Soil & Tillage Research 158 (2016) 32–38

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Soil & Tillage Research

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Influence of lime and gypsum application on soil properties and yield of

cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz.) in a degraded Ultisol in Agbani,
Enugu Southeastern Nigeria
M.A.N. Anikwe* , J.C. Eze, A.N. Ibudialo
Department of Agronomy and Ecological Management, Faculty of Agriculture and Natural Resources Management, Enugu State University of Science and
Technology, Enugu State, Nigeria

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history: The experiment was carried out to examine the influence of lime and gypsum on soil physicochemical
Received 10 April 2015 properties in a degraded Typic paleusult during 2013 and 2014 rainy season in Agbani, Enugu
Received in revised form 17 September 2015 Southeastern Nigeria (6
290 N and 7
540 E). A Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) using lime and
Accepted 19 October 2015
gypsum as treatments at the rate of 5000 kg ha1 lime, 2500 kg ha1 gypsum, 5000 kg ha1
Available online 18 December 2015
lime + 2500 kg ha1 gypsum and a control without lime and gypsum treatments, replicated five (5)
times using cassava (TMS 0304) as test crop was used for the experiment. Soil pH in plots amended with
Keywords:
5000 kg ha1 lime (5.7 and 5.4) increased relative to the control by between 16 and 17% for both planting
Lime
Gypsum
seasons. Soils amended with 2500 kg ha1 of gypsum had lower pH relative to plots amended with
Soil properties 5000 kg ha1 lime. However, Soil application of a combination of 5000 kg ha1 of lime and 2500 kg ha1
Cassava yield of gypsum increased soil pH by 19–20% when compared to the control for both seasons. Soil application of
Degraded Ultisols a combination of 5000 kg ha1 of lime and 2500 kg ha1 of gypsum increased soil exchangeable Ca2+ by
57% when compared to the control for both seasons. Soil percent base saturation was significantly
improved from 72.8% to 93.0% relative to control when 5000 kg ha1 lime + 2500 kg ha1 gypsum was
applied to the soil. Results showed that at 90 DAP in both seasons, soil dry bulk density in plots amended
with 5000 kg ha1 lime (1.58 and 1.62 Mg m3) decreased relative to the control by between 5 and 7% for
both planting seasons. Soil application of a combination of 5000 kg ha1 of lime and 2500 kg ha1 of
gypsum reduced soil dry bulk density by about 17% when compared to the control for both seasons. The
highest soil total porosity (46.4%) was found in plots with a combination of lime and gypsum at
5000 kg ha1 and 2500 kg ha1 respectively. The result also showed that soil water transmissivity
improved from about 31.85 cm3 h1 in the control plots to 37.60 cm3 h1 in plots treated with
2500 kg ha1 gypsum and up to 35.7 cm3 h1 in treated with 5000 kg ha1 lime then to 41.40 cm3 h1 in
plots treated with 5000 kg ha1 lime + 2500 kg ha1 gypsum. At 90 DAP the highest mean plant height of
cassava (86–92 cm) was found in plots treated with 5000 kg ha1 lime + 2500 kg ha1 gypsum. This was
followed by plots treated 2500 Kg ha 1 gypsum (59–62 cm) and those treated with 5000 kg ha1 lime
(61–66 cm) whereas the untreated (control plots) had a plant height of 61–64 cm. Plots treated with
5000 kg ha1 lime + 2500 kg ha1 gypsum had the highest mean fresh tuber yield of 9.5 Mg ha1. This was
followed by plots treated with 2500 kg ha1 gypsum which gave a mean fresh tuber yield of 7.2 Mg ha1,
plots treated with 5000 kg ha1 lime followed with 6.8 Mg ha1 while the lowest tuber yield was found in
untreated plots which had 6.1 Mg ha1. The significant treatment differences on soil physical and
chemical properties of the study soil due to effect of the treatments could be attributed to the ability of
Ca2+ applied via lime and gypsum to flocculate soil particles thereby creating an enabling soil physical
condition for better nutrient uptake, proper infiltration and aeration, increased P availability and
optimum pH for proper growth of cassava.
ã 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Cassava (Manihot spp.) belongs to the family of euphorbiaceae

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: anikwema@yahoo.co.uk (M.A.N. Anikwe), cjezee@yahoo.com
and from the genus of Manihot. Cassava is an important root crop
(J.C. Eze), dtonytonero@yahoo.com (A.N. Ibudialo). popularly grown in Sub-Sahara Africa more especially in the humid

