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Denis Delaney C i a r a n Ward C a r l a Rho F i o r i n a

A Introduction to Literary Appreciation

B From the Origins to the Middle Ages
C The Renaissance
D The Puritan, Restoration and Augustan Ages
E The Romantic Age

ure |
the English language I
Denis Delaney C i a r a n Ward C a r l a Rho F i o r i n a

MODULES
A IntroductionI
B From the Origins
C The Renaissance
D The Puritan, Restoration and Augustan Ages
E The Romantic Age

Literature
in the English language 1
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INTRODUCTION
TO LITERARY
APPRECIATION
'May God keep us
From single vision'
W i l l i a m Blake

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.Sa 2 Introduction to Literary Appreciation

Introduction
What is literature?
Since the dawn of civilisation many men and women have felt a vital
need to c o m m u n i c a t e their t h o u g h t s and feelings b e y o n d their
immediate circle of family, friends and acquaintances to a wider
world. Thanks to the invention of writing and printing they have
been able to hand down to successive generations a priceless treasury
of manuscripts and books.
Literature is generally taken to mean those pieces of writing which,
despite the passing of the years and even of the centuries, still inspire
admiration, reflection and emotion in readers. Poems, plays, novels
and short stories in a given language that have stood the test of time
collectively make up a national literature.
This does not mean, however, that only older works can be called
literature. Today, millions of books are produced every year but only
some of t h e m find their way i n t o literary magazines or o n t o the
literary pages of newspapers. In these cases it is the critics and not
time that decide what is and what is not to be regarded as literature.
W h e t h e r their choices are appropriate or not will be a matter for
future generations to decide.
It is impossible to f o r m u l a t e a t o t a l l y c o m p r e h e n s i v e and all-
encompassing definition of literature because literature is never
static. Writers, genres and styles of writing have fallen in and out of
favour t h r o u g h o u t history and even today arguments rage about
w h e t h e r more popular forms of fiction such as detective stories
should be considered literature. These disputes can be left to the
critics because, for t h e reader, literature is simply beautiful,
meaningful writing.

Why read literature?

The most obvious answer to this question is because it is enjoyable.
Everybody loves a good story, and many great works of literature tell
memorable stories. These stories provide an escape from our daily lives
by transporting us to different times and places. We can travel back to
the depression era in the United States with John Steinbeck, or we can
journey through the African jungle with Joseph Conrad, or we can be
projected into the future by science fiction writers like H.G. Wells.
Escapism is only one reason for reading literature. Literature can also be
viewed as a source of knowledge and information.^If we read one of
Chaucer's tales, a poem by Wilfred Owen and a novel by Chinua
Achebe, we learn about a range of subjects from life in England in the
Middle Ages, to conditions at the battle front in the first World War I,
to the unresolved tensions in colonial Nigeria. Almost every poem, play
or novel we read gives us more information about the world we live in.
 »HP
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Introduction 3

Perhaps the most important reason for reading literature is because it

breaks down our personal barriers. Literature invites us to share in a
range of human eXpertences that we otherwise would be denied. It
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allows us to leave b e h i n d our age, sex, f a m i l y b a c k g r o u n d and "WqBKm -
e c o n o m i c c o n d i t i o n so t h a t we can see t h e world from t h e
perspective of people who are completely different from us. Great
writers make us understand how other people think and feel.
Literature stirs up our e m o t i o n s . It amuses, frightens, intrigues,
shocks, c o n s o l e s , frustrates and c h a l l e n g e s us. It helps us to
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understand ourselves and others. Literature widens our field of vision.
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Why analyse literature?

Literary analysis, in its broadest sense, is any attempt to understand a
literary text. Every time we close a book and think about what we
have read we are doing some form of literary analysis. An analytical m
approach to literature involves careful observation and drawing
conclusions. IjjiJiQt^siiT^lyLa-QUP s t i o n ° f tearing a poem or story
asunder and labelling the parts; it entails discovering patterns of
a f t meaning and becoming aware of the writer's intentions. . -:> (}>vjo[\)^)
Literary analysis is a way of learning more about how literary texts are
structured. T h e more we learn about t h e art of writing, the more
receptive and responsive we b e c o m e as readers. T h e a n a l y t i c a l
approach also provides t h e v o c a b u l a r y we need to define and
c o m m u n i c a t e our responses to literary texts. We must know the
definitions of terms such as setting, character, plot and point of view
in order to express and exchange opinions. ? *» •
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 One modern poet, when asked t h e question ' W h a t is poetry?', replied that
poetry, unlike prose, is a form of writing in which few lines run to the edge of the
page! The American poet Robert Frost contended that 'poetry is the kind of thing
poets write'. W h i l e t h e s e replies, at first, m a y n o t seem serious, t h e y
i n a d v e r t e n t l y reveal two i m p o r t a n t aspects of poetry: t h e first q u o t a t i o n
indicates the arrangement of the words on the page as an important element of
poetry, while the second emphasises that there is a special 'poetic' way of using
language. A working definition may, therefore, be that poetry emerges form the
interplay between the meaning of words and their arrangement on paper; or - as
the English poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge put it - 'poetry is the
best words in their best order'.
Although poems come in all shapes and sizes, they share certain
characteristics. Imagery, metaphors and symbols make poetry
dense with meaning. Sound features, such as rhyme, rhythm and SYLVIA
PLATH
repetition, give the language a special musical quality. The standard
The Colossus
rules of grammar and syntax are often ignored, so that the language
may be used in a striking or original way.
SELECTED POEMS 1
Poetry, like all literature, is a writer's a t t e m p t to A t ® TWO PLAYS OF
communicate to others his emotional and intellectual WILLiAM BUTLER
response to his own experiences and to the world that YEATS
surrounds him. The poet puts words together to make
EDITED AMD INTRODUCTION
the reader feel what he has felt and experience what he TED M. L. ROSENTHA1.
has experienced. HUGHES
Wolfwatching

THOM
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of Practical Cats

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 Figures of speech

A figure of speech is any use of language which deviates from the obvious or
common usage in order to achieve a special meaning or effect. We use figures of
speech in everyday c o n v e r s a t i o n w h e n we say, for example, ' m o n e y talks'
(personification) or 'I've got butterflies in my stomach' (metaphor) or 'he's like a
bull in a china shop' (simile).
The density and originality of a writer's use of figures of speech is part of his
characteristic style.
There are many different figures of speech. The most widely used are:

A simile is a figure of speech in which a comparison between two distinctly different

things is indicated by the word 'like' or 'as'. A simile is made up of three elements:
• the tenor: the subject under discussion;
• the vehicle: what the subject is compared to;
• the ground: what the poet believes the tenor and the vehicle have in common.
We can therefore analyse the simile 'life is like a rollercoaster' as follows:
tenor . ground vehicle
life it has its ups and downs rollercoaster

A m e t a p h o r is an implied c o m p a r i s o n w h i c h creates a total i d e n t i f i c a t i o n

between the two things being compared. Words such as 'like' or 'as' are not used.
Like a simile, a metaphor is made up of three elements:
• the tenor: the subject under discussion;
• the vehicle: what the subject is compared to;
• the ground: what the poet believes the tenor and the vehicle have in common.
We can analyse the metaphor 'he's a live wire' as follows:
tenor ground vehicle
he is full of energy/is very lively live wire
is potentially dangerous

In metonymy (Greek for 'a change of name') the term for one thing-is applied to
another with which it has become closely associated. 'The crown', for example,
can be used to refer to a king.

In synecdoche (Greek for 'taking together') a part of something is used to signify

the whole or vice versa, although the latter form is quite rare. An example of
synecdoche from everyday speech can be found in the proverb 'Many hands make
light work', where the expression 'many hands' means 'the labour of many people'.
An example of the whole representing a part can be found in expressions such as
'I'm reading Dickens', where an attribute of a literary work (i.e. it was written by
Charles Dickens) is substituted for the work itself.

Personification is a form of comparison in which human characteristics, such as

emotions, personality, behaviour and so on, are attributed to an animal, object or
idea: 'The proud lion surveyed his kingdom'.
The primary function of personification is to make abstract ideas clearer to the
reader by comparing them to everyday human experience. Humanising cold and
complex abstractions can bring them to life, render them more interesting and
make them easier to understand.
K > seep .Sa8Introduction to Literary Appreciation

QUESTIONS T O ASK W H E N A N A L Y S I N G FIGURES OF SPEECH

Are comparisons drawn through metaphors or similes? What information, attitudes or associations are
revealed through these associations?
Are there any examples of synecdoche or metonymy? What is the writer's purpose in using these figures
of speech? How do they affect the style and tone of the poem?
Are animals, objects or ideas personified in the poem? How does personification contribute to our
understanding of the poem?

CASE STUDY 1
American poet and novelist Sylvia Plath (1932-1963) dedicated much of her work to exploring various states of mind.
While much of her work is dark and disturbing, some of her poems reveal a more playfid and witty nature.

q Metaphors
by Sylvia Plath

JgL GLOSSARY I'm a riddle 1 in nine syllables,

1. riddle: puzzle An elephant, a ponderous 2 house,
2. ponderous: heavy, A melon strolling 3 on two tendrils 4 .
large
O red fruit, ivory, fine timbers 5 !
3. strolling: walking
This loaf's big with its yeasty 6 rising.
4. tendrils: thin leafless
branches that plants Money new-minted' in this fat purse.
wrap around things I'm a means, a stage 8 , a cow in calf 9 .
5. timbers: pieces of I've eaten a bag of green apples,
wood
Boarded the train there's no getting off 10 .
6. yeasty: yeast is the
substance that makes
bread expand
7. new-minted: newly 8. stage: phase of 9. calf: young cow 10. there's no getting off: you
made development cannot descend from

COMPREHENSION
Which of the following is the solution to the riddle posed in the opening line of the poem?
• A | wo | man | who | fa | ces | a | cri | sis
• A | wo | man | ex | pect | ing | a | ba | by
• A | wo | man | who | thinks | she's | ov | er | weight
Justify your answer by referring to the text.

ANALYSIS - FIGURES OF SPEECH

M • A loss of personal identity
* 1 1 Which metaphor do you find most effective and why?
mm
2 Through which metaphors does the poet convey • The sense of carrying something precious
the following ideas about her condition? • The idea of nausea and indigestion which is
• Physical discomfort and disproportion associated with her condition
• The sense that her destiny has been decided and • Her communion with the animal kingdom
there is no turning back • The sense of growing and expanding.
 —Hfc-'- , £

What is Poetry? 7 CB

v J CASE STUDY 2
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American poet Emily Dickinson (1830-1886) lived most of her life in total isolation. Only seven of her nearly 2,000
poems were published during her lifetime. Her contemporaries found her work bewildering, but today she is considered
a major writer of unsurpassed originality.

q Apparently with no Surprise

by Emily Dickinson

Apparently with no surprise

To any happy Flower,
The Frost 1 beheads it 2 at its play - GLOSSARY
Mi'-
In accidental power — 1. Frost: frozen drops of
The blonde assassin passes on — water
The Sun proceeds unmoved 2. beheads it: cuts its
head off
To measure off 3 another Day
For an approving God.
3. To measure off: to
bring to a close
m

COMPREHENSION
1 What does the frost do to the flower? 3 How would you define God as He is portrayed in
the poem? Ute
2 How does the sun respond to this act?
• Loving • Cruel • Indifferent
• Sadistic • Detached • Paternal
• Other:

A N A L Y S I S - FIGURES OF SPEECH
1 Make a list of the elements that are personified in 2 Personification adds drama to the poem. Which
the poem. words do you find particularly dramatic?

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The association of very different elements that we find in metaphors is also used to sell products in advertising.
Consider this advertisement for a banking service:
You've got a completely individual set of fingerprints.
How about a financial plan to match?
We could analyse this advertisement in the same way as we analyse literary metaphors:
tenor ground vehicle Wm

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financial plan individual fingerprints m
personalised
unique
Find other advertisements which associate either visually or verbally diverse elements, for example:
children's snacks - being a good mother
is
beauty products - being sexy and desirable
car - being adventurous and manly
Wm
In class, discuss the implied message in the advertisements and decide whether or not you find them effective.
.Sa 8 Introduction to Literary Appreciation

Imagery

Images are words or phrases that appeal to our senses. Consider these lines taken
from Wilfred Owen's poem Dulce et Decorum Est.
Bent double, like old beggars under sacks,
Knock-kneed, coughing like hags we cursed though sludge.
The poet is describing his experience as a soldier during
the First World War. Through his choice of words he
creates: %
• visual images: bent double, old beggars under sacks,
knock-kneed;
• aural images: coughing like hags, cursed;
• a tactile image: sludge.
If we replace the imagistic words that Owen uses with
more generic terms:
Physically exhausted, the soldiers marched across the
wet terrain cursing their fate.
the impact on our senses is lost.
Few battles in human
A writer may use an image to help us:
history have caused such
• re-live a sense experience that we have already had. We may be able to conjure devastation as the Battle
of the Somme during the
up the sound of old women coughing or the sensation of walking through
First World War.
mud from past experience;
• have a new sense experience. This is achieved when our sense memories are
called f o r t h in a p a t t e r n t h a t does n o t c o r r e s p o n d to a n y of our actual
experiences. Exploited in this way, images allow us to see, hear, feel, smell and
taste experiences that are new to us.

We use the term imagery to refer to combinations or clusters of images that are
used to create a dominant impression. Death, corruption and disease imagery, for
example, creates a powerful network in Shakespeare's tragedy Hamlet. Writers
often develop meaningful patterns in their imagery, and a writer's choice and
arrangement of images is often an important clue to the overall meaning of his
work.

QUESTIONS T O ASK W H E N A N A L Y S I N G A WRITERS USE OF I M A G E R Y

• What does the writer want the reader to see, hear, taste, feel and smell?
• What revealing details bring the place, the people or the situation to life? Does the writer use details that
people would usually overlook?
• Which are the most striking and revealing images? Which images tend to linger on in our minds? Are
they important to the overall meaning of the work?
• Does the work appeal to one sense in particular or to all the senses?
• What emotions or attitudes do the images arouse in the reader?
 What is Poetry? 9 CB

CASE STUDY 3
British-born poet and novelist Vernon Scanned (1922-) was a soldier, a boxer and a teacher before he became a writer.
His work often takes its starting point from everyday domestic incidents.

Q Nettles
by Vernon Scannell

My son aged three fell in the nettle 1 bed.

'Bed' seemed a curious name for those green spears2, 4. shed: small building
That regiment of spite 3 behind the shed 4 : for storing garden
tools
It was no place for rest. With sobs and tears
5. blisters: watery
The boy came seeking comfort and I saw 5 swellings under the
White blisters 5 beaded 6 on his tender skin. skin containing
We soothed 7 him till his pain was not so raw8. watery fluid
6. beaded: formed
At last he offered us a watery grin 9 ,
bubbles
And then I took my hook 1 0 and honed the blade 11 7. soothed: comforted
And went outside and slashed 12 in fury with it 10 8. raw: acute
Till not a nettle in the fierce parade 9. grin: smile
Stood upright anymore. Next task: I lit 10. hook: tool used to
cut grass
A funeral pyre to burn the fallen dead
11. honed the blade:
But in two weeks the busy sun and rain sharpened the cutting
Had called up tall recruits 13 behind the shed; is instrument
My son would often feel sharp wounds 14 again. 12. slashed: cut with
furious strokes
13. recruits: new soldiers
GLOSSARY 2. spears: sharp pointed pole 3. spite: malicious 14. sharp wounds:
1. nettle: stinging grass used as a weapon intent painful injuries
•

COMPREHENSION
1 What happened to the poet's son while playing 3 What did the poet do when he had finished
outdoors? comforting the boy?
2 We refer to a patch of nettles as a 'bed of nettles'. 4 What happened after two weeks?
Why does the poet question the use of the word
5 What reflection did the poet make about his son's
'bed'?
future?

ANALYSIS - IMAGERY
1 Pick out the military imagery in the poem. What
association is established through the use of these
words?
2 'White blisters beaded on his tender skin'. Which
senses does this image appeal to?
3 What is conveyed by the image 'watery grin'?

Music videos are a powerful example of the impact of combining sound and visual images. Choose a music video
that you particularly like. Identify the ideas and emotions that are conveyed by the lyrics and music of the song.
Explain how the visual images of the music video reinforce or expand the impact of the song.
 .Sa12Introduction to Literary Appreciation

Symbols

A symbol is an example of what is called the transference of meaning. Writers take

a concrete item - an object, a colour, a person, a place - and attribute a deeper
meaning to it. A symbol may be a detail, an object, a character or an incident. It
exists first as something literal and concrete in the work, but it also has the capacity
to evoke in the mind of the reader a range of invisible and abstract associations.
By definition symbols are open-ended. A given symbol will evoke different
responses in different readers. There is, however, an acceptable range of possible
readings and any interpretation of a symbol must be confirmed by the rest of the
work.
T h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and understanding of symbols demands awareness and
intelligence of the reader. It involves the reader directly in the creative process,
asking him to add his own intellectual and emotional responses. Through this
collaboration the work is enriched and enlarged.

Many symbolic associations are widely recognised and accepted: the dawn with
Cultural or shared
hope, t h e serpent with evil, the colour white with i n n o c e n c e , light with
symbols
knowledge, dark with ignorance. Writers often make use of these cultural or
shared symbols. Readers must not, however, automatically apply conventional
m e a n i n g s to these symbols. S o m e t i m e s writers will enlarge or narrow t h e
meaning of a cultural symbol. The reader must first carefully examine how the
symbol is used in the text before assigning meaning.

Literary or personal Authors also use their own original symbols. Personal or literary symbols do not
symbols have pre-established associations: the meaning that is attached to them emerges
from the c o n t e x t of the work in which they occur. A particular landscape or
certain a t m o s p h e r i c c o n d i t i o n s may b e c o m e associated with a character's
emotional state. A colour or an o b j e c t may take on a secondary meaning. A
recurring gesture or a character may be given symbolic meaning.

When does an object, character or action cease to be just part of the story and
Guidelines for
identifying and under- begin to develop s y m b o l i c associations? There is n o simple answer to this
standing symbols question. Ultimately, t h e reader must develop his own awareness through
receptive and responsive reading. There are, however, some broad guidelines he
can follow.
The principal techniques that writers use for creating symbols are:
• repetition: the reader should take note of multiple references to a particular
object or the recurrence of the same gesture;
• emphasis: does the author seem to pay particular attention to some element,
describe it in detail or use poetic or connotative language when referring to it?
• associations automatically made with shared symbols: the reader should try
to understand if the author wishes him to make conventional associations with
the symbol or if he has added his own personal significance.
While there is a risk that a reader may not identify symbols, there is also the
danger that he may see symbolic importance where the writer did not intend it.
'Symbol hunting', i.e. attributing symbolic status to objects, characters or actions
when there is little evidence in the text that they should be viewed as a symbol,
should be avoided.
 What is Poetry? 11 CB

QUESTIONS T O ASK W H E N A N A L Y S I N G SYMBOLS

Does the writer refer repeatedly to any objects or gestures in his work?
Does he make any concrete items in the story emerge and assume importance?
Does he use poetic or connotative language when describing particular objects or gestures?
Does he use any shared or cultural symbols? Does he attribute the conventional meaning to these symbols?
How does the use of symbols help the writer to convey the meaning of his work?
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CASE STUDY 4
Peter Meinke was born in Brooklyn, New York, in 1932. He has published eleven books of poetry, and his poems and
short stories have appeared in many journals and periodicals.

q Advice to my Son
by Peter Meinke

The trick 1 is, to live your days

as if each one may be your last
(for they go fast, and young men lose their lives
Sir
in strange and unimaginable ways)
but at the same time, plan long range 2
(for they go slow: if you survive
the shattered windshield 3 and the bursting shell 4
you will arrive
at our approximation here below
of heaven or hell). 10
i
To be specific, between the peony 5 and the rose
plant squash and spinach, turnips 6 and tomatoes;
The Persistence of Memory
beauty is nectar
(1931) by Salvador Dali. 'Live your
and nectar, in a desert, saves - days as if each one may be your
but the stomach craves 7 stronger sustenance IS last... but at the same time, plan
long range.'
than the honied vine 8 .

Therefore, marry a pretty girl

after seeing her mother;
speak truth to one man,
work with another; 20
and always serve bread with your wine.

But, son,
always serve wine.

GLOSSARY
1. trick: skillful way of doing
something
2. long range: in the long term
3. shattered windshield: front
window of the car broken into
many pieces
4. bursting shell: exploding bomb
5. peony: flower
6. squash ... turnips: types of
vegetables
7. craves: has a strong desire for
8. honied vine: sweet wine
><e

.Sa 12 Introduction to Literary Appreciation

COMPREHENSION
1 What advice does the poet give his son in the
opening lines of the poem?
2 The poet makes references to ways in which young
men lose their lives in line 7. What are they?
3 What does the poet suggest that his son should
plant among his flowers?
4 What should his son do before marrying a pretty
girl?
5 Should his son speak truth to and work with the
same man?
6 What should his son always serve with his wine?

ANALYSIS - SYMBOLS
1 Throughout the poem the poet is telling his son to 2 Are bread and wine personal or shared symbols?
have both prudence and joy in his life. Does the poet use them in the conventional way?
Which approach to life is symbolised by:
- the peony and the rose?
- squash and spinach, turnips and tomatoes?
- nectar?
- bread?
-wine?
Based on these associations, what is the final piece of
advice he gives his son?

Symbols do not exist only in literature. We are surrounded by symbols in our everyday life. What associations do
you make with the following symbols?

9
 What is Poetry?15CB

Sound features

Think of a sound that makes you relax, like the gentle lapping of water against 1
rocks. Now think of a sound that you cannot stand, perhaps the screeching of
chalk against a blackboard. Different sounds have different effects on us. The
sounds of language also create different responses in us and writers, especially <
poets, use this in their work. By choosing words for their sound as well as their
m e a n i n g , writers create a m u s i c a l i t y in their work t h a t can evoke strong
emotional responses and reinforce the meaning they wish to convey.
The most c o m m o n sound features are rhyme, a l l i t e r a t i o n , a s s o n a n c e and
onomatopoeia.

The term rhyme refers to the effect that is created when a poet repeats the same
sound at the end of two or more lines. Rhyme has several important functions:
• it adds a musical quality to the poem;
• it marks the end of each line;
• it makes the poem easier to remember;
• it affects the pace and tone of the poem.

There are several different types of rhyme:

single-syllable or masculine rhyme: the beginning of the syllable varies while
the rest stays the same, for example day/say light/night;
d o u b l e - s y l l a b l e or f e m i n i n e r h y m e matches two syllable words or parts of
words: ocean/motion, pretending/bending-,
triple-syllable rhyme matches three-syllable words: beautiful/dutiful, comparison/
garrison;
true or p e r f e c t r h y m e : the rhymed sounds correspond exactly, for example:
boat/float, double/ trouble;
i m p e r f e c t r h y m e ( h a l f r h y m e or s l a n t r h y m e ) : t h e sound of two words is
similar, but it is not as close as is required in true or perfect rhyme. Generally the
words contain identical vowels or identical consonants but not both, for example
loads/lids/lads, road/moan/boat;
end rhymes fall at the end of the lines;
internal rhymes occur within the same line:
Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered weak and weary
(The Raven, Edgar Allan Poe)

CASE STUDY 5
American poet Ogden Nash (1902-1971) is renowned for his humorous verse and epigrams. Find examples of end
rhymes and internal rhyme in this short poem. How does rhyme contribute to the theme of the poem that hunting
degrades man?

q The Hunter
GLOSSARY • -
by Ogden Nash
1. crouches: kneels
down
The hunter crouches 1 in his blind 2 2. blind: hiding place
'Neath 3 camouflage of every kind, 3. 'Neath: under
 .Sa16Introduction to Literary Appreciation

And conjures up 4 a quacking 5 noise

To lend allure to his decoys 6 ,
This grown-up man, with pluck 7 and luck 5
Is hoping to outwit 8 a duck.

4. conjures up: creates 6. lend ... decoys: make his 7. pluck: courage and 8. outwit: surpass in
5. quacking: imitating hunting technique more determination intelligence
duck sounds effective
•

Alliteration Alliteration is the repetition of the same initial consonant sound in a sequence
of nearby words. In Anglo-Saxon times, before the i n t r o d u c t i o n of rhyme,
alliteration gave the language of poetry its musical quality and made the poems,
which were often recited, easier to remember. Alliteration is still popular in
m o d e r n p o e t r y and can also be f o u n d in songs, h e a d l i n e s and everyday
expressions such as 'black and blue', 'safe and sound' and 'right as rain'.

Assonance Assonance is the repetition of similar or identical vowel sounds in a sequence of

nearby words containing different consonants. It creates 'vowel rhyme' as in
break/play, hope/spoke.
Like alliteration, assonance adds a musical quality to the language and it also
establishes rhythm:
• open, broad sounds 'o', 'u', 'a' (flow, burn, heart, flame) tend to slow the rhythm down;
• slender 'i' and 'e' (hill, met) sounds create a quicker pace.

CASE STUDY 6
Find examples of alliteration and assonance in this poem by English novelist and poet Thomas Hardy (1840-1928).

q Last Week in October

by Thomas Hardy

The trees are undressing, and fling 1 in many places

On the gray roads, the roof, the window-sill 2 -
Their radiant robes and ribbons and yellow laces 3 ;
A leaf each second so is flung at will 4 ,
• GLOSSARY Here, there, another and another, still and still 5 . 5
fling: throw
window-sill: flat A spider's web has caught one while downcoming 6 ,
piece at the base of a That stays there dangling 7 when the rest pass on:
window Like a suspended 8 criminal hangs he, mumming 9 ,
robes ... laces:
In golden garb 10 , while one yet green, high yon 1 1 ,
clothes and
ornamental Trembles as fearing such a fate for himself anon 1 2 . 10
accessories
at will: following the
wind's desire 7. dangling: hanging and a. hanging 10. garb: clothes
still and still: more swinging about b. with a suspended
11. yon: over there
and more 8. suspended: there is a play on sentence
6. downcoming: falling two meanings of the word: mumming: acting playfully 12. anon: very soon
 ijjpH

What is Poetry? 15 CB

T h e use of t h e sound of words to suggest t h e sound t h e y d e n o t e is called

Onomatopoeia
onomatopoeia. We hear this sound-echoing effect in the 'slamming' of a door,
the 'buzzing' of bees, the 'ticking' of a clock. In his poem 'OnaMaTaPia', the poet
Spike Milligan suggests that it more difficult to spell onomatopoeia correctly
than to understand and identify it!

OnaMaTaPia
Onamatapia!
Thud - Wallop - Crash!
Onamatapia
Snip - Snap - Gnash!
Onamatapia
Whack - Thud - Bash!
Onamatapia
Bong - Ting - Splash.

CASE STUDY 7
Find one striking example of onomatopoeia in this poem by the contemporary Irish poet Seamus Heaney, born in
Northern Ireland in 1939. Many of his poems have the rural setting of his youth and describe Insxhildhood
experiences. In this poem he describes how a simple chore like folding sheets brought him closer to his mother.

q The Cool that Came off Sheets

by Seamus Heaney [ [/f/iA^- ''
/ ' f e l n V ; » t ' / ^
The cool 1 that came off sheets 2 just off the line
Made me think the damp 3 must still be in them
But when I took my corners of the linen
And pulled against her 4 , first straight down the hem 5
And then diagonally, then flapped and shook 6 5
The fabric like a sail in a cross-wind,
They made a dried-out undulating thwack 7 .
So we'd stretch and fold 8 and end up hand to hand
For a split 9 second as if nothing had happened
For nothing had that had not always happened 10
Beforehand 10 , day by day, just touch and go,
Coming close again by holding back 11 - £ ^/c
In moves 12 where I was x and she was o
Inscribed in sheets she'd sewn 13 from ripped 14 -out flour sacks.

GLOSSARY 4. pulled against her: helped
his mother to fold sheets
1. cool: freshness 5. hem: lower edge of the
2. sheets: pieces of cloth used sheets
in bed to lie between 6. flapped and shook:
3. damp: humidity waved up and down,
backwards and forwards 11. by holding back:
7. thwack: sharp sound staying distant
8. fold: turn one part so that it 12. moves: turns in a game
covers another part 13. sewn: joined together
9. split: fraction (of a second) by sewing
10. Beforehand: before 14. ripped: cut
»
 .Sa18Introduction to Literary Appreciation

The beating of the heart, breathing, walking, running - rhythm is at the core of
Rhythm
human existence. Rhythm is also an important part of the language of literature.
Writers build on the natural rhythms of language, putting words with the same
stress pattern side by side and creating an underlying beat or rhythm in their work.

CASE STUDY 8
Scottish writer Robert Louis Stevenson (1850-1894) was born in Edinburgh ami is perhaps best remembered for his
novels Treasure Island and The Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde. However, he was also an accomplished
poet. Listen to the recording of his poem From a Railway Carriage and say what the rhythm of the poem suggests.

q From a Railway Carriage

by Robert Louis Stevenson
f ^ f » * t W >W f / ^ (tOW hrQ[
Faster than fairies, faster than witches,
f I f «'V. jfl J f ,- ^__ I * ry i-y^Oi
am- >jm
Bridges and houses, hedges and ditches ; 4,
And charging along like troops in a battle, o\
• GLOSSARY
All through the meadows 3 the horses and cattle;
1. hedges: bushes in All of the sights 4 of the hill and the plain
rows forming a
boundary Fly as thick as driving 5 rain;
2. ditches: horizontal And ever again 6 , in the wink of an eye 7 ,
holes dug in the Painted stations whistle by 8 .
ground, often along
roads
Here is a child who clambers and scrambles 9 ,
meadows: fields All by himself and gathering brambles 10 ; 10
sights: views Here is a tramp 1 1 who stands and gazes 12 ;
driving: strong And there is the green for stringing the daisies 13 !
ever again:
repeatedly
Here is a cart 14 run away in the road
in the wink of an Lumping along 1 5 with man and load 16 ;
eye: in an instant And here is a mill 17 , and there is a river: 15
whistle by: flash by Each a glimpse 18 and gone for ever!
9. clambers and
scrambles: moves
frantically using feet 12. gazes: looks fixedly 14.cart: small hand-pushed 17. mill: building where grain
and hands 13. green for stringing vehicle with wheels is ground to produce
10. brambles: blackberries the daisies: the grass 15.Lumping along: moving flour
11. tramp: homeless where you can find daisies inelegantly 18. glimpse: very quick
person to make chains 16. load: what is being carried incomplete look

The regular and rhythmic arrangement of stressed and unstressed syllables found
METRICAL TERMS
AND SCANSION in poetry is called metre. The basic unit of metre is the foot, which consists of one
stressed syllable and one or more unstressed syllables. The most common feet are:
• iamb (adj.: iambic) - one unstressed syllable followed by one stressed syllable:
(a | way);
• t r o c h e e (adj.: t r o c h a i c ) - one stressed syllable followed by one unstressed
syllable: (fa | ther); >•
.
y\. • anapest (adj.: anapestic) - two unstressed syllables followed by one stressed
syllable: (in | the | light);
• d a c t y l (adj.: d a c t y l i c ) - o n e stressed syllable followed by two unstressed
syllables: (o | ver | the);
 f

What is Poetry? 17 CB

• monosyllable (adj.: monosyllabic) - one stressed syllable: sky;

• spondee (adj.: spondaic) - two.stressed syllables: (rain | bow).

Analysing metre is called scansion. W h e n we scan a poem we first count the

Scansion
number of syllables and identify the position of the stresses or accents. We then
divide the line into feet and determine the metrical length of the line:
monometer - one foot ^ f pentameter - five feet
dimeter - two feet ' u'U hexameter - six feet 'SSL**-
trimeter - three feet heptameter - seven feet
tetrameter - four feet octameter - eight feet
ftu'lzr / UXU
When we have identified the kind of feet and the line length, we combine the
two to give t h e metre a n a m e , for e x a m p l e i a m b i c p e n t a m e t e r , t r o c h a i c
hexameter, anapestic heptameter. Iambic pentameter is the metrical form that
most closely resembles natural speech and it is the most widely used metre in
English poetry. The following are examples of the scansion of a line of iambic
pentameter and a line of anapestic tetrameter. The feet are marked by vertical
lines, the unstressed syllables by w and the stressed syllables by ' :

The cur | few tolls | tire knell | of part | ing day |

(Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard, Thomas Gray)

| The Assyr | ian came down | like the wolf | oh the fold |,
(The Destruction of Sennacherib, Lord Byron)

Metre is n o t a straitjackfet and in most poems there are deviations from the
principal p a t t e r n . W h e n s c a n n i n g a poem it is i m p o r t a n t to i d e n t i f y t h e
prevailing metre, but also to notice variations.
The analysis of metre is meaningful only if it contributes to our understanding of
a p o e m . T h e r h y t h m m a y establish an a t m o s p h e r e or create a tone, and
deviations from the predominant metrical pattern may highlight key elements.

