aortic arch gives rise to 3 branches that supply blood to the anterior part of
the body:
1) Right brachiocephalic/innominate artery
2) Left common carotid artery
3) Left subclavian artery

1) Brachiocephalic/innominate artery
It supplies blood to the right side of the head, neck and forelimb through 2 branches.
It divides into Right common carotid artery and Right subclavian artery.

i) Right Common Carotid:

It runs upward along the trachea and supplies blood to the right part of the head. It has
two branches:
External carotid artery, which supplies blood to the superficial portion of the head and face.
Internal Carotid Artery, which supplies blood to the brain, eyes, forehead and nose.

ii) Right subclavian artery

It supplies blood to the right part of the neck and fore arm through three
branches:
1. Right vertebral artery supplies blood to the neck.
2. Right axillary artery supplies blood to the scapular region.
 3. Right brachial artery supplies blood to the fore arm and branches into radial
and ulnar arteries

2) Left common carotid:

 It runs upward along the side of the trachea and supplies blood to the left side of the
head through two branches:
i) Left external carotid artery, which supplies blood to the left side of the head and
face. ii)Left internal carotid artery, which supplies blood to the left part of the brain,
eyes, forehead and nose.

3) Left subclavian artery:

 It supplies blood to the left arm through the following branches:

i) Left vertebral artery, which supplies blood to the left side of the neck.
ii) Left axillary artery, which supplies blood to the left shoulder.
iii) Left brachial artery, which supplies blood to the left hand via radial and ulnar arteries.

The aortic arch bends downward and supplies blood to the posterior parts of the body
through the following arteries:
a) Inferior phrenic artery, which supplies blood to the lower surface of the diaphragm.
b) Coeliac artery, which supplies blood to the stomach and liver.
c) Superior mesenteric artery, which supplies blood to the small intestine and the upper
parts of the large intestine.
d)Renal arteries, which supply blood to the kidneys.

e) Suprarenal arteries, which supply blood to the adrenal glands.

f) Genital arteries, which supply blood to the gonads.

g) Lumbar arteries , which supply blood to the posterior body wall and vertebrae of the
posterior abdominal cavity.

h)Inferior mesenteric arteries, which supply blood the colon and rectum.
i)Common Iliac artery, which divides into two in the pelvic region:
o A)External iliac artery, which runs downwards into each leg and as the
femoral artery and then divides into anterior and posterior tibial arteries.
B) Internal Iliac artery, which supplies blood to the pelvic region.
 VENOUS BLOOD CIRCULATION
It includes veins that carry deoxygenated blood from different parts of the
body to the heart, except pulmonary veins. The main veins are:
a) Circulation between the lungs and heart:
The veins involved are left and right pulmonary veins, which carry oxygenated blood
from the left and right lung, respectively to the left auricle of the heart.
b) Circulation of blood from different parts of the body:

The two large veins involved are:

I) Superior Venacava, which collects blood from the anterior
region and opens into RA.

It is formed by the union of two

veins:
a)Right brachiocephalic vein
b)Left brachiocephalic vein
. They run along the
trachea.
 Each brachiocephalic vein is formed by the union of three veins:
 External jugular vein, which collects blood from the face and
buccal cavity.
 Internal Jugular vein, which collects blood from the brain, eyes and ears.
 Subclavian vein, which collects blood from the shoulders and head through
the axillary and cephalic veins.

II) Inferior Vena cava, which collects blood from the posterior
parts of the body and opens into the RA.
 It is formed of:

a) Common Iliac vein, formed by the union of two veins on each side:
i) External Iliac vein, which collects blood from outside the leg
and parts of the pelvis. ii) Internal Iliac vein, which collects blood
from the rectum, ureter, urinary bladder, vagina, prostrate glands,
seminal vesicle, scrotum, penis, etc.

b) Lumbar veins, which collect blood from the lumbar region.

c) Genital veins, which collect blood from the gonads and are called
testicular veins in males and ovarian veins in females.

d) Renal veins, which collect blood from the kidneys.

e) Suprarenal veins, which collect blood from the adrenal glands.
f) Hepatic veins, which collect blood from the liver.
g) Inferior phrenic veins,that collect blood from the lower surface of the
diaphragm
ORIGIN AND CONDUCTION OF HEART BEAT:
Human heart has the intrinsic capacity to generate impulse. This type of heart where the
impulse required for the conduction of heart beat is generated by the specialized muscles of
heart is called Myogenic heart. The impulse is produced by the neuromuscular tissue
present in the heart called nodes.
Two types of nodes are present:
a. SA node ( Sinu-auricular node) or pacemeker
b. AV node ( Auriculo-ventricular node) or Pace-setter
A. Sinu-auricular node (SA node):
It is also called natural pacemaker as it initiates cardiac impulse for the conduction of
heart beat. It is located near the opening of superior venacava. SA node generates
impulse in regular interval and the rate of impulse generation is high in comparison to
AV node. It generates impulse at the rate of about 60-80/min thus initiates the heart
beat. The impulse generated by SA node spreads over the muscular wall of auricle
resulting the contraction of both the auricles.