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2015.10.011
0167-1987/ ã 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
 M.A.N. Anikwe et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 158 (2016) 32–38
tropics. Hahn et al. (1987) postulated that cassava was rapidly
adopted by farmers and integrated into the traditional farming and
food systems of Africa because of its adaptability to traditional
farming and food system, relative ease of cultivation and
processing, year round availability and insurance against crop
failure, low input requirement and relative high yield of food
energy (calories) per calories of labour input. It has feeder roots
that grow vertically into the soil to a depth of 1m, thus the reason
for its ability to tolerate drought and low soil fertility (Cock and
Howeler, 1978). Cassava can grow in all types of soil but best grown
in a well drained sandy loam soil of average fertility. There is every
need to adopt the most suitable cultural practices and method that
will boost the yield of cassava. Even though cassava is said to have
the ability to yield under low soil fertility, the relative yield is
higher under high soil fertility, hence the need to improve our
degraded Ultisols for better yield.
Degraded Ultisols are characterized by low fertility and high
acidity which may be caused by over exploitation, erosion or
leaching. Farmers in attempt to overcome this challenge adopted
the strategy of chemical fertilizer application. Approach of farmers
toward chemical fertilizer usage has posed a big threat to soil
physical quality status. According to Anikwe (2006) less attention
has been given to the soil physical status without considering the
fact that both the chemical and biological functions of the soil with
reference to crop production are controlled by the physical status
of the soil. Poor soil structure and acidity are attributes of long term
effect of continuous application of chemical fertilizer. In many
highly weathered soils, subsoil penetration by roots and water
transmissivity are severely limited by chemical and physical
barriers such as Al toxicity, hardpans and dense textural B horizons
(Sumner et al., 1990). Previous work has demonstrated the
efficiency of surface applied gypsum and lime in ameliorating
such chemical and physical barriers after sufficient time has
elapsed to allow the gypsum to leach into the subsoil. These
improvements in soil physical condition appear to be due to both a
root effect and a direct effect of the gypsum on flocculation and
aggregation (Sumner et al., 1990; Harrison et al., 1992). Mora et al.
(2002) studied the effects of amending an acid Andisol with lime
and gypsum on some soil properties pH, aluminum (Al) saturation,
the plant-availability of sulfur (S) and phosphorus (P), and the
growth, botanical, and chemical composition of a ryegrass/white
clover pasture in a field trial. They found that combined
amendment of limestone, dolomite and gypsum raised soil pH
slightly, decreased Al saturation from 20 to less than 1% and
increased the concentration of plant available P, S, calcium (Ca),
magnesium (Mg), and potassium (K) in the soil.
With these effects, it is pertinent to study the possible influence
of lime and gypsum on the physicochemical properties of the
degraded Ultisols.
Lime is basically calcium or magnesium oxide, carbonates and
hydroxides. There are about four types of lime; quicklime (CaO),
slake lime (Ca(OH)2), limestone (CaCO3) and dolomite. Lime is
applied in the soil to neutralize soil acidity caused by Al3+ and H+
ions, supply Ca or Mg as nutrient for plant growth and improve the
physical conditions of the soil by providing high level of
exchangeable divalent cations which tend to coagulate the soil
colloids especially for soils of temperate areas (Ngwu, 2006).
Gypsum on the other hand has been introduced in the advanced
countries as a necessary tool for soil amendment and fertilizer for
over 200 years. Gypsum (CaSO4) has been used as reliable fertilizer to
supplement sulfur (S) requirement of the soil. It is a cheap means to
remedy soils suffering from S deficiency. It also provides high level of
exchangeable divalent cations which tend to coagulate the soil
colloids especially for soils of temperate areas (Ngwu, 2006).
Moreover, Gypsum provides calcium which is needed to flocculate
clay in acid and alkaline soils (Sheinberg et al., 1989; Sumner et al.,
33
1986). Soil flocculation is needed to enhance favourable soil
structure for root growth, air and water movement. Water
infiltration and hydraulic conductivity of soils are improved by
Gypsum application (Sheinberg et al., 1989). It aids in protection
against excess water runoff and erosion. Peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.)
was grown in a highly weathered Typic Paleudult soil amended with
lime (CaCO3), gypsum (CaSO4), or varying ratios of each (Syed-Omar
et al., 1990). The soils used in this experiment were leached with
water after amendment, and the addition of Ca as either gypsum or
lime resulted in significant decreases in soil Al. The effects of the