CASE STUDY 9
Scan My Heart Leaps Up by William Wordsworth (1770-1850), who is considered to be one of the finest nature
poets in the history of English literature. Identify the prevailing metre. What effect does the shortened line 6 have?
Which word is highlighted by the addition of an added foot in the final line?

q My Heart Leaps Up
by William Wordsworth
My heart leaps 1 up when I behold 2
A rainbow in the sky:
So was it when my life began;
So is it now I am a man;
So be it when I shall grow old;
Or let me die! GLOSSARY
The Child is father of the Man;
1. leaps: jumps
And I could wish my days to be 2. behold: look at
Bound 3 each to each by natural piety 3. Bound: connected
.Sa 18 Introduction to Literary Appreciation

Other rhythmic devices

End-stopped line When a pause occurs naturally at the end of a line we refer to it as an end-stopped
line:
The trees are in their autumn beauty,
The woodland paths are dry,
(The Wild Swans at Coole, W.B. Yeats)

Enjambement E n j a m b e m e n t or r u n - o n line are t h e terms we use when the sense of t h e

sentence extends into the next line:
or run-on line
The room was suddenly rich and the great bay-window was
Spawning snow and pink roses against it
(Snow, Louis MacNeice)
If a strong break occurs in the middle of a line it is referred to as caesura:
A thing of beauty is a joy forever
Its loveliness increases; it will never
Pass into nothingness
(Endymion, John Keats)
Enjambement and caesura give their own particular rhythm to poetry.

CASE STUDY 1 0
Find examples of end-stopped lines, enjambement and caesura in this extract from William Wordsworth's
(1770-1850) long autobiographical poem The Prelude.

Q Skating
by William Wordsworth
GLOSSARY And in the frosty season 1 , when the sun
1. frosty season: cold Was set, and visible for i a mile
season The cottae through twilight 3 gloom 4 ,
2. blazed: shone with a happy time
bright light
me
3. twili;
4. nd loud
5. heedei' heeled about 10 ,
pay att d horse
6. summc shod with steel 12 ,
7. indeed:
ce in games (...)
8. rapture:
9. tolled: raj >Jt**> l
10. wheeled a rotected by metal making a sharp sibilant
moved alo, sound while skating
skates along: continued 14. polished: shining
•

N C S O U N D FEATURES
• What is thi >ut?
Are there ai
• Does the po
• Are there an
• How would > xiiythm of the poem? Is there a predominant metrical structure?
Does the rhytnm of the poem reinforce the meaning?
• Are there any run-on lines or caesura in the poem? How do they affect the rhythm of the poem?
 K

W h a t is Poetry? 19 fl

Standard poetic forms

Ballads are short stories in verse, often accompanied by music, that belong to an jjgHgj
oral tradition of poetry. Ballads share the following features:
• they rarely tell a story from beginning to end. They take us immediately into
the story and often open when the narrative has turned towards its catastrophe
or resolution. We know little of the events leading up to the climax;
• description is brief and conventional and very little information is given about
the characters;
• the narrative is impersonal - the narrator tells the story without expressing his
personal attitudes or feelings. There is no moral comment on the characters'
behaviour, and the motives behind their actions are largely unexplained;
• in many ballads, words, expressions and phrases and entire verses are repeated. A
line or group of lines which is repeated throughout the ballad is called a refrain; , t
• many ballads contain stock descriptive phrases such as 'milk-white steed', ,vL

'blood-red wine', 'gallant knight' or 'snow white'. While other forms of poetry
are characterised by individualistic or original figures of speech, the ballad
employs a limited stock of images and descriptive adjectives w h i c h t h e
performer could easily memorise;
• ballads are composed in simple two or four line stanzas. The stanza usually
consists of alternate four and three stress lines rhyming on the second and
fourth line:

Tire wind so cold blew south and north

And blew into tile floor;
Quoth our goodman to our goodwife
'Go out and bar tiie door'
(Get up and bar the door)

CASE STUDY 1 1
Listen to this famous ballad which exists in numerous versions.

q Barbara Allen
In Scarlet town where I was born,
There was a fair maid 1 dwellin' 2
Made every youth cry Well-a-day 3 ,
Her name was Barb'ra Allen.

All in the merry month of May, 5

GLOSSARY •-
When green buds 4 they were swellin' 5
1. maid: young woman
Young Willie Grove on his death-bed lay,
2. dwellin': living
For love of Barb'ra Allen. 3. Well-a-day: Alas
4. buds: undeveloped
m
He sent his servant to her door
leaves or flowers
To the town where she was dwellin' 10
5. swellin': getting
'Haste ye 6 come, to my master's call, bigger
If your name be Barb'ra Allen.' 6. Haste ye: hurry you
E) 20 Introduction to Literary Appreciation

So slowly, slowly got she up,

And slowly she drew nigh 7 him,
And all she said when there she came: 15
'Young man, I think you're dying!'
He turned his face unto 8 the wall
And death was drawing nigh him.
Good bye, Good bye to dear friends all,
Be kind to Barb'ra Allen. 20

When he was dead and laid in grave,

She heard the death bell knelling 9 .
And every note, did seem to say
Oh, cruel Barb'ra Allen.

'Oh mother, mother, make my bed 25

Make it soft and narrow.
Sweet William died, for love of me,
And I shall die of sorrow.'
La Belle Dame Sans Merci
by Frank Dicksee.
They buried her in the old churchyard
Sweet William's grave was nigh hers 30

7. nigh: near And from his grave grew a red, red rose
8. unto: towards From hers a cruel briar 10 .
9. knelling: ringing
10. briar: thorny stem They grew and grew up the old church spire 11
11.spire: cone shaped
Until they could grow no higher
structure on a church
12.(en)twined: twisted
And then they twined 12 in a true love knot 35
around each other The red, red rose and the briar.
•

I
COMPREHENSION
1 What effect did Barbara Allen have on the young 5 When did Barbara Allen realise she had been cruel?
men of Scarlet town? 6 Where was Barbara Allen buried?
2 Why was Willie Grove dying? 7 What grew from Willie Grove's grave? What grew
w 3 How did Barbara Allen react when she was called from Barbara Allen's grave? Where did they become
to the young man's bedside? entwined?
4 What was Willie's last wish?

ANALYSIS-THE BALLAD
1 Does the ballad tell the story from the start, or are
some of the events leading up to the starting point
left untold?
2 Are there any descriptive details of setting or
physical descriptions of the characters?
3 Does the speaker comment on the story, or is the
storytelling impersonal?
4 Underline phrases and words that are repeated in
the poem.
5 Identify the rhyming scheme in the poem. Note
that in some cases two words may rhyme with one
(for example, nigh him - dying). Is the rhyming
pattern regular throughout the poem?
6 Work out the metre of the first stanza.
 What is Poetry?23CB

The term sonnet comes from the Italian word 'sonetto', which means 'little song
The sonnet
or sound'. In a sonnet a poet expresses his thoughts and feelings in fourteen
lines. The sonnet originated in Italy, where it was popularised by the fourteenth- • Meanwhile, Elsewhere p. C62
century poet Petrarch. In the Italian or Petrarchan sonnet the first eight lines -
the octave - introduce the subject while the last six lines - the sestet - provides a
comment and express the personal feelings of the poet. The rhyming scheme is
usually ABBA-ABBA-CDC-CDC. The first poet to introduce the Italian sonnet to
England was Sir T h o m a s Wyatt. Wyatt's sonnets are largely translations or
imitations of those of Petrarch. However, he changed the rhyming scheme of the
sestet to CDDC-EE, thus creating a quatrain (four lines) and a couplet (two lines).
The Earl of Surrey developed the sestet even further, separating the couplet from
the quatrain and using it to c o m m e n t on the previous twelve lines. The final
pattern for the English sonnet comprised of three quatrains (four lines) and a
couplet (two lines) with the following rhyming scheme: ABAB-CDCD-EFEF-GG.
This is the sonnet form that Shakespeare inherited, and indeed this form is often
referred to as the Shakespearean sonnet.

CASE STUDY 1 2
q Shall I Compare Thee (Sonnet 18)
by William Shakespeare
GLOSSARY • —
Shall I compare thee 1 to a summer's day?
1. thee: you
Thou art 2 more lovely and more temperate: 2. Thou art: you are
Rough 3 winds do shake the darling buds 4 of May, 3. Rough: violent
4. buds: unopened flowers
And summer's lease hath all too short a date 5 : 5. lease ... date: does not
last long
Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines 6. dimmed: made less
bright
And often is his gold complexion dimmed 6 , 7. every fair ... declines:
And every fair from fair some time declines 7 , beautiful things become
less beautiful
By chance 8 , or nature's changing course, untrimmed 9 8. By chance: accidentally
9. untrimmed: unstopped
But thy 1 0 eternal summer shall not fade 11 , 10. thy: your
11. fade: become less strong
Nor lose possession of that fair thou owest 12 , 10 12. owest: possess
Nor shall death brag 13 thou wander'st 14 in his shade, 13. brag: boast, say
14. wander'st: walk around
When in eternal lines to time thou growest 15
directionless
15.When ... growest:
So long as men can breathe or eyes can see, because you have been
made eternal by the
So long lives this, and this gives life to thee. lines of the poem

comprehension:
1 Why is the poet's addressee superior to a summer's 3 What destroys beauty in line 8?
day, according to lines 1-4? 4 Why will the poet's addressee not fade?
2 What is 'the eye of heaven'? When is its 'gold
complexion dimmed'?

ANALYSIS - T H E SONNET«
1 Work out the rhyming scheme of the sonnet. 2 Outline the central idea of each of the quatrains. In
what sense does the final couplet sum up the
preceding twelve lines?
 .Sa24Introduction to Literary Appreciation

- Layout
W

Layout refers to the visual form a poem takes on a page. It is important because it
helps the reader's understanding by indicating, for example, where he should
pause or where a new line of thought begins. Certain conventions have been
established in the lay-out of poems. The lines:
• do not cover the full page as they do in prose;
• are usually grouped together into units called verses;
• are occasionally grouped into units that repeat the same number of lines, the
same metre and the same rhyming scheme. These units are called stanzas.
ш*
Ш In what is referred to as concrete poetry, the visual form of the poem is almost as
i m p o r t a n t in c o n v e y i n g m e a n i n g as the verbal c o m m u n i c a t i o n . Here is an
example:

mm
•'•Шт

CASE STUDY 1 3

Q 40-Love
by Roger McGough

Read this poem by the contemporary poet Roger McGough.

middle aged
couple playing
ten nis
when the
game ends
and they
go home
mm
the net
will still
be be
tween them.

й
ANALYSIS - LAYOUT
•'.ЛЬ 1 The poem describes a middle-aged couple, who no 3 The most impressive visual feature of the poem is
longer love each other. As you read the poem how do the large empty space between the two columns.
your eyes move? How does this relate to the fact that What, in your opinion, does it represent?
the couple are playing tennis?
2 The title of the poem may be read as a tennis
score. The dash may also be read as minus, in which
case, what does the title mean?
The word 'drama' refers to any work that is intended for performance by actors
on a stage. It is a type of writing or genre that is very different from poetry or
fiction because the written text, what we call the play, is only one component of
the work. Other elements are needed to bring a dramatic text to life:
• the actors, the people who interpret the parts of the play;
• the director, the person who decides how the play should be performed;
• the audience, the people who watch the play.

When reading a play, we should always try to imagine how it could be presented on
stage. It always helps to see as many live or filmed versions of the play as possible.

A play takes place on a stage. On the stage, a set representing the place where the
action takes place is built. The set usually includes props, stage furniture, objects,
coloured backcloths, etc. The set will immediately give us information about the
play, for e x a m p l e , w h i c h h i s t o r i c a l period it is set in. It will also create
expectations about what we are about to see. There are, of course, a great variety
of set designs from c o m p l e x multi-storey sets to simple bare stages. A set is
described as naturalistic, when it represents real life, or symbolic, when it tries to
convey ideas or meaning.

Lighting plays an important role in conveying the meaning of a play. Its primary
function is to illuminate the actors and the stage but it can also focus attention
on a particular area of the stage while the rest is in darkness or semi-darkness.
Lighting is used to show the time of day when the action takes place. It also
creates atmosphere. Filters are used to produce coloured light which may create
warm, cold or eerie atmospheres. Today it is possible to incorporate spectacular
lighting effects into a performance by using strobe lighting, ultraviolet light,
underfloor lighting and other special techniques.

Like lighting, s o u n d effects may also play an i m p o r t a n t part in theatrical

productions. Sounds that come from the stage or sounds made offstage can make
t h e p r o d u c t i o n more realistic and credible. Music is o f t e n used to create
atmosphere or to underline particularly significant moments in the play.
 Introduction to Literary Appreciation

Dialogue

Dialogue has two major functions in drama:

• it contributes to the telling of the story;
• it reveals characters.
A playwright has two or three hours of stage time to tell his story, which must
emerge from the actions and conversations of the characters on stage. Dialogue is
the conventional technique playwrights use to give the audience information
about the setting, the time, the characters and the action in a play. Dialogue is,
therefore, an essential storytelling device in drama.
Dialogue is also important in creating character. In order to make a character
convincing, a playwright must find the character's 'voice' - i.e. his unique style
of speech. The audience should be able to draw conclusions about a character's
personality and b a c k g r o u n d (social, e c o n o m i c and cultural) by listening
attentively to how he speaks and what he says.

CASE STUDY 1 4
Written and directed by Bill Forsyth, Gregory's Girl first appeared in 1981 as a film. The quality of the dialogue and
the excellent characterisation encouraged directors to adapt the screenplay for the stage. In this extract Gregory, who
has fallen in love for the first time, talks about his feelings to his classmate Steve during a cookery lesson at school.

q Gregory's Girl
by Bill Forsyth
Scene 6. The Cookery Class
[CAROL, LIZ, SUSAN, ANN and others set up the Home Economics room. They are
making pastry1.]
CAROL: Did you hear about the trial?
GLOSSARY
Liz: Trial?
1. pastry: mixture of CAROL: Football trial 2 . Dorothy joined it. 5
flour, fat and water
2. Football trial: test to
Liz: And about time too 3 .
join the team SUSAN: Why is it boys are such a physical disaster?
3. about time too: she CAROL: Apparently Phil wouldn't let her play.
could have done it SUSAN: Too much to lose I expect.
earlier
CAROL: Well, she stuck it out 4 and showed him up something rotten 5 . 10
4. she stuck it out: she
persisted ANN: Oh God, not pastry. I hate pastry and it hates me. Give me a goulash 6
5. showed ... rotten: any day. It doesn't fight back.
completely CAROL: She scored three times with him in goal.
embarassed him
SUSAN: Poor Phil.
6. goulash: Hungarian
dish of meat cooked Liz: Have you seen his moustache? 15
in a sauce with hot CAROL: Anyway he's got to pick her now 7 .
spices Liz: Men's hair fascinates me. It's so temporary.
7. he's got to pick her
ANN: Equal parts of Trex 8 and lard. Isn't that it?
now: he has to
choose her [The boys are coming in for a lesson. It is a mixed lesson. STEVE is in first. He is
8 Trex: type of cooking a professional. Already he has his bench9 organised.] 20
fat
9. bench: wooden work
STEVE: Anyone seen Gregory? He's meant to be working with me ... oh dear
station Lizzie, not the hands. Lay off the hands till the last possible minute.
 ft r f».

W h a t is D r a m a ? 25 C B

[GREGORY is late and makes his way through the girls. He is trying to be both
charming and surreptitious10.]
GREGORY: Sorry I'm late. 25
STEVE: Where've you been?
GREGORY: Football.
STEVE: Playing?
GREGORY: No ... watching. From afar 11 .

STEVE: Hands! 30

[GREGORY shows him his hands. It is a routine inspection.]

GREGORY: That's just paint there.
STEVE:I've got the biscuit mix started, you get on with the sponge and put
the oven on, four hundred and fifty degrees.
GREGORY: Yes, boss. 35 A still from the
original film of
[SUSANapproaches STEVE. She is wearing a worried look and a grotty apron.] Gregory's Girl: the
SUSAN:Steve, can you help me out with this pastry mix thing? cookery class.

GREGORY: Hello, Susan.

[GREGORY is ignored]
STEVE: Pastry? What pastry? There's more than one kind you know. Is it 40
rough puff, short crust... flaky ... suet 12 ...? [SUSAN'S face is a blank13] Just
tell me, what are you making?
SUSAN: A meat pie. Margaret's doing the Strudel Soup, and I'm doing the
pie. It's the eggs for the pastry that I'm not sure of ...
STEVE: Strudel Soup, eh? I'd like to try some of that. It's NOODLE 14 soup, and 45
what eggs? You don't put eggs in a pastry. It's 8 ounces flour, 4 ounces
margarine ...
GREGORY: ... a pinch of salt...
STEVE: ... some salt, mix it up, into the oven, fifteen minutes... and that's it
okay? No eggs, no strudels, nothing. 50
SUSAN: IS that all? That's simple, really easy.

[She wanders o f f s . ]
STEVE: TO think there are five guys in fifth year crying themselves to sleep
over that 1 6 .
GREGORY: Six, if you count the music teacher. , 55
STEVE: Watch your mixing, it goes stiff if you overdo it 17 , thirty seconds is 10. surreptitious: done
secretly, without IW
enough. Give me the sugar.
anyone seeing or
GREGORY: It's time you were in love. Take your mind off all this for a while ... knowing
STEVE: Plenty of time for love. I'm going to be a sex maniac first. Start this 11. afar: a distance
summer. Get rid of my apron and let my hair down, put love potions in 60 12.rough puff ... short
my biscuits. Anyway I want to be rich first, so that I can love something c r u s t . . . flaky ... suet:
types of pastry
really ... expensive.
13. blank: expressionless
GREGORY: You're daft 18 . You should try it. Love's great.
14. NOODLE: thin
STEVE: W h o told you? spaghetti-like kind of
GREGORY: I'm in love. [He means it. He is abstractedly stirring the sponge mix 65 pasta
15. wanders off: leaves if;
with his finger.] I can't eat, I'm awake half the night, when I think about
without going in a
it I feel dizzy 19 . I'm restless... it's wonderful. clear direction
ifK
STEVE: That sounds more like indigestion. 16. over that: because of
GREGORY: I'm serious. her
STEVE: Or maybe you're pregnant, science is making such progress... [STEVE 70 17. stiff if you overdo it:
hard if you mix it too
extracts GREGORY'S finger from the mixing bowl and starts to wipe it clean.] long
Come on, who is it? Is it a mature woman? Did you do anything dirty? 18. daft: stupid
Did you wash your hands? 19.dizzy: light-headed
 Introduction to Literary Appreciation

GREGORY: Don't be crude 20 .

STEVE: Come on! W h o is it? \

GREGORY: You'll just laugh and tell people.

STEVE: Give us a clue 21 .
GREGORY: [reluctantly] It's somebody in the football team.
S T E V E : [silent for a moment] Hey, that's really s o m e t h i n g . Have you
mentioned this to anyone else? Listen, it's probably just a phase ... is it 80
Andy, no, no ... is it Pete?
GREGORY: Come on! I mean Dorothy, she came into the team last week.
She's in 4A ... she's a wonderful player, she's a girl. She goes around with
Carol and Susan, she's got long lovely hair, she always looks really clean
and fresh and she smells m m m ... lovely. Even if you just pass her in the 85
corridor she smells, m m m ... gorgeous ... She's got teeth, lovely teeth,
lovely white, white teeth.
STEVE: Oh, that Dorothy, the hair ... the smell... the teeth ... that Dorothy.
GREGORY: That's her, that's Dorothy.
STEVE: The one that took your place in the team. 90
GREGORY: SO what. She's a good footballer. She might be a bit light but
she's got skill, she's some girl...
STEVE: Can she cook? Can she do this?

[STEVE throws the rolled-out pastry into the air and juggles22 it with a pizza-
maker's flourish23.] 95

GREGORY: [being very serious] W h e n you're in love, things like that just
don't matter.
STEVE: Gimme the margarine.
GREGORY: D O you think she'll love me back?
2 0 . crude: vulgar STEVE: N O chance ... watch the mix! I told you, nice and slowly ... take it 100
2 1 . c l u e : something that
easy...
helps in the solution
of a mystery [STEVE takes GREGORY'S hands in his and guides him through the movements of a
2 2 . juggles: balances it in
nice and easy stir.]
the air
2 3 . flourish: dramatic GREGORY: What d'you mean no chance?
gesture STEVE: N O chance. 105
•

COMPREHENSION
1 Where does the scene take place? What are the
students doing?
2 Who has been picked to play on the football team?
3 Why does Steve inspect Gregory's hands?
4 Who has Gregory fallen in love with?
5 Does Steve think that Gregory has any chance of
having his love returned?

ANALYSIS - DIALOGUE
1 Identify the lines in the dialogue which provide
information about past events that is essential for the
understanding of the story.
2 Gregory and Steve emerge as two very different
characters in this scene. Find evidence in the dialogue
that suggests that:
a. Steve is well-organised, bossy, arrogant, sarcastic,
humorous, self-confident.
b. Gregory is shy, romantic, humorous, submissive,
immature, insecure.
 What is Drama?29'dm

Soliloquy

S o l i l o q u y is a theatrical c o n v e n t i o n in w h i c h a c h a r a c t e r speaks aloud to Soliloquy

h i m s e l f . T h e c h a r a c t e r may n o t necessarily be a l o n e on t h e stage; o t h e r
characters may be present, but if they are, it is assumed they do not hear the
words of the soliloquy. The playwright uses soliloquy to convey directly to the
audience the character's motives, intentions and his innermost feelings and
thoughts, or simply to fill in parts of the story.
A monologue is similar to a soliloquy. It serves the same purposes. However, it is Monologue
usually shorter and takes place in the presence of other characters on stage who
hear what is being said.
A related stage device is the aside, in which a character expresses his thoughts in Aside
a few words or a short passage that the other characters on the stage cannot hear.

CASE STUDY 1 5
This soliloquy is taken from Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare (1564-1616). Romeo has just met and fallen in
love with Juliet. He is now in the garden of Juliet's home. Juliet is on the balcony but she is unaware of Romeo's presence.

Q Romeo and Juliet

by William Shakespeare

But soft! What light through yonder 1 window breaks?

It is the east, and Juliet is the sun.
Arise, fair sun, and kill the envious moon,
Who is already sick and pale with grief
That thou her maid 2 art 3 far more fair than she.
Be not her maid, since she is envious,
Her vestal livery is but sick and green 4 ,
And none but fools do wear it 5 , cast it off 6 .
It is my lady, O it is my love!
O that she knew she were 7 !

GLOSSARY
1. yonder: that
(a) moonlight and (b)
girls suffering from lack
of blood. Envious people
1 H
2. her maid: the servants of were said to be 'green with Ian McKellen
Diana, the virgin goddess of envy' as Romeo in
the moon, were unmarried 5 And none ... wear it: Jesters the 7 976 Royal
maidens. Juliet is Diana's usually wore green. Romeo Shakespeare
maid in the sense that she is means that anyone who Company
unmarried decides never to marry is a production
3. thou ... art: you are fool of Romeo and
4. Her vestal livery ... green: 6. cast it off: throw it away Juliet. 'It is
the dress (livery) worn by 7. that she knew she were: I my lady, O it is
Diana's servants (vestals) is my love!'
wish she knew she is my
sickly green in colour like love
 .Sa30Introduction to Literary Appreciation

HIGGINS: [Brusquely, recognising her with unconcealed disappointment8, and at 10

once babylike, making an intolerable grievance9 of it] Why, this is the girl 1
unss jotted down 1 0 last night. She's no use: Ive got all the records I want of
the Lisson Grove lingo 11 ; and I'm not going to waste another cylinder
m on it. [To the girl] Be off with you: I dont want you.
LIZA: Dont you be so saucy 12 . You aint heard what I come for yet. [To MRS 15
PEARCE, who is waiting at the door for further instuctions] Did you tell him I
come in a taxi?
M R S PEARCE: N o n s e n s e , girl! what do you t h i n k a g e n t l e m a n like Mr
Higgins cares what you came in?
LIZA: Oh, we are proud! He aint above giving lessons, not him: I heard him 20
say so. Well, I aint come here to ask for any compliment; and if my
money's not good enough I can go elsewhere. (...)
HIGGINS: [Stupent] Well!!! [Recovering his breath with a gasp] What do you
M expect me to say to you?
LIZA: Well, if you was a gentleman, you might ask me to sit down, I think. 25
Dont I tell you I'm bringing you business?
HIGGINS: Pickering: shall we ask this baggage to sit down, or shall we throw
her out of the window?

J"

I 'gspp
ili^M
H

'FwSbs 8. unconcealed
:Wm disappointment:
open frustration
9. grievance: reason for
complaint
10. jotted down: took
notes on
11.Lisson Grove lingo:
language/slang used
mm by people living in
A scene from the film
the Lisson Grove area
12. saucy: impertinent, My Fair Lady (1964).
disrespectful
 What is Drama? 31

LIZA:[Running away in terror to the piano, where she turns at bay13] Ah-ah-oh-
ow-ow-ow-oo! [Wounded 1 4 and whimpering1S] I wont be called a baggage 30
when Ive offered to pay like any lady.
[Motionless, the two men stare at her from the other side of the room, amazed16.]
PICKERING: [Gently] But what is you want?
LIZA: I want to be a lady in a flower shop stead of sellin at the corner of
Tottenham Court Road. But they wont take me unless I can talk more 35
genteel. He said he could teach me. Well, here I am ready to pay him -
not asking any favor - and he treats me zif I was dirt 17 .
MRS PEARCE: HOW can you be such a foolish ignorant girl as to think you
could afford to pay Mr Higgins?
LIZA: Why shouldnt I ? I know what lessons cost as well as you do; and I'm 40
ready to pay.
13. at bay: away
HIGGINS: HOW much?
14. Wounded: offended
LIZA: [Coming back to him, triumphant] Now youre talking! I thought youd
15. whimpering: crying
come off it 1 8 when you saw a chance of getting back a bit of what you 16. amazed: very
chucked at me 1 9 last night. [Confidentially] Youd had a drop in 20 , hadnt 45 surprised
you? 17. zif I was dirt: as if
I were worthless
HIGGINS: [Peremptorily] Sit down.
18. c o m e off it: stop
LIZA: Oh, if youre going to make a compliment of it - pretending
HIGGINS: [Thundering 21 at her] Sit down. 19. chucked at me:
MRS PEARCE: [Severely] Sit down, girl. Do as youre told. 50 threw at me in a
careless way
LIZA: Ah-ah-ah-ow-ow-oo! [She stands, half rebellious, half-bewildered22.]
20. had a drop in: had
PICKERING: [Very courteous] Wont you sit down? [He places the stray chair near been drinking alcohol
the hearthrug23 between himself and HIGGINS.] 21. thundering: shouting
LIZA: [Coyly] D o n t m i n d if I do. [She sits down. PICKERING returns to the 22. bewildered: shocked
hearthrug.] 55 23. stray chair near the
hearthrug: spare
HIGGINS: Whats your name? chair near the rug in
LIZA: Liza Doolittle. front of the fireplace
*

COMPREHENSION |
1 How is the flower girl dressed? Why has she chosen
these clothes for the occasion?
2 Why does Higgins say the girl is 'no use'? (Line 12)
3 Why does the flower girl want Higgins to know
that she came in a taxi?
4 What does Higgins threaten to do to the girl?
5 Why does the girl want to learn to speak 'more
genteel'?
6 Why does the girl think that Higgins had been
drunk the previous night? (Line 45)

ANALYSIS-TONE —
The speaker's attitude towards what he is saying or who he is speaking to will determine the tone he adopts.
Work in groups of four. Read the stage directions and dialogue closely and identify the attitude of:
- Higgins/Pickering/Mrs Pearce towards Liza
- Liza towards Higgins/Pickering/Mrs Pearce
Prepare a group reading of the scene. Decide who will read each part. Use tone to convey the attitudes you have
identified for each character.
 .Sa32Introduction to Literary Appreciation

Irony
: s
Irony can be defined as saying something while you really mean something else.
It is very c o m m o n in everyday speech (for example, when we say 'that was a
clever thing to do' meaning 'that was very foolish'), and it is also widely used in
literature. The word 'irony' comes from the Greek word 'eiron', which means
'dissembler'. In fact the ironic speaker dissembles, i.e. hides his real intention.
The three types of irony that occur most frequently in drama are:
• verbal irony, in which there is a contrast between what a character literally
says and what he means;
• situational irony, which occurs when an event or situation turns out to be the
reverse of what is expected or appropriate;
• dramatic irony, which occurs when the audience knows something that one
or more of the characters on stage do not know. Dramatic irony is often used to
add humour or suspense to a scene.

CASE STUDY 17
This scene is taken from the play The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar Wilde (1854-1900). Jack Worthing
leads a double life. In the countryside, where he is known as lack, he is the respectable guardian of a young girl, Cecily.
In order to escape to the pleasures of the city when he pleases, Jack tells the young girl that he has a brother, Ernest,
who leads a wicked life in London and needs to be kept under constant surveillance. Under the name of Ernest, Jack
enjoys life in London and falls in love with a young woman named Gwendolen Fairfax. Gwendolen has always
dreamed of marrying a man named Ernest because the name conjures up a person who is serious and sincere, i.e.
'earnest'. In the following scene Jack is in a flat in London with Gwendolen and her mother, Lady Bracknell.

Q The Importance of Being Earnest

by Oscar Wilde

JACK: Charming day it has been, Miss Fairfax.

GWENDOLEN: Pray d o n ' t talk to me about t h e weather, Mr W o r t h i n g .
W h e n e v e r people talk to me about the weather, I always feel quite
certain that they mean something else. And that makes me so nervous.
JACK: I do mean something else. 5
GWENDOLEN: I thought so. In fact, I am never wrong. ,
JACK: And I would like to be allowed to take advantage of Lady Bracknell's
temporary absence ...
GWENDOLEN: I would certainly advise you to do so. Mamma has a way of
coming back suddenly into a room that I have often had to speak to her 10
about.
J A C K : [Nervously] Miss Fairfax, ever since I met you I have admired you
more than any girl... I have ever met since ... I met you.
GWENDOLEN: Yes, I am quite well aware of the fact. And I often wish that in
public, at any rate 1 , you had been more demonstrative. For me you is
have always had an irresistible fascination. Even before I met you I was
•• GLOSSARY
far from indifferent to you. [JACK looks at her in amazement.] We live, as I
1. at a n y rate: at least hope you know, Mr Worthing, in an age of ideals. The fact is constantly
 What is Drama? 33 ' dm
mentioned in the more expensive monthly magazines, and has now
reached the provincial pulpits 2 ,1 am told; and my ideal has always been 20
to love some one of the name of Ernest. There is something in that
name that inspires absolute confidence. The m o m e n t Algernon first
m e n t i o n e d to me t h a t he had a friend called Ernest, I knew I was
destined to love you.
JACK: YOU really love me, Gwendolen? 25
GWENDOLEN: Passionately!
JACK: Darling! You don't know how happy you've made me.
GWENDOLEN: My own Ernest!
JACK: But you don't really mean to say that you couldn't love me if my
name wasn't Ernest? 30
GWENDOLEN: But your name is Ernest.
JACK: Yes, I know it is. But supposing it was something else? Do you mean
to say you couldn't love me then?
GWENDOLEN: [Glibly3] Ah! That is clearly a metaphysical speculation, and
like most metaphysical speculations has very little reference at all to 35
actual facts of real life, as we know them.
JACK: Personally, darling, to speak quite candidly, I don't much care about
the name of Ernest... I don't think the name suits me at all.
GWENDOLEN: It suits you perfectly. It is a divine name. It has a music of its mm
own. It produces vibrations. 40
2. provincial pulpits:
JACK: Well, really, Gwendolen, I must say that there are lots of other much
unsophisticated
nicer names. I think Jack, for instance, a charming name. country towns
GWENDOLEN: Jack? ... No, there is very little music in the name Jack, if any 3. Glibly: lightly,
at all, indeed. It does not thrill 4 . It produces absolutely no vibrations... thoughtlessly
4. thrill: produce
I have known several Jacks, and they all, without exception, were more 45
excitement
than usually plain 5 . Besides, Jack is a notorious domesticity 6 for John! 5. plain: ordinary
And I pity any woman who is married to a man called John. She would 6. notorious
probably never be allowed to know the entrancing 7 pleasure of a single domesticity: well-
known nickname
moment's solitude. The only really safe name is Ernest.
entrancing:
JACK:Gwendolen, I must get christened 8 at once - I mean we must get 50 delightful
married at once. There is no time to be lost. 8. christened: baptised

COMPREHENSION
1 Why does Gwendolen ask jack not to talk about
the weather?
2 Is Gwendolen surprised by Jack's declaration of love?
3 What has always been Gwendolen's ideal?
4 Jack asks Gwendolen if she could love him even if
his name were not Ernest. How does Gwendolen
dismiss the question?
5 What does Gwendolen think of the name Jack?

