Math ED 521

RELATIONS

Recall: Sets are disjoints if they have no element in common.

Partition
Let S be a nonempty set. A partition of S is a subdivision of S into nonoverlapping,
nonempty subsets. Precisely, a partition of S is a collection of P = {Ai} of nonempty
subsets of S such that
i. Each a ∈ S belongs to one of the Ai.
ii. The sets {Ai} are mutually disjoint; that is,

If Ai ≠ Aj, then Ai ∩ Aj = Ø

The subsets in a partition are called cells. Thus each 𝑎 ∈ S belongs to exactly one of
the cells. The figure is is a Venn diagram of a partition of the rectangular set S of points
into five cells: A1, A2, A3, A4, A5.

A1 A2 A3

A4 A5

Example 1: Given a set S= {1,2,3,4,5}.

a. The sets {1,2,3} and {4,5} form a partition of S. Observe that {1,2,3} ∪
{4,5} and {1,2,3} ∩ {4,5}= ∅.

b. The sets {1, 5} and {2,3,4} form a different partition of S.

c. The sets {1, 2}, {5}, (3, 4) is also a partition of S.

d. The sets A= {1, 2, 3} and B= {5} do not form a partition of S. Why?

Since 4∈S but 4 does not belong to any of the two subsets of S or
{1, 2, 3} ∪ {5} ≠ S.
 e. The sets {1, 2, 3} and {3, 4, 5} do not form a partition of S since
1, 2, 3}∩{3, 4, 5} = {3}.

Example 2. Partition Z+ into 2 cells.

The set of even numbers and the set of odd numbers which can be written as
sets E= {2,4,6,…} and O= {1, 3, 5, …}. Hence, P = {E, O} is a partition of Z+.

Example 3. Partition Z+ into 3 cells.

The set of positive integers divisible by 3 , the set of positive integers leaving a
remainder of 2 when divided by 3 and the set of positive integers leaving a
remainder of 1 when divided by 3.

Note:

For each positive integer, we can partition Z+ into n cells according to whether
the remainder 0, 1 , 2 , ..., n-1 when a positive integer is divided by n. These cells
are the residue classes modulo n in Z+.

Ordered Pairs

We will defined relations in terms of ordered pairs (a, b) of elements where a as the first
element and b as the second element. Specifically:

(a,b)=(c,d) iff a=c and b=d.

In particular (a,b) ≠ (b,a) unless a = b.

Cartesian Product

Definition: Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be two sets. The product set or cartesian product of and 𝐵,
denoted by AxB and read as “A cross B” is the set of all ordered pairs (a, b) such that
a ∈ A and b ∈ B. In symbol,

AxB = {(a,b): a ∈ A , b ∈ B }

We write A2 instead of A x A.

Example: Let A= {1,2}, B= {a, b, c}. Then

A x B = {(1, a), (1, b), (1, c), (2,a), (2, b), (2, c)}

Note: |𝐴 𝑥𝐵| = |𝐴 ||𝐵|, where |𝐴 𝑥 𝐵| is the cardinality of A x B.

 In the example, |𝐴 𝑥𝐵|= 2x3 = 6.

Product of Three or More Sets

The idea of a product of sets can be extended to any finite number of sets. Specifically, for
any sets A1, A2, A3, …, Am, the set of m-elements lists (a1 , a2 , a3 , …, am) , where ai ∈ Ai is
called the cartesian product of the sets A1, A2, A3, …, Am, ; it is denoted by
A1 x A2 x A3 x …x Am = ∏𝑚𝑖=1 𝐴𝑖 .

Write A2 for A x A and An for A x A x A x A … x A where there are n factors.

Example: R3 = R x R x R denotes the usual three dimensional space.

Relations

Definition: Let A and B be sets. A binary relation or, simply a relation from A to B is
a subset of A x B.

Suppose R is a relation from A to B. Then R is a set of ordered pairs where each

first element comes from A and each second element comes from B. That is for each
pair a∈A and b∈B, exactly one of the following is true:

f. ( a, b) ∈ R; we then say a is R-related to b, written a R b.

g. ( a, b) ∉ R; we then say a is not R-related to b, written a b.