addition of lime or gypsum may have been due to a reduction in soil
Al and/or an increase in soil pH, rather than an increase in soil Ca
(Brauer et al., 2002). Understanding whether the benefits of soil
lime and/or gypsum application on the growth crops in degraded
Ultisols are due to effects on soil pH, Ca or improvements in soil
physical quality is of more of concern today than in the past.
Large deposits of gypsiferous shales are found in parts of Nigeria.
Gypsum resources have not been studied extensively with the aim of
using them in Nigeria’s agriculture, for instance for the fertilization of
groundnuts, or to supplement fertilizers with the much needed
sulphur nutrient component, or for remediation of alkaline saline
soils and amelioration of physically degraded soils (Anikwe, 2011).
Since Agbani soils are degraded Ultisols characterized by low
productivity and high acidity, it was deemed necessary to
introduce lime and gypsum as an ameliorant in order to reclaim
and improve the fertility and productivity of the soil.
The general objective of this research work is to examine the
influence of lime and gypsum on some soil physiochemical
properties and yield of cassava in a degraded ultisol in Enugu Area,
southeastern Nigeria.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Soil characterization
The research was carried out at research farm of Faculty of
Agriculture and Natural Resources Management Enugu State
University of Science and Technology, Agbani during 2013 and
2014 farming season. The farm is located in Latitude 6
290 N and
Longitude 7
540 E with estimated annual rainfall of about 1700–
2060 mm. The soil is of shale parent material classified as Typic
Paleustult and has a sandy loam texture (Anikwe et al., 2007).
2.2. Field method
The site was slashed and cleared with cutlass and traditional hoe.
The total land area of 21  21 m (441 m2) divided into 20 experimen-
tal units of 4  3 m (12 m2) with 1 m alley was marked out carefully
using randomized complete block design (RCBD) with 4 treatments.
Cassava was manually planted using stem cuttings of about 25–
30 cm long at 1 1m plant spacing. The stem cuttings contained at
least three internodes and were planted at angle of 45
. Three
weeding regimes were employed to reduce weed competition in
each of the season. These were manually done using small hoe at 30,
60 and 90 DAP. The treatments (Agricultural lime (Calcium carbonate
with 37% calcium) bought from Enugu State Agricultural Develop-
ment Project and ground gypsum [Ca (19%), Mg (1.30%), S (15.3%), P
(30.0 Cmol/kg)) collected from Nigeria Cement Company Nkalagu,
were basally applied and worked in with spade prior to planting
using, 5000 kg ha1 lime, 2500 kg ha1 gypsum, 5000 kg ha1 lime +
2500 kg ha1 gypsum and control replicated 5 times.
2.3. Determination of soil and plant parameters
Soil samples (collected from 4 points in each plot at 90 DAP was
analysed in the laboratory for total nitrogen (N), available
34 M.A.N. Anikwe et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 158 (2016) 32–38
phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg),
sodium (Na), pH, SOC, and cation exchange capacity (CEC). Total N
was determined by the macro Kjeldahl method (Bremner, 1982).
Available P was determined using Bray II method as outlined in
Olsen (1982). Soil organic carbon (SOC) was analysed by the
Walkley/Black procedure (Nelson and Sommers, 1982). Soil pH in
KCl was measured by the glass electrode pH meter (Mclean, 1982).
The exchangeable cations and cation exchange capacity (CEC) were
determined by the method described by Thomas (1982). Particle
size distribution was determined by hydrometer method (Gee and
Orr, 2002). Dry bulk density was determined by the core method
(Grossman and Reinsch, 2002). Total porosity values were derived
from bulk density data. Saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksat)
was determined by the method of Klute and Dirksen (1986).
Meter rule was used to measure plant height from the base level
to the tip of the last formed leaf. Five plants were selected at
random in each plot and measured, which was averaged to give
plant height per plant. In determining the number of leaves, five
plants were also randomly selected from each plot. The number of
the leaves was averaged to determine number of leaves per plant.
Five plants per plot were as well harvested to get the fresh tuber
weight at 90 DAP, the fresh tubers were weighed in a scale and the
average taken to give the tuber weight per plant. Also, the leaf area
index was determined at 30, 60 and 90 DAP according to the
method of Watson (1958).
2.4. Data analysis
The data collected from the experiment was analyzed using
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) for randomized complete block
design using Fisher’s least significant different at P = 0.05 according
to the procedures outlined by Steel and Torrie (1980) and detection
between treatment means as described by Obi (1986).
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Soil chemical properties of the study sites