ANALYSIS - IRONY
This scene is an example of dramatic irony. What does the audience know that Gwendolen does not know? How
does this contribute to the humour of the extract? Gwendolen probably considers Ernest's declaration that he
must get christened soon as a slip of the tongue. Does the audience interpret it in the same way?
.Sa 36 Introduction to Literary Appreciation

The manner in which a character perceives

Setting as a way
the setting may tell the reader more about
of revealing character
the character and his or her state of mind
than about t h e setting itself. W h e n , for
example, an urban landscape is described by
a character as 'desolate' and 'ominous', the
writer may be telling us more about how the
character is feeling rather than accurately
describing the setting. The writer is using
the outer world setting to give us an insight
into the character's inner world.

Setting as a means The setting may also reinforce and clarify the theme of a novel or short story. The
of reinforcing theme physical setting in which the action takes place may symbolically represent the
central ideas of the work. A solitary house in bleak, hostile surroundings may
reinforce the theme of man's struggle against nature. Many modern novels take
place in w h a t are t e r m e d 'alien settings', where even t h e familiar seems
unfamiliar. T h e characters are often exiles, tourists or expatriates, and t h e
inhospitable setting reinforces the theme of loss of roots and loss of home which
is common to much modern fiction.

The historical period, time of year and time of day are all important features of the
Setting in time
setting. The fact, for example, that most of a story's action takes place at night
may create an atmosphere of mystery, violence or conspiracy. Authors often use
the traditional associations with the seasons and the cycle of the day to create
appropriate time settings for their work, for example spring-morning-youth.

While the setting refers to the time and place in which the action occurs, the
Social setting
term social setting is used to indicate the social environment in which a story
takes place. The social setting of a novel or story may be explicitly indicated by
the author or it may be conveyed through the use of social or class markers, i.e.
the way the characters talk, where and how they live, the clothes they wear, how
they eat, and so on. Like the physical and temporal setting, the social setting may
be relatively unimportant or it may play a determining role in a novel or story. In
many novels characters are presented as products of their social class, and many
authors have explored the themes of c o n f o r m i t y to or rebellion against the
values and mores of specific social settings.

QUESTIONS T O ASK W H E N A N A L Y S I N G SETTING

What is the setting of the work in time and space?
Is the setting briefly sketched or is it described in detail?
Are the descriptions of setting based on visual images?
Is the language used in the descriptions connotative or poetic?
Through whose eyes is the setting seen? Does the setting reveal the characters' state of mind?
Does the setting:
a. contribute towards creating mood and atmosphere?
b. influence the characters' behaviour?
c. reinforce the main themes of the work?
At what time of day /year does most of the action take place? Is this relevant?
 What is Fiction? 37 QH

CASE STUDY 1 9
Saki, the pen-name of Hector Hugh Munro, was born in Burma in 1870. He is widely acclaimed for his short stories,
many of which featured children as the protagonists. Read the story paying particular attention to the description of
the lumber room where some of the action takes place.

The Lumber Room 1

by Saki

The c h i l d r e n were to be driven, as a special treat 2 , to t h e sands at

Jagborough. Nicholas was not to be of the party; he was in disgrace. Only
that morning he had refused to eat his wholesome bread-and-milk on the
seemingly frivolous ground that there was a frog in it. Older and wiser and
better people had told him that there could not possibly be a frog in his 5
bread-and-milk and that he was n o t to talk nonsense; he c o n t i n u e d ,
nevertheless, to talk what seemed the veriest 3 nonsense, and described
with much detail the colouration and markings of the alleged 4 frog. The
dramatic part of the incident was that there really was a frog in Nicholas's
basin of bread-and-milk; he had put it there himself, so he felt entitled 5 to 10 GLOSSARY

know something about it. Thg^sin6 of taking a frog from the garden and 1. lumber room: storage
putting it into a bowl of wholesomeijread-and-milk was enlarged on at room
treat: exciting event
great length 7 , but the fact thaTsTooa out clearest in the whole affair, as it
veriest: absolute
presented itself to the mind of Nicholas, was that the older, wiser, and alleged: supposedly
better people had been proved to be profoundly in error in matters about 15 real
which they had expressed the utmost assurance 8 . entitled: having a
right
'You said there couldn't possibly be a frog in my bread-and-milk; there was
sin: deplorable action
a frog in my bread-and-milk,' he repeated, with the insistence of a skilled 7. enlarged on at great
tactician who does not intend to shift 9 from favourable ground. length: talked about
So his boy-cousin and girl-cousin and his quite uninteresting younger 20 for a long time
brother were to be takeruto Jagborough sands that afternoon and he was 8. people ... assurance:
they had been
to stay home.(His cousins' aiint, who insisted, by an unwarranted, stretch mistaken about
of 1 0 imaginatiorirnrstyling 1 1 herself his aunt also, had hastily 12 invented questions which they
the Jagborough expedition in order to impress on Nicholas the delights were absolutely
certain of
that he had justly forfeited 13 by his disgracefirf conduct S t ' m e breakfast- 25
9. shift: move
table. It was her habit, whenever one of the ctiitdreh fell from grace, to 10. by an unwarranted
improvise something of a festival nature from which the offender would stretch of: extending
be rigorously debarred; if all the children sinned collectively they were the limits of
informed of a circus in a neighbouring town, a circus of unrivalled 14 merit 11.styling: designating
12. hastily: quickly
and uncounted elephants, to which, but for their depravity, they would 30
13. forfeited: lost
have been taken that very day.
14. unrivalled:
A few decent tears were looked for on the part of Nicholas 1 5 when the unequalled
moment for the departure of the expedition arrived. As a matter of fact, 15. A few decent tears ...
Nicholas: he was
however, all the crying was done by his girl-cousin, who scraped her knee expected to cry a bit
rather painfully against the step of the carriage as she was scrambling in 1 6 . 35 16. scrambling in: trying
How she did h o w l 1 7 ! ' said Nicholas cheerfully, as the party drove off to get in quickly
without any of the elation of high spirits 18 that should have characterised it. 17. howl: cry
18. elation of high
She'll soon get over that,' said the soi-disant19 aunt. 'It will be a glorious spirits: excitement
afternoon for racing about over those beautiful sands. How they will enjoy 19.soi-disant: self-
themselves!' 40 nominated
.Sa 38 Introduction to Literary Appreciation
20. grim chuckle:
sinister laugh
21. gooseberry: type of
fruit that grows on a
bush
22. loftily: in a superior
tone
23. Nicholas ...
reasoning: Nicholas
did not accept that
the reasoning was
perfect
24. slip in: get in unseen
25. artichokes: type of
vegetable
26. raspberry: see note 21
27. canes: sticks
supporting the plants
28. shrubberies: groups
of plants
29. whence: from where
30. sorties: visits to
31. wriggling his way:
twisting his way
32. with obvious stealth
of purpose: furtively
33.in ... sentry-duty:
acting as a guard
34. thoroughly: totally
35. slipped back: went
back unnoticed
36. suchlike: similar
37.trusting... to:
placing his
confidence in
38. stiffly: with difficult}
39. stale delight: old and
no longer fresh source
of fun
40. sealed from youthful
eyes: barred from the
view of the children
41. It came up to his
expectations: It was
as exciting as he had
expected.
42. dimly lit: with very
little light
43. aunt-by-assertion:
so-called aunt
44. spoil: get ruined
45.damp: humidity
46. by way of: in order
to
'Bobby won't enjoy himself much, and he won't race much either,' said
Nicholas with a grim chuckle 20 . 'His boots are hurting him. They're too tight.'
' W h y didn't he tell me they were hurting?' asked the aunt with some
asperity.
'He told you twice, but you weren't listening. You often don't listen when 45
we tell you important things.'
'You are not to go into the gooseberry 21 garden,' said the aunt, changing
the subject.
'Why not?' demanded Nicholas.
'Because you are in disgrace,' said the aunt loftily 22 . 50
Nicholas did not admit the flawlessness of the reasoning 23 ; he felt perfectly
capable of being in disgrace and in the gooseberry garden at the same
moment. His face took on an expression of considerable obstinacy. It was
clear to his aunt that he was determined to get into the gooseberry garden.
'Only,' as she remarked to herself, 'because 1 have told him he is not to.' 55
Now the gooseberry garden had two doors by which it might be entered,
and o n c e a small person like Nicholas could slip i n 2 4 t h e r e he could
effectually disappear from view amid the masking growth of artichokes 25 ,
raspberry 26 canes 27 , and fruit bushes. The aunt had many other things to
do that a f t e r n o o n , but she spent an hour or two in trivial gardening 60
operations among flower beds and shrubberies 28 , whence 2 9 she could keep
a watchful eye on the two doors that led to the forbidden paradise. She was
a woman of few ideas, with immense powers of concentration.
Nicholas made one or two sorties 3 0 into the front garden, wriggling his
way 31 with obvious stealth of purpose 32 towards one or other of the doors, 65
but never able for a moment to evade the aunt's watchful eye. As a matter
of fact, he had n o intention of trying to get into the gooseberry garden,
but it was extremely convenient for him that his aunt should believe that
he had; it was a belief that would keep her in self-imposed sentry-duty 33
for the greater part of the afternoon. Having thoroughly 3 4 confirmed and 70
fortified her suspicions, Nicholas slipped b a c k 3 5 i n t o t h e house and
rapidly put into execution a plan of action that had long germinated in
his brain. By standing on a chair in the library, one could reach a shelf on
which reposed a fat, important-looking key. The key was as important as it
looked; it was the instrument which kept the mysteries of the lumber- 75
room secure from unauthorised intrusion, which opened a way only for
aunts and suchlike 3 6 privileged persons. Nicholas had n o t had much
experience of the art of fitting keys into keyholes and turning locks, but
for some days past he had practised with the key of the schoolroom door;
he did not believe in trusting too much to 3 7 luck and accident. The key 80
turned stiffly 38 in the lock, but it turned. The door opened, and Nicholas
was in an unknown land, compared with which the gooseberry garden
was a stale delight 39 , a mere material pleasure.
Often and often Nicholas had pictured to himself what the lumber-room
might be like, that region that was so carefully sealed from youthful eyes 40 85
and concerning which no questions were ever answered. It came up to his
expectations 4 1 . In the first place it was large and dimly lit 4 2 , one high
window opening on to the forbidden garden being its o n l y source of
i l l u m i n a t i o n . In the second place it was a storehouse of u n i m a g i n e d
treasures. The aunt-by-assertion 43 was one of those people who think that 90
things spoil 4 4 by use and consign them to dust and damp 4 5 by way of 4 6
preserving t h e m . Such parts of the house as Nicholas knew best were
 What is Fiction? 39 QH

rather bare and cheerless 47 , but there were wonderful things for the eye to
feast on 4 8 . First and foremost 49 there was a piece of framed tapestry 50 that
was e v i d e n t l y m e a n t t o be a firescreen. To N i c h o l a s it was a living, 95
breathing story; he sat down on a roll of Indian hangings 51 , glowing 52 in
wonderful colours beneath a layer 53 of dust, and took in all details of the
tapestry picture. A man, dressed in the hunting costume of some remote
period, had just transfixed a stag 54 with an arrow; it could not have been a
difficult shot because the stag was only one or two paces 55 away from him; 100
in the thickly-growing vegetation that the picture suggested, it would not
have been difficult to creep 5 6 up to a feeding stag, and the spotted dogs
that were springing 5 7 forward to join in the chase had evidently been
trained to keep to heel 5 8 till the arrow was discharged. That part of the
picture was simple, if i n t e r e s t i n g , but did t h e h u n t s m a n see, what 105
Nicholas saw, that four galloping wolves were coming in his direction
t h r o u g h t h e wood? There m i g h t be more t h a n four of t h e m hidden
behind the trees, and in any case would the man and his dogs be able to
cope with 5 9 the four wolves if they made an attack? The man had only
47. bare and cheerless:
two arrows left in his quiver 6 0 , and he might miss with one or both of 110 empty and sad
them; all one knew about his skill in shooting was that he could hit a large 48. to feast on: to enjoy
stag at a ridiculously short range 61 . 49. foremost: most
important
Nicholas sat for many golden minutes revolving the possibilities of the 50. framed tapestry:
scene; he was inclined to think that there were more than four wolves and piece of cloth on
that the man and his dogs were in a tight corner 62 . which coloured
115
threads form pictures,
But there were other objects of delight and interest claiming 63 his instant bordered with wood
a t t e n t i o n : there were quaint^ 4 twisted 6 5 candlesticks in t h e shape of as a support
snakes, and a teapot fashioned like a china duck, out of whose open beak 5,1. hangings: painted or
embroidered cloths
the tea was supposed to come. How dull 66 and shapeless the nursery pot
52. glowing: shining
seemed in comparison! And there was a carved sandal-wood box 6 7 packed 120 53. layer: covering
tight with aromatic cotton-wool, and between the layers of cotton-wool 54. stag: male deer
•were little brass figures, hump-necked 68 bulls and peacocks 69 and goblins 70 55. paces: steps
delightful to see and to handle. Less promising in appearance was a large 56. creep: move slowly
close to the ground
57.springing: jumping
58. keep to heel: remain
close behind
59. cope with: be a
match for
60. quiver: arrow-case
61. range: distance
62. tight corner: difficult
situation
63. claiming: calling for
64. quaint: nice in an
intriguing way
65. twisted: having a
spiral form
66. dull: uninteresting
67. carved sandal-wood
john Singer Sargent, box: decorated
j C a r n a t i o n , Lily, Lily, wooden box
Hose (1885). The 68. hump-necked:
| delights of the having a rounded
garden were nothing protuberance on their
when compared to necks
the delights of the 69. peacocks: large birds
lumber room. with a beautiful tail
70. goblins: gnomes
 E)38Introduction to Literary Appreciation

square book with plain black covers; Nicholas peeped i n t o 7 1 it, and,
behold 7 2 , it was full of coloured pictures of birds. And such birds! In the 15
garden, and in the lanes when he went for a walk, Nicholas came across a
few birds, of which the largest were an occasional magpie or wood-pigeon 73 ;
here were h e r o n s and bustards, kites, t o u c a n s , tiger-bitterns, brush
turkeys, ibises, golden pheasants 74 , a whole portrait gallery of undreamed-
of creatures. And as he was admiring the colouring of the mandarin duck 130
and assigning a life-history to it, the voice of his aunt in shrill 75 vociferation
of his name came from the gooseberry garden without 7 6 . She had grown
suspicious at his long disappearance, and had leapt 7 7 to the conclusion
that he had climbed over the wall behind the sheltering 7 8 screen of the
lilac bushes; she was now engaged in an energetic and rather hopeless 135
search for him among the artichokes and raspberry canes.
'Nicholas, Nicholas!' she screamed 79 , 'you are to come out of this at once.
It's no use trying to hide there; I can see you all the time.'
It was probably the first time for twenty years that any one had smiled in
that lumber-room. 140
P r e s e n t l y 8 0 t h e angry r e p e t i t i o n s of Nicholas's n a m e gave way to a
shriek 8 1 , a cry for somebody to come quickly. Nicholas shut the book,
restored it carefully to its place in a corner, and shook some dust from a
71. peeped into: looked neighbouring pile of newspaper over it. Then he crept from the room,
furtively and quickly locked the door and replaced the key exactly where he had found it. His 145
72. behold: exclamation aunt was still calling his name when he sauntered 82 into the front garden.
of surprise
'Who's calling?' he asked.
73. magpie or wood
pigeon: common 'Me,' came the answer from the other side of the wall. 'Didn't you hear
birds me? I've been looking for you in the gooseberry garden, and I've slipped 83
74.herons ... pheasants: into the rain-water tank 8 4 . Luckily there's no water in it, but the sides are 150
birds he sees in the
book slippery 85 and I can't get out. Fetch 86 the little ladder from under the cherry
75.shrill: high sounding tree - '
76. without: outside 'I was told I wasn't to go i n t o t h e gooseberry garden,' said N i c h o l a s
77.leapt: lumped promptly.
78. sheltering: protective
'I told you not to, and now I tell you that you may,' came the voice from 155
79. screamed: shouted
desperately
the rain-water tank, rather impatiently.
80. Presently: after a 'Your voice doesn't sound like aunt's,' objected Nicholas. 'You may be the
time Evil One tempting me to be disobedient. Aunt often tells me that the Evil
81. shriek: scream One tempts me and that I always yield 87 . This time I'm not going to yield.'
82. sauntered: walked 'Don't talk nonsense,' said the prisoner in the tank. 'Go and fetch the 160
slowly
ladder.'
83. slipped: lost my
balance and fallen 'Will there be strawberry jam for tea?' asked Nicholas innocently.
84.tank: large container 'Certainly there will be,' said the aunt, privately resolving that Nicholas
85. slippery: difficult to should have none of it.
hold
'Now I k n o w t h a t you are t h e Evil One and n o t my a u n t , ' s h o u t e d 165
86. Fetch: Get
87. yield: give in, N i c h o l a s gleefully 8 8 . ' W h e n we asked my aunt for strawberry jam
surrender yesterday she said there wasn't any. I know there are four jars of it in the
88. gleefully: joyfull store cupboard, because I looked, and of course you know it's there, but
89. were n o t . . . over she doesn't because she said there wasn't any. Oh, Devil you have sold
indulged in: should
not be enjoyed for
yourself!' 170
too long There was an unusual sense of luxury in being able to talk to an aunt as
90. kitchenmaid: female though one was talking to the Evil One, but Nicholas knew, with childish
kitchen servant
discernment, that such luxuries were not to be over-indulged in 8 9 . He
91. parsley: kind of
cooking herb walked noisily away, and it was a kitchenmaid 9 0 , in search of parsley 91 ,
92. rescued: set free who eventually rescued 92 the aunt from the rain-water tank. 175
 What is Fiction? 41 Q H

Tea that evening was partaken of 9 3 in a fearsome silence. The tide 9 4 had
been at its highest when the children had arrived at Jagborough Cove, so 93. partaken of: had
there had been no sands to play on - a circumstance that the aunt had 94. tide: periodic rise
overlooked 9 5 in the haste of organising 9 6 her punitive expedition. The (and fall) of the sea
due to the attraction
tightness of Bobby's boots had had a disastrous effect on his temper" 7 the 180
of the moon and sun
whole of the afternoon, and altogether the children could not have been
95. overlooked: not
said to have e n j o y e d t h e m s e l v e s . T h e aunt m a i n t a i n e d t h e frozen noticed
muteness of one who has suffered undignified and unmerited detention 96. in the haste of
:n a rain-water tank for thirty-five minutes. As for Nicholas, he, too, was organising: because
she hurriedly
silent, in the absorption of one who has much to think about; it was just 185 organised
possible, he considered, that the h u n t s m a n would escape with his
9 7. temper: mood
hounds 98 , while the wolves feasted on 9 9 the stricken stag.
98. hounds: hunting dogs
(From Beasts and Superbeasts, 1914) 99. feasted on: ate
•

COMPREHENSION
1 Why was Nicholas not allowed to go to
Vagborough with the other children?
2 Did Nicholas cry as the other children set off on
their trip?
3 Where did the aunt forbid him to go?
4 Why did Nicholas try to make the aunt believe
that he wanted to go into the gooseberry garden?
iVhere did he really want to go?
5 What scene was depicted on the tapestry Nicholas
"ound in the lumber room?
6 Apart from the tapestry, what other 'objects of
delight' did Nicholas find in the lumber room?
7 What happened to the aunt in the gooseberry
garden?
8 What did the aunt ask Nicholas to do? Why did he
refuse?
9 Why were each of the characters silent during
evening tea?

ANALYSIS-SETTING
1 What facts are given about the lumber room in the
text? (Dimensions, lighting, objects stored)
2 What transforms :he lumber room into 'a
storehouse of unimagined treasures'?
3 Does the lumber room have a symbolic
significance in the story? What does it represent?
4 What does the fact that Nicholas entered the
lumber room against his aunt's wishes mean, in the
context of your interpretation?
5 Nicholas derives pleasure from his experience in
the lumber room long after he has left it. How do you
interpret this in the context of the story?
6 What function does setting serve in this short story?

BDD
Writers often show that setting influences the way their characters think and behave. Do you believe that this also
happens in real life? Are you influenced by where you live and the people that surround you? Does your
personality alter when you change setting? For example, do you feel more relaxed in the countryside or at the
seaside, or do you feel more excited when you visit a large bustling city? Of the people who surround you, i.e.
your social setting, who influences you most - parents, friends, brothers/sisters, teachers?
Does the weather influence your mood?
.Sa 42 Introduction to Literary Appreciation

Character

What do other people think? What emotions do they experience? How are they
similar to or different from us?
Literature allows us to look into the lives of an endless collection of men and
women and find answers to these questions. We can learn about people's hopes
and fears, we can see them struggle through adverse circumstances, we can
rejoice with them in moments of success and sympathise with them in moments
of despair. In real life we have the opportunity of knowing intimately a relatively
small number of people - family members, loved ones, close friends. Literature
allows us to multiply that number by giving us access to the private thoughts and
lives of an endless assortment of fascinating and memorable people.

Defining characters
When we analyse characters in fiction we need to ask some key questions about:
• their relationship to the plot: do they play a major part in the events of the
story or do they have a minor role?
• the degree to w h i c h they are developed: are they complex characters or are
they one-dimensional?
• their growth in the course of story: do they remain the same throughout the
story or do significant changes in their personalities take place?
In order to discuss these issues we need to know the following terms.

The central character of the plot is called the protagonist. Without this character
Protagonist and
there would be no story. The character against whom the protagonist struggles is
antagonist
called the antagonist. In many novels, however, the antagonist is not a human
being. It may, for example, be the natural environment in which the protagonist
lives, or society, or illness, or even death.
The terms protagonist and antagonist do not have moral c o n n o t a t i o n s and
therefore should not be confused with 'hero' and 'villain'. Many protagonists are
a mixture of good and evil elements.
Other characters in a story may be referred to as m a j o r or m i n o r characters,
depending on the importance of their roles in developing the plot.
 Jiif"
What is Fiction?41QH
43

Round characters, like real people, have complex, multi-dimensional personalities.

Round and
They show emotional and intellectual depth and are capable of growing and
flat characters
changing. Major characters in fiction are usually round.
Flat characters embody or represent a single characteristic. They are the miser,
the bully, the jealous lover, the endless optimist. They may also be referred to as
types or as caricatures when distorted for humorous purposes. Flat characters are
usually minor characters. However, the term 'flat' should not be confused with
'insignificant' or 'badly drawn'. A flat character may in fact be the protagonist of
the story, in particular when the writer wishes to focus on the characteristic he or
she represents. Some highly memorable characters, particularly in satirical or
h u m o r o u s novels, can be defined as flat, for example t h e miser Scrooge in
Charles Dickens's A Christmas Carol.

D y n a m i c characters change as a result of the experiences they have. The most Dynamic and static
obvious examples can be found in initiation novels which tell stories of young characters
people w h o grow i n t o adults, for e x a m p l e Mark Twain's Huckleberry Finn.
However, dynamic characters can be found in many other types of stories. Major W
characters in novels are usually dynamic.
W
Static characters remain untouched by the events of the story. They do not learn
from their experiences and c o n s e q u e n t l y they remain u n c h a n g e d . Static
characters are usually minor characters, but sometimes a writer makes a static
character the protagonist of his story, because he wishes to analyse a particular
type of personality. Static characters also play major roles in stories that show how
forces in life, such as the social environment or the family, sometimes make it hard
for people to grow and change. An example can be found in the short story Eveline
by James Joyce: the unhappy central character Eveline feels suffocated by her
family circumstances and lifestyle but cannot find the strength to break free from
her situation and start a new life with her fiance in South America.

How the author conveys character

üü
Another important aspect of character analysis is determining how the author
presents and establishes a character. There are two basic methods for conveying
character: telling and showing.
T e l l i n g involves direct i n t e r v e n t i o n and c o m m e n t a r y by t h e author. He
Telling
interrupts the narrative to comment on the character's personality, thoughts or
actions. The guiding hand of the author is clearly evident as he helps us to form
opinions about the character. An example of the telling technique can be found
in this short extract from D.H. Lawrence's novel Sons and Lovers, in which the
author describes the protagonist of his novel:
Arthur Morel was growing up. He was a quick, careless, impulsive boy, a good deal like
his father. He hated study, made a great moan if he had to work, and escaped as soon
as possible to his sport again.
When an author use te technique of showing, he steps aside and allows the
Showing
characters to reveal t icmselves through what they do and say. His voice is silent.
The reader is asked to infer character from the evidence provided in the dialogue
and action of the story. W h e n the author chooses the showing method, the
revelation of character is generally gradual. The reader must be attentive and
receptive, and use his intelligence and memory to draw conclusions about the
character's identity.
Modern authors tend to favour showing over telling, but most writers use a
mixture of both methods.
 .Sa42Introduction to Literary Appreciation

In real life what people say reveals a lot about who they are and what they think.
Dialogue
Similarly, in fiction, what a character says can help us to understand basic
elements of his personality. The character's attitude towards others may also
emerge from the dialogue. Important information about his origin, education,
occupation or social class may also be revealed by what he says and how he says it.
However, characters in stories do not always say what they really think. Just like
people in real life, they can be deceptive and create a false image of themselves.

We can learn a lot about a character's e m o t i o n s , attitudes and values by

Action
examining what he does in the course of the story. We should try to understand
the motives for the character's actions, and discover the underlying forces that
make him behave the way he does.

Comparison with Is t h e way a c h a r a c t e r behaves similar to or different from t h e way o t h e r

other characters characters act? One of the chief functions of minor characters in fiction is to
provide contrast to the main character. What can you learn by comparing the
protagonist to some of the other less important characters?

Setting The time and place in which the story unfolds may provide useful information
about the characters. If events take place during a particular historical period (the
Middle Ages, the French Revolution, the Vietnam War) the characters' ideas and
actions may be shaped by important external events. The characters' physical
surrounding (where they grew up, where they choose to live) may help us to
understand their psychological make-up.
References to the social setting may also give us some helpful insight. Do the
characters share or reject the values associated with their social background?

Occasionally the character's name may provide clues to his personality. Emily
Names
Bronte's choice of Heathcliff as a n a m e for the hero of her novel Wuthering
Heights conveys the character's wild, rugged, almost primitive nature. (Heath =
wild, uncultivated land; cliff = high rocky land that usually faces the sea)

In real life it is not advisable to judge a person by his appearance, but in fiction
Appearance
h o w a c h a r a c t e r looks o f t e n provides i m p o r t a n t i n f o r m a t i o n about his
personality. References to t h e c l o t h e s a c h a r a c t e r wears may, for example,
i n d i c a t e his social and e c o n o m i c status. Details of a character's physical
appearance may prove useful in determining his age and the general state of his
physical and emotional health.

UESTIONS T O ASK W H E N A N A L Y S I N G C H A R A C T E R
Is he a major or a minor character? Is he the protagonist/antagonist of the story?
Is he a round or a flat character?
Is he dynamic or static?
Does the author reveal the character through showing or telling, or does he use both techniques?
What does the way the character speaks reveal about his character?
What information does the way the character behaves provide?
Is he similar to or different from other characters in the story? How does he relate to the other characters?
Has the setting shaped the character's personality? Does the setting reflect his mood or emotional state?
Does the character's name have any importance, relevance or associations?
m
 ImSaEt%-.'' i mm-

W h a t is Fiction? 45 € 1 H

CASE STUDY 2 0
Katherine Mansfield (1888-1923) was born in New Zealand and educated in Britain. She is widely acclaimed as an
original and experimental writer whose stories often include sharp character sketches.