The domain of a relation R from A to B is the set of all first elements of the ordered
pairs which belong to R , and so it is subset of A; and the range of R is the set of all
second elements, and so it is subset of B.

Universal, Empty, Equality Relations

Let A be any set. Then A x A and ∅ are subset of AxA and hence are relations on A called
the universal relation and empty relation, respectively. Thus for any relation R on A, we
have
∅ ⊆R ⊆ 𝑨𝒙𝑨.

An important relation on the set A is that of equality, that is , the relation

{(a,a) : a ∈ A} which is usually denoted by “ = ”.

Inverse Relation

Let R be any relation from a set A to a set B. The inverse of A, denoted by R -1, is the
relation from B to A which consists of those ordered pairs which, when reversed, belong
to R; that is,
 R -1 = {(b,a); (a,b) ∈ R}

Example:1. If R = {(2, x) (3, y), (5, a), (7, z)}, then R -1 = {(x, 2) (y, 3), (a, 5), (z, 7)} .
2. If R = {(2, 4), (4, 16), (6, 36), (8, 64), (10, 100)} , then
R -1 = {(4, 2), (16, 4), (36, 6), (64, 8), (100, 10)}.
Note: If R is any relation, then (R-1) -1= R. Also, the domain of R -1 is the range of R,
and vice versa, Moreover, if R is a relation on A, i.e., R is a subset of A x A then R -1
is also a relation on A.

Composition of Relations

Let A, B, C be sets and let R be a relation from A to B and let S be a relation from B
to C. Then R and S give rise to a relation from A to C denoted by R ∘ S and defined
as follows:

R∘ S = {(a, c): there exists b∈ B for which (a, b ∈R) and (b,c) ∈S}

That is, a (R∘ S) c whenever there exist b ∈ B such a R b and b S c.

This relation R∘ S is called the composition of R and S and it is sometimes denoted

by RS.

Theorem: Let A, B, C, D be sets. Suppose R is a relation from A to B, S is a relation

from B to C and T is a relation from C to D. Then
(R∘ S) ∘ T = R ∘ ( S ∘ T )

Example: Let A = {1 , 2, 3, 4, 5}, B = {a , b, c, d}, C = {x , y, z} and let

R = {(1, a), (2, d), (3, a), (3, b), (3, d)} and S = {(b, x), (b, z), (c, y), (d, z)}

Relations R and S are represented below using arrow diagram:

Observe in the diagram there is an arrow from 2 to d which is followed by an arrow

from d to z. We can view these arrows as path that connects the element 2∈A and
z∈C. Thus
2 (R ∘ 𝐒)z since 2 R d and d S z

Similarly there are paths from 3 to x and from 3 to z. Hence

3 (R ∘ 𝐒) x and 3 (R ∘ 𝐒) z
No other element of A is connected to an element of C. Accordingly

R ∘ 𝐒 = { (2,z), (3, x), (3,z)}.

Types of Relations

Let A be a given set. The following are important types of relations defined on A.

Reflexive Relations. A relation R on a set A is reflexive if aRa for every a ∈A, that is,
if (a, a) ∈ R for every a∈A. Thus R is not reflexive if there exists an a ∈A such that (a,
a) ∉ R.

Symmetric Relations. A relation R on a set A is reflexive if aRb then bRa, that is, if
whenever (a, b) ∈ R then (b, a) ∈ R . Thus R is not symmetric if there exists a, b ∈ A
such (a, b) ∈ R but (b, a) ∉ R.

Antisymmetric Relations. A relation R on a set A is antisymmetric if whenever aRb

and bRa then a=b. Thus R is not antisymmetric if there exists a, b ∈ A such (a, b),
(b, a) ∈ R but a ≠ b.

Transitive Relations. A relation R on a set A is transitive if whenever aRb and bRc

then aRc. Thus R is not transitive if there exists a, b, c ∈ A such (a, b), (b, c) ∈ R
but (a, c) ∉ R.

Example: Consider set A = {1, 2, 3}. Let R1, R2, R3, R4 defined below are relations
defined on set A.