The results presented in Table 1 show that the treatments
affected soil pH at 90 DAP. Soil pH in plots amended with
5000 kg ha1 lime (5.7 and 5.4) increased relative to the control by
between 16 and 17% for both planting seasons. Soil application of a
combination of 5000 kg ha1 of lime and 2500 kg ha1 of gypsum
increased soil pH by 19–20% when compared to the control for both
seasons. Soils amended with 2500 kg ha1 of gypsum had lower pH
relative to plots amended with 5000 kg ha1 lime. There was a
general trend in pH reduction in 2014 relative to 2013 and this may
be related more to removal of exchangeable cations through crop
removals, erosion, leaching etc. Due to the chemistry and causes of
soil acidity, and the different ways in which lime and gypsum react
in the soil, gypsum may not affect the pH of the topsoil when
surface applied or incorporated by typical methods. However,
gypsum is able to offset some of the toxic effects of extremely acid
subsoil in some soil types. To neutralize soil acidity, any soil
amendment must either convert the H+ into another non-acidic
Table 1
Effect of lime and gypsum application on selected soil chemical properties at 90 DAP.
Treatments pH (H20)
2013 2014
No amendments 4.8 4.5
Lime 5000 kg ha1 5.7 5.4
Gypsum 2500 kg ha1 5.5 5.0
Lime 5000 kg ha1 + gypsum 2500 kg ha1 5.9 5.7
F-Lsd (P = 0.05) 0.2 0.5
form of H or cause the minerals which generate the H+ to stop or
slow that process. Carbonates act directly upon the H+ by causing it
to combine with carbon dioxide (CO2) to form water. Since gypsum
does not change the form of soil H+, there is no change in soil pH.
Results in Table 1 also showed that soil exchangeable Ca2+ was
highly influenced by the application of the treatments. Soil
exchangeable Ca2+ in plots amended with 5000 kg ha1 lime
(4.6 and 4.8) increased relative to the control by about 42% for both
planting seasons. Soils amended with 2500 kg ha1 of gypsum had
lower soil exchangeable Ca2+ relative to plots amended with
5000 kg ha1 lime. However, Soil application of a combination of
5000 kg ha1 of lime and 2500 kg ha1 of gypsum increased soil
exchangeable Ca2+ by 57% when compared to the control for both
seasons.
Results (Table 1) also indicated that soil application of
5000 kg ha1 of lime had a highly significant effect on the
availability of soil P by increasing the available P from 7.5 Cmol/
kg and 7.9 Cmol/kg in the respective seasons to 13.9 Cmol/kg.
Whereas application of gypsum at 2500 kg ha1 did not increase
the available P. This indicated that gypsum had no aggrading effect
on improving soil available P. Working with a gypsiferous soil, Al-
Merey et al. (2004) hypothesized that the HCO3 – of Olsen solution
(0.5 M NaHCO3) and the strips of resin (saturated with HCO3) may
react with CaSO4 to form CaCO3 and CO2 that resulted in decreasing
the strength of the soil tests to extract available P and also the
CaCO3 formed may adsorb and/or precipitate extractable P in soil
solution. In other words, gypsum could underestimate Olsen-P and
resin P in alkaline soils. Recently, Chien et al. (2009) showed
physical evidence of the formation of CaCO3 as suggested by
Al-Merey et al. (2004). They also noted the same problem in the
extraction of available P that was underestimated by resin and
Olsen methods in calcareous soils. However, there is no informa-
tion on possible similar interaction between the evaluated
available P and applied gypsum in tropical acid soils where
gypsum is often applied to improve the quality of subsoil for plant
growth. The formation of CaCO3 may adsorb and/or precipitate
extractable P in soil solution. Furthermore, in a recent study by
Misra et al. (2007), it was observed that Olsen-P decreased in the
reclaimed alkaline saline soils treated with water-soluble P and
gypsum. They explained that Ca from gypsum precipitated P as less
soluble Ca–P without knowing that the reaction of gypsum and
Olsen solution resulting in a weakening strength of Olsen solution
could also be responsible for the decrease in Olsen-P as reported by
Al-Merey et al. (2004) and Chien et al. (2009).
The results as shown in Table 1 indicated that soil percent base
saturation was significantly improved from 72.8% to 93.0% relative
to control when 5000 kg ha1 lime + 2500 kg ha1 gypsum was
applied to the soil. The soil application of 2500 kg ha1 of gypsum
on the other hand also significantly increased the soil percent base
saturation to 91.6% whereas application of 5000 kg ha1 lime
increased the percent base saturation by 75.3% relative to the
control plots.
The respective increase in soil pH of the study site in both
seasons may be because lime and gypsum with large amounts of
calcium increase soil pH. However, gypsum contains small
Ca2+(Cmol/Kg) Av. P (Cmol/Kg) Base sat. (%)
2013 2014 2013 2014 2013 2014
2.2 2.6 7.5 7.9 71.3 74.2
4.6 4.8 13.5 14.2 74.7 75.8
3.8 4.0 7.5 7.7 90.0 93.2
5.0 5.4 5.6 5.8 91.3 94.7
1.4 1.1 1.8 2.1 1.9 2.3
 M.A.N. Anikwe et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 158 (2016) 32–38 35