Miss Brill
by Katherine Mansfield

Although it was so brilliantly fine - the blue sky powdered with gold and
great spots of light like white wine splashed over 1 the Jardins Publiques -
Miss Brill was glad t h a t she had decided on her fur 2 . T h e air was
motionless, but when you opened your mouth there was just a faint chill 3 ,
like a chill from a glass of iced water before you sip, and now and again a 5
leaf came drifting 4 - from nowhere, from the sky. Miss Brill put up her
hand and touched her fur. Dear little thing! It was nice to feel it again. She
had taken it out of its box that afternoon, shaken out the moth-powder 5 ,
given it a good brush, and rubbed the life back into the dim little eyes6".
"What has been happening to me?" said the sad little eyes. Oh, how sweet 10
it was to see them snap at her 7 again from the red eiderdown 8 ! ... But the
nose, which was of some black composition, wasn't at all firm. It must
have had a knock 9 , somehow. Never mind - a little dab 1 0 of black sealing-
wax 1 1 when the time came - when it was absolutely necessary ... Little
rogue 12 ! Yes, she really felt like that about it. Little rogue biting its tail just 15
by her left ear. She could have taken it off and laid it on her lap 1 3 and
stroked 1 4 it. She felt a tingling 1 5 in her hands and arms, but that came
from walking, she supposed. And when she breathed, something light and
sad - no, n o t sad, exactly - s o m e t h i n g gentle seemed to move in her
bosom 1 6 . 20
There were a number of people out this afternoon, far more than last
Sunday. And the band sounded louder and gayer. That was because the
Season had begun. For although the band played all the year round on • '' '
Sundays, out of season it was never the same. It was like someone playing
with only the family to listen; it didn't care how it played if there weren't 25
any strangers present. Wasn't the conductor wearing a new coat, too? She
was sure it was new. He scraped with his foot 1 7 and flapped 18 his arms like
a rooster 19 about to crow 20 , and the bandsmen sitting in the green rotunda
blew out their cheeks and glared 21 at the music. Now there came a little dm
m
m
GLOSSARY
m •

1. splashed over: thrown over randomly
2. fur: animal hair used as clothing
3. faint chill: slight sensation of coldness
4. drifting: floating
5. shaken out the moth-powder:
removed the powder that had
preserved the fur from being damaged
by insects
6. rubbed the life ... little eyes: polished
the animal's lifeless glass eyes
7. snap at her: look at her
8. eiderdown: blanket
9. had a knock: been damaged
10. dab: light touch
11. sealing-wax: sticky substance used to
glue things together
12. rogue: someone who behaves badly,
but who you like anyway
13. lap: the legs of a sitting person
14. stroked: caressed
15. tingling: light stinging sensation
16.bosom: breast
17. scraped with his foot: rubbed his foot
on the ground
18. flapped: moved up and down
19. rooster: male chicken
20. crow: emit a loud cry
21. glared: looked fixedly
.Sa 46 Introduction to Literary Appreciation

Only two people shared her "special" seat: a fine old man in a velvet coat,
his h a n d s clasped 2 2 over a huge carved walking-stick, and a big old
woman, sitting upright, with a roll of knitting on her embroidered apron.
They did not speak. This was disappointing, for Miss Brill always looked 35
forward to the conversation. She had b e c o m e really quite expert, she
t h o u g h t , at l i s t e n i n g as t h o u g h she didn't listen, at sitting in o t h e r
people's lives just for a minute while they talked round her.
She glanced, sideways 23 , at the old couple. Perhaps they could go soon.
Last Sunday, too, hadn't been as interesting as usual. An Englishman and 40
his wife, he wearing a dreadful Panama hat 2 4 and she button boots. And
she'd gone on the whole time about how she ought to wear spectacles; she
knew she needed them; but that it was no good getting any; they'd be sure
to break and t h e y ' d never keep on. And h e ' d b e e n so p a t i e n t . He'd
suggested everything - gold rims, the kind that curved round your ears, 45
little pads 2 5 inside the bridge 2 6 . No, nothing would please her. "They'll
22.claspe: tightly joined
always be sliding down my nose!" Miss Brill had wanted to shake her.
together The old people sat on the bench . Never mind, there was
23. glanced, sideways:
always the crowd to watch. To arm nu , m a u n t of the flower-beds and
gave a quick look to
her side the band rotunda, the couples and groups paraded, stopped to talk, to 50
24. Panama hat: straw greet, to buy a handful of flowers from the old beggar who had his tray
hat fixed to the railings 28 . Little children ran among them,jwo£>ping 2 9 and
25. pads: soft cushioning
laughhig^liitle boys with big white silk bows'' 0 under their chins, little
26. bridge: section
connecting the two
girls; little French dolls, dressed up/in velvet 31 and lace 32 . And sometimes a
lenses of a pair of tiny staggerer 3 3 'came suddenly rocking-tnto the open from under the 55
glasses trees, stopped, stared, as suddenly sat down "flop," until its small high-
27.To and fro: stepping mother, like a young hen 3 4 , rushed scolding 35 to its rescue. Other
backwards and
forwards people sat on the benches and green chairs, but they were nearly always
28. railings: barrier made the same, Sunday after Sunday, and - Miss Brill had often noticed - there
of upright metal bars was something funny about nearly all of them. They were odd 36 , silent, 60
29. swooping: running nearly all old, and from the way they stared 3 7 they looked as though
30. bows: type of tie
they'd just come from dark little rooms or even - even cupboards!
31. velvet: very soft
fabric
B e h i n d t h e r o t u n d a t h e slender 3 8 trees with yellow leaves down
32. lace: a fine type of drooping 39 , and through them just a line of sea, and beyond the blue sky
cloth with gold-veined clouds. 65
33. tiny staggerer: very
small child walking
Tum-tum-tum tiddle-um! tiddle-um! turn tiddley-um turn ta! blew the band.
unsteadily Two young girls in red came by and two young soldiers in blue met them,
34. hen: a female chicken and they laughed and paired and went off arm-in-arm. Two peasant
35. scolding: criticising women with funny straw hats passed, gravely, leading beautiful smoke-
him severely
coloured donkeys. A cold, pale nun hurried by. A beautiful woman came 70
36. odd: strange
along and dropped 4 0 her bunch of violets, a little boy ran after to hand
37. stared: looked fixedly
38. slender: thin them to her, and she took them and threw them away as if they'd been
39. down drooping: poisoned. De^r me.L MjssJMll didn't know whether to admire that or not!
hanging down And now an ermine 41 toque 4 2 and a gentleman ijti grey met just in front of
40. dropped: let fall her. He was tall, stiff 43 , dignified, and she was wearing the ermine toque 75
41. ermine: type of white
she'd bought when her hair was yellow. Now everything, her hair, her
fur
42. toque: small
face, even her eyes, was the same colour as the shabby 44 ermine, and her
woman's hat hand, in its cleaned glove, lifted to dab her lips, was a tiny yellowish
43. stiff: rigid paw 45 . Oh, she was so pleased to see him - delighted! She rather thought
44. shabby: old and they were going to meet that afternoon. She described where she'd been - 80
worn out
everywhere, here, there, along by t h e sea. The day was so charming -
45. paw: hand
 What is Fiction? 47 QH

didn't he agree? And wouldn't he, perhaps? ... But he shook his head,
lighted a cigarette, slowly breathed a great deep puff into her face, and,
even while she was still talking, flicked 46 the match away and walked on.
The ermine toque was alone; she smiled more brightly than ever. But even 85
the band seemed to know what she was feeling and played more softly,
played tenderly, and the drum beat, "The Brute! The Brute!" over and over.
What would she do? What was going to happen now? But as Miss Brill
wondered, the ermine toque turned, raised her hand as though she'd seen
someone else^ much nicer, just over There, and pattered away 47 . And the 90
band changed again and played more quickly, more gaily than ever, and
the old couple on Miss Brill's seat got up and marched away, and such a
funny old man with long whiskers 48 hobbled along 49 in time to the music
and was nearly knocked over by four girls walking abreast 50 .
Oh how fascinating it was! How she enjoyed it! How she loved sitting 95
here, watching it all! It was like a play. It was exactly like a play. W h o
could believe the sky at the back wasn't painted? But it wasn't till a little
brown dog trotted on solemn and t h e n slowly trotted off, like a little
" t h e a t r e " dog, a little dog t h a t had been drugged, t h a t Miss Brill
discovered what it was that made it so exciting. They were all on the stage. loo
They weren't only the audience, not only looking on; they were acting.
Even she had a part and came every Sunday. No doubt somebody would
have noticed if she hadn't been there; she was part of the performance
after all. How strange she'd never thought of it like that before! And yet it

El. Kirchner, Five

Women in the
Street (T913).
'There was
something funny
about all of them.
They were odd, 46. flicked: threw
silent (...) and from 4 7. pattered away:
the way they stared walked away with
they looked as quick light steps
though they'd just 48. whiskers: moustache
come from dark little 49. hobbled along:
rooms or even - walked unsteadily
even cupboards!'
50. abreast: in a line
beside each other
.Sa 48 Introduction to Literary Appreciation

explained why she made such a point of starting from h o m e at just the
same time each week - so as not to be late for the performance - and it
also explained w h y she had quite a queer 5 1 , shy feeling at telling her
English pupils how she spent her Sunday afternoons. No wonder! Miss
Brill nearly laughed out loud. She was on the stage. She thought of the old
invalid gentleman to whom she read the newspaper four afternoons a
week while he slept in the garden. She had got quite used to the frail head
on the cotton pillow, the hollowed 5 2 eyes, the open mouth and the high
pinched 5 3 nose. If he'd been dead she mightn't have noticed for weeks;
she wouldn't have minded. But suddenly he knew he was having the
paper read to him by an actress! "An actress!" The old head lifted; two
points of light quivered 54 in the old eyes. "An actress - are ye?" And Miss
Brill smoothed 5 5 the newspaper as though it were the manuscript of her
part and said gently: "Yes, I have been an actress for a long time."
The band had been having a rest. Now they started again. And what they
played was warm, sunny, yet there was just a faint chill - a something,
what was it?C- not sadneSs -(no, not sadnes^ - a something that made you
want to sing. The tune lifted, lifted, the light shone; and it seemed to Miss
Brill that in another moment all of them, all the whole company, would
begin singing. T h e young ones, the laughing ones who were m o v i n g
together, they would begin, and the men's voices, very resolute and brave,
would j o i n t h e m . And t h e n she t o o , she too, a n d the o t h e r s o n t h e
b e n c h e s - t h e y would c o m e in w i t h a kind of a c c o m p a n i m e n t -
s o m e t h i n g low, t h a t scarcely rose or fell 5 6 , s o m e t h i n g so beautiful -
moving 5 7 ... And Miss Brill's eyes filled with tears and she looked smiling
at all t h e o t h e r m e m b e r s of t h e c o m p a n y . Yes, we u n d e r s t a n d , we
understand, she thought - though what they understood she didn't know.
Just at that moment a boy and a girl came and sat down where the old couple
had been. They were beautifully dressed; they vygre in love. The hero and
heroine, of course, just arrived from his father's yacht. And still soundlessly
singing, still with that trembling smile, Miss Brill prepared to listen.
"No, not now," said the girl. "Not here, I can't."

"But why? Because of that stupid old thing at the end there?" asked the
boy. " W h y does she come here at all - who wants her? W h y doesn't she
keep her silly old mug 5 8 at home?"
"It's her fu-fur which is so funny," giggled the girl. "It's exactly like a fried
51. queer: strange
whiting 5 9 ."
52. hollowed: looking
like cavities
"Ah,T)e off with y o u ! " said the boy in an angry whisper 6 0 . Then: "Tell
53. high pinched: small me, ma petite cherie - " "No, not here," said the girl. "Not yet."
54. quivered: trembled O n h e r way h o m e she u s u a l l y b o u g h t a slice of h o n e y - c a k e at t h e
55.smoothed: rubbed to baker's. It was her Sunday treat 6 1 . Sometimes there was an a l m o n d in
make its surface more her slice, s o m e t i m e s n o t . It m a d e a great difference. I f t h e r e was an
even
a l m o n d it was like c a r r y i n g h o m e a t i n y p r e s e n t - a surprise -
56. scarcely rose or fell:
did not go up and something that might very well not have been there. She hurried on the
down very much a l m o n d S u n d a y s a n d s t r u c k t h e m a t c h for t h e k e t t l e in q u i t e a
57.moving: inspiring dashing 6 2 way.
emotion
58. mug: face But to-day she passed the baker's by, climbed the stairs, went into the
59. whiting: type of fish little dark room - her room like a cupboarth- and sat down on the red
60. whisper: low voice eiderdown. She sat there for a long time. The box that the fur came out
61. treat: something of was on the bed. She unclasped 6 3 the necklet quickly; quickly without
done to please oneself
looking, laid it inside. But w h e n she put t h e lid on she t h o u g h t she
62. dashing: elegant
heard something crying.
63. unclasped: opened
•
 What is Fiction? 49 QH

COMPREHENSION
1 Why was Miss Brill glad she wore her fur?
2 Who was sharing Miss Brill's 'special seat'?
Why was she show disappointed with them?
3 What had the previous week's couple talked about?
7 Who sat down next to Miss Brill where the old
couple had been sitting?
8 What did the boy call Miss Brill? How did the girl
describe her fur?

•4 What did Miss Brill notice about the other people 9 What did Miss Brill not do as she returned home
that sat on the benches and green chairs? that Sunday?

5 Why did the drum beat of the band seem to say 1 0 What did she hear when she put the fur back into
T h e Brute! The Brute!'? the box?

6 When a little 'theatre' dog passed by, Miss Brill drew

a conclusion about what was happening. What was it?

ANALYSIS-CHARACTER
1 Does the author tell us about Miss Brill by 7 The fur wrap of which Miss Brill is so proud at the
describing her and commenting on her actions, or beginning of the story is ridiculed by the girl who sits
ooes she us her personality through her thoughts and near her ('It's exactly like a fried whiting'). Can you
actions? see a parallel between the fur and Miss Brill? At what
2 Does Miss Brill speak to anyone in the course of the point in the story do the two almost become one?
story 7 8 Is Miss Brill a round or a flat character?
3 Find evidence in the text which shows that Miss 9 Is she static or dynamic?
RrtI is a creature of habit (i.e. does the same things
1 0 Did your response to this character change in the
o w and over again).
course of the story? If so, at what point?
A Miss Brill describes other people in the park (lines
1 1 Consider the character's name: Miss Brill. What
57-62). In what way does this description reflect on
does it tell us about her marital status? Is this
Vfes Brill herself?
important in the context of the story?
5 Miss Brill looks forward to overhearing the Brill makes us think of the word 'brilliant'. In what way
conversation of strangers. What does this suggest is Miss Brill's 'brilliance' cut short in the story?
about her own life?
6 Miss Brill is very pleased at the idea that she is an
actress in a performance. What makes this idea so
appealing to her?

D.Tamic characters change as a result of experiences they have. Can you think of any experience you have had
that has affected you deeply and made you change as a person?
For example:
- the influence of a negative person may have restricted your growth and your ability to express yourself;
- a book you have read or a film you have seen may have given you a different insight into some important issue.
Try to think of an experience that you believe was particularly significant and explain the impact it had on you as
a person.
.Sa48Introduction to Literary Appreciation

Plot

The term plot refers to an author's arrangement of the events that make up a
story. The plot of a work is not necessarily the same as the story. When we tell a
story we generally start at the beginning and continue in a chronological order
until we come to the end. Plots, however, do n o t always follow this pattern.
Many writers choose to mix events up in order to provoke specific responses in
the reader. They may, for example, start in the middle of things (in medias res)
and use flashbacks or dialogue to refer to previous events.
The author's choices regarding plot do not stop simply at organising the events
of his tale. He must also decide when the story begins, which events should be
dealt with at length, which aspects of the story can be quickly summarised and
when the story should end. Time is entirely subjective. The events of several
years can be condensed into a paragraph, while a c o m p l e t e chapter may be
dedicated to a particularly significant m o m e n t . The author's aim in writing a
story will direct the choices he makes, and therefore analysing these aspects of
plot gives us invaluable insight into the meaning of his work.
Love stories, adventure stories, detective stories, horror stories: writers never
seem to run out of ideas for stories. Although each story is unique, many of them
share some basic elements.

Conflict is the driving force behind many plots. It may come from:
Conflict
• outside: the main character may be in conflict with external forces such as his
family, society, physical hardship or nature;
• within: the character may be forced to make a difficult choice, or he may have
to question his values and beliefs.

Suspense S u s p e n s e is also an i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t in m a n y plots. C r e a t i n g suspense

generally involves denying the reader immediate access to information which is
essential to the full understanding of the story. The clearest example of this can
be found in detective stories, where the author does not reveal the identity of the
murderer until the very last m o m e n t . Suspense is often created through the
careful ordering of events in the story.

In some stories the main plot is accompanied by a subplot - a second story that
Subplot
is complete in its own right. The subplot is usually linked in some way to events
in the main plot and generally helps to deepen our understanding of it.

QUESTIONS T O ASK W H E N A N A L Y S I N G PLOT

Are the events in the plot chronological? Does the plot begin at the start of the story or in medias res?
What effect do these choices have on the story?
Is the story based on conflict? Does the conflict come from outside or inside? What are the conflicting
forces?
Is suspense created in the plot? If so, how?
Are there any subplots? What are their functions?
'-utgirirfrrrrwr'- miiBTOfirirfj
 What is Fiction? 51 QH

CASE STUDY 2 1
Graham Greene (1904-1991) is the author of novels, short stories, plays, travel books, essays and children's books.
He travelled widely and used a wide range of geographical locations for his works, which often deal with people on the
verge of political, social or spiritual crisis. Several of his novels have been successfidly adapted for the cinema.

The Invisible Japanese Gentlemen

by Graham Greene

There were eight Japanese gentlemen having a fish dinner at Bentley's.

They spoke to each other rarely in their incomprehensible tongue, but
always with a courteous smile and often with a small bow 1 . All but one of
t h e m wore glasses. Sometimes t h e pretty girl w h o sat at the window
beyond gave them a passing glance 2 , but her own problem seemed too s
serious for her to pay real attention to anyone in the world except herself
and her companion.
She had thin blonde hair and her face was pretty and petite in a Regency 3
way, oval like a miniature, though she had a harsh 4 way of speaking -
perhaps the accent of the school, Roedean or Cheltenham Ladies' College, 10
which she had n o t long ago left. She wore a man's signet ring on her
engagement finger, and as I sat down at my table, with t h e Japanese
gentlemen between us, she said, 'So you see we could marry next week.'
'Yes?'
Her companion appeared a little distraught. He refilled their glasses with is
Chablis and said, ' O f course, but M o t h e r ...' I missed some of t h e
conversation then, because the eldest Japanese gentleman leant across the
table, with a smile and a little bow, and uttered 5 a whole paragraph like GLOSSARY •-
the mutter 6 from an aviary 7 , while everyone bent towards him and smiled
1. bow: act of bending
and listened, and I couldn't help attending to him myself 8 . 20 forward to show
T h e girl's f i a n c e resembled her physically. I could see t h e m as two someone respect
miniatures hanging side by side on wood panels. He should have been a glance: quick look
Regency: in Britain,
young officer in Nelson's navy in the days when a certain weakness and
the period 1811-1820
sensitivity were no bar to 9 promotion. harsh: unpleasantly :
She said, 'They are giving me an advance 1 0 of five hundred pounds, and 25 strong Wf
t h e y ' v e sold t h e paperback rights already.' T h e hard c o m m e r c i a l uttered: said
declaration came as a shock to me; it was a shock too that she was one of mutter: very low
sound of indistinct
my own profession. She c o u l d n ' t have b e e n m o r e t h a n twenty. She voices
deserved better of life. 7. aviary: large bird
He said, 'But my uncle ...' 30 cage
'You know you d o n ' t get on with h i m . This way we shall be quite 8. attending to him
myself: listening to
independent.' what he was saying
'You will be independent,' he said grudgingly 11 . 9. no bar to: not an
'The wine-trade wouldn't really suit you, would it? I spoke to my publisher obstacle to
about you and there's a very good c h a n c e ... if you began with some 35 10. advance: money
given before a job is
reading...' finished
'But I don't know a thing about books.' 11. grudgingly: in a way
'I would help you at the start.' that showed
resentment
'My mother says that writing is a good crutch 1 2 ...'
12. crutch: means of
'Five hundred pounds and half the paperback rights is a pretty solid 40 support, way of
crutch,' she said. earning money
fb* s
E) 52 Introduction to Literary Appreciation

13.1 daresay: Yes it is 'This Chablis is good, isn't it?'

14. She came alongside 'I daresay 13 .'
... and aft: she
approached him like I began to change my opinion of him - he had not the Nelson touch. He
an enemy ship, was doomed to defeat. She came alongside and raked him fore and aft 1 4 . 15
stopping beside him 'Do you know what Mr. Dwight said?'
and firing from all
sides 'Who's Dwight?'
15.enfeebled: weakerned 'Darling, you don't listen, do you? My publisher. He said he hadn't read a
first novel in the last ten years which showed such powers of observation.'
'That's wonderful,' he said sadly, 'wonderful.' 50
'Only he wants me to change the title.'
'Yes?'
'He doesn't like The Ever-Rolling Stream. He wants to call it The Chelsea Set.'
'What did you say?'
T agreed. I do t h i n k that with a first novel one should try to keep one's 55
p u b l i s h e r h a p p y . E s p e c i a l l y w h e n , really h e ' s g o i n g t o pay for our
marriage, isn't he?'
'I see what you mean.' Absent-mindedly he stirred his Chablis with a fork
- perhaps before the engagement he had always bought champagne. The
Japanese gentlemen had finished their fish and with very little English but 60
with elaborate courtesy they were ordering from the middle-aged waitress
a fresh fruit salad. The girl looked at them, and then she looked at me, but
I think she saw only the future. I wanted very m u c h to warn her against
any future based on a first novel called The Chelsea Set. I was on the side of
his mother. It was a humiliating thought, but I was probably about her 65
mother's age.
I wanted to say to her, Are you certain your publisher is telling you the
truth? Publishers are h u m a n . They may sometimes exaggerate the virtues
of the young and the pretty. Will The Chelsea Set be read in five years? Are
you prepared for t h e years of effort, ' t h e long defeat of doing n o t h i n g 70
well'? As the years pass writing will not become any easier, the daily effort
will grow harder to endure, t h o s e 'powers of o b s e r v a t i o n ' will b e c o m e
e n f e e b l e d 1 5 ; y o u will be judged, w h e n y o u r e a c h y o u r f o r t i e s , by
performance and not by promise.
'My next novel is going to be about St. Tropez.' 75
'I didn't know you'd ever been there.'
'I haven't. A fresh eye's very
i m p o r t a n t . 1 t h o u g h t we
might settle down there for
six months.' 80
' T h e r e w o u l d n ' t be m u c h
left of the advance by that
time.'
' T h e a d v a n c e is o n l y an
a d v a n c e . I get f i f t e e n per 85
c e n t after five t h o u s a n d
copies and twenty per cent
after t e n . And o f c o u r s e
a n o t h e r a d v a n c e will be

Edward Hopper,
Nighthawks (1942).
 What is Fiction? 53 QH

due, darling, when the next book's finished. A bigger one if The Chelsea Set 90
sells well.'
'Suppose it doesn't.'
'Mr. Dwight says it will. He ought to know.'
'My uncle would start me at twelve hundred 1 6 .'
'But, darling, how could you come then to St. Tropez?' 95
'Perhaps we'd do better when you come back.'
She said harshly, 'I mightn't come back if The Chelsea Set sells enough.'
'Oh.'
She looked at me and the party of Japanese gentlemen. She finished her
wine. She said, 'Is this a quarrel 17 ?' 100
'No.'
'I've got the title for the next book - The Azure Blue.'
'I thought azure was blue.'
She looked at him with disappointment. 'You don't really want to be
married to a novelist, do you?' 105
'You aren't one yet.'
T was born one - Mr. Dwight says. My powers of observation ...'
'Yes. You told me that, but, dear, couldn't you observe a bit nearer home?
Here in London.'
'I've done that in The Chelsea Set. I don't want to repeat myself.' no
The bill had been lying beside them for some time now. He took out his
wallet to pay, but she snatched the paper out of his reach. She said, 'This is
my celebration.'
'What of?'
'The Chelsea Set, of course. Darling, you're awfully 1 8 decorative, but lis
sometimes - well, you simply don't connect.'
'I'd rather ... if you don't mind ...'
'No, darling, this is on me 1 9 . And Mr. Dwight, of course.'
He s u b m i t t e d just as two of the J a p a n e s e g e n t l e m e n gave t o n g u e 2 0
simultaneously, t h e n stopped abruptly and bowed to each other, as 120
though they were blocked in a doorway. 16. twelve hundred: one
thousand two
I had thought the two young people m a t c h i n g miniatures, but what a
hundred (pounds)
contrast in fact there was. The same type of prettiness could contain weakness 17. quarrel:
and strength. Her Regency counterpart 2 1 , I suppose, would have borne a confrontation,
dozen children without the aid of anaesthetics, while he would have fallen an 125 argument
easy victim to the first dark eyes in Naples. Would there one day be a dozen 18. awfully: really
19. on me: for me to pay
books on her shelf? They have to be born without an anaesthetic too. I found
20. gave tongue: spoke
myself hoping that The Chelsea Set would prove to be a disaster and that
21. Her Regency
eventually she would take up photographic modelling while he established counterpart: a
himself solidly in the wine-trade in St. James's 22 .1 didn't like to think of her as 130 woman like her in
Regency times
the Mrs. Humphrey Ward 23 of her generation - not that I would live so long.
22. St. James's:
Old age saves us from the realization of a great many fears. I wondered to prestigious London
which publishing firm Dwight belonged. I could imagine the blurb 2 4 he area
would have already written about her abrasive powers of observation. 23. Mrs. Humphrey
There would be a photo, if he was wise, on the back of the jacket 2 5 , for 135 Ward: dull but
successful writer of
reviewers26, as well as publishers, are human, and she didn't look like Mrs. popular novels
Humphrey Ward. 24. blurb: short
description of a
I could hear them talking while they found their coats at the back of the
book's contents
restaurant. He said, 'I wonder what all those Japanese are doing here?' 25. jacket: book cover
apanese?' she said, ' W h a t Japanese, darling? S o m e t i m e s you are so 140 26. reviewers: book
evasive I think you don't want to marry me at all.' critics
 .Sa52Introduction to Literary Appreciation

COMPREHENSION
1 Where does the story take place?
2 What are the girl and her companion discussing?
3 What is the profession of both the girl and the
narrator?
4 What profession is the young man thinking of
entering? What would the girl like him to do instead?
6 What opinion does the narrator have of writing as
a profession?
7 Where does the girl wish to set her next novel?
What is the title of her next book?
8 What does the narrator hope for the young woman
and her fiance?

5 According to the girl, what aspect of her writing 9 Had the young woman noticed the party of
does the publisher most admire? Japanese gentlemen at the next table?

ANALYSIS - PLOT
1 The author chooses as the focal point of his plot
the conversation between the young girl and her
fiance in Bentley's restaurant. Find references to
events which took place before and which may occur
after this point.
The author does not present the story chronologically.
He focuses on one specific moment, the conversation
in the restaurant, and uses dialogue to provide
important information about the past and to speculate
about the future. How does this manipulation of plot
influence the impact of the story?
• It makes it more difficult to follow.
• It heightens the tension.
• It allows the writer to focus on the personality of
the characters.
• It maintains the reader's interest by presenting the
story as a jigsaw puzzle that must be pieced together.
• It keeps the reader guessing.
2 Conflict is an important element in this story.
a. What kind of conflict is the young man
experiencing? Is it internal, external or both?
b. What kind of conflict is the young girl
experiencing?
c. Does the scene he witnesses provoke conflict in the
narrator?
3 Suspense is often created by denying the reader
information that is essential to his understanding of a
story. At what point does the reader understand the
significance of the adjective 'invisible' in the title of
the story?
4 In a sense, the story of the Japanese gentlemen
forms a subplot to the main story. Consider the last
comment made by the young girl and explain how
the subplot throws a revealing light on the main story.

Conflict, both internal and external, is often an important element in plot. Consider these general conflictual
situations:
A. dissatifaction with the status quo fear of change
B. opinion of parents -> aspirations of son or daughter
C. peer pressure from friends -» personal values and beliefs
Briefly outline a simple plot which would illustrate these conflictual situations. Case A has been done as an
example:
Roger lives in a rural community in Scotland. He comes from a modest farming family and his parents expect him to
leave school and work on the farm. Roger, however, wants more from life. He wishes to complete his education and get
a degree in Veterinary Science. When he has finished his secondary education he is offered a place at university in
Glasgow. His parents accept his decision to leave, so Roger moves to Glasgow. He finds it hard to settle into this new
environment. Life in the city overwhelms him and he finds it difficult to form friendships and relate to people. After his
first year of study, he decides to return home and work on the farm.
 What is Fiction? 55 QH

Narrators and point of view

In fiction the author does not address the reader directly. He creates a narrator
whose voice we hear as we read the story. It is from the narrator's point of view that
we see events unfold. T h e narrator may be a strong presence in the text
commenting on and interpreting the material he presents or, at the other end of the
spectrum, he may be almost invisible, simply allowing the story to present itself.
Narrators are divided into two broad categories: first-person narrators and third-
person narrators. The category of third-person narrators is divided into three
subcategories: omniscient, limited and dramatic objective.
S t r e a m o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s , a relatively recent d e v e l o p m e n t in narrative
technique, may be an extension of either first or third-person narratives.

First-person narrators
First-person narrators, who refer to themselves as T', tell stories in which they are
Point of view
directly involved. In a first-person narrative the reader's vision of the story, or
point of view, is limited to what the narrator himself knows, experiences, infers
or has learned second-hand from others.
First-person narratives are, by definition, subjective. The only thoughts and
feelings that first-person narrators experience directly are their own. The reader
can never expect to see characters and events as they actually are, but only as
they appear to the 'I' narrator. Therefore special attention should be paid to the
personality of the first-person narrators. Are they reliable? Do they have biases
and prejudices that may influence how they tell the story?
In certain first-person narratives t h e reader can understand more t h a n t h e
narrator himself. This is often the case when the narrator is a child or a not very
perceptive adult. By contrasting the narrator's perception of events and the
reader's more informed views, the author can create humour or irony.
The first-person narrative is c o m m o n l y associated with non-fictional literary
forms such as biographies, memoirs or diaries. When used in fictional works it
lends authenticity to the story. It is also perhaps the most.effective form of
storytelling for getting the reader intellectually and emotionally involved.

Third-person narrators
When a story is told by someone outside the action, he is called a third-person
narrator (because he refers to everybody in the story in the third person: 'he',
'she', 'they'). In this form of narration the person who is telling the story is like an
observer who has witnessed what has happened, but plays no part in the events.

The o m n i s c i e n t third-person n a r r a t o r is a kind of god; he is all-knowing. He Omniscient point

knows everything about the fictional world he has created: he can read other of view
characters' innermost thoughts, he is able to be in several places at once, he
knows exactly what is going to happen and how each character will behave. He is
free to tell us as much or as little as he wishes. An o m n i s c i e n t third-person
narrator who interrupts the narrative and speaks directly to the readers is called
obtrusive. He may use these intrusions to summarise, philosophise, moralise or
to guide t h e reader's i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of events. This kind of narrator was
particularly popular in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. If the narrator
does not address the reader directly he is referred to as non-obtrusive.
 .Sa54Introduction to Literary Appreciation

When an author uses a limited omniscient narrator, he chooses a character in

Limited omniscient
the story and tells the story from his point of view. This character becomes the
point of view
centre of revelation and the reader sees the events and other characters from his
viewpoint. If the narrator moves back and forth between an omniscient viewpoint
and the viewpoint of the focal character, we refer to the narrative technique as
'free indirect style'. Free indirect style is perhaps the most widely-used mode of
narration in modern fiction. Limited omniscient narration involves the reader
more than pure omniscient narration. By associating the narrating voice with one
of the characters in the story, the author gives it an identity and therefore makes it
more interesting for the reader. Also, because much of the story is told from the
partial viewpoint of one of the characters, the reader gets the idea that anything
can happen in the course of the novel, just as it can in real life.
When an author uses a dramatic or objective point of view, the story seems to be
Dramatic or objective
told by no one. This narrative technique has often been compared to a videocamera
point of view
left running. The narrator does not mediate between the story and the reader. He
steps aside and allows the story to present itself through setting, action and
dialogue. The reader is never taken inside the minds of the characters. He is
presented with material which he alone must analyse and interpret. Although the
narrator does not actively participate in the storytelling, he does have an important
role to play in this type of narrative. It is the narrator who decides when to turn the
videocamera on and off and where to point it. He decides what material to present,
and his choices will obviously affect the reader's response. The dramatic point of
view is widely used by modern writers because of the impersonal and objective way
it presents experience.

Stream of S t r e a m o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s is the term applied to any attempt by a writer t o

consciousness represent the conscious and subconscious thoughts and impressions in the mind
of a character. This technique takes the reader inside the narrating character's
mind, where he sees the world of the story through the thoughts and senses of
the focal character.
At the beginning of the twentieth century some authors, notably James Joyce,
Virginia Woolf and William Faulkner, developed a stream of consciousness
Interior monologue technique called interior monologue. The term is borrowed from drama, where
m o n o l o g u e refers to t h e part in a play where an actor expresses his i n n e r
thoughts aloud to the audience. In fiction, an interior monologue is a record of a
characters, thoughts and sense impressions.
As people do not think in complete, well-formed logical sentences, Joyce, Woolf
and Faulkner abandoned traditional syntax, punctuation and logical connections
in order to represent the flow of a character's thoughts. For example, in Joyce's
Ulysses (1922) the reader finds himself with a transcript of one of the character's
thoughts which contains no commas, full stops or capital letters. The stop, start,
disjointed and often illogical nature of interior monologue makes it a challenge
for the reader to interpret.

QUESTIONS T O ASK W H E N A N A L Y S I N G N A R R A T I V E T E C H N I Q U E
Does the author use a first-person or third-person narrator1
Is the third-person narrator omniscient?
If the third-person narrator is limited, does he see the story from the point of view of one of the characters
in the story?
Is the point of view dramatic or objectivel
Does the author try to represent the thoughts of a character? What technique does he use to achieve this effect?
What effect does the author's choice of narrator have on the impact of the story?
imm-y -- • ~
 What is Fiction? 57 QH

CASE STUDY 2 2
Irish-bom writer fames Joyce (1882-1941) is widely acclaimed for his experimentations with narrative technique. The
following is a story taken from his collection Dubliners, which was published in 1916.