B. Auriculo-ventricular node (AV node):

 It is also called pace-setter. It is located in the atrial near atrio-ventricular septum in
right auricle. AV node too has the capacity to generate cardiac impulse but the rate is
low in comparison to the SA node. Thus, the AV node functions under the influence of
SA node.

From the AV node arises a bundle called bundle of His or auriculo-ventricular bundle.
This bundle crosses the muscular fibre of auriculo-ventricular septum and enters into
the interventricular septum where it divides into right and left bundles. These right and
left bundles runs upto the apex of heart where they are further branched into fine fibres
called Purkinje fibres. The Purkinje fibres then innervates the muscular wall of
ventricles.
Thus, the cardiac impulse generated by SA node is received by AV node and is conducted to the
ventricle through AV bundle (bundle of His), right and left bundles and Purkinje fibres resulting
in the contraction of both ventricles.
Blood pressure
Blood pressure is a pressure exerted by the blood on the wall of blood vessels through
which it flows. It is also known as Arterial blood pressure. It is a pressure exerted by the
blood on the wall of the arteries.

It is of 2 types:
 Systolic blood pressure
 Diastolic blood pressure
a) Systolic blood pressure
It is the pressure of blood exerts on the wall of arteries at the end of systolic contraction of
ventricles.
In a healthy resting adult man it is about 120mm Hg.

b) Diastolic blood pressure

It is the pressure of blood exerts on the wall of arteries when the ventricles are maximally
relaxed. In a healthy resting adult man it is about 80 mmHg.The difference between the
systolic and diastolic pressure is called pulse pressure which is about 40 mmHg.
BP=Systolic blood pressure/Diastolic blood pressure The blood Pressure is measured by an
ausculatory method with the help of an instrument called Sphygmomanometer. It is
invented by Karot Koff in 1905. It is the indirect method of measurement of blood
pressure. Blood pressure is generally measured from brachial artery.

Hypertension: A condition in which a person has persistent high Bp of about

150/90mm Hg.
Causes of high blood pressure (hypertension)
i) Diet ii) Tension iii) Fear iv) Obesity
v) Emotional stress vi) Cholesterol vii)Rich diet viii) Smoking

Hypotension: A condition in which a person has persistent low Bp of about 100/50,

90/60mm Hg or even lower.
Causes:
i)Failure of pumping action of the heart.
ii) Loss of blood
Pacemaker
It is any structure that can generate impulse required for the conduction of heart beat.
SA node is called natural pacemaker. When SA node does not function properly due to
some conditions or disease, artificial pacemaker can be used.

Artificial pacemaker:
 An electrical device that can substitute for a defective natural pacemaker and control
the beating of the heart.

• Artificial pacemaker contain pulse generator and an electrode.

• Pulse generator is a sealed box containing lithium battery which can work for
around 10 years.
• The first artificial pacemaker was implanted by Chardack (1960).
• It is implanted below the collar bone and the electrode from the pacemaker is
connected with the muscular wall of ventricle thus helps in regulating heart beat.
• Artificial pacemaker can generate impulse in regular interval similar to SA node.
• It is implanted when the heart rate of a person falls 30 to 40% below normal.
Electrocardiogram(ECG)
It is the graphical representation of electrical activity of the heart.
The instrument was discovered by Einthoven (1903) and is known as the Father of
electrocardiography. Using this device, the electrical activity of the heart can be detected by
electrodes placed at the surface of the chest portion.

below:

 A normal graphical representation is shown

P- wave represent auricular depolarization
QRS- wave represent ventricular depolarization
T- wave represent ventricular repolarization
 Terms of circulatory system
1. Heart beat:
The rhythmic contraction and relaxation of the cardiac muscles is known as heart
beat. It includes :
a. Systole: A contraction phase of a chamber of the heart.
b. Diastole: A relaxation phase of a chamber of the heart.