amounts of sulphur which can spike soil acidity. According to Table 3

Influence of lime and gypsum on plant height (cm/plant) of cassava.
Sumner et al. (1986) who demonstrated the feasibility of using
gypsum to penetrate to the subsoil, lime has proved to correct Treatments Days after planting
acidity in surfaces of soils but the fact is that it has been found 30 60 90
unsuitable for correcting subsoil acidity because lime does not
2013 2014 2013 2014 2013 2014
move readily down the profile. This, however, shows that the
significant treatment effect may be because lime and gypsum have No amendments 7.8 10.0 29.2 30.0 61.6 64.0
Lime 5000 kg ha1 8.2 10.4 29.7 30.2 61.9 66.0
acid neutralizing potential. The pH of soils treated with 5000 kg
Gypsum 2500 kg ha1 9.1 11.8 31.7 33.0 59.4 62.4
ha1 lime significantly increased because lime has the potential of Lime 5000 kg ha1 + 12.5 15.8 50.0 64.0 86.8 92.6
short term surface amelioration of soil acidity. The most effective gypsum 2500 kg ha1
amelioration of surface soil layers are achieved by broadcast F-Lsd (P = 0.05) 2.3 1.2 2.1 2.6 3.1 3.8
application of lime followed by mechanical blending.
The higher percent base saturation in treated soils was as a
result of increased release of Na, K, Ca and Mg by decomposing lime compacted soils and decrease penetrometer resistance. Bulk
and gypsum. Higher percent base saturation in the treated soils density is inversely related to total porosity and hydraulic
relative to untreated soils imply that the treated soils have more conductivity which implies that a reduction in bulk density causes
exchangeable cations which is a positive productivity indicator an increase in the total porosity and hydraulic conductivity of the
(Anikwe et al., 2005; Woomer et al., 1994). soil. These were confirmed by the results from this work. Calcium
is known to flocculate soil particles and therefore creates more
3.2. Soil physical properties of the study sites pore spaces in the soil. According to Lal et al., 2014, if all soil
separates or primary particles are aggregated into secondary
The results from the work show that the treatments affected the particles, the porosity is much greater than when not aggregated.
soil dry bulk density, soil total porosity and saturated hydraulic Also porosity and other physical properties are significantly
conductivity (Table 2). The bulk density of the study site before influenced by liming (Classen et al., 2000). Aggregates are clusters
treatment application was 1.68 Mg m3. Results showed that at of soil particles; their spacing influences water infiltration and
90 DAP in both seasons, soil dry bulk density in plots amended with calcium can potentially bind soil particles into aggregates to help
5000 kg ha1 lime (1.58 and 1.62 Mg m3) decreased relative to the with water infiltration (Walworth, 2006). Gypsum helps prevent
control by between 5 and 7% for both planting seasons. Soils soil particulate dispersion, decreases surface crust formation, aids
amended with 2500 kg ha1 of gypsum had lower soil dry bulk in seedling emergence, increases water infiltration, and decreases
density relative to plots amended with 5000 kg ha1 lime. the loss of soil and nutrients due to surface runoff and erosion
However, in soils amended with a combination of 5000 kg ha1 (Chen and Dick, 2011). Gypsum improve water infiltration rates,