GLOSSARY •-
The Boarding House1 Boarding House: guest
house
by James Joyce 2. foreman: worker in
charge of other workers
MRS MOONEY was a butcher's daughter. She was a woman who was quite able 3. plundered the till:
took money from the
to keep things to herself: a determined woman. She had married her father's cash register
foreman 2 and opened a butcher's shop near Spring Gardens. But as soon as headlong: straight
his father-in-law was dead Mr Mooney began to go to the devil. He drank, take the pledge:
promise to stop alcohol
plundered the till 3 , ran headlong 4 into debt. It was no use making him take
cleaver: large butcher's
the pledge 5 : he was sure to break out again a few days after. By fighting his knife
wife in the presence of customers and by buying bad meat he ruined his 7. enlist himself as a:
business. One night he went for his wife with the cleaver 6 and she had to apply for the post of
8. shabby: untidy
sleep in a neighbour's house.
9. stooped: with bent
After that they lived apart. She went to the priest and got a separation 10 and rounded shoulders
from him with care of the children. She would give him neither money nor 10. pencilled: drawn with
food nor house-room; and so he was obliged to enlist himself as a 7 sheriff's a thin line
man. He was a shabby 8 stooped 9 little drunkard with a white face and a white 11. pink-veined and raw:
his eyes were red and
moustache and white eyebrows, pencilled 10 above his little eyes, which were irritated
pink-veined and raw11; and all day long he sat in the bailiff's12 room, waiting 15 12. bailiff: public official
to be put on a job. Mrs Mooney, who had taken what remained of her money in charge of
confiscating debtors'
out of the butcher business and set up a boarding-house in Hardwicke
possessions
Street, was a big imposing woman. Her house had a floating 13 population 13. floating: coming and
made up of tourists from Liverpool and the Isle of Man and, occasionally, going
artistes from the music halls. Its resident population was made up of clerks 20 14. cunningly: astutely
15. stern: firm
from the city. She governed her house cunningly 14 and firmly, knew when to
16. board and lodgings:
give credit, when to be stern 15 and when to let things pass. All the resident food and room
young men spoke of her as The Madam. 17. stout: strong dark beer
Mrs Mooney's young men paid fifteen shillings a week for board and 18. chummy: friendly
19. favourites and
lodgings 16 (beer or stout 1 7 at dinner excluded). They shared in c o m m o n 25
outsiders: race horses
tastes and occupations and for this reason they were very chummy 1 8 with thought most likely to
one another. They discussed with one another the chances of favourites and win and race horses
outsiders 19 . Jack Mooney, the Madam's son, who was clerk to a commission with little chance of
winning respectively
agent in Fleet Street, had the reputation of being a hard case 20 . He was fond
20. a hard case: a hard
of using soldier's obscenities: usually he came home in the small hours. 30 man
When he met his friends he had always a good one to tell them and he was 21. be on to: to know, to
always sure to be on to 2 1 a good thing - that is to say, a likely horse 22 or a have discovered
22. likely horse: horse
likely artiste23. He was also handy with the mits 2 4 and sang comic songs.
with good chance of
On Sunday nights there would often be a reunion in Mrs Mooney's front winning a race
drawing-room. The music-hall artistes would oblige 25 ; and Sheridan played 35 23. likely artiste: an easy
waltzes and polkas and vamped 2 6 accompaniments. Polly Mooney, the woman
24. handy with the mits:
Madam's daughter, would also sing. She sang: good at boxing (mits:
I'm a ... naughty27girl. boxing gloves)
25. would oblige: agree to
You needn't sham28:
sing
You know I am. 40
26. vamped: improvise
27. naughty: bad
Polly was a slim girl of nineteen; she had light soft hair and a small full 28. sham: pretend
mouth. Her eyes, which were grey with a shade of green through them, had a 29. glancing: giving a
abit of glancing 29 upwards when she spoke with anyone, which made her quick look
.Sa 58 Introduction to Literary Appreciation

look like a little perverse madonna. Mrs Mooney had first sent her daughter
30. disreputable sheriff's
to be a typist in a corn-factor's office but, as a disreputable sheriffs man 3 0 used
man: Polly's father to come every other day to the office, asking to be allowed to say a word to
31. give her the run of: his daughter, she had taken her daughter home again and set her to do
put her in charge of
housework. As Polly was very lively the intention was to give her the run of 31
32. shrewd: clever
the young men. Besides, young men like to feel that there is a young woman
33. meant business: was
serious about Polly not very far away. Polly, of course, flirted with the young men but Mrs
34. kept her own Mooney, who was a shrewd 32 judge, knew that the young men were only
counsel: refrained passing the time away: none of them meant business 33 . Things went on so
from interfering
35.breeze: gentle wind
for a long time and Mrs Mooney began to think of sending Polly back to
36. lace: decorative cloth typewriting when she noticed that something was going on between Polly
made of finely and one of the young men. She watched the pair and kept her own counsel 34 .
interwoven threads
Polly knew that she was being watched, but still her mother's persistent
37.ballooned: undulated
38.sashes: window silence could not be misunderstood. There had been no open complicity
frames between mother and daughter, no open understanding but, though people
39.belfry: bell tower in the house began to talk of the affair, still Mrs Mooney did not intervene.
40. peals: loud sounds of Polly began to grow a little strange in her manner and the young man was
ringing bells
evidently perturbed. At last, when she judged it to be the right moment, Mrs
41. worshippers: people
going to church Mooney intervened. She dealt with moral problems as a cleaver deals with
42. circus: circular area at meat: and in this case she had made up her mind.
the intersection of
streets
It was a bright Sunday morning of early summer, promising heat, but with
43. revealing their a fresh breeze 35 blowing. All the windows of the boarding house were open
purpose... little and the lace 36 curtains ballooned 3 7 gently towards the street beneath the
volumes: both their
raised sashes38. The belfry 39 of George's Church sent out constant peals40 and
modest behaviour
and the small prayer worshippers 41 , singly or in groups, traversed the little circus 42 before the
books they were church, revealing their purpose by their self-contained demeanour no less than
holding showed that
they were going to
by the little volumes 4 3 in their gloved hands. Breakfast was over in the
church boarding house and the table of the breakfast-room was covered with plates on
44. streaks: leftover slices which lay yellow streaks44 of eggs with morsels45 of bacon-fat and bacon-rind 46 .
45. morsels: bits Mrs Mooney sat in the straw arm-chair and watched the servant Mary remove
46. rind: thick outer skin the breakfast things. She made Mary collect the crusts and pieces of broken
47.awkward: uneasy,
embarrassed
bread to help to make Tuesday's bread-pudding. When the table was cleared,
48. in too cavalier a the broken bread collected, the sugar and butter safe under lock and key, she
fashion: indifferently began to reconstruct the interview which she had had the night before with
49. connived: tacitly Polly. Things were as she had suspected: she had been frank in her questions
supported what was
happening and Polly had been frank in her answers. Both had been somewhat awkward47,
50. that in her wise of course. She had been made awkward by her not wishing to receive the news
innocence- in too cavalier a fashion 48 or to seem to have connived 49 and Polly had been
tolerance: that she
was falsely innocent made awkward not merely because allusions of that kind always made her
and she had guessed awkward but also because she did not wish it to be thought that in her wise
the motives behind innocence she had divined the intention behind her mother's tolerance 50 .
her mother's
tolerance Mrs M o o n e y glanced instinctively at the little gilt 5 1 clock on the
51. gilt: covered with mantelpiece 52 as soon as she had become aware through her revery 53 that
gold the bells of George's Church had stopped ringing. It was seventeen minutes
52. mantelpiece: shelf
above a fireplace
past eleven: she would have lots of time to have the matter out 5 4 with Mr
53. through her revery: Doran and then catch short twelve 55 at Marlborough Street. She was sure
while she was lost in she would win. To begin with she had all the weight of social opinion on
her thoughts
her side: she was an outraged 56 mother. She had allowed him to live beneath
54. have the matter out:
discuss the issue her roof, assuming that he was a man of honour, and he had simply abused
55.short twelve: shorter her hospitality. He was thirty-four or thirty-five years of age, so that youth
mass service at twelve could not be pleaded 57 as his excuse; nor could ignorance be his excuse
o' clock
since he was a man who had seen something of the world. He had simply
56. outraged: shocked
and offended taken advantage of Polly's youth and inexperience: that was evident. The
57. pleaded: put forward question was: What reparation would he make?
 What is Fiction? 59 QH

There must be reparation made in such cases. It is all very well for the man:
he can go his ways as if nothing had happened, having had his moment of
pleasure, but the girl has to bear the brunt 58 . Some mothers would be content 100
to patch up 59 such an affair for a sum of money; she had known cases of it.
But she would not do so. For her only one reparation could make up for the
loss of her daughter's honour: marriage.
She counted all her cards again before sending Mary up to Mr Doran's
room to say that she wished to speak with him. She felt sure she would win. 105
He was a serious young man, not rakish 60 or loud-voiced like the others. If it
had been Mr Sheridan or Mr Meade or Bantam Lyons her task would have
been much harder. She did not think he would face publicity. All the lodgers
in the house knew something of the affair; details had been invented by
some. Besides, he had been employed for thirteen years in a great Catholic 110
wine-merchant's office and publicity would mean for him, perhaps, the loss
of his sit 61 . Whereas if he agreed all might be well. She knew he had a good
screw62 for one thing and she suspected he had a bit of stuff put by 63 .
Nearly the half-hour! She stood up and surveyed herself in the pier-glass64.
58. bear the brunt: pay
The decisive expression of her great florid face satisfied her and she thought 115
the consequences
of some mothers she knew who could not get their daughters off their hands. 59. patch up: repair the
Mr Doran was very anxious indeed this Sunday morning. He had made damage of
two attempts to shave but his hand had been so unsteady 65 that he had been 60. rakish: irresponsible,
dissolute
obliged to desist. Three day's reddish beard fringed 66 his jaws and every two
61. sit: job
or three minutes a mist gathered on his glasses so that he had to take them 120 62. screw: income
off and polish them with his pocket-handkerchief. The recollection of his 63. stuff put by: money
confession of the night before was a cause of acute pain to him; the priest saved away
had drawn out 6 7 every ridiculous detail of the affair and in the end had so 64. pier-glass: large high
mirror
magnified his sin that he was almost thankful at being afforded a loophole of 65. unsteady: shaky,
reparation 68 . The harm 69 was done. What could he do now but marry her or 125 trembling
run away? He could not brazen it out 70 . The affair would be sure to be talked 66. fringed: had grown
on
of and his employer would be certain to hear of it. Dublin is such a small city:
67. drawn out: extracted
everyone knows everyone else's business. He felt his heart leap 71 warmly
68.magnified his sin...
in his throat as he heard in his excited imagination old Mr Leonard calling reparation: made
out in his rasping voice: Send Mr Doran here, please. 130 him feel so guilty that
he was almost happy
All his long years of service gone for n o t h i n g ! All his industry 7 2 and to have this chance to
diligence thrown away! As a young man he had sown his wild oats 73 , of repair the damage
course; he had boasted 74 of his free-thinking and denied the existence of 69. harm: damage
70. brazen it out: be
God to his companions in public-houses. But that was all passed and done
defiant, pretend he
with... nearly. He still bought a copy of Reynolds's Newspaper75 every week but 135 had done nothing
he attended to his religious duties and for nine-tenths of the year lived a wrong
regular life. He had money enough to settle down on 76 ; it was not that. But 71.leap: jump
72. industry: hard work
the family would look down on her. First of all there was her disreputable
73. sown his wild oats:
father and then her mother's boarding house was beginning to get a certain done foolish things
fame. He had a notion that he was being had 77 . He could imagine his friends 140 74. boasted: talked
talking of the affair and laughing. She was a little vulgar; sometimes she said I proudly of
75 .Reynolds's
seen and If I had've known. But what would grammar matter if he really loved
Newspaper: radical
her? He could not make up his mind whether to like her or despise78 her for newspaper
what she had done. Of course, he had done it too. His instinct urged him to 76. settle down on: to
remain free, not to marry. Once you are married you are done for 79 , it said. 145 get married and start
a family
W h i l e he was sitting helplessly on t h e side of t h e bed in shirt and 7 7. he was being had: he
trousers she tapped lightly at his door and entered. She told him all, that had been conned,
she had made a clean breast 8 0 of it to her mother and that her mother framed
78. despise: hate
would speak with him that morning. She cried and threw her arms round
79. done for: finished
his neck, saying: 150 80. clean breast: full
- O, Bob! Bob! What am I to do? What am I to do at all? confession
 A
jam
60 Introduction to Literary Appreciation
81. feebly: weakly,
unconvincingly
82. bosom: breasts
83. altogether:
completely
84. for: because
85.gust: sudden rush of
air
86. loose: not tight
around her body
87. combing jacket:
bedroom jacket
88. instep: upper part of
a foot
89. furry slippers: flat
open shoes lined with
fur
90. glowed: gave out a
soft light
91. steadied: adjusted
92. thoughtfulness:
. attention to his needs
93. tumbler: glass
94. tiptoe: the tip of their
toes
95.landing: area
between flights of
stairs
96. hold back: resist
97. missus: (Mrs)
Mooney
98. parlour: sitting room
99. waistcoat: sleeveless
garment worn under
a jacket
100. moaning:
lamenting
101. dimmed with
moisture: covered
with vapour (from
his perspiration)
102. stared upon his
discomfiture:
observed his
uneasiness
103. pantry: small room
where food is stored
104. nursing: holding
carefully
105. Bass: beer
106. return-room: room
in the guest house
107. on account of:
because of
108. there was no harm
meant: he hadn't
meant to insult the
girl
109. bloody well:
certainly
110. dipped: briefly
immersed
111. amiable: enjoyable
112. nape: back
113. bed-rail: bed frame
She would put an end to herself, she said.
He comforted her feebly 81 , telling her not to cry, that it would be all right,
never fear. He felt against his shirt the agitation of her bosom 82 .
It was not altogether 83 his fault that it had happened. He remembered well,
with the curious patient memory of the celibate, the first casual caresses her
dress, her breath, her fingers had given him. Then late one night as he was
undressing for bed she had tapped at his door, timidly. She wanted to relight
her candle at his for 84 hers had been blown out by a gust 85 . It was her bath
night. She wore a loose 8 6 open combing-jacket 8 7 of printed flannel. Her
white instep 8 8 shone in the opening of her furry slippers 89 and the blood
glowed 90 warmly behind her perfumed skin. From her hands and wrists too
as she lit and steadied91 her candle a faint perfume arose.
On nights when he came in very late it was she who warmed up his dinner.
He scarcely knew what he was eating, feeling her beside him alone, at night,
in the sleeping house. And her thoughtfulness 92 ! If the night was anyway
cold or wet or windy there was sure to be a little tumbler 93 of punch ready for
him. Perhaps they could be happy together...
They used to go upstairs together on tiptoe 94 , each with a candle, and on
the third landing 9 5 exchange reclutant goodnights. They used to kiss. He
remembered well her eyes, the touch of her hand and his delirium...
But delirium passes. He echoed her phrase, applying it to himself: What am
I to do? The instinct of the celibate warned him to hold back 96 . But the sin
was there; even his sense of honour told him that reparation must be made
for such a sin.
While he was sitting with her on the side of the bed Mary came to the door
and said that the missus97 wanted to see him in the parlour 98 . He stood up to
put on his coat and waistcoat 9 9 , more helpless than ever. W h e n he was
dressed he went over to her to comfort her. It would be all right, never fear.
He left her crying on the bed and moaning 100 softly: O my God!
Going down the stairs his glasses became so dimmed with moisture 101 that
he had to take them off and polish them. He longed to ascend through the
roof and fly away to another country where he would never hear again of his
trouble, and yet a force pushed him downstairs step by step. The implacable
faces of his employer and of the Madam stared upon his discomfiture 102 . On
the last flight of stairs he passed Jack Mooney who was coming up from the
pantry 1 0 3 nursing 1 0 4 two bottles of Bass 1 0 5 . They saluted coldly; and the
lover's eyes rested for a second or two on a thick bulldog face and a pair of
thick short arms. When he reached the foot of the staircase he glanced up
and saw Jack regarding him from the door of the return-room 106 .
Suddenly he remembered the night when one of the music-hall artistes, a
little blond Londoner, had made a rather free allusion to Polly. The reunion
had been almost broken up on account of 107 Jack's violence. Everyone tried
to quiet him. The music-hall artiste, a little paler than usual, kept smiling and
saying that there was no harm meant 108 : but Jack kept shouting at him that if
any fellow tried that sort of a game on with his sister he'd bloody well 109 put
his teeth down his throat, so he would.
Polly sat for a little time on the side of the bed, crying. Then she dried her
eyes and went over to the looking glass. She dipped 110 the end of the towel in
the water-jug and refreshed her eyes with the cool water. She looked at I
herself in profile and readjusted a hairpin above her ear. Then she went back
to the bed again and sat at the foot. She regarded the pillows for a long time
and the sight of them awakened in her mind secret amiable 111 memories. She
rested the nape 112 of her neck against the cool iron bed-rail 113 and fell into a J
revery. There was no longer any perturbation visible on her face.
 What is Fiction? 61 QH

She waited o n patiently, almost cheerfully, w i t h o u t alarm, her m e m o r i e s

gradually giving place to hopes a n d visions of t h e future. Her hopes and
v i s i o n s w e r e so i n t r i c a t e t h a t s h e n o l o n g e r saw t h e w h i t e p i l l o w s o n w h i c h
h e r gaze w a s f i x e d o r r e m e m b e r e d t h a t s h e w a s w a i t i n g f o r a n y t h i n g .
At last s h e h e a r d h e r m o t h e r c a l l i n g . S h e started t o h e r feet a n d r a n t o t h e 210
banisters114.
- Polly! Polly!
- Yes, m a m m a ?
- C o m e d o w n , dear. M r D o r a n w a n t s s p e a k w i t h y o u . 114. banisters: handrail
T h e n s h e r e m e m b e r e d w h a t s h e h a d b e e n w a i t i n g for. 215 on a staircase

COMPREHENSION

1 W h y did Mrs M o o n e y ' s marriage fail? 7 W h a t had Mr Doran revealed to t h e priest in

2 W h a t did she d o with t h e m o n e y from t h e
butcher's s h o p ?
3 W h a t kind of residents did s h e have in her
boarding h o u s e ?
4 Did Mrs M o o n e y intervene immediately w h e n her
d a u g h t e r Polly started having an affair with o n e of t h e
residents?
5 W h a t form of reparation did Mrs M o o n e y w a n t for
t h e 'loss of her d a u g h t e r ' s h o n o u r ' ?
6 Line 8 9 says ' S h e was sure she would win'. W h a t
did she think she would w i n ?
c o n f e s s i o n ? W h a t had b e e n t h e priest's reaction?
8 W h y was Mr Doran reluctant to marry Polly?
9 How did Polly s h o w Mr Doran her ' t h o u g h t f u l n e s s '
(line 1 6 6 ) ?
1 0 W h a t did Mr Doran long t o d o as he d e s c e n d e d
t h e stairs to speak to Mrs M o o n e y ?
1 1 W h o s e faces did he i m a g i n e w e r e staring at h i m ?
1 2 Polly s t o p p e d crying while Mr Doran w e n t t o
speak t o her mother. W h a t t h o u g h t s m a d e her
'almost cheerful' (line 2 0 6 ) ?

ANALYSIS - POINT OF VIEW

1 T h e narrative t e c h n i q u e in this short story is an
e x a m p l e of free indirect style. T h e narrator alternates
b e t w e e n an o m n i s c i e n t point of view a n d t h e
viewpoints of characters in t h e story. W h i c h
c h a r a c t e r s ' points of view are r e p r e s e n t e d ?
2 Find at least o n e paragraph in t h e story w h e r e t h e
point of view is predominantly
- omniscient:
- Mrs M o o n e y ' s :
- Mr Doran's:
- Polly's:
3 Why, in your opinion, d o e s J a m e s Joyce use this
type of narrative t e c h n i q u e in his story?
• To give t h e reader g r e a t e r insight into t h e minds of
his c h a r a c t e r s .
• To m a k e t h e t o n e of t h e story m o r e d e t a c h e d a n d
scientific.
• To s h o w h o w reality is perceived in different ways
by different p e o p l e .
• To allow t h e reader t o form his o w n opinions a b o u t
t h e c h a r a c t e r s and their motives.
• To add an e l e m e n t of h u m o u r t o t h e story.

In t h e short story The Boarding House, J a m e s Joyce uses t h e multiple point of view of free indirect s p e e c h t o help us
u n d e r s t a n d t h e motives b e h i n d his c h a r a c t e r s ' decisions. Try this e x p e r i m e n t t o d e v e l o p y o u r o w n ability t o s e e
things from different points of view.
Work in pairs.
a. Think of a conflictual situation t h a t involved a n o t h e r p e r s o n w h i c h upset, d i s a p p o i n t e d or a n g e r e d you (for
e x a m p l e , an a r g u m e n t with a friend, family m e m b e r , t e a c h e r ) .
b. Tell your partner w h a t h a p p e n e d from y o u r point of view.
c. Try t o p u t yourself in t h e position of t h e o t h e r p e r s o n involved in t h e c o n f l i c t a n d e x p l a i n t h e situation as
convincingly as you can from his/her point of view.
d. Discuss t h e results of y o u r e x p e r i m e n t with y o u r partner. Have y o u c o m e t o a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e
situation?
.Sa
62 Introduction to Literary Appreciation

Theme

T h e m e is the central idea that directs and shapes the subject matter of a story,
play or poem. It is the views of life or the insights into human experiences that
the author wishes to communicate to his readers. In certain types of literature
(fables, parables and propaganda pieces) the theme emerges forcefully as a moral
or a lesson t h a t t h e a u t h o r wishes to teach, while in o t h e r s t h e t h e m e is
embedded in the story. In the past, writers openly stated the theme of their work.
They usually put the words into the mouth of a character or used an omniscient
narrator to voice their opinions. If the theme of a work is clearly stated in the
text, we refer to it as an overt theme. Most modern writers are reluctant to state
the themes of their work openly. They prefer to encourage the readers to think
and draw their own c o n c l u s i o n s . W h e n the t h e m e is hidden in the action,
characters, setting and language of a story, we refer to it as an implied theme.

The theme of a literary work should not be confused with the subject or the
Theme versus subject
story. To say that a work is about 'love' is not identifying the theme; it is merely
stating the subject matter. Saying what happens in a story is also not a way of
identifying t h e t h e m e ; it is simply summarising the plot. The t h e m e is the
abstract, generalised comment or statement the author makes about the subject
of the story. It is the answer to the question 'What does the story mean?', not
'What is the story about?'.

Formulating theme When formulating the theme of a literary work, hasty generalisations and cliches
should be avoided. Sweeping statements about life are rarely enlightening, so
writers tend to avoid them. They are more inclined to explore complex issues
and propose tentative answers.

Supporting theme The theme of a poem, play or story should emerge from and be confirmed by the
analysis of plot, characters, setting, imagery, sound features and style. If the
t h e m e that is proposed leaves certain elements unexplained, or if there are
aspects of t h e story t h a t do n o t support t h e t h e m e , t h e n it is p r o b a b l y
incomplete or incorrect.

T h e title t h e a u t h o r gives the work should always be taken i n t o careful

The title of the work
consideration when trying to identify the theme. The title often suggests the
focus of the work and may provide clues about its meaning.

Multiple themes A single work may contain several themes and readers may identify different,
even opposing themes in the same work. Any theme that is supported by the
other elements of the work should be considered valid.

QUESTIONS T O ASK W H E N A N A L Y S I N G T H E M E
• What is the subject of the story, play or poem? What general comment is the writer making about the
subject?
• How do other elements in the story support the theme?
• How are the theme and the title of the story, poem or play related?
• Is there more than one theme in the work?
IHi III »II —I
 What is Fiction?61QH

CASE STUDY 2 3
American writer Ernest Hemingway (1898-1961) is famous for novels such as The Old Man and the Sea and A
Farewell to Arms ( • Texts G18 and G19). He was also a prolific and accomplished short story writer.

Old Man at the Bridge

by Ernest Hemingway

An old man with steel rimmed spectacles 1 and very dusty clothes sat by
the side of the road. There was a p o n t o o n bridge 2 across the river and
carts, trucks, and men, women and children were crossing it. (...) But the
old man sat there without moving. He was too tired to go any farther.
It was my business to cross the bridge, explore the bridgehead 3 beyond 5
and find out to what p o i n t t h e e n e m y had a d v a n c e d . I did this and
returned over the bridge. There were not so many carts now and very few
people on foot, but the old man was still there.
'Where do you come from?' I asked him.
'From San Carlos,' he said, and smiled. 10
That was his native town and so it gave him pleasure to mention it and he
smiled.
'I was taking care of animals,' he explained.
"Oh,' I said, not quite understanding.
Yes,' he said, 'I stayed, you see, taking care of animals. I was the last one 15
to leave the town of San Carlos.'
He did not look like a shepherd 4 nor a herdsman 5 and I looked at his black
dusty clothes and his grey dusty face and his steel rimmed spectacles and
said, 'What animals were they?'
Various animals,' he said, and shook his head. 'I had to leave them.' (...) 20
What animals were they?' I asked.
There were three animals altogether,' he explained. 'There were two goats,
ind a cat and there were four pairs of pigeons.'
And you had to leave them?' I asked.
Yes. Because of the artilllery. The captain told me to go because of the 25
artillery.'
And you have no family?' I asked, watching the far end of the bridge
where a few last carts were hurrying down the slope of the bank. GLOSSARY •-
No,' he said,' only the animals I stated. The cat, of course, will be all right.
1. steel rimmed
K cat can look out for itself, but I cannot think what will become of the 30 spectacles: glasses
others.' with a steel frame
What politics have you?' I asked. 2. pontoon bridge:
bridge built on a
I am without politics,' he said. 'I am seventy-six years old. I have come floating platform
twelve kilometres now and I think now I can go no farther.' 3. bridgehead: position
This is not a good place to stop,' I said. 'If you can make it, there are 35 an army takes from
trucks up the road where it forks 6 for Tortosa.' which it can advance
or attack
I Hill wait a while,' he said, 'and then I will go.' (...)
4. shepherd: man who
He looked at me very blankly and tiredly, then said, having to share his looks after sheep
» : rry with someone, 'The cat will be all right, I am sure. There is no need 5. herdsman: man who
: be unquiet about the cat. But the others. Now what do you think about 40 looks after goats or
cattle
~e others?'
6. forks: divides into
they'll probably come through it all right.' / two or more roads
.Sa 64 Introduction to Literary Appreciation

'You think so?'

'Why not?' I said, watching the far bank where now there were no carts.
'But what will they do under the artillery when I was told to leave because 45
of the artillery?'
'Did you leave the dove cage unlocked?' I asked.
'Yes.'
'Then they'll fly.'
'Yes, certainly they'll fly. But the others. It's better not to think about the 50
others,' he said.
'If you are rested I would go,' I urged. 'Get up and try to walk now.'
'Thank you,' he said and got to his feet, swayed 7 from side to side and
then sat down backwards in the dust.
'I was only taking care of animals,' he said dully 8 , but no longer to me. 55
'I was only taking care of animals.'
There was nothing to do about him. It was Easter Sunday and the Fascists
were advancing toward the Ebro. It was a grey overcast day with a low
ceiling so their planes were not up. That and the fact that cats know how
7. swayed: moved
8. dully: without
to look after themselves was all the good luck that old man would ever 60
emotion have.
•

COMPREHENSION
1 W h e r e w a s t h e old m a n sitting and w h y ? 6 W h y did t h e narrator w a n t t h e old m a n t o m o v e
on?
2 W h a t task did t h e narrator have t o carry o u t ?
7 W h a t h a p p e n e d w h e n t h e old m a n s t o o d up t o
3 W h y was t h e old m a n t h e last person t o leave t h e
leave?
town?
8 Is it clearly stated w h e t h e r t h e old m a n survived
4 W h y was t h e old m a n c o n c e r n e d a b o u t t h e
t h e w a r or n o t ? How d o you interpret t h e final
animals? Which animal was he least worried a b o u t
s e n t e n c e in t h e story?
and w h y ?

5 Did t h e old m a n support either side in t h e conflict?

ANALYSIS-THEME
1 W h i c h of t h e following s t a t e m e n t s best s u m m a r i s e s 2 Focus o n t h e title of t h e story Old Man at the
t h e t h e m e of t h e short story? Bridge. Omitting t h e article 'a/an' is typical of c a p t i o n s
• W a r is evil. to paintings, p h o t o g r a p h s e t c . In w h a t s e n s e is
• Even w h e n e x p o s e d t o t h e atrocities of war s o m e Hemingway's story similar t o a painting or a
p e o p l e d o n o t lose their basic humanity. photograph?
• War reduces mankind t o t h e level of animals.
• M a n y i n n o c e n t p e o p l e b e c o m e victims of war.
• War makes our everyday c o n c e r n s s e e m ridiculous.

Formulate t h e t h e m e ( n o t t h e s u b j e c t ! ) of a story, p o e m , play or film script you would like to write.

For example: elderly people are disregarded by modern society when in fact they have an invaluable contribution to
make.
 FROM THE ORIGINS
TO THE MIDDLE AGES
7+K c e r t W y - 1 4 8 5
'A knyght ther was, and that a worthy man,
that fro the tyme that he first bigan
To riden out, he loved chivalrie,
Trouthe and honour, fredom and curteisie.'
From The Canterbury Tales b y G e o f f r e y C h a u c e r
 Beowulf

•SH
Myths and legends
People all over the world tell stories. They tell stories of films they have seen, books they have read or simply
experiences they have had. Storytelling is as old as man himself. Long before TV or cinema or even books, it was
'r the main form of entertainment. Stories were passed on from generation to generation and some of those ancient
stories are still with us today in the form of legends, myths and folk tales.

Listen to the Canadian legend about how the sky was created and then answer the questions.
a. What shape was the earth originally? f. Where did Obweji go to sleep?
b. What did Obweji own? g. Were Obwejii servants on earth sad when he died?
c. Why did Pateka go with Obweji? h. How were his servants reminded of their master?
d. What did Obweji do with Pateka's stone necklace? i. Who did Pateka marry?
e. What did Obweji do with the earth? j. How many children did they have?

INTRODUCTION • B e o w u l f was w r i t t e n in A n g l o - S a x o n (Old English), t h e l a n g u a g e w h i c h , t h r o u g h

t h e centuries, has developed i n t o t h e English language we k n o w today. As Anglo-Saxon is like a foreign
IN
l a n g u a g e e v e n t o a n a t i v e speaker of English, t h e extracts y o u are g o i n g t o read h a v e b e e n translated
i n t o m o d e r n English. T h e translation by Francis G u n m e r e (published in 1 9 1 0 ) closely follows t h e origi-
nal t e x t and m a i n t a i n s s o m e of its stylistic features. There is a simplified m o d e r n English translation t o
t h e right in Text B l .

till
Beowulf, as illustrated
in a cartoon version by
• R. Crochoske (adaptation
by Dr David Breeden).
THE STORY
Hrothgar, king of Denmark, suffered while his kingdom was being attacked by a devouring
monster, named Grendel. Grendel was protected by a magic spell and could not be hurt by
weapons made by man. He lived in the wastelands, and every night he visited Hrothgar's hall
carrying off and killing his guests.
Beowulf lived in the nearby kingdom of Geatland. From a very early age he showed signs of
great strength and extraordinary courage. He killed many sea monsters and defended his
country from enemy attacks. When he heard from mariners ofGrendel's murderous attacks,
he decided to help Hrothgar. He and some of his bravest followers crossed the sea to Denmark
where they were welcomed by the king. A big feast was held in their honour.
That night everybody slept except Beowulf. Grendel entered Hrothgar's hall and killed one of
Beowulf's sleeping men. Beowulf, unarmed, fought the monster and with his great strength
tore out one ofGrendel's arms at the shoulder. Mortally wounded, Grendel retreated to his
home in the surrounding wastelands ( • Text Bl).
Grendel's mother came to avenge her monster son's fatal injury and carried off a Danish
nobleman and Grendel's torn off arm. Beowulf and his men followed the blood trail left by
the arm and came to the lake where Grendel's mother had taken refuge. Beowulf plunged into
the lake and swam into a chamber. He fought Grendel's mother, killing her with an old sword
he found in an underwater cavern. Grendel's body was also lying in the cavern so Beowulf cut
off his head and brought it back to King Hrothgar ( • Text B2).
There was a great feast in the hall to celebrate Beowulf's victory and an even greater celebra-
tion when he returned to his home country, where he was made king.
 Beowulf 65

After fifty years of successful reign Beowulf had to face another evil creature, a fire breathing
dragon which was trying to destroy the country. Although he was very old, Beowulf slayed the
dragon but he was mortally wounded in the process.

Beowulf Mortally Wounds Grendel Text B 1

I
o
(...) Now many an earl 1 Beowulf's warriors brandished
of Beowulf brandished 2 blade ancestral 3 , many a sword, inheritances
fain 4 the life of their lord to shield 5 , from the ancient days,
their praised prince, if power were theirs; trying to protect their chief,
but that did no good: they
never they knew, as they neared the foe 6 , 5
could not have known, those
hardy-hearted heroes of war,
brave warriors as they fought,
aiming their swords on every side striking from all sides, seeking
the accursed to kill, no keenest 7 blade, to take Grendel's soul, that
no fairest of falchions 8 fashioned 9 on earth, no battle sword could harm him -
could harm or hurt that hideous 1 0 fiend 1 1 ! 10 he had enchantment against
He was safe, by his spells 12 , from sword of battle, the edges of weapons.
from edge of iron. Yet his end and parting The end of Grendel's life was
miserable, and he would travel
cm that same day of this our life
far into the hands of fiends.
woeful 1 3 should be, and his wandering soul
Grendel, the foe of God, who had
far off flit 14 to the fiends' domain 1 5 . 15
long troubled the spirits of men
Soon he found, who in former days, with his crimes, found that
harmful in heart 1 6 and hated of God, his body could not stand against the
on many a man such murder wrought, hand grip of that warrior.
that the frame of his body failed him now. Each was hateful to the other
For him the keen-souled kinsman 1 7 of Hygelac 18 20
alive. The horrible monster
endured a wound: the bone-locks
held in hand; hateful alive
of his shoulder gave way,
•»as each to other. The outlaw dire 19
and his sinews sprang out.
took mortal hurt; a mighty wound
The glory of battle went to
showed on his shoulder, and sinews 20 cracked, Beowulf, and Grendel,
and the bone-frame 2 1 burst. To Beowulf now 25 mortally wounded,
die glory was given, and Grendel thence 2 2 sought his sad home
ieath-sick his den in the dark moor sought 2 3 , under the fen slope.
noisome abode 2 4 : he knew too well He knew surely that
his life had reached its end,
that here was the last of life, an end
the number of his days gone.
erf his days on earth. 30

GLOSSARY 9. fashion: make 18. Hygelac: king of the

L earl: follower
2- brandish: hold and wave
1 blade ancestral: sword
4. fain: willing
; shield: protect
- foe: enemy
keen: sharp
• falchion: sword
10. hideous: horrendous
11. fiend: wicked or cruel
being
12.spell: magic charm
13. woeful: painful
14. flit: fly
15. (fiends') domain: hell
16. harmful in heart: evil
17. kinsman: relative
Geats
19. dire: horrible
20. sinew: cord connecting
muscle to bone
21.bone-frame: skeleton
22. thence: from there
23. sought: looked for
24. noisome abode: dirty
and dark home
 466FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE MIDDLE AGES - Anglo-Saxon P o e t r y

COMPREHENSION
1 What did Beowulf's followers try to do? 4 What part of Grendel's body did Beowulf wound?