R1 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 3), (1, 3}

R2 = {(1, 3), (2, 3), (2,2)}
R3 = ∅
R4 = AxA
Determine which of the relations are reflexive, symmetric, antisymmetric and
transitive.

Reflexive: R1 is not reflexive since 2, 3 ∈A, but (2,2), (3,3) ∉ R1.

R2 is not reflexive since 1, 3 ∈A, but (1, 1), (3,3) ∉ R2.
R3 is not reflexive since 1, 2, 3 ∈A, but (1, 1), (2, 2), (3,3) ∉ R3.
R4 is reflexive.

Symmetric: R1 is not symmetric since (1, 2)∈ R1, but (2,1) ∉ R1.
R2 is not symmetric since (1, 3)∈ R1, but (3,1) ∉ R2.
R3 is symmetric.
R4 is symmetric.

Antisymmetric: R1 is antisymmetric.
R2 is antisymmetric.
R3 is antisymmetric.
R4 is not antisymmetric since (1,2), (2,1) )∈ R4, but 1≠2.

Transitive: R1 is transitive.
R2 is transitive.
R3 is transitive.
R4 is transitive.

Remarks: 1. The properties of being symmetric and antisymmetric are not negatives
of each other.

Example: The relation R = {(1,2), (2, 1), (1,3)} are neither symmetric and antisymmetric.

Equivalence Relations

Definition: A relation R on a set S is an equivalence relation denoted by ≈ if for

every x, y, z ∈S, the following properties are satisfied:

i. Reflexive Property: x R x

ii. Symmetric Property: If x R y, then y 𝐑 x.

iii. Transitive Property: If x Ry, and y R z, then x R z.

In this module, we will use the symbol ≈ to denote equivalence relation.

Example 1. Let R be a relation on Z defined by nRm if and only if nm>0. Prove that
R is an equivalence relation.
Proof: Let a, b, c ∈ Z.

i. Reflexive Property
aRa, because a2 > 0 for all a ∈ Z
Hence, R is reflexive.

ii. Symmetric Property

aRb ⇒ ab = ba > 0 for all a, b ∈ Z
Hence, R is symmetric.

iii. Transitive Property

aRb ⇒ ab > 0 for all a, b ∈ Z
bRc ⇒ bc >0 for all b, c ∈ Z
Hence, ab2c = acb2. Since b2 > 0; thus ac > 0. Thus, aRc.
Hence, R is transitive.

Since all properties hold; therefore R is an equivalence relation.

Example 2.

Let x, y be any two elements of a set of rational numbers Q. Define a relation R in

Q as xRy if and only if x-y ∈ Z. Show that R is an equivalence relation.

To show that R is an equivalence relation, we must show that R satisfies the three
properties : reflexive, symmetric, and transitive.

Proof:

To show:

i. Reflexive:
Let x∈Q. Since x-x = 0∈Z; hence R is reflexive.

ii. Symmetric: Let x,y ∈Q.

x R y ⇒ x-y ∈ Z
⇒ - (x-y) ∈ Z
⇒ - x+y ∈ Z
⇒ y-x ∈ Z (since Q is commutative)
Hence, yRx.
Therefore R is symmetric.

iii. Transitive: Let x,y, z∈Q. We need to show that if x-y∈Z and y-z∈Z, then
 x-z∈Z.
Since x-y∈Z and y-z∈Z, then
(x-y)+ (y-z)= x-z ∈Z (since Z is closed under addition)

Hence, xR z. Thus R is transitive.

Since all the properties hold for R; therefore R is an equivalence relation.

Example 3: Let S= {0,1,2,3,….}. Define a relation R on S as xRy if and only if x<y for
every x, y ∈ S . Determine whether a relation R on S is an equivalence relation

Proof:

To show:

i. Reflexive:

Let x∈S. Since x⊀x; hence R is not reflexive.

Because reflexive property fails to hold in R; therefore R defined on set S is

not an equivalence relation.

Note: For a relation to be an equivalence relation, it should satisfy all the three
properties. If any of these properties is not satisfied then it suffices to say that the
relation is not an equivalence relation.