of lime and 2500 kg ha1 of gypsum, soil dry bulk density was improve hydraulic conductivity of the soil and improves water
lower by about 17% when compared to the control for both seasons. storage in the soil. All these translate to deeper rooting and better
It can be deduced from these results that the bulk density of soil water use efficiency (Sheinberg et al., 1989).
generally reduced by application of lime and gypsum. Total
porosity measurements have an inverse relationship with bulk 3.3. Influence of lime and gypsum on plant height at 30, 60 and 90 DAP.
density therefore, the results follow the same trend as bulk density.
The highest soil total porosity (46.4%) was found in plots with a Results of the study in Table 3 show that the treatment
combination of lime and gypsum at 5000 kg ha1 and 2500 kg ha1 application significantly affected plant height of cassava at 30,
respectively. The results also showed that soil total porosity of the 60 and 90 DAP in both seasons. At the early stages of crop
plots treated with 5000 kg ha1 lime was 40.38% whereas the development (30 DAP), taller plants (12–16 cm) were found in
control plots had the lowest soil total porosity of 36.9%. Soil in plots plots amended with 5000 kg ha1 lime + 2500 kg ha1 gypsum in
treated with 2500 kg ha1 gypsum indicated a slight increase in both seasons. This was followed by plots treated with 2500 kg ha1
soil total porosity (38.49%). These results indicate that lime gypsum which were between 9 and 12 cm tall in both seasons.
(CaCO3) and gypsum flocculates soil particles and creates more Finally plots treated with 5000 kg ha1 lime and the control plots
pore spaces within the soil layer. Soil saturated hydraulic had shorter (8–10 cm) plants. At 60 DAP the tallest plants
conductivity of the study soils were significantly affected by the (50–64 cm) were also found in plots treated with 5000 kg ha1
treatment applications at 90 DAP (Table 2). The result showed that lime + 2500 kg ha1 gypsum. At 90 DAP the highest mean plant
the soil water transmissivity improved from about 31.85 cm h1 in height of cassava (86–92 cm) was found in plots treated with
the control plots to 37.60 cm h1 in plots treated with 2500 kg ha1 5000 kg ha1 lime + 2500 kg ha1 gypsum. This was followed by
gypsum and up to 35.7 cm h1 in treated with 5000 kg ha1 lime plots treated 2500 Kg ha 1 gypsum (59–62 cm) and those treated
then to 41.40 cm h1 in plots treated with 5000 kg ha1 lime + with 5000 kg ha1 lime (61–66 cm) whereas the untreated (control
2500 kg ha1 gypsum. plots) had a plant height of 61–64 cm. Besides plots treated with
Bulk density of the soil was highly influenced by the treatments 5000 kg ha1 lime + 2500 kg ha1 gypsum where plants were
because according to Sheinberg et al., 1994, gypsum can break up

Table 2
Effect of lime and gypsum application on selected soil physical properties at 90 DAP.

Treatments Bulk density (Mg m3) Total porosity (%) K sat. (Cm/h)

2013 2014 2013 2014 2013 2014

No amendments 1.67 1.68 37.0 36.6 30.3 33.4
Lime 5000 kg ha1 1.58 1.62 40.4 38.9 35.3 36.1
Gypsum 2500 kg ha1 1.53 1.50 42.3 43.4 36.8 38.4
Lime 5000 kg ha1 + gypsum 2500 kg ha1 1.42 1.45 46.4 45.3 40.8 42.0
F-Lsd (P = 0.05) 0.04 0.02 3.4 3.1 2.2 2.6
36 M.A.N. Anikwe et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 158 (2016) 32–38