2 What did they not know about the monster? 5 Where did Grendel go after he was injured?

3 What evil deeds had Grendel done in the past? 6 Did Grendel know that he was going to die?
<N••1

ANALYSIS
1 Find expressions in Text B1 that are used to avoid Listen again to the recording as you read the
the repetition of frequently recurring terms. following extract (the stressed syllables are in bold
type). Are the lines rhythmic?
Beowulf line 4 praised prince
line 20 Soon he found, who in former days,
harmful in heart and hated of God,
Beowulf's line 1 - 2 on many a man such murder wrought,
followers line 6 that the frame of his body failed him now.

Grendel line 5 3 A feature which regulated the rhythm of Anglo-

line 8 Saxon poety is the pause or caesura*. In original
line 10 transcripts of the poem this is marked by a space
line 22 while in the Gunmere translation it is represented by a
comma.
sword line 2
line 8 Tha come of more under misthleotum
line 9 then came from the moor, under the mist-hills
Grendel gotigan Codes yrre baer
Grendel stalking, he bore God's anger.
2 Rhythm* is an important stylistic element in poetry
throughout all ages including the Anglo-Saxon Find examples of lines in Text B1 where Gunmere has
period. The Gunmere translation you are reading tries tried to reproduce the original caesura by dividing the
to maintain some of the original rhythmic elements. line with a comma, colon, semi-colon or full stop.

A modern day Beowulf

prepares to do battle with
Grendel (from the film
Beowulf starring Christoph
Lambert (1999).
 Beowulf 5

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P
Alliteration Now many an earl
of Beowulf brandished blade ancestral

One of t h e most i m p o r t a n t stylistic elements of Anglo-Saxon poetry is alliteration.

Alliteration is the repetition of the same c o n s o n a n t sound at the beginning or in t h e
middle of two or more words. Anglo-Saxon poetry was recited, often accompanied by
music, in front of an audience. Alliteration gave the language a musical quality. It also
played the same role as rhyme in later poetry; it helped the poet and the audience to
memorise the poem.
Alliteration is still widely used in modern English. Songs, nursery rhymes, newspaper
headlines and advertisements often contain alliteration.

1 Underline other examples of alliteration in Text B1.

2 Examine the headlines below and find examples of alliteration.

Four-legged friend's
five mountain Marathon SMALL SCREEN STAR
DVD format gives you souncTvision
+ m mm » m ^ • . . . ^ _ ^

3 Find more examples of alliteration in headlines in English newspapers or in

advertisements.

4 Underline examples of alliteration in this verse from the Elvis Costello song Shipbuilding.
The result of this shipbuilding
With all the will in the world
Diving for dear life
W h e n we could be diving for pearls
It's just a rumour that was spread around town
A telegram or a picture postcard

: •> Are there any examples of alliteration in songs that you know?

il legends have become very popular in today's computer games because of their mix of magic, adventure
conquest. The monsters, dragons, magic rings, capes of invisibility, secret potions and the motives of love,
si and vengeance have all been reproduced in these games to entertain today's players. Have you ever played
•# these games? What were the features you enjoyed?
 ' J
-k i BE M

4 6 FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE MIDDLE AGES - Anglo-Saxon Poetry

Text B 2 Beowulf Kills Grendel's Mother

'Mid 1 the battle-gear 2 saw he a blade triumphant,
old-sword of Eotens 3 , with edge of proof,
warriors' heirloom 4 , weapon unmatched,
- save only 'twas more than other men
to bandy 5 -of-battle could bear at all -
m as the giants had wrought 6 it, ready and keen.
Seized then its chain-hilt 7 the Scyldings' 8 chieftain,
bold and battle-grim 9 , brandished 10 the sword,
reckless of life 11 , and so wrathfully 12 smote 13
that it gripped her neck and grasped her hard, 10
her bone-rings breaking: the blade pierced through
that fated-one's flesh: to floor she sank.
Bloody the blade: he was blithe 14 of his deed 15 .
Then blazed forth light. 'Twas bright within
as when from the sky there shines unclouded
heaven's candle. The hall he scanned.
By the wall then went he; his weapon raised
BPS« high by its hilts the Hygelac-thane 16 ,
II angry and eager. That edge was not useless
to the warrior now. He wished with speed
Grendel to guerdon 17 for grim raids many,
for the war he waged on Western-Danes
oftener far than an only time,
when of Hrothgar's hearth 18 -companions
« r •• he slew19 in slumber 20 , in sleep devoured,
is M fifteen men of the folk of Danes,
^ firaij and as many others outward bore,
his horrible prey. Well paid for that
S il® the wrathful prince! For now prone 21 he saw
Grendel stretched there, spent 22 with war,
spoiled 23 of life, so scathed 24 had left him
Heorot's 25 battle. The body sprang far '... the Scyldings'
chieftain, bold and
when after death it endured the blow, battle-grim ...'
sword-stroke savage, that severed its head.

GLOSSARY 7. hilt: handle 16. thane: lord

1. 'Mid (amid): in the middle
of
2. battle-gear: weapons
3. Eotens: ancient
Scandinavian tribe
4. heirloom: object that has
been handed down from
generation to generation
5. bandy: give and take
blows
6. wrought: shaped
8. Scyldings: descendants of
Scyld Shefing, founder of
the Geat dynasty
9. grim: serious
10. brandish: hold and wave
11. reckless of life: fearless for
his own safety
12. wrathfully: angrily
13. smote: hit hard
14. blithe: happy
15. deed: action
17. guerdon: pay back,
recompense
18. hearth: fireplace
19. slew: killed
20. slumber: sleep
21. prone: lying flat
22. spent: exhausted
23. spoiled: devoid, without
24. scathed: injured, wounded
25.Heorot: Hrothgar's dining
hall
 Beowulf 69

COMPREHENSION
1 Who made the sword that Beowulf found?
2 Why had other men been unable to carry it into
battle?
3 Which part of Crendel's mother's body did
Beowulf strike?
4 What happened that made it possible for Beowulf
to see the body of Grendel in the cave?
5 Why did Beowulf want to take further revenge on
Grendel?
6 How many of Hrothgar's men had Grendel killed?
7 Was Grendel still alive at this point?
8 How did Beowulf mutilate the monster's body?
•шин

ANALYSIS
1 Find examples of alliteration in the text.
2 Weapons were an essential part of life in the
historical period in which Beowulf is set. Only men
who belonged to the higher classes of society could
possess a weapon. Slaves and servants were not
allowed to have them. They were often personalised
with names and handed down from generation to
generation.
Find evidence in the text to suggest that weapons
were highly valued by Anglo-Saxon society.

WRITERS W O R K S H O P
A n o t h e r feature of A n g l o - S a x o n poetry is t h e f o r m u l a e . T h e s e were widely used
c o m p o u n d nouns or short phrases that were synonyms for often repeated words like
'ship', 'sea', 'king' or names.
As the poems were often composed on the spot about a recent event, formulae gave the
poet time to think. The word 'king' for example could be replaced by:
beaga brytta = the ring giver sinces brytta = the treasure giver freowine = a gracious friend
1 What expressions are used in Text B2 to avoid the repetition of:
Beowulf: line 7: ; line 18: ; line 29:
Grendel's mother: line 12:
sword: line 1: ; line 3:
Formulae are not simply synonyms, as each of them stressed a different aspect of t h e
thing described.
2 Look at both the texts you have read so far. Make a list of the formulae you have found
for Beowulf. What characteristics of the hero do they emphasise?
The most unusual formulae are known as k e n n i n g s . These are metaphorical phrases
that are used instead of a noun. For example, a ship was a 'sea-wood' or a 'wave-floater',
a body was 'bone-house' and blood was 'war-sweat'.
3 Find a kenning in the texts you have read for:
- body (Text B1, line 25):
- sun (Text B2, line 16):

OVER T O Y O U Write your own kennings for the following: winter, summer, school, love, home, money,
teacher, car.
Example: Christmas = snow-holiday

A status symbol is an object which shows that the person who owns it has a high social status. Beowulf's
magnificent sword is a status symbol because it shows that he is the greatest warrior of his day. In our society
there are many status symbols such as big cars, yachts or even the things we wear. Try to think of at least four
objects that are regarded as status symbols today.
 Medieval Poetr
The Bailad

The following ballad is one of the best known traditional English ballads and has been sung in different versions,
over hundreds of years, right up to the present day.

Listen to it and answer the questions.

a. What sad event does the young man announce in d. After how long does the ghost start to speak?
the opening stanza? e. What does the young man want from her?
b. How does the weather reflect his state of mind? f. What will happen if the young man kisses her?
c. What does the young man decide to do? g. Do you think they will meet again and if so, when?

Q The Unquiet1 Grave

Cold blows the wind to my true love
And gently drops the rain
I never had but one true love
And in Greenwood she lies slain 2 .
I'll do as much for my sweetheart 5
As any young man may;
I'll sit and mourn 3 all on her grave
For a twelvemonth and a day.
W h e n the twelvemonth and a day is past
The ghost began to speak; 10
'Why sit you here upon my grave,
And will not let me sleep?'
'There's one thing that I want, sweetheart,
There's one thing that I crave 4 ,
And that is a kiss from your lily-white lips, 15
Then I'll go from your grave.'
'My breast it is as cold as clay 5 ,
My breath smells earthly strong 6
And if you kiss my cold clay lips
Your days they won't be long.' 20
GLOSSARY
(...)
unquiet: restless,
agitated, anxious 'O down in yonder 7 grove 8 , sweetheart,
slain: killed, dead Where you and I did walk,
mourn: grieve The first flower that I ever saw
crave: desire very
Is wither'd to a stalk 9 .
strongly
clay: material from The stalk is wither'd and dry, sweetheart, 25
which bricks and
And the flower will never return
pots are made
'My breath ... And since I lost my own sweetheart,
strong': my breath What can I do but mourn?
smells badly
yonder: over there W h e n shall we meet again, sweetheart?
grove: wood W h e n shall we meet again?' 30
Is wither'd to a ' W h e n the autumn leaves that fall from the trees
stalk: all the petals
are dead and only
Are green and spring up again
the stem is left Are green and spring up again.'
 The B a l l a d 9 Q B ^

INTRODUCTION • Ballads are short folk songs that tell a story. The word 'ballad' comes from the late
Latin ballare (to dance), so 'ballad' originally m e a n t a song with a dance. They are a n o n y m o u s works
composed in simple language by unlettered authors and handed down orally from generation to gene-
ration. Singers w h o learned the ballads often made changes to both the text and the tune and therefore
popular ballads exist in m a n y different versions. Ballads were very popular in England throughout the
Middle Ages.

Robin Hood and the Bishop of Hereford Text B 3 o

Robin Hood is a legendary English outlaw. He and his men lived in a forest, which may GLOSSARY •-

ha\e been Sherwood Forest near Nottingham, from where they attacked and robbed rich 1. bold: brave,
courageous
travellers. They became folk heroes because they did not injure their victims and never
served: treated,
tabbed from the poor. tricked
Robin, with the help of one of his best men, Little John, invites the Bishop of Hereford attire: clothing
quoth: said
into Barnsdale Wood for a drink. The Bishop is in for a surprise.
Thou'rt: you are
deeds: actions
Others they may tell you of bold 1 Robin Hood, make haste: hurry up

Derry, derry, down!

Or else of the barons bold,
But I'll tell you how they served 2 the Bishop,
When they robbed him of his gold. 5
Derry down! Hey! Derry, derry, down!

Robin Hood, he dressed him in shepherd's attire 3 ,

Derry, derry, down!
.And six of his men also,
And, when the Bishop he did come by, 10
They around the fire did go.
Derry down! Hey! Derry, derry, down!

We are but poor shepherds' quoth 4 bold Robin Hood,

Derry, derry, down!
And keep sheep all the year, 15
But we've resolved to taste to-day
of the best of our King's deer.'
Derry down! Hey! Derry, derry, down!

Thou'rt 5 a merry fellow;' the old Bishop said,

Derry, derry, down! 20
'The King of thy deeds 6 shall know;
Therefore make haste 7 , come along with me,
For before the King shalt go!'
Derry down! Hey! Derry, derry, down!

fit The legend of Robin Hood is not based on historical fact, although there is
that in 1230 law enforcers in Yorkshire tried to capture an outlaw called Robin Hood.
The theme of rebellion against the unjust ruling class, seen in the legends of Robin
Hood, was popular in literature throughout Europe at that time. He has been the subjt
of several films, including Robin Hood, Prince of thieves (1991), starring Kevin Costnei
 472FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE MIDDLE AGES -Anglo-SaxonPoetry

Robin Hood he set then his back to an oak, 25

Derry, derry, down!

His foot against a thorn,
And underneath from his shepherd's cloak
Pulled out a bugle horn 8 .
Derry down! Hey! Derry, derry, down! 30

Robin put the small end against his lips,

Derry, derry, down!
And loudly a blast did blow,
Till full six score9 of his trusty 10 men
Came a-running in a row. 35

Derry down! Hey! Derry, derry, down!

'What's the matter, master?' says Little John,

Derry, derry, down!
'You call us so hastily.'
'Oh! Here's the Bishop of Hereford, 40

For to-day he passes by.'

Derry down! Hey! Derry, derry, down!

Robin Hood he took then the old Bishop's hand,

Derry, derry, down!
And led him to gay Barnsdale 11 , 45

And made him sup 12 at his board that night,

Where they drank wine, beer and ale.
Derry down! Hey! Derry, derry, down!

Daniel Madise, Robin Hood

and His Merry Men (1845).

8. bugle horn: small

trumpet
9. score: twenty
10. trusty: loyal
11.Barnsdale: a wood
12. sup: eat

*
 The Ballad 11

'Call me in the reck'ning 1 3 ' the Bishop then said,

Derry, derry, down! 50

'I'm sure it's growing high'

'Lend me your purse, Sir' said Little J o h n ,
'And I'll tell you by and by:'
Derry down! Hey! Derry, derry, down!

Little J o h n he took then the old Bishop's cloak, 55

Derry, derry, down!

And spread it on the ground
And from the Bishop his portmanteau 1 4
He told 1 5 five hundred pound.
Derry down! Hey! Derry, derry, down! 60

Little J o h n he took then the old Bishop's hand,

Derry, derry, down!
And called for the pipes to play,
.And made the Bishop to dance in his boots; 13. in the reck'ning:
when it is time to pay
He went gladly on his way. 65
14. portmanteau: bag
Derry down! Hey! Derry, derry, down! 15. told: took

COMPREHENSION
1 How did Robin disguise himself to trick the Bishop? 4 What did the Bishop offer to do in return for Robin
2 What did he tell the Bishop he was going to do? Hood's hospitality?

3 Where did Robin and his men take the Bishop and 5 Did the Bishop realise that Robin Hood and his
what did they do? men had stolen his money?

ANALYSIS
1 Identify the lines where the singer/narrator speaks 4 The Bishop may be seen as representing the church
durectly to the listener/reader. What is the purpose of of the Middle Ages. Is his behaviour in the story fitting
these lines? for a man of God?
• To introduce the story.
5 The line 'Derry, derry, down!...' is repeated
• To provide biographical details about Robin Hood.
throughout the poem. What effect does it have?
• To introduce the singer.
• To involve the listener/reader by creating 6 Some of the grammatical structures used in the
expectations. poem would be considered unusual in modern
English, for example 'Robin Hood, he dressed him'
2 The story is told through narrative and dialogue*.
(line 7) instead of 'Robin Hood dressed himself'. Find
find examples of both.
other examples.
3 What evidence is there in the text that Robin
Hood was well-loved and respected by his men? 7 What is the rhyming scheme of the poem (omit
<'.hich of the following does Robin Hood use to trick lines which are repeated: 'Derry derry down')?
Bishop? Is it regular throughout?

• Intelligence • Flattery • Violence S O Listen again to the recording of the poem. Is

« Bribery • Blackmail • Cunning the rhythm of the ballad regular?
4 12 FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE MIDDLE AGES -Anglo-SaxonP o e t r y

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P
Stock images W h i l e o t h e r f o r m s of p o e t r y are characterised b y individual or original figures o f
speech, the ballad employs 'ready-made' images which are referred to as stock images.
Examples of stock images are 'snow-white skin', 'bold knights', 'merry m a i d e n s ' .
Stock images were used because:
• t h e y were easier to m e m o r i s e a n d gave t h e singer m o r e t i m e t o m a n i p u l a t e t h e
story of t h e ballad;
• because t h e y were familiar to t h e listener a n d t h e y were easier t o understand. As
b a l l a d s b e l o n g e d t o a n oral t r a d i t i o n , l i s t e n e r s did n o t h a v e t i m e t o i n t e r p r e t
original or c o m p l e x imagery.

Find an example of stock imagery in The Unquiet Crave and Robin Hood and the Bishop of
Hereford.

OVER T O Y O U Link the words in A to the words in B to create stock images.

A B

milk red
rose white
ruby knight
cherry sword
blood ladies
lily water
gallant
royal
coral

Today in many respects pop songs have taken the place of ballads. Choose one or two pop
songs you know and examine the lyrics. Are there any strikingly original images? Can you
think of any stock phrases or images that are widely used in pop/rock songs? ('Come on
everybody', 'Ooh baby', 'My heart went boom/bang', etc.)

Ballads are social documents. They give us an insight into what life was like in England at the time they were
written. In five hundred years' time, when people listen to songs that were composed in the twentieth and
twenty-first centuries, what will they learn about us?
Try to think of at least one famous song and what it will tell people in 2 5 0 0 .
 The Canterbury Tales - Geoffrey C h a u c e r 13

The Canterbury Tales

by Geoffrey Chaucer

A pen-picture is a detailed and accurate description of a person in words. Firstly, you describe the person
physically, and then you give details about his or her personality, interests and abilities.

Choose someone you know personally, or a famous person you know a lot about, and write a pen-picture as
follows:

STEP ONE - Fill in the following notes:

1 Name: 5 Body:
2 Age: 6 Personality:
3 Job: 7 Skills and abilities:
4 Face: hair, eyes, nose, mouth, ears 8 Likes and dislikes:

STEP T W O - Using the information in Step One, write a pen-picture. Paragraph one should cover points 1 - 5 ,
while paragraph two should cover points 6 - 8 .

INTRODUCTION • G o i n g o n pilgrimages in Medieval E n g l a n d was a way of c o m b i n i n g religion w i t h

pleasure. People from m a n y different walks of life would form a group, travel b y cart a n d o n foot t o a
holy shrine, stay t h e r e for a w h i l e a n d t h e n go b a c k h o m e together. T h e r e was a h o l i d a y a t m o s p h e r e
i b o u t pilgrimages because for
knight
most people it was t h e o n l y t i m e pR an of O w e
they c o u l d get away f r o m t h e
Sfnpman
drudgery of their daily routine. Rcve pnoreaee
In The Canterbury Tales a group of
fRillcr
rilgrims is o n its way to visit o n e
of England's m o s t f a m o u s cathe-
drals i n t h e s o u t h e r n c i t y o f
C a n t e r b u r y . It is a v a r i e d g r o u p Chaucer on the
representing a good cross-section road with some
of his characters.
: f English society of t h e day.

THE PROLOGUE
n The Prologue' we are introduced to the pilgrims individually and Chaucer writes a pen-
~ssire of each one of them. Several members of religious orders form part of the group. In
~ixts B4 and B5 we are introduced to two female characters who are connected with the
*rrld of religion: a Prioress, who is the head nun in a convent (priory), and a wealthy
» »nan who is - apparently - very religious.

: The Canterbury Tales were written in an archaic form of English which is difficult to under-
Tlie following modem versions of Chaucer's texts were written by Nevill Coghill. TextBS shows
- $ original version alongside the modern version.
* 'f -J*
l ^ t l
' ^ • D , , 14 FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE MIDDLE AGES - Medieval Poetry

o Text B 4 The Prioress

There also was a Nun, a Prioress,
Her way of smiling very simple and coy 1 .
Her greatest oath 2 was only 'By St Loy!a,
And she was known as Madam Eglantyne.
And well she sang a service3, with a fine 5
Intoning through her nose, as was most seemly 4 ,
And she spoke daintily 5 in French, extremely,
After6 the school of Stratford-atte-Bowe b ;
French in the Paris style she did not know.
• Visual Link B7
At meat 7 her manners were well taught 8 withal 9 ; 10
- • GLOSSARY No morsel 10 from her lips did she let fall,
Nor dipped her fingers in the sauce too deep;
a St Loy: A saint
who was rather But she could carry a morsel up and keep
controversial The smallest drop from falling on her breast.
because he
became rich by For courtliness she had a special zest 11 , is
collecting And she would wipe her upper lip so clean
religious relics.
That not a trace of grease was to be seen
b Stratford-atte-
Bowe: Upon the cup when she had drunk; to eat,
The site of a She reached a hand sedately 12 to the meat.
monastery near
London where the She certainly was very entertaining, 20
monks and nuns Pleasant and friendly in her ways, and straining 13
spoke a form of
Norman French To counterfeit 14 a courtly kind of grace,
that was very
A stately bearing 15 fitting to her place,
different from
classical French. And to seem dignified in all her dealings 16 .
As for her sympathies and tender feelings, 25
1. coy (Middle
English): quiet
She was so charitably solicitous 17
2. oath: swearword She used to weep if she saw but a mouse
3. she sang a service: Caught in a trap, if it were dead or bleeding.
she sang religious
songs And she had little dogs she would be feeding
seemly: proper, With roasted flesh, or milk, or fine white bread. 30
correct
And bitterly she wept if one were dead
daintily: delicately
After: in the style of Or someone took a stick and made it smart 18 ;
meat: table She was all sentiment and gentle heart.
well taught: polite
Her veil was carried in a seemly way,
withal: as well
10. morsel: piece of food Her nose was elegant, her eyes glass-grey;
11. zest: interest Her mouth was very small, but soft and red,
12. sedately: calmly Her forehead, certainly, was fair of spread19,
13. straining: trying very
hard
14. counterfeit: imitate
15.stately bearing:
aristocratic posture
16. dealings: behaviour
17. solicitous: kind to
Portrait of the Prioressfrom the
others
15th-century Ellesmere manuscript
of The Canterbury Tales.
18. made it smart:
caused it pain
19. fair of spread: wide

Almost a span 2 0 across the brows 2 1 ,1 own 2 2 ;
She was indeed by no means undergrown 2 3 .
Her cloak 2 4 ,1 noticed, had a graceful charm.
She wore a coral trinket 2 5 on her arm,
A set of beads, the gaudies 26 tricked 27 in green,
W h e n c e 2 8 hung a brooch 2 9 of brightest sheen 3 0 ,
On which there first was graven 3 1 a crowned A,
And lower, Amor vincit omnia32.
20. span: the width of a hand 22. own: say
21. brows: eyebrows 23. undergrown: short
COMPREHENSION
1 What did people call the Prioress?
2 What language did she speak?
3 How did she behave at table?
4 What did she try to imitate?
5 Find information in the text about the following
traits of her physical appearance:
nose:
eyes:
mouth:
forehead:
height:
ANALYSIS
1 The narrator's description of the Prioress's table
manners is very detailed. Underline the expressions
which suggest that the Prioress is very refined at table.
2 The narrator draws attention to the fact that the
Prioress does not drop the tiniest particle of food or
sauce and leaves no trace of grease on her glass. In
your opinion does this suggest that he admires the
Prioress's refinement or is he making fun of her
preoccupation with table manners?
3 Focus on the lines which refer to the Prioress's love
of small animals.
a. How does she react if she sees a mouse caught in a
trap? In your opinion, is her reaction fitting or is
the narrator making fun of her?
b. According to monastic rule, nuns could not keep
pets. Does the Prioress obey this rule?
c What does the Prioress feed her small dogs?
Considering the fact that many people died of
hunger in this period, is it fair to say that the Prioress
s more concerned about animals than men?
!H&iilLk^'
The Canterbury Tales - Geoffrey Chaucer
40 26. gaudies: the eleventh
bead on a string of
rosary beads
27. tricked: decorated
28. whence: from which
29. brooch: piece of
jewellery
45 30. of brightest sheen:
very shiny
31. graven: engraved, cut
24. cloak: coat without sleeves 32. Amor vincit omnia:
25. trinket: kind of rosary bracelet Love conquers all
6 How does the Prioress show that she loved
animals?
7 It was against convent rules for nuns to uncover
their forehead. Did the Prioress respect the rule? Give
a line reference.
8 Describe the rosary beads which the Prioress wore
on her arm. What hung in the place of a crucifix?
4 The Prioress does not respect the rule which stated
that nuns should cover their forehead. What does this
suggest about her attitude towards how she looks?
5 The golden brooch which hangs from the Prioress's
rosary beads was also against convent rules. Focus on
the inscription Amor vincit omnia. Considering what
you know about the Prioress do you think Amor refers
to sensual or spiritual love?
6 Find evidence in the text to suggest that the
Prioress was attracted by the upper social classes and
wished to imitate them.
7 'Eglantyne' was a popular name for heroines in
medieval romances. Why do you think people called
the Prioress by this name? Is it an appropriate name
for the head of a priory of nuns?
8 The Prioress's favourite exclamation is 'By St Loy'.
Saint Loy was accused of having inappropriate worldly
interests. Could the Prioress be accused of having the
same weakness? Refer to the text in your answer.
—

$
ID , 16 FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE MIDDLE AGES - Medieval Poetry

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P
Irony I r o n y can be defined as saying something while you really mean something else. It is
very c o m m o n in every day speech (for example, when we say 'that was a clever thing
to do' meaning 'that was very foolish') and it is also widely used in literature. Writers
generally use irony to criticise a subject indirectly. They often pretend to sympathise
mm
with a character when they are, in fact, exposing their weaknesses.
Chaucer, for example, gives the impression that he is charmed by the ladylike manners
and sophisticated appearance of the Prioress. However, while he praises her he also
includes details w h i c h he knows t h e reader will find u n f i t t i n g for a w o m a n of her
position. T h e text, therefore, has two levels of m e a n i n g : a superficial level at which
C h a u c e r expresses his a d m i r a t i o n for t h e Prioress a n d a deeper level at w h i c h he
playfully makes fun of her.

Irony allows a writer to criticise in an indirect way. The writer c a n n o t be 'accused' of

attacking t h e s u b j e c t as there is n o clear e v i d e n c e of this in t h e t e x t . Chaucer, for
example, seems to praise t h e Prioress - he leaves it entirely up to t h e reader to find
reasons to criticise her.

TASKS 1 Underline words or phrases in the text that suggest that Chaucer admires the Prioress.

2 Make a list of the aspects of the Prioress that you find inappropriate for a nun.

OVER T O Y O U Write a short ironic text about someone who is familiar to your classmates, i.e. a famous
person, a teacher, a student.
STEP ONE - Write a list of five things that everybody knows to be true about the person in
question.
Example: 7. He is almost always late for class
2. ...

STEP T W O - Write the opposite of each of the statements in Step One.

Example: 7. He is never late for class
2. ...

STEP THREE - Write a short text that includes the points in Step Two and read them aloud
in class.

The Prioress has perfect manners and always behaves in an appropriate way when in the company of others.
Does this mean she is a perfect individual? Does the way we act in public automatically reveal what kind of
person we really are? Discuss with the rest of the class.
 The Canterbury Tales - Geoffrey C h a u c e r 17

The Wife of Bath1 Text B 5 Q

A worthy woman from beside Bath city A good wif was ther of biside bathe,
Was with us, somewhat deaf 2 , which was a pity. But she was somdel deef, and that was
In making cloth she showed so great a bent 3 scathe.
She bettered those of Ypres and of G h e n t 4 . Of clooth-makyng she hadde swich an
5 haunt,
In all the parish not a dame dared stir 5
She passed hem of ypres and of gaunt.
Towards the altar steps in front of her.
In al the parisshe wif ne was ther noon
And if indeed they did, so wrath 6 was she That to the offrynge bifore hire sholde goon;
As to be quite put out of charity 7 . And if ther dide, certeyn so wrooth was she,
Her kerchiefs 8 were of finely woven ground 9 , That she was out of alle charitee.
1 dared have sworn 1 0 they weighed a good ten pound 10 Hir coverchiefs ful fyne weren of ground;
I dorste swere they weyeden ten pound
The ones she wore on Sunday, on her head.
That on a sonday weren upon hir heed.
Her hose 1 1 were of the finest scarlet red
Hir hosen weren of fyn scarlet reed,
And gartered 12 tight; her shoes were soft and new. Ful streite yteyd, and shoes ful moyste and
Bold 13 was her face, handsome and red in hue 1 4 . newe.
A worthy woman all her life, what's more 15 Boold was hir face, and fair, and reed of
She's had five husbands, all at the church door, hewe.
Apart from other company in youth; She was a worthy womman al hir lyve:
No need just now to speak of that, forsooth 1 5 . Housbondes at chirche dore she hadde fyve,
Withouten oother compaignye in youthe, -
And she had thrice been to Jerusalem,
But therof nedeth nat to speke as nowthe.
Seen many strange rivers and passed over them; 20
And thries hadde she been at jerusalem;
She'd been to Rome and also to Boulogne 1 6 , She hadde passed many a straunge strem;
St James of Compostella 1 7 and Cologne 1 8 , At rome she hadde been, and at boloigne,
And she was skilled in wandering by the way 1 9 . In galice at seint-jame, and at coloigne.
She had gap-teeth 2 0 , set widely, truth to say. She koude muchel of wandrynge by the weye.
Gat-tothed was she, soothly for to seye.
Easily on an ambling 2 1 horse she sat 25
Upon an amblere esily she sat,
Well wimpled 2 2 up, and on her head a hat Ywympled wel, and on hir heed an hat
As broad as is a buckler 2 3 or a shield; As brood as is a bokeler or a targe;
She had a flowing mantle that concealed A foot-mantel aboute hir hipes large,
Large hips, her heels spurred 24 sharply under that, And on hir feet a paire of spores sharpe.
In company she liked to laugh and chat 30 In felaweshipe wel koude she laughe and carpe.
Of remedies of love she knew per chaunce,
And knew the remedies for love's mischances,
For she koude of that art the olde daunce.
An art in which she knew the oldest dances. I

• Visual Link B7
GLOSSARY
1. Bath: important centre for
the cloth trade in medieval
England
2. somewhat deaf: she will
later explain that this was
due to a blow she received
from her fifth husband
3. bent: natural talent
-S. Ypres and Ghent:
important Flemish weaving
centres
v stir: move
wrath: angry
7. charity: In the Middle
Ages people went up to
the altar in order of social
importance with gifts
which they made
themselves. Chaucer plays
on the expression 'out of
charity' which means very
angry and also that the
Wife of Bath would no
longer offer her gift to
the church
8. kerchiefs: head-coverings
9. ground: material
10.1 dared have sworn: 1 am
almost sure
11. hose: stockings
12. gartered: tied not always stay on the
13. Bold: proud 'straight and narrow
way' of the church
14. hue: colour
20. gap-teeth: wide spaces
15. forsooth: to tell the truth
between her front
16. Boulogne: pilgrims went to
teeth. It was believed
pray to the image of the
to be a sign of low
Virgin Mary
moral standards
17. St James of Compostella:
21. ambling: walking
shrine of St James in Galicia
in western Spain 22. wimpled: wearing a
18. Cologne: In Germany. covering for the head
It housed the shrine of the and neck
three wise men and St. 23. buckler: a small
Ursula circular shield
19. wandering by the way: 24: spurred: with sharp
this suggests that she did points
•
18 FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE MIDDLE AGES - Medieval Poetry

COMPREHENSION
1 Fill in the table with details from the text about the Wife of Bath's physical appearance and way of dressing.