2. Pulse
It is a wave of distention felt on wall of artery during ventricular contraction.
Heart rate
It is defined as number of pulse per minute ( or heart beat per minute).
In normal person, the heart beats about 72 times per minute.
H.R=72 times/minute

3. Cardiac cycle:
The contraction and relaxation of different parts of heart in definite time period in cyclic
way. This is called cardiac cycle.
The heart beat is completed in following stages.
1. Atrial systole:
It is the phase of contraction of both auricles. It lasts for 0.1second.
2. Ventricular systole:
It is the phase of contraction of both ventricles. It lasts for0.3 seconds.
3. Joint/ combined diastole:
It is the phase of All 4 chambers of heart undergoes relaxation.
At this time both auricles undergo relaxation. Both auricles are filled with blood. It lasts for
0.4 seconds.
Thus, cardiac cycle is completed in about 0.8 seconds in normal adults.

4. Stoke volume
It is amount of blood pumped out from ventricle in a single ventricular contraction.
It is denoted by S.V.
It is about 70ml.
5. Cardiac output (CO)
It is the amount of blood pumped out by each ventricle per minute.
The stroke volume and heart rate on multiplication give the cardiac output.
C.O= H.Rx S.V
=72x70
=5040ml
=5 lit/ minute
 Around 5 litres of blood is pumped out from ventricle in one minute.

6. Heart sound:
It is the sound produced in the heart during the closure of valves.
Various sound are produced in the heart. They are:

A. First heart sound: It is produced during the closure of auriculo-ventricular valve.

The sound heard is called lubb. It is low pitch, not so loud and of long duration
(0.15sec).

B. Second heart sound: It is produced during the closure of semilunar valves. The
sound heard is dup. It is high pitch, louder and sharper and of short duration (0.12sec).
• The first and second sounds can be heard by using stethoscope. Besides,
third and fourth heart sounds are also produced in heart and can be heard by
using phonocardiogram.
• The third sound is heard during the rapid filling of ventricles while fourth
sound is heard during contraction of auricles.
• Heart Murmur: The abnormal sound produced in the heart is called
murmur. Sometimes, valves become defective and do not close completely.
This causes leakage of blood, resulting in a soft hissing sound called heart
murmur. It can be detected by stethoscope.
• Heart sound gives the information about how the valves are working.
Blood vessels
a) Arteries: They carry blood away from the heart to the tissues.
b) Veins: They carry blood to the heart from the tissues.
c) Capillaries: They connect arteries and veins.

Histologically, the walls of the arteries and veins are made up of three layers of tissues:

i) Tunica externa: Outermost layer, made up of fibrous tissue.

Ii) Tunica media: Middle layer made up of elastic tissues and smooth muscles.
Iii) Tunica interna: Innermost layer made up of squamous epithelium called endothelium.
Since tunica media has more layers of elastic tissues in the arteries, they are thick-walled .

Difference between Artery and Vein.

The Rhesus (Rh) system/ Rhesus Factor
It is an antigen called Rh factor present on the surface of RBC which was discovered by
Karl Landsteiner and Wiener in 1940 in Rhesus monkey , so the name Rh
factor or Rhesus factor.

 On the basis of Rhesus factor, blood groups are classified into two groups:
Rh positive and Rh negative.
A person is said to be Rh positive, if Rh factor (D-factor) is present on the surface of
RBC and is said to be Rh negative, if Rh factor (D-factor) is absent on the surface of
RBC.

NOTE: AROUND 85% OF HUMAN POPULATION IS Rh+ positive.

Importance of Rh factor
During blood transfusion
During pregnancy

Rh incompatibility

• When a man with Rh positive factor marries a Rh negative woman, then their first
child is RH positive.
• During the fetal development of first child, the Rh factor enters into the circulation
of mother through placenta which evoke the production of antibodies against Rh
factor.
• But during the first child, the antibodies produced by mother is not sufficient to
harm the fetus, so the first child may be normal.
• But during the second child, if the fetus is again Rh positive, the antibodies
produced by the mother enter into the circulation of fetus. Here, in RBC, antigen
and antibodies react and cause destruction of RBC leading to anaemia and
jaundice.
• The fetus may die within the uterus or if the child is born it may be premature
anemia and jaundice.
• This complication that occurs in the fetus due to Rh incompatibility is called
Erythroblastosis foetalis ( haemolytic disease of the new born).
BLUE BABY:
 It is a human baby born with a hole in the inter ventricular septum due to which
oxygenated blood in the LV mixes along with deoxygenated blood in the RV.
Such a baby is born with a blue tinge on their lips and skin and are therefore called blue babies
and the heart is called blue baby heart