significantly taller, plant height in all other plots were statistically
comparable.
3.4. Influence of lime and gypsum on number of leaves at 30, 60 and
90 DAP
Results of the study in Table 4 show that the treatment
application did not significantly affect number of leaves of cassava
at 30 DAP in the first season but had a significant effect on the
number of leaves per plant in the second season. The highest mean
number of leaves per plant at 30 DAP (24) was found in plots
treated with 5000 kg ha1 lime + 2500 kg ha1 gypsum for both
seasons. This was statistically higher than the untreated plots by
33%. The number of leaves per plant in all other plots at 30 DAP
were statistically comparable. At 60 DAP the highest mean number
of leaves per plant (60) was found in plots treated with
5000 kg ha1 lime + 2500 kg ha1 gypsum, followed by plots
treated with gypsum 2500 kg ha1 with 45 leaves per plant, then
plots treated with lime 5000 kg ha1 and untreated plots with
40 leaves per plant. However, at 90 DAP the highest mean number
of leaves was found in plots treated with 5000 kg ha1 lime +
2500 kg ha1 gypsum which had 81.2 leaves per plant, followed by
plots treated with 2500 kg ha1 gypsum with 67 leaves per plant,
whereas untreated plots followed with 58.9 leaves per plant.
3.5. Influence of lime and gypsum on leaf area index (LAI) of cassava at
30, 60 and 90 DAP
The effect of the treatments on leaf area index (LAI) of cassava
plants at 30, 60 and 90 DAP. The results showed that the treatment
application had a significant effect on the LAI. At 30 DAP, plots
treated with 5000 kg ha1 lime + 2500 kg ha1 gypsum gave the
highest LAI (46.25). This was followed by plots treated with
2500 kg ha1 gypsum which had 29.55 whereas plots treated with
5000 kg ha1 lime had LAI of 16.35 followed by untreated plots
with LAI of 14.00. At 60 DAP the highest mean LAI (263) was found
in plots treated with 5000 kg ha1 lime + 2500 kg ha1 gypsum.
This was followed by plots treated with 2500 kg ha1 gypsum
which had LAI of 142 whereas plots treated with 5000 kg ha1 lime
and untreated plots had LAI of 115.20 and 102 respectively. At
90 DAP the highest mean LAI (413) was found in plots treated with
5000 kg ha1 lime + 2500 kg ha1 gypsum. This was followed by
plots treated with 2500 kg ha1 gypsum which had LAI of 346,
whereas plots treated with 5000 kg ha1 lime and untreated plots
followed with LAI of 256 and 208 respectively (Table 5).
2500 kg ha1 gypsum had the highest mean fresh tuber yield of
9.5 Mg ha1. This was followed by plots treated with 2500 kg ha1
gypsum which gave a mean fresh tuber yield of 7.2 Mg ha1, plots
treated with 5000 kg ha1 lime followed with 6.8 Mg ha1 while
the lowest tuber initiation was found in untreated plots which had
6.1 Mg ha1.
At 30 DAP no significant treatment difference was found on
plant height and number of leaves, even though the pH of the soil
before the treatment application is optimum (6.65) for the growth
of cassava. The non-significant treatment difference may probably
be because the calcium content of the soil was already optimum
(2.20 Cmol/kg) before the treatment application, which means that
it is not necessary for further addition of Ca. According to Enwezor
et al. (1989) for most crops, response to Ca fertilizer is expected
when exchangeable Ca is less than 0.2–0.8 Cmol/kg whereas at
60 and 90 DAP the treatment application became significantly
effective. However this may be because the treatment application
was able to improve the physical condition of the soil at this point.
Gypsum provides calcium which is needed to flocculate clay in acid
and alkaline soils (Sheinberg et al., 1989; Sumner et al., 1986). Soil
flocculation is needed to enhance favorable soil structure for root
growth, air and water movement. Also application of lime to acid
soils decreases the solubility of Al and Mn and possibly increases
the availability of P and by liming the soil, soil P can be available to
plants (Ngwu, 2006). Lime puts soils in desirable pH range
allowing the plant nutrient to be readily available for plant use. It
also reduces the toxicity of Al, Mn, Fe, improves soil structure and
controls infiltration (Ngwu, 2006).
On the other hand, tuber initiation however was significantly
influenced in both seasons. The significant treatment effect found
can be attributed to the ability of Ca to flocculate soil particles
thereby creating an enabling soil physical condition for better
nutrient uptake, proper infiltration and aeration and increased
P availability. As the bulk density of the soil was reduced by the
treatments it is obvious that there will be a significant effect on the
growth parameters of the crop because bulk density can be used to
determine if soil layer is too compact to allow root penetration,
adequate aeration and infiltration (Anikwe, 2006). Arshad et al.,
1996 indicated that for loamy sands, ideal bulk density for plant
growth is <1.60 Mg m3. It can be deduced that soil treatment with
5000 kg ha1 lime + 2500 kg ha1 gypsum gave the best result
needed for the optimum growth of cassava. Moreover bulk density
has a chain effect on the soil physical properties. It relates inversely
to total porosity, infiltration rate, aeration, permeability and
nutrient distribution in the soil.