Face:.., Headkerchief:
Teeth:. Stockings: ....
Hips:... Shoes:
Hat:
Mantle:
Spurs:

2 What was the Wife of Bath's profession?

3 How many times had she been married?

4 Underline the names of places she had visited on pilgrimages.

ANALYSIS
1 Certain information in the text seems to suggest
that the Wife of Bath was a religiously devout person.
In which lines does the narrator say that she:
- attended mass and communion: lines
- was married in church: lines
- went on many pilgrimages: lines
The narrator adds details that make the reader
question the Wife of Bath's sincerity and devotion.
Find information that contradicts the image of the
Wife of Bath as a holy and devout christian. Complete
the following sentences:
- she attended mass and communion b u t . . .
- she was married in church. However...
- she went on many pilgrimages because ...
4 In the Middle Ages gapped-teeth were considered
to be a sign of:
• boldness • falseness
• gluttony • lasciviousness
Which of these characteristics does the Wife of Bath
have?
5 Which adjective is used twice to describe the Wife
of Bath? Is it used straightforwardly or ironically?
6 Although the narrator seems to imply that the Wife
of Bath has many defects do you get the impression
that he dislikes her? Which of the following may be
considered to be her saving graces? Justify your
choices by referring to the text.

2 The medieval church ordered women to cover She is:

• independent • extrovert
their hair so that it would not distract men during the
• sociable • generous
services. Did the Wife of Bath choose her headwear
• attractive • sincere
out of a sense of modesty? Find other examples of her
vanity and desire to be at the centre of attention. • successful H wealthy
• sexually active • strong-willed
3 In lines 18, 2 3 and 32 the narrator makes indirect • modest • vivacious
references to the fact that the Wife of Bath led an
active sex life. Explain what is implied in each of
these sentences.
 The Canterbury Tales - Geoffrey C h a u c e r 81

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P
The term r h y m e refers to the effect that is created when a poet repeats the same
sounds at the end of two or more lines. Rhyme has several important functions:
• it adds a musical quality to the poem;
• it shows the poet's ability to manipulate the language;
• in poems such as The Canterbury Tales, which was composed for performance before
an audience, it serves the important function of indicating where one line ends and
another begins and it makes the poem easier to remember for both the performer and
the audience.

TASK Listen to the recording of the original Middle English version of The Wife of Bath and
? read the text. Work out the rhyming scheme by writing the same letter of the alphabet
beside words that rhyme. Is the rhyming scheme regular throughout?

Rhyme in a poem or song is most effective when it is original and striking. Rhymes that are
worn or predictable ('love/above', 'my lady/my baby') are tiring and uninteresting. Read the
song lyrics and poem below and say whether you think the rhymes are worn or effective:

There was something in the air that night

The stars were bright, Fernando
They were shining there for you and me
For liberty, Fernando

(Fernando, by Abba)

Here lies my wife: here let her lie

Now she's at rest, and so am I
(John Dryden)

Think of songs or poems that you know where the rhyme is worn or effective.

•DD
When the Wife of Bath goes to church it is as if she is taking part in a fashion parade. Can you think of other
occasions when people overdress because they want to impress people? Think of an example and tell your
dassmates.
 482FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE MIDDLE AGES -Anglo-SaxonPoetry

On their way to Canterbury the pilgrims stop at an inn. The

owner of the inn asks each of the pilgrims to tell two stories
on their way to Canterbury and another two stories on their
way back. The person who tells the best tale will have a free
dinner. There are twenty-four tales in all because the work is
incomplete.

The pilgrims having a meal (engraving

by Wynklyn de Wörde, 1478).

The Nun's Priest's Tale

The Nun's Priest's Tale is an English version of a fable that was well-known all over Europe. The proud, vain cock, the dom-
ineering hen and the crafty, shrewd fox were easily recognisable stock characters that English and continental audiences
could identify with.

A cock called Chanticleer lives in a farmyard with his seven

wives. One night he has a nightmare in which he sees an
animal coming to attack him. He is very frightened and wakes
up shouting and sweating but one of his wives, Lady Pertelote,
accuses him of being a coward ( • Text B6).
One day a fox enters the farmyard intent on capturing
Chanticleer. He tells the cock that he has the most beautiful
voice he has ever heard and asks him to sing, fust as he starts
singing, the fox grabs him by the throat and carries him off
( • Text B7).
The farmer's wife, her daughters and all the farm animals run
after the fox in an attempt to save Chanticleer and, just when
all seems lost, he manages to escape. He tells the fox that he
should stop and tell the creatures who are chasing him to give
up because they will never be able to catch him. The fox thinks
this is a good idea, but the moment he stops, Chanticleer flies
up to the safety of a tree. He has learnt his lesson and will never
listen to a flatterer again.

The fox addresses Chanticleer.

 The Canterbury Tales - Geoffrey C h a u c e r 21

Lady Pertelote Speaks her Mind ii u s Q

Lady Pertelote accuses Chanticleer of being a coward because he is frightened of his dream.

'For shame 1 ' she said, 'you timorous poltroon 2 !

Alas, what cowardice! By God above,
You've forfeited 3 my heart and lost m y love. • Visual Link B7
I cannot love a coward, come what may.
For certainly, whatever we may say, 5 GLOSSARY •-

.All women long4- and O that it might be! - 1. For shame: you
should be ashamed of
For husbands tough 5 , dependable and free, yourself
Secret, discreet, no niggard 6 , not a fool 2. poltroon: coward
That boasts 7 and then will find his courage cool 3. forfeited: given up,
lost
At every trifling 8 thing. By God above, 10 4. long (for): want
How dare you say for shame, and to your love, 5. tough: strong
That anything at all was to be feared? 6. niggard: mean person
7. boasts: talks proudly
Have you n o manly heart to match your beard? 8. trifling: unimportant,
tad can a dream reduce you to such terror?' insignificant

COMPREHENSION
1 How does Lady Pertelote react when Chanticleer 3 What kind of 'fool' does Lady Pertelote detest?
•pfs her of his terrifying dream?
4 Why does Lady Pertelote accuse Chanticleer of
2 What kind of husbands do all women want having no manly heart?
according to Lady Pertelote?

ANALYSIS
1 When Lady Pertelote discovers what has frightened 4 The Nun's Priest's Tale is an example of a beast
Chanticleer she abuses him verbally. Find line fable*. This narrative form features animals that
references in the text. behave and speak as human beings.
Which of the following adjectives that are usually
ifre calls him insulting associated with human beings would you use to
Line(s)
names. describe Lady Pertelote?
She compares him to a • Nagging • Independent • Strong-willed
Line(s)
fool. • Courageous • Confident B Insensitive
She tells him she can • Other:
Line(s)
TO longer love him. Discuss you choices with your classmates.
5he accuses him of not Listen again to the recording of Text B6.
Line(s)
laving a brave heart. Is it rhythmic? Find examples of end of line words
that rhyme.
2 Lady Pertelote's speech is punctuated by
^«damations. Underline some examples in the text.
What do they reveal about her feelings?
3 -tow would you describe Lady Pertelote's attack?
Savage Exaggerated • Humiliating
-easonable 8 Appropriate • Heartless
Other:
•: _ d you agree that the text reverses traditional male
" : "emale roles? Does this make the text humourous?
 Sf
4 22 FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE MIDDLE AGES -Anglo-SaxonP o e t r y

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P
Iambic Iambic p e n t a m e t e r is the most c o m m o n rhythm pattern in English poetry and it was
pentameter first used in English by Geoffrey Chaucer. The modern version of the poem which you
have read, by and large, maintains the original metre.

TASKS Listen to the recording of the lines from the poem. Number the syllables and mark
the unstressed syllables " and the stressed syllables '.
Example:

| 'For | shame' | she | said, | 'you | tim | o | rous | pol | troon! |

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

| A | las | what | cow | ard | ice! | By | God | a | bove, |

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
>r- *
You've forfeited my heart and lost my love.

I cannot love a coward, come what may.

xm j§
Chaucer was also t h e first English writer to use h e r o i c couplets: two lines of iambic
pentameter that rhyme. This pattern of r h y t h m and rhyme b e c a m e very popular in
English literature and was used, among others, by Shakespeare, Dryden and Pope.

2 Write the same letter of the alphabet (A, B, C, etc.) next to the line ending with the same
rhyme. Is the rhyme scheme regular throughout?

OVER T O Y O U Chaucer originally intended his work to be recited in front of an audience. How do you think
the strong and regular rhythm and rhyme schemes would have helped the performance of
the work?

Quarrelling husbands and wives are frequently used to add humour to books, films, etc. Can you think of any
other examples of warring couples that have made you laugh?
 The Canterbury Tales - Geoffrey C h a u c e r 23

Chanticleer's Narrow Escape Text B 7

The fox, whose name is Sir Russel Fox, has just asked Chanticleer to sing for him. GLOSSARY •-

In Virgil's Aeneid,
This Chanticleer stood high upon his toes, Pyrrhus kills Priam
while Troy is being
He stretched his neck, his eyes began to close,
destroyed.
His beak to open; with his eyes shut tight Hasdrubal was king
He then began to sing with all his might 1 . of Carthage in 146
BC, when it was
Sir Russel Fox then leapt 2 to the attack, destroyed by the
Grabbing his gorge 3 he flung 4 him oe'r his back Romans.
Nero was accused of
And off he bore 5 him to the woods, the brute 6 ,
starting the fire that
And for the m o m e n t there was n o pursuit 7 . destroyed Rome in
AD 64.
(...)
Sure never such a cry of lamentation might: strength
Was made by ladies of high Trojan station 8 , 10 leapt: jumped
gorge: throat
When Ilium 9 fell and Pyrrhus 3 with his sword flung: threw
Grabbed Priam by the beard, their king and lord, violently
bore: carried
And slew 10 him there as the Aeneid tells,
brute: a cruel person
As what was uttered 1 1 by those hens. Their yells 1 2 pursuit: chase
Surpassed them all in palpitating 1 3 fear 15 high Trojan station:
the upper classes in
W h e n they beheld 1 4 the rape 15 of Chanticleer.
Troy
Dame Pertelote emitted sovereign shrieks 16 9. Ilium: Troy
That echoed up in anguish to the peaks 10. slew: killed
11. uttered: shouted
Louder than those extorted 1 7 from the wife
12. yells: shouts
Of Hasdrubal b , when he had lost his life 20 13. palpitating: agitated
And Carthage all in flame and ashes lay. 14. beheld: saw
She was so full of torment and dismay 1 8 15.rape: capture
16. emitted sovereign
That in the very flames she chose her part shrieks: screamed like
And burnt to ashes with a steadfast 19 heart. a queen
17. extorted: obtained,
O woeful 2 0 hens, louder your shrieks and higher 25
heard
Than those of Roman matrons 2 1 when the fire 18. dismay: fear
Consumed their husbands, senators of Rome, 19. steadfast: loyal
20. woeful: very sad
When Nero c burnt their city and their home,
21. matrons: women
Beyond a doubt that Nero was their bale 2 2 ! 22. bale: destruction

COMPREHENSION
1 How did Chanticleer prepare himself to sing? 5 Where did he take his victim?

2 Why did he prepare himself so elaborately?
3 Why did Sir Russel Fox ask Chanticleer to sing
before his attack?
4 How did Sir Russel Fox carry Chanticleer away?
6 What did the hens start to do when they saw
Chanticleer being carried away?
7 What was Lady Pertelote's reaction to what had
happened?
4 2 4 FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE MIDDLE AGES -Anglo-SaxonPoetry

ANALYSIS
1 The text is based on comparisons. Fill in the table below.

1 The hens l.a

I.b

2 The yells of the hens 2.a

are/is compared to
2.b

3 Lady Pertelote 3

4 The shrieks of Lady Pertelote 4

2 Beast fables are often told to teach people how they should behave. What human weakness does the story of
Chanticleer warn against? How would you sum up the moral lesson of the tale?

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P
Mock heroic The m o c k h e r o i c form of satire adapts the elevated heroic style of classical epic poems
to a trivial subject. In Text B7 Chaucer compares the animals in the farmyard to famous
Greek and Latin figures.

Underline words and expressions in the text that refer to people of high social standing.
Example: (linelO) ladies of high Trojan station

OVER T O Y O U What effect does comparing the farmyard events to momentous occasions in classical
literature have on the text? It makes it more:

P poetic • comic • elevated in tone • ridiculous • serious

Discuss your opinions with classmates.

Chaucer, in a humorous way, compares Chanticleer's abduction to the fate of Priam, Hasdrubal and Nero. The
farmyard is in the same state of confusion as Troy, Carthage and Rome when they were destroyed. If Chaucer
were writing today he could refer to the destruction of many more cities over the last seven hundred years. From
your knowledge of history write the names of four cities and when they were destroyed.
 Writers' Gallery - Geoffrey Chaucer

WRITERS' GALLERY
Family Geoffrey Chaucer
was born some time between
1 3 4 0 and 1 3 4 5 . We do not know the exact date. His family
belonged to the emerging middle class and his father was a
wealthy wine merchant in London. He received a good education
and while still a boy he became a page to Princess Elizabeth,
daughter-in-law of the king, Edward III.

The army Chaucer joined the army and fought in France during
the Hundred Years' War. He was captured and held prisoner until
the king ransomed him. He took part in the peace negotiations
with France in 1360 and clearly served the king well, since he was
GEOFFREY CHAUCER defined as a well-beloved personal attendant and granted a life
(1340-1400) pension.

Travels In 1366 he married Philippa de Roet, a noblewoman and sister-in-law of a powerful man,
John of Gaunt, who became Geoffrey's patron. From 1368 onwards Geoffrey travelled in Europe on
diplomatic missions. He visited Genoa and Florence where he became acquainted with Italian
.iterature and in particular with the works of Dante, Petrarch and Boccaccio.

Career In 1374 he was appointed Controller of Customs of Wools, Skins and Hides, a post he held
for twelve years. In 1 3 8 6 he started a political career and represented the county of Kent in
Parliament. At that time he was also a Justice of the Peace. He was appointed Clerk for the King's
'•Vorks (the person who oversees building work in progress) first at Westminster, then at Windsor and
the Tower. For the last ten years of his life Chaucer retired. Throughout his life he had a comfortable
standard of living and he collected over sixty books. This was an impressive library before the
invention of printing, when books were rare and expensive. He took a lease on a house in the garden
: f Westminster Abbey, where he worked on his masterpiece, The Canterbury Tales.
He died on 25th October 1400 and was buried in a chapel of the Abbey which has since become
known as 'Poets' Corner'.

TASK
True or false? Correct the false statements, d. He died when he was around fifty-five or sixty
a. Geoffrey Chaucer lived in the fourteenth years old.
century. e. He is buried in Westminster Abbey, in what is
: He was born into a poor illiterate family, called Poets' Corner.
c. [Xiring his life he was a soldier, a diplomat, a
civil servant, a politician, a poet.

Chaucer's work is generally divided into three periods:

WORKS
The French period (up to 1370) Chaucer's early works are based
-rly on French models. His chief work during this time was the Book of the Duchess, an allegorical
.-nt written in 1369 on the death of Blanche, wife of John of Gaunt, his patron.
 488FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE MIDDLE AGES -Anglo-SaxonPoetry

i »mm- • m m

The Italian period (up to c.1387) Chaucer's work was then influenced by Italian literature,
particularly by the works of Boccaccio and Dante. His major works in this period were:
The Parlement ofFoules, a medieval beast fable which tells of the mating of fowls on St Valentine's
Day and is believed to celebrate the betrothal of Richard II to Anne of Bohemia.
The House of Fame, which recounts the adventures of Aeneas after the fall of Troy and was influenced
by Dante's Divine Comedy.
Troylus and Criseyde, which combines an episode from the Iliad and elements of Boccaccio's version
of the same episode. It is still considered one of the great love poems in the English language.
The Legend of Good Women, which looks at love from a female point of view and recounts stories of
women, such as Cleopatra, who died for love. In this work Chaucer uses for the first time the heroic
couplet*, iambic pentameter* in rhyming pairs which he later used in The Canterbury Tales.

The English period In Chaucer's final period he wrote his masterpiece, The Canterbury Tales, and
achieved his fullest artistic power.

This unfinished poem of about 17,000 lines was written mostly

THE CANTERBURY TALES
after 1387 and is widely considered to be one of the most brilliant
works in all literature. The poem introduces a group of pilgrims who are journeying from London to
the shrine of Thomas a Becket at Canterbury. They meet at the Tabard Inn in Southwark, London,
where the host, Harry Bailly, proposes that they have a storytelling competition. The best storyteller
will be given a free supper on his or her return to London. Chaucer originally planned that the work
should contain 120 tales, four for each pilgrim, but at the time of his death he had only written
wm twenty-four and some of them were not complete.

The Prologue The pilgrims are described in the General Prologue; together, they represent a wide
cross-section of fourteenth-century English life, although the nobility and the poor are missing as
they would not have taken part in this type of group pilgrimage.

The Tales The tales are structured as a series of interlinked stories. Each tale is preceded by a pro-
logue in which the storyteller speaks about himself. The themes of the tales vary from the spiritual to
the earthy and humorous.
The pilgrims are often ill-
mannered and quarrelsome $!0&guc
and frequently interrupt
and criticise each other. The
Miller, for example, tells a
story about an ageing car-
penter whose young wife is
unfaithful to h i m . The
mm.. Reeve, who is a trained car-

•MM
William Caxton's Canterbury Tales
(1478), British Library.
- -
 •Writers' Gallery - Geoffrey Chaucer

penter, retaliates with a tale about a miller w h o is also betrayed by his wife. M a n y of t h e tales
counterbalance or give another point of view to the ideas presented in the preceding tale. The tales
permit open dialogue between people from different levels of society.
The pilgrims' tales include a variety of medieval genres that range from humorous beast fables* to the
serious homily or sermon.

Why it is a masterpiece The Canterbury Tales is a masterpiece for numerous reasons:

• it is written in English in a period when it was a forgone conclusion that all serious writing had to
be done in Latin or French. Chaucer himself was fluent in both these languages as well as in Italian;
• it is a valuable social document as it gives us an insight into a cross-section of fourteenth-century
English society;
• it includes experimentation with rhyme and rhythm patterns that greatly affected the literature
that followed;
• it contains a cast of memorable characters that are brought to life by Chaucer's superb powers of
characterisation.

It is for these outstanding achievements that Chaucer is generally regarded as the father of English
poetry. The Canterbury Tales was one of the first works to be printed by William Caxton's revolution-
ary printing press in 1478, and it has never been out of print since then.

TASKS
1 Answer these questions.
a. What is Chaucer's most important work from
the French period?
b. What literary genre does The Parlement of Foules
belong to?
c. Who is the protagonist of The House of Fame?
4. Which of Chaucer's poems is considered to be
one of the best love poems in English literature?
«. Which famous Egyptian queen is one of the
characters of The Legend of Good Women?
2 Cross out incorrect statements.
The Canterbury Tales...
a. is a poem written in iambic pentameter.
b. was written in the later stages of Chaucer's life.
c. is unfinished.
d. is about fourteenth-century English aristocrats.
e. should have included 120 tales, according to
the original plan.
f. was originally written in Latin and translated
into English by Chaucer.

J Use the mind map to prepare a short talk about Chaucer's life and works.
Army

Mid,dle c l a s j -< t - •Travels

background \ I

Political career »-Patron: john of Gaunt

Buried in Poets' Corner

Literary career

/ \
French period u English period:
Italian period The Canterbury Tales
 mam

Everyman

BBBD DD
Look at this list of abstract concepts:
Good Evil Beauty
Fear Greed Wealth
Kindness Intelligence Power

Find photographs from newspapers or magazines that exemplify one or more of these concepts. For example, a
military parade might represent power, while a huge yacht might represent wealth. Explain your choices to the class.

INTRODUCTION • T h e a i m o f M e d i e v a l D r a m a was t o e n t e r t a i n a n d i n s t r u c t . An e x a m p l e of t h i s
didactic form of theatre was t h e Morality play w h i c h b e c a m e e x t r e m e l y popular during t h e fourteenth
c e n t u r y . M o r a l i t y p l a y s were i n t e n d e d t o t e a c h p r i n c i p l e s a n d v a l u e s . T h e c h a r a c t e r s in t h e p l a y s
personified abstract c o n c e p t s such as greed, laziness and kindness. T h e y debated moral issues and m a d e
suggestions about h o w people should live.
Everyman, written in 1 5 0 0 , is o n e of t h e finest e x a m p l e s of medieval Morality plays.

THE STORY
God is angry because Everyman, who rep-
resents mankind, is more concerned with
material goods than spirituality. He sum-
mons Death and tells him to force
Everyman to justify how he has lived.
Everyman looks for friends who will stand
by him in this hour of need. He asks
Kindred (family) and Wealth to keep him
company but they immediately abandon
him. Strength, Beauty, Intelligence and
Knowledge all help Everyman along the
way, but it is Good Deeds alone that
accompanies him on his final journey
towards death.

A sixteenth-century
woodcut of Everyman.
 Everyman

Everyman's Salvation KME! Q

This scene is taken from the end of the play. The text is a modern version taken from a
recent production.

EVERYMAN: O Jesu, help! All hath 1 forsaken 2 me.

G O O D DEEDS: Nay 3 , Everyman; I will bide 4 with thee 5 .
EVERYMAN: Gramercy 6 , Good Deeds 7 ! Now may I True friends see.
Knowledge, will ye 8 forsake me also?
KNOWLEDGE: Yea9, Everyman, when ye to Death shall Go; But not yet. 5
EVERYMAN: Gramercy.
Take example, all ye that this do hear or see,
How they that I loved best do forsake me,
Except m y Good Deeds that bideth truly.
G O O D DEEDS: All earthly things is but vanity; 10

Beauty, Strength, and Discretion do man forsake,

Foolish friends, and kinsmen 1 0 , that fair spake 11 -
All fleeth 1 2 save 13 Good Deeds, and that am I.
EVERYMAN: Have mercy on me, God most mighty.
• Visual Link B5
GOOD DEEDS: Fear not; I will speak for thee. 15
EVERYMAN: Here I cry God mercy. GLOSSARY
GOOD DEEDS: Let us go and never come again.
1. h a t h : have
EVERYMAN: Into thy hands, Lord, m y soul I commend; 2. forsaken: abandoned
(In manus tuas, of mights most 3. Nay: no
4. bide: stay
For ever, c o m m e n d o spiritum meum) 20
5. thee: you
[He sinks into his grave]
6. Gramercy: thank you
KNOWLEDGE: Methinketh 1 4 that I hear angels sing. 7. Deeds: actions
ANGEL: Thy reckoning 1 5 is crystal-clear. 8. ye: you
Now shalt thou into the heavenly sphere. 9. Yea: yes
10. kinsmen: family
Where all ye shall come
11. spake: spoke
That liveth 1 6 well before the judgement day. 25 12. fleeth: run away
[Enter DOCTOR] 13. save: except
14. M e t h i n k e t h : I think
DOCTOR: Ye hearers, take it of worth, old and young,
15.reckoning: admission
And forsake Pride, for he deceiveth you in the end; of things you have
And remember Beauty, Five Wits, Strength, and Discretion. done
16. liveth: live
They all at the last do every man forsake,
17. doth: does
Save his Good Deeds there doth 1 7 he take. 30
18. amends m a y n o
For after death amends may n o man make 1 8 . m a n make: man
cannot atone for his
THUS ENDETH THIS MORAL PLAY OF EVERYMAN sins
»

COMPREHENSION
1 Why does Everyman thank Good Deeds?
2 Does Knowledge abandon Everyman immediately?
3 Which 'earthly things' are of little use to a man
when he faces death, according to Good Deeds?
4 Why does Good Deeds tell Everyman not to fear?
5 What makes Knowledge believe that Everyman has
gone to heaven?
6 Who, according to the angel, will enter the
'heavenly sphere' on the judgement day?
7 Why is it important that a man has Good Deeds to
take with him when he dies, according to the Doctor?
30 FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE MIDDLE AGES - Medieval D r a m a

ANALYSIS
1 In his final speech the doctor speaks directly to the 2 Would you consider the language used in the
public: 'Ye hearers, ...'. to be
Find three other examples where characters address • simple and straightforward?
the audience. • elevated and poetic?
Everyman: lines For what type of audience do you think this kind
Deeds: lines play was performed?
Angel: lines 3 C i ) Listen to the recording and focus on the sou
How do these direct addresses add to the didactic features. Find examples of end of line rhymes a
nature of the text? alliteration.

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P
Allegory An allegory is a story, poem, picture, etc., in which the characters and events not o
have meaning in themselves but also convey a second spiritual or philosophical mean'
In the case of Everyman, for example, the character Everyman on one level is simply
man facing death who has to account for how he has lived his life. On a second, more
philosophical level, Everyman stands for all men and the problems he faces are those
mankind in general:
level 1 - an individual facing death
Everyman
level 2 - mankind struggling with moral issues

Typical characteristics of an allegory are:

• the presence of at least two levels of meaning;
• the personification of abstract concepts such as virtues, vices, states of mind, etc.;
• the representation of historical personages and events;
• the presentation of moral or philosophical issues;
• the introduction of humorous elements.

Which of the elements of allegory listed above can be found in the excerpt from Everyman
you have read?

There are many different types of allegorical stories. Aesop's fables*, for example, or

..^JäESs - •• - fliSsljfej
parables* such as those told by Jesus are allegorical and therefore have more than one level
of meaning. Do you know any allegorical stories? If so, can you explain the different levels of
meaning?

You do a good deed when you help someone without expecting anything in return. A small one would be to help
an old person carry heavy bags home from the supermarket. A big one would be to donate most of your savings
to a charitable organisation. Some people say that in our commercialised world there are fewer good deeds than
in the past. Do you agree?
Give examples of good deeds that you know people do or of good deeds that you would like to see people do.
 fly;

The Context f & •

Historical and Social Background

Britain: From earliest times to 1066

f o r how long t h e windswept islands off t h e n o r t h w e s t coast of
aental Europe were uninhabited remains a mystery. When and why
THE EDGE OF EUROPE
t first human beings set foot on British and Irish soil must also remain a matter
r speculation. What is known is that those first adventurers were followed by
; identifiable groups of migrants who settled into their new home.

ent times Britain was inhabited by Iberians. Little is known of these

BRITAIN'S FIRST INHABITANTS
who left behind them the barrows (large mound graves made of
or stone) that can still be seen in the south of Britain and at Stonehenge, a
ous circle of stones.

n 2 0 0 0 and 1200 BC, the Celts began to migrate to Britain from

THE SECOND WAVE
west Germany. They spoke their own Celtic language, and were
as Britons.
Celts lived in round, wooden huts in small villages and were mainly farmers,
h k e y organised themselves i n t o tribes with a king or queen as leader and
m a t r i b a l wars were very common.

|fet 55 BC Julius Caesar landed in Britain having conquered Gaul. After a

THE ROMANS
of military campaigns, small Roman settlements were created in
ith and east.
a hundred years later, in AD 43, the emperor Claudius sent a large army to Queen Boadicea
Roman control over a wider area. The Britons, led by Queen Boadicea,
bravely but were defeated. Boadicea chose to drink poison rather than be
prisoner. All of England and Wales was subdued.
Romans introduced their civilisation and language and built towns, roads,
and temples. Many of the towns were originally army camps and the Latin
for camp, castra, has remained
ny modern town names ending
h\aster', 'chester' or 'cester', such as
ster, Manchester or Leicester.
: of the Roman roads are still in
ace today,
t Romans tried for over a century to
er Caledonia, as they called
id. but they did not succeed. In
1 aid. Emperor Hadrian ordered the

ig of a wall across the north of

Bae m d to act as a great defensive
r to stop attacks from the Scottish
who were known as Picts.
 94 FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE MIDDLE AGES - The Context

At the beginning of the fifth century AD, Rome withdrew its legions
N E W INVADERS Britain to the c o n t i n e n t to defend the borders of the empire ag
barbarian attacks.
The Anglo-Saxons New invaders saw the opportunity for expansion and began to settle on the '
the Angles, Saxons and Jutes came from the regions of continental Europe
correspond to the modern territories of Holland, Southern Denmark and W
Germany. They gradually took over the area that is now known as England
land of the Angles) while the Celts retreated north and west to Scotland and'
The new settlers brought with them an extensive body of tribal culture in the
of alliterative verse. Some of them

r h • m SbM X*
also used a runic alphabet to carve
messages, mostly on wooden sticks,
but writing was not used extensively f U thO r g
until the conversion to Christianity,
when manuscript technology was • N + U * kYHt
introduced from Rome and Ireland. w h n i j ch p e o s t
The Anglo-Saxons lived in small
Life in Anglo-Saxon
villages; their houses were made of
L MH h X K l ^ f l i
Britain
mud, wood and straw and were b e m Ingoedaaey
grouped around the house of their
lord. The Anglo-Saxons liked fighting, Runes: characters of an ancient Germanic ]
alphabet used throughout Northern Europe,
gambling and drinking. They also Scandinavia, the British Isles and Iceland.
liked music and singing. Their sense
of hospitality was renowned, as was the high respect they showed for
women. Life expectancy was not very long. The climate of England was
and damper at that time and few people lived beyond the age of forty-l
Epidemics and famine contributed to the high rate of mortality.
The thane The 'thane' was the most important man in the village; he kept order and
his people obey the law. There were no prisons, and p u n i s h m e n t
according to the crime. Criminals were either mutilated, hanged, or comp
pay a sum of money called 'wergild'.

Britain had been Christian under the Romans, but the pagan
CHRISTIANITY Saxons pushed Christianity westward and northward, where it survi
St Augustine Wales, parts of Scotland and above all in Ireland. At the end of the sixth cen
Pope Gregory I sent a monk, Augustine, to bring Christianity back to Engl
Augustine established a Christian community in Canterbury and became the
Archbishop of Canterbury.
• Visual Links B2 and B4 Churches were built all over the country and monks, whose simple mon
lives appealed to the common people, played a major role in the conversion]
the Anglo-Saxons.
The Venerable Bede With Christianity came Latin learning and the converted Anglo-Saxons prod"
academic and scientific works of remarkable quality for the period.
Venerable Bede, a scholar and historian, wrote, in Latin, the first history^
England. However, nearly all the treasures of this golden cultural age wf
destroyed along with many monasteries by Britain's next invaders.

The Vikings, who came from Norway and Denmark, raided northern;
THE VIKINGS
western Europe between the eighth and the ninth centuries, c a r r y i n g l B
anything of value they could find. During their raids the Vikings built t e m p o « B
camps and their word for camp wik can still be found in modern place name*
such as Warwick and Norwich.
 H i s t o r i c a l a n d Social B a c k g r o u n d

The most successful Viking invasions established settlements along the north-
east coast. The Anglo-Saxons were unable to repel them and in 8 7 8 King Alfred King Alfred
the Great signed a treaty leaving t h e Vikings in c o n t r o l of n o r t h e r n England
while he maintained power in the south.
The Vikings eventually blended in with the Anglo-Saxons and made important
contributions to the English language: for example, nouns like skirt and sky and
pronouns like they and them are of Viking origin.

The power of the Anglo-Saxons was broken in AD 1066 by the Normans.

THE NORMANS
The N o r m a n s c a m e originally from D e n m a r k b u t after settling on t h e
French coast they adopted French customs and a dialect of the French language.
The Norman king William I (William t h e Conqueror) defeated the last Anglo- William the Conqueror
S a x o n king Harold II at t h e B a t t l e of H a s t i n g s in 1 0 6 6 and t o o k c o n t r o l of • Visual Link B3
southern England.
Sporadic resistance in the rest of the country was then crushed with the help of
advanced military technology including moats and stone castles (Anglo-Saxon
castles were made of wood).
After t h e N o r m a n c o n q u e s t Anglo-
S a x o n e l e m e n t s o f E n g l i s h culture
survived primarily a m o n g t h e lower
classes, w h i l e French and Latin
elements predominated in aristocratic
circles. The animals tended by herders,
for example, had Anglo-Saxon names
«сои', lamb, pig) w h i l e t h e f i n i s h e d
products served up on aristocratic
ubles had names derived from French
beef, mutton, pork). Important aspects
of Anglo-Saxon law were, however,
rxorporated into English law.