3.6. Influence of lime and gypsum on fresh tuber yield of cassava at 3.7. Relationship between tuber yield of cassava and soil
180 DAP physicochemical properties as influenced by lime and gypsum
application.
The results of the influence of lime and gypsum on cassava
tuber yield in 2013 and 2014 seasons are shown in Table 6 below. The results presented in Table 7 show that cassava tuber
These results show that plots treated with 5000 kg ha1 lime + yield negatively correlated with bulk density (R = 0.9657) and
positively correlated with total porosity (R = 0.9659), hydraulic
conductivity (R = 0.9817). This result indicates that bulk density
Table 4
Influence of lime and gypsum on number of leaves per plant of cassava at 30, 60 and
inversely relates with tuber yield meaning that as bulk density
90 DAP for 2013 and 2014 planting seasons. decrease, tuber yield increases. Total porosity, hydraulic con-
ductivity relates directly with tuber yield of cassava, indicating
Treatments Days after planting
that as they increase progressively tuber yield increases as well.
30 60 90 Soil pH slightly related with tuber yield though with a thin
2013 2014 2013 2014 2013 2014 relationship indicating that effect of pH on tuber yield is
No amendments 13.4 14.2 33.2 40.2 46.2 51.6 minimal. CEC (R = 0.4277), K+ (R = 0.1843), Mg2+ (R = 0.1117) and
Lime 5000 kg ha1 14.0 14.8 35.2 40.0 48.2 56.4 available P (R = 0.1103) were all not directly related to tuber yield
Gypsum 2500 kg ha1 16.0 18.0 40.4 45.8 61.7 74.0 of cassava. This may be because soil physical quality is an aspect
Lime 5000 kg ha1 + 22.2 24.0 53.4 60.4 76.0 86.4 of soil quality parameters that dictate the availability, distribu-
gypsum 2500 kg ha1
F-Lsd (P = 0.05) NS 1.9 3.2 3.1 2.7 2.8
tion and uptake of nutrients in the soil. These results concur
with that of Anikwe et al. (2007) who stated that decline in soil
 M.A.N. Anikwe et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 158 (2016) 32–38 37

Table 5
Effect of lime and gypsum on leaf area index (LAI) of cassava at 30, 60 and 90 DAP.

Treatments Days after planting

30 60 90

2013 2014 2013 2014 2013 2014

No amendments 11.4 16.6 94.1 110.0 166.4 250.2
Lime 5000 kg ha1 14.5 18.2 110.2 120.2 231.2 282.4
Gypsum 2500 kg ha1 28.5 30.6 139.1 145.8 344.9 348.2
Lime 5000 kg ha1 + gypsum 2500 kg ha1 44.5 48.0 246.8 280.0 410.0 416.0
F-Lsd (P = 0.05) 3.2 2.4 18.7 16.2 33.9 32.2

application of lime to acid soils decreased the solubility of Al

Table 6 and Mn and possibly increased the availability of P (Ngwu, 2006).
Effect of lime and gypsum on fresh tuber yield (Mg/ha) of cassava at 180 DAP.
Lime puts soils in desirable pH range allowing the plant nutrient to
Treatments 180 DAP be readily available for plant use. It also reduces the toxicity of Al,
2013 2014 Mn, Fe, improves soil structure and controls infiltration (Ngwu,
No amendments 6.0 6.2
2006). It is, therefore, concluded that Ca2+ primarily from lime and
Lime 5000 kg ha1 6.7 7.0 gypsum acted as a catalyst for improved soil and yield functionality
Gypsum 2500 kg ha1 7.4 7.1 of cassava. We, therefore, recommend a combination of lime and
Lime 5000 kg ha1 + Gypsum 2500 kg ha1 9.3 9.7 gypsum at the rate of 5000 kg ha1 lime + 2500 kg ha1 gypsum as
F-Lsd (P = 0.05) 0.6 0.5
an ameliorant to improve the physicochemical properties of
degraded Ultisols for profitable crop production in SE Nigeria and
other areas of similar edapho-climatic settings.

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