The Norman invasion was the last in British history, but it was by far the -|"HE M A K I N G
significant, and its effects were to be felt for m a n y centuries after QF THE BRITISH NATION
l's historic victory at the Battle of Hastings. |

TASK
I-iDOSe the correct option.
The early inhabitants of Britain, the Iberians, left behind
graves and a mysterious circle of stones erected
on the Salisbury Plain.
6 J»J no trace of their culture and civilisation.
2 The Celts came from
* ! northern Italy around 4 0 0 BC and spoke Latin.
1»J Germany and were called Britons.
1 ~~e Romans
* led by Julius Caesar landed in Britain in 55 BC.
: were defeated by Boadicea.
* (tomans conquered
1 southern and central Britain, where they built
towns and roads.
Sntain and defeated the Picts in Scotland.
5 The Anglo-Saxons
came when the Romans withdrew from Britain.
|~b] defeated the Romans and took control of Britain.
6 Christianity was introduced by the
[ a ] Romans, then strengthened by St Augustine.
[b] Anglo-Saxons, who built churches and monasteries.
7 The Vikings
["a] invaded southern England, but soon left without
trace.
|~b~l came from Scandinavia and established
settlements along the coast of northern England.
8 The Normans
_aj led by King Harold II defeated the Vikings in 1066.
[~b] defeated the Anglo-Saxons at the Battle of
Hastings.
 J FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE MIDDLE AGES - The Context

Britain 1066-1485: The Middle Ages

After the Battle of Hastings the Normans took control of the whole of
ENEMIES EVERYWHERE England, but they had to deal with threats from two sources: their fellow
countrymen in France and their rebellious Scots, Irish and Welsh neighbours.
At t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e Middle Ages, England and France were almost o n e
country because m a n y aristocrats owned land on both sides of the Channel,
while the king divided his time between both. However, following a number of
The Hundred Years' War wars, i n c l u d i n g t h e H u n d r e d Years' War, w h i c h started in 1 3 3 7 , England
separated from France. The war was marked by victories and defeats that brought
about the loss or recovery of territories in France. In 1415 the English defeated
the French at the battle of Agincourt and won back Normandy, but the French,
led by the charismatic French patriot Joan of Arc, counterattacked. J o a n was
captured and executed by the English in 1431. By 1453 the port of Calais was the
only possession England had in France.
Scottish resistance Like the Romans, t h e Anglo-Normans had a m b i t i o n s to c o n q u e r Scotland,
but despite n u m e r o u s a t t e m p t s , t h e y were unsuccessful. T h e B a t t l e of
B a n n o c k b u r n ( 1 3 1 4 ) marked t h e
high point in Scottish resistance to The film Braveheart
English aggression. tells the story of Scottish

I Ireland had been left alone for cen- resistance to English

turies, until the Norman king Henry II
invaders and the
historic Scottish victory
sent an army there in the eleventh at the Battle of
century. Although this expedition was Bannockburn in 1314.
not very successful, it was significant
because it was the first time an English
government showed direct interest in
the neighbouring island.
Wales For a long time Wales resisted Norman
attempts to bring it under control, but
by the end of the thirteenth century
most resistance had broken down and
the Prince of Wales, the English king's
eldest son, ruled the country in the
English king's interests.

Like France, English society

THE SOCIAL ORDER adopted the feudal system and
there was strict distinction between
social classes.
The most powerful individual in the country was the king. He owned most of the
land, was the leader of the army and could demand that the people pay him
taxes. He made the laws with the help of advisers, and lived in a castle with his
closest followers, who made up the court.
Barons and lords were members of the aristocracy who were given land by the
king. They had almost absolute power in their territories.
Knights, merchants and yeomen made up the middle classes. The knights were
soldiers who fought for the lords and the king and were often rewarded with
land. The merchants were Britain's first businessmen and usually lived in towns.
The yeomen were farmers who owned small pieces of land.
The majority of the population were villeins or serfs, who were given a small
piece of land to work by a lord, but they did not own it. In return they had to give
most of what they produced to their lord and do any job he asked them to do.
 H M

Ifr"-
Historical a n d Social B a c k g r o u n d 35

One tenth of the population were slaves. Unlike villains or serfs they had no land
to work and were owned by the lord, who used them as he wished.

Under the feudal system political power lay in the hands of the king. He
ruled through a system of patronage, which meant that he gave land or
THE SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT
granted privileges to the people who were loyal to him and helped him in times
of need. The monarchy, however, could survive only through a constant supply
of m o n e y in the form of taxes, so the relationship between the king and his
subjects was based on how much money the king wanted and how much people
were prepared to pay. An i m p o r t a n t event in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of this
relationship was the carrying out of the first census in English history during the
reign of King William I, in 1086. His officials went around the country and wrote
down the names of all the landowners and how much land they owned. In this
way the king knew how much tax to ask for from each individual. This census
became known as the Domesday Book. The Domesday Book

~he nobles, who were the main contributors of money to the monarchy,
THE LOSS OF ABSOLUTE POWER
:elt that in return for their generosity they should have some say in the
xr'vernment of the country. Under pressure from them, King J o h n agreed to
: : n s u l t a representative c o u n c i l of t h e aristocracy in 1 2 1 5 . This h i s t o r i c The Magna Carta
izieement was written down in a document known as the Magna Carta.
In 1240, for the first time, the council of aristocrats which advised the king was The first 'parliament'
:nJed a 'parliament': England was on the road of becoming the first and only
r.idiamentary monarchy in Europe.
- owever, tax money from the nobles was not enough to finance the upkeep of The Council of the
t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and pay for t h e wars against Commoners
r r a n c e ; t h e middle classes were t h e n asked to

c o n t r i b u t e as well. T h e y c o m p l i e d , b u t in 1 3 4 9
knights, yeomen and merchants united to form the
Council of the C o m m o n e r s and demanded, in turn,
to be consulted by the king when important decisions
had to be taken.
From a situation in which the king e n j o y e d almost
absolute power, by the end of the Middle Ages, two
councils, one made up of aristocrats and the other of
commoners, had a say in the running of the country.
England became the first country in the world where
the principle that representatives of the people had a
right to participate in government was accepted. In
m a n y ways t h e c o u n c i l s of t h e aristocrats and
commoners were the prototype for today's House of
Lords and House of Commons.
The loss of power was not the only problem the monar-
chy had to face. Dynastic conflicts led to instability and
civil war in the second half of the fifteenth century,
when two noble families fought each other to gain the
right to rule England. This conflict was known as the
Wars of the Roses because one faction, the House of
York, had a white rose as their symbol while their oppo-
nents, the House of Lancaster, had a red rose. At the
r ittle of Barnet in 1471, the House of York eventually
n a decisive victory and secured the throne.
36 FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE MIDDLE AGES - The C o n t e x t

Read this extract from the Magna Carta (1215) (in modern English).
No aid 1 shall be collected in our k i n g d o m w i t h o u t the c o n s e n t (of t h e C o u n c i l ) e x c e p t to ransom
person 3 , and to make our eldest son a knight, and once to marry our eldest daughter, and for this purpi
only a reasonable aid only shall be collected. (...) Furthermore we promise that all (...) cities, towns, and
shall have all their liberties and privileges, and shall pay aids only with the c o m m o n counsel of the
except in the three cases said above. (...)
We will n o t for t h e future g r a n t p e r m i s s i o n t o a n y m a n to c o l l e c t a n aid u p o n h i s free m e n save
ransoming his body, making his eldest son a knight, and o n c e marrying his eldest daughter, for whid
reasonable aid only shall be collected. (...)
For a trivial 4 offence, a free man shall be fined only in proportion to the degree of his offence, and for a
offence correspondingly, but not so heavily as to deprive him of his livelihood 5 . In the same way, a merchi
shall be spared his merchandise, and a husbandman 6 the implements 7 of his husbandry 8 . (...) None of
fines shall be imposed except by the assessment on oath of reputable men of the neighbourhood. (...)
No sheriff, constable, coroners, or other royal officials are to hold lawsuits that should be held by the royal ju:
KING JOHN
The 15th day of June in the 17th year or our reign (1215)

GLOSSARY 3. our person: the king 6. husbandman: farmer

1. aid: tax 4. trivial: of small importance 7. implements: tools
2. ransom: set free 5. livelihood: means of living 8. husbandry: farming

TASKS
1 The extract focuses on two main issues. What are they?
2 Why do you think the barons felt compelled to force King John to make these promises?

Apart from t h e king and t h e

THE CHURCH nobles, t h e greatest power in
England in the Middle Ages was the
Church. In the eleventh century the
k i n g c o n t r o l l e d t h e C h u r c h and
appointed all the bishops, but in the
following centuries the Pope in Rome
gradually increased his influence and
t o o k o v e r t h e a p p o i n t m e n t of
C h u r c h leaders. This led to c o n f l i c t
b e t w e e n C h u r c h and S t a t e . T h i s
c o n f l i c t is best e x e m p l i f i e d by t h e
relationship between Thomas a
Becket, t h e A r c h b i s h o p of C a n t e r -
bury, a n d King H e n r y II. T h e k i n g
a n d t h e A r c h b i s h o p c l a s h e d over

jjj A scene from Becket (1964), starring

Richard Burton and Peter O'Toole.
 H i s t o r i c a l a n d Social B a c k g r o u n d 37

where people should be tried - ecclesiastical or civil courts. Thomas refused to give
in and was murdered by Henry's knights in Canterbury Cathedral (1170).
Although the vast majority of the population could neither read nor write,
EDUCATION
the Middle Ages saw the beginning of an educational system in England.
Monasteries were the leading centres of culture, and t h e C h u r c h was the first The role of the
institution to set up schools, b e g i n n i n g in t h e e l e v e n t h century. The first lay monasteries
schools were opened by merchants in the towns some four centuries later. Oxford
and Cambridge universities were established as early as the thirteenth century.
In modern terms, England in the Middle Ages was a developing country
THE ECONOMY
when compared to more economically advanced parts of Europe like Italy
and Flanders. English merchants fostered trade, especially in wool and textiles,
and tended to live in towns. London, owing to its strategic position in the south
of the country, became a busy trading centre.
Many of the Anglo-Saxon laws were still applied throughout the Middle
THE LEGAL SYSTEM
Ages. For example, victims of crime were paid damages by offenders. The
Normans, however, added their own laws and the new system became known as
C o m m o n Law. Under C o m m o n Law, a new case was compared to similar cases
in the past and the judge then decided what to do in the new case. This system is The Common Law
still in operation in Britain today.

Life was very hard. In t h e Middle Ages over ninety-five percent of the
population lived in the country or in small villages. People lived off the DAILY LIFE
produce of the land and, as the population increased, there was sometimes n o t
enough food for everybody. The average diet was very poor and people rarely ate • Visual Link B6
fruit or vegetables b e c a u s e fruit was t h o u g h t to be dangerous to health and
v e g e t a b l e s were used o n l y t o s e a s o n m e a t a n d soups. T h e r e s u l t i n g lack of
vitamins meant that disease was widespread.
One event, above all others, affected daily life. T his was the b u b o n i c plague or
Black Death, which first broke out in 1348 and was not completely eradicated for The Black Death
centuries. It is estimated that one third of the population of late medieval England
was killed by the plague. • Visual Link BS

The Middle Ages was a period of slow change and development in Britain.
THE EVE OF THE RENAISSANCE
When the first king of the Tudor dynasty, Henry VII, came to the throne in
1485, he found himself at the head of a stable country that was about to embark
on a social and cultural renaissance.

TASKS
1 Match words and definitions.
1 Hundred Years' War a Document giving the barons power and rights,
2 Domesday Book b Bubonic plague that ravaged Europe for centuries,
3 Magna Carta c Group of people from the middle classes who advised the king,
4 Black Death d First survey of the population in England.
5 Council of Commoners e Series of conflicts between two noble families for the throne of England,
6 Wars of the Roses f Series of wars between England and France.
2 Write beside each event the century in which it took place.
Battle of Hastings Assassination of Thomas a Becket
Battle of Bannockburn Oxford and Cambridge universities established .
Failed expedition to Ireland Calais only English possession left in France
The English crown takes control of Wales Wars of the Roses
King John signs the Magna Carta Outbreak of Black Death
First census: the Domesday Book
40 FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE MIDDLE AGES - The Context

poems based on stories from the Old Testament. Cynewulf wrote poems about
the lives of the saints and apostles.
Transcriptions by monks What remains of early Anglo-Saxon poetry today was written down by monks in
monasteries from the end of seventh century onward. The monks often
eliminated pagan aspects of the works that contrasted with religion and added
elements of Christian morality.

BEOWULF
• Beowulf, Texts B1 and B2
Only about 30,000 lines of Anglo-Saxon F/ET FE
verse survive today. About ten percent of mi т ^ ц ! ].ix>V cym'44
this corpus is formed by the 3,182 lines of the Wnym gpflUMiWI ЩЦр .»jkt»>V«r «&«!
epic poem Beowulf, the oldest existing work of pte-me-W op fcyU \-<Xf.u$ fcax^jl
LTUM „,0,1*511 Т<ОЬО

literature in the English language. The Angles, &!( О;(Me- tej.1 '
Saxons and Jutes took the story to Britain during Р» (C»f= pinitf. lie]>.n" C|U>F1»
their fifth century invasions, then the story was p « uniep. l>i>Unum mvnSuin \a
passed on from generation to generation until it o^Wi .^Ivpylc Цм уДрггвпЬц^
was eventually written down by an anonymous juiA«- lyjulii fcokw- 50»'Ur
fouf f"4'
writer, probably in the eighth century. The only ,Efc«|i coin*» saws ("seif-bm jmi* 5oj|
surviving manuscript of the poem dates from fcnbe- folctco^piu.-
the tenth century. It is currently housed in the
British Library in London. lijule* liim |w3" 1
The setting The poem tells the story of the hero Beowulf in
his fights against supernatural creatures and fbet {«^"Й
includes many references to other stories and The oldest existing copy of Beowulf
• Visual Link B1
is a tenth-century manuscript
historical events. Most of the main action takes
which miraculously survived a fire
place in Geatland (in Sweden) and on the that destroyed the library where it
Danish island of Sjaelland (Zealand) during the was stored in the sixteenth century.
Some of the pages still bear the
sixth century. However, the many digressions
marks of the fire. Today the
extend the poem's geography to the rest of manuscript is housed in the British
Denmark, northern Germany, Poland and the Library, London.
Low Countries.
Historical content Although there is no evidence that Beowulf himself ever existed, it seems that I
several poems were composed about the character. The poets obviously had a deep I
knowledge of Germanic history and even though Beowulf is a legendary figure t h e !
events of the poem occur in a real place and in a precise historical setting.

The oldest example of Anglo-Saxon prose is represented by laws written at 1

PROSE
the beginning of the seventh century. However, the most i m p o r t a n t !
d o c u m e n t from that period is the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. It was o r i g i n a l l y !
compiled on the orders of King Alfred the Great in approximately AD 890 andl
subsequently maintained and added to by generations of anonymous scribes!
until the middle of the twelfth century. It is a detailed timeline of English history, I
which includes information on agriculture, science, law, battles, religion a n d !
many other topics. It does not present a complete history of those times and it is
not one hundred percent accurate but it does give some idea of what happened]
in Britain over one thousand years ago.

TASK
Correct the following statements.
a. Nearly all modern English words derive from Old English words.
b. The very few examples of Anglo-Saxon poetry that have come down to us were written in manuscript form by
travelling minstrels called 'scops'.
c. The Anglo-Saxon poem Beowulf is a mixture of fact and fiction.
d. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is an accurate historical account of the reign of King Alfred the Great.
 The Literary B a c k g r o u n d 41

MEANWHILE, ELSEWHERE

LINK TO G E R M A N LITERATURE: The Nibelungelied

One of the most famous European sagas to be composed in the same period as Beowulf is the Germanic epic poem
T h e Nibelungenlied (Song of the Nibelungs).
The Nibelungenlied was written down in old German by an anonymous scribe around AD 1200, but it dates from an
emiier period. The saga's characters belong to the Nibelung-Burgundian Germanic population, who settled between the
Rher Rhine and France in the fifth and sixth centuries AD. The Burgundians were exterminated by the Huns in 437.
The saga was told around fires at night and sung to the harp in the banqueting halls of kings and nobles. It was
known to all Germanic-speaking peoples in Germany and Scandinavia, as well as to the Angles and Saxons in Britain.

like Beowulf, Siegfried, the hero of the saga, kills a dragon. By bathing in its blood, he acquires magic powers
i n d becomes almost invincible. However, he also comes into possession of a treasure which carries with it a
terrible curse: its owner will meet a violent death.
In the course of m a n y adventures, Siegfried promises to marry Brunhild, queen of the Valkyries, but t h e n
breaks his promise, and marries Kriemhild. Brunhild is furious and has Siegfried killed, but when he dies she
kills herself in despair.
Many years later, Kriemhild's second husband, Attila, king of the Huns, claims that Siegfried's treasure should
r t his, but Gunther, Kriemhild's brother, has hidden it at a secret location in the river Rhine (where, according
x legend, it is still hidden today). In the ensuing battle over the treasure between Attila and the Huns and
« a n t h e r and the Nibelungs, Gunther and nearly all the Nibelungs are killed.
M desperation at the death of her brother and the defeat of her people, Kriemhild kills her two sons and
iermes them to her husband at the victory banquet. She then murders him while he is sleeping and is herself
KSed by a knight who is horrified at what she has done.

TASK
Car you see any similarities between the legend of Beowulf and the legend of the Nibelungenlied? Make a list of the
a r m o r elements. For example:
- They both belong to an oral storytelling tradition and were passed on from generation to generation until they were
• fcufy written down.

{ to the world of music

iddle of the nineteenth century
Wagner, perhaps the greatest Music from The Valkyries was used as the
"T of German opera, used The soundtrack in scenes from the film about
the Vietnam war Apocalypse Now.
enlied legend as the basis for his cycle
operas known collectively as Der Ring
tiungen.

C ^ Listen to one of the most famous pas-

• i y from the opera The Valkyries. What
; land of emotions does the music evoke? Do
Lfou think it recreates the atmosphere of an
•anic scene?
Bfou .vere asked to set the legend of Beowulf
T: -mjsic, what kind of music would you
- rose - heavy metal, acoustic folk music,
—^crron c music, slow melodic music?
 102 FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE MIDDLE AGES - The Context

Literature in the Middle Ages

After the Norman invasion three languages were spoken in England.
THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
MIDDLE ENGLISH The ruling Norman class spoke French, while English was the language of
the conquered Anglo-Saxons and Latin was the language of the Church
and scholars.
From Old English to The English of this period was an unstable mixture of dialects. There were four
Middle English major dialects: Northern, East Midland, West Midland and Southern. It was the
East Midland dialect that eventually became the basis of the modern language.
This was because it was the dialect spoken in London, which was becoming a
major commercial centre, and it was also the dialect of Cambridge and Oxford,
the two great centres of learning.
Major changes In what is referred to as the Middle English period (1150-1500) English underwent
momentous changes from both a grammatical and a lexical point of view.
During the Middle English centuries noun and adjective endings gradually
disappeared. Grammatical gender also disappeared and gender in nouns related
only to the masculinity or femininity of living beings.
As the Anglo-Norman aristocracy eventually lost their ties with France, they
started to speak English but enriched the language by adding thousands of
French words to it.
Printing By 1476, when William Caxton introduced printing to England, the language had
been greatly simplified grammatically and enriched lexically. Old English had been
transformed into a language which would form the basis for modern English.

THE EARLY MIDDLE ENGLISH N o r m a n Conquest did not have an immediate effect on English

PERIOD (1066-1350) literature. Old English sagas like Beowulf continued to be copied during
the second half of the eleventh century and Anglo-Saxon alliterative verse
Didactic poems was composed until well after 1066. Long didactic poems written in English were
also popular in this period. They presented stories from the Bible, saints' lives
and moral lessons, and were intended as instruction for people who did not
know Latin or French.
Writing in Latin As English increasingly became the language of the uneducated common people
fewer works of literature were written in it. Latin was generally considered to be

A sixteenth-century
printing press.
 •PS

The Literary Background 43

the language of serious writing. One example of a Latin work from this period is
Historia Regum Britanniae ( 1 1 3 7 ) written by Geoffrey of M o n m o u t h . It is a • Pieces of the Past, p. B44
collection of historical events and legends and it includes the first tales of King
Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table.
It was not until more than one century after the Battle of Hastings that French Chivalric romances
models began to influence English literature. The chivalric romance, a form of
narrative poetry which developed in twelfth-century France, spread to Britain in
the thirteenth century. The plot of these poems usually centred around a single
knight who fought at tournaments, slayed dragons and underwent a series of
adventures in order to win the heart of his heroine. Romances introduced the
idea of courtly love, according to which the lover idealised and idolised his
beloved. The lover suffered agonies for his heroine but remained devoted to her,
and showed his love by adhering to a rigorous code of behaviour both in battle
and in his courtly conduct.
The romances written in Britain at this time are divided into three main categories:
• the matter of Britain': stories that centre on the pseudo-historical King Arthur
who defended Celtic Britain against the Anglo-Saxons;
• the matter of Troy': tales of the classical world such as the Seege ofTroye and
Kytig Alisaunder;
• English Breton lays: short poems or songs that tell stories of otherworldly
magic and are modelled on those of professional Breton storytellers.
These unsophisticated works were written primarily for the emerging middle
dasses, and the manuscripts that preserve them are early examples of commer-
cial book production.
Further evidence of influence from French literature comes in the form of
humorous beast epics, which first appeared in the thirteenth century. One of • The Canterbury Tales, Texts
the first examples of this genre is The Fox and the Wolf, an English version of the B6 and B7
French epic Le Roman de Renart.
The lyric, which was virtually u n k n o w n in Old English poetry, started to The lyric
circulate in the thirteenth century. Lyrics were short songs that did not tell a
storv but expressed the thoughts or feelings of a speaker. The most frequent
topics in the Middle English secular lyrics are springtime and romantic love,
ieligious lyrics also made an appearance at this time. The poets generally
expressed their sorrow for Christ on the cross and for Mary. The religious devotion
M the poets is often expressed in language that is also used in love poetry.
Throughout the Middle Ages ballads*, short folk songs that tell stories, were very • pp. A19-20
rcpular. The Celts and Anglo-Saxons undoubtedly composed ballads, but we
ruive no record of these early works. The oldest recorded ballad in the English
language, called Judas, was written down in a late thirteenth century manuscript.
Many of the ballads, however, first appeared in written form with the
Production of the printing press (1476).
ballads told different types of stories. There were ballads about the supernatural:
varies of ghosts and demons or people who returned from the dead to haunt the
firing. There were romantic tragedies usually dealing with the separation of
wers through misunderstanding or the opposition of family. • The Unquiet Grave, p. B8
Many ballads were about crime and its punishment, and often told the stories of
amvicted criminals who were about to be executed and repented for their sins
JO the execution scaffold. Over forty ballads were about the folk hero Robin • Robin Hood and the Bishop
rtood who was praised for his adventurous spirit, his sense of humour and his of Hereford, Text B3
_: acern for the poor. Finally, there were ballads recounting historical events,
_ :h as battles between the English and the Scots (The Border Ballads) or natural
asters such as shipwrecks and plagues.
 104 FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE MIDDLE AGES - T h e C o n t e x t

GEOFFREY OF MONMOUTH'S HISTORIA REGUM BRITANNIAE

Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae (History of the Kings of Britain) is not a reliable historical
source, as many of the events described in it are historically unfounded. From a literary point of view it is,
however,highly regarded, and has been a source of inspiration for many writers throughout the centuries. The heroic
deeds of King Arthur which are described in the book have been the subject of many subsequent literary works.

CHAP. IV
(...) At these words, all of t h e m , e n c o u r a g e d with t h e b e n e d i c t i o n of t h e h o l y prelate, i n s t a n t l y armed
themselves, and prepared to obey his orders. Also Arthur himself, having put on a coat of mail 1 suitable to
grandeur of so powerful a king, placed a golden helmet upon his head, on which was engraven the figure of
a dragon; and on his shoulders his shield called Priwen; upon which the picture of the blessed Mary, mother
of God, was painted, in order to put him frequently in mind of her. T h e n girding o n 2 his Caliburn, which
was an excellent sword made in t h e isle of Avallon, he graced his right hand with his lance, n a m e d Ron,
which was hard, broad, and fit for slaughter 3 . After this, having placed his men in order, he boldly attacked
the Saxons, who were drawn out in the shape of a wedge 4 , as their manner was.
(...) he drew out his Caliburn, and, calling upon the name of the blessed Virgin, rushed forward with great
fury into the thickest of the enemy's ranks; of w h o m (such was the merit of his prayers) not one escaped alive
t h a t felt t h e fury of his sword; n e i t h e r
did he give over t h e fury of his assault
u n t i l h e had, with his Caliburn a l o n e ,
killed four h u n d r e d and s e v e n t y m e n .
T h e Britons, seeing this, followed their
leader in great m u l t i t u d e s , a n d m a d e
slaughter on all sides (...)

A scene from the film Excalibur

(1981): Arthur accepting the magic
sword from the Lady of the Lake.

GLOSSARY protect the upper part of the 3. slaughter: killing

1. coat of mail: piece of armour body 4. drawn o u t . . . wedge: positioned in a
of metal rings or plate used to 2. girding on: fastening, attaching V-shaped formation

TASKS
1 Make a list of the armour King Arthur wore and the weapons he carried into battle.
2 Underline the Christian references in the text.
3 Who was King Arthur fighting against?
4 How many men did King Arthur kill according to the text?
5 What was the outcome of the battle?
 I

The Literary Background 45

The Norman Conquest did not initially affect prose writing. Old English
prose t e x t s were c o p i e d for m o r e t h a n a c e n t u r y after t h e B a t t l e of
PROSE
Hastings. However, in t h e early t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y it was necessary to add a
glossary to help readers understand the texts, because the English language had
changed so much. French and Latin were the principal languages of prose. Those
works which were written in English were intended primarily for w o m e n who
could not read French or Latin, and included several texts on the lives of women
saints a n d t h e ' A n c r e n e W i s s e ' or 'Rule of A n c h o r e s s e s ' , a m a n u a l for t h e
guidance of women recluses outside regular religious orders.

TASK —
Vrswer these questions.
a. Why was French literature such a strong influence on English literature in the medieval period?
b- Which poetic forms came from France? Which one(s) already existed in the Anglo-Saxon tradition?

f r o m 1 3 5 0 to 1 5 5 0 E n g l a n d witnessed a peculiar linguistic s i t u a t i o n ,

THE LATER MIDDLE ENGLISH
gualism and trilingualism had become very c o m m o n among the small PERIOD (1350-1550)
ority of t h e p o p u l a t i o n t h a t c o u l d read. Latin and F r e n c h were
idered more suitable for serious writing and there was such dialectal diversity in
h that works could only be understood in the area where they were written.
The i n s t a b i l i t y of t h e l a n g u a g e of l i t e r a t u r e in t h e f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y is John Gower
plified by J o h n G o w e r ( 1 3 3 0 - 1 4 0 8 ) , who wrote three major works:
in French (Speculum Meditantis - The Mirror of the Thoughtful Man);
in Latin (Vox Clamantis - The Voice of one Crying in the Wilderness);
in English ( C o n f e s s i o Amantis - The Lover's Confession).
Norman aristocracy lost all ties with France, English replaced French as the
age of t h e court. T h e aristocracy began to patronise English vernacular
T h e stage was set for t h e triumphal e n t r a n c e of t h e father of English
Geoffrey Chaucer.

nportance of Geoffrey Chaucer's contribution to the development of

POETRY:
literature is unquestionable. His introduction of a ten-syllable line GEOFFREY CHAUCER
ubic pentameter* r e v o l u t i o n i s e d r h y t h m in English poetry. His
reflects t h e views and values of t h e society in w h i c h he lived, b u t his
were not limited to local events and contemporary issues. His t h e m e s
:of universal interest and he had a great t a l e n t for narrative writing. His
iece is The Canterbury Tales, an unfinished series of stories told by a group • The Canterbury Tales,
Texts B4-B7
i m s journeying from L o n d o n to the shrine of St T h o m a s a Becket and
T h i s o u t s t a n d i n g work is a n o v e r v i e w of h u m a n n a t u r e a n d an
ledia of medieval literary styles.

poetry had become popular in the English language after it had

OTHER POETS
reduced by the Normans, but in the fourteenth century there was
J of alliterative verse w h i c h recalled t h e early A n g l o - S a x o n epics. An
pie of a l l i t e r a t i v e verse f r o m t h i s p e r i o d is W i l l i a m L a n g l a n d ' s Piers William Langland
s. It takes the form of a series of dream visions dealing with the spiritual
!ocial issues of f o u r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y England. In his dream t h e poet sees,
I before him in a field, representatives from every class of English society,
c a n attacks the abuses of the Church and the vices of the monastic orders,
: resents a picture of t h e h a r d s h i p s c o m m o n people had to endure t h a t
with the picture of a prosperous society presented by Chaucer.
Jj
48 FROM THE ORIGINS TO THE MIDDLE AGES - T h e C o n t e x t

MEANWHILE, ELSEWHERE
m
LINK TO ITALIAN LITERATURE: Boccaccio 11
Travelling in Europe in the Middle Ages was not easy. Horse and carriage
were the only means of transport and travellers were often attacked by
outlaws. It is therefore surprising to see how m u c h and how far people
travelled around; scholars and diplomats criss-crossed the continent and
saw, read, wrote and swapped ideas.
G e o f f r e y C h a u c e r , for o n e , was g r e a t l y i n f l u e n c e d by t h e works of
Giovanni Boccaccio, whom he probably met during his travels in Italy.
Boccaccio's verse romance Filostrato was the source for Chaucer's Troylus
and Criseyde, and the framework idea in Boccaccio's Decameron, that a
group of people leave Florence to escape the plague and tell stories to
e n t e r t a i n themselves, is t h e basis for t h e structure of The Canterbury
Tales. Boccaccio's last tale in particular, the story of Griselda, b e c a m e
immensely popular in the late Middle Ages. Petrarch translated it into
Latin, it was t h e n t r a n s l a t e d i n t o F r e n c h and G e r m a n , and C h a u c e r
retold it in English in The Clerk's Tale.

Giovanni Boccaccio.

TASK
Do some research on the similarities and the differences between The Decameron and The Canterbury Tales and
prepare a short talk.

CROSS-CURRICULAR LINK
-[ to Latin/Greek
The hero
1 What are the characteristics of a hero? Work in groups of four. Each of you should make a list of five words
that you would associate with the word 'hero'. When you have finished, pool your ideas and make a list of the
words you have come up with. What were the most common words? Read your list out to your classroom
and listen to their lists.
Based on the work of all the groups, make a list of the most common words associated with the idea of a hero.
2 Beowulf is the hero of northern European sagas. He lived in a world of powerful and mysterious forces where
nobility, fatalism, pride, loyalty, the search for glory and death all played important parts. He lived in violent
times in a violent environment where nature was often hostile and man was constantly under the threat of
death from marauding monsters.
A different type of hero was created in Mediterranean literature: Homer's Achilles and Ulysses, and Virgil's
Aeneas belonged to different times, cultures and societies, which they reflect in their heroic deeds.
Make a list of words that you would associate with each of these heroes.

What characteristics does Beowulf share with these classical heroes? Are there any important differences?
Who would you consider to be a modern hero? Think of three names. On the basis of your choices try to
define a modern hero. How do the heroes you have chosen reflect the times we live in?
 THE
RENAISSANCE
1 4 8 5 - 1 6 2 5

All the world's a stage,

And all the men and women merely players.'
F r o m As You Like It b y W i l l i a m Shakespeare
 Doctor Faustus
by Christopher Marlowe

DBBD DD
In the play you are about to read the main character - Faustus - is terrified of going to hell. He cannot picture
what it is really like but he knows that he will have to endure terrible suffering for all eternity.

Try to build up a picture of what hell would be for you. For each of the five senses, describe a situation which you
would find unbearable. An example has been given to help you.
Sight I have to watch a video of the mutilated bodies of all the victims of all the wars in human history.

Sound A constant squeaky noise like the one a new piece of chalk makes on a blackboard.

Taste All the food I eat is rotten and everything I drink tastes like acid.

Smell There is an all-pervasive smell of decomposing bodies.

Touch Everything I touch feels like the slimy skin of a snake.

INTRODUCTION • Although Christopher Marlowe's

f a m e was s o m e w h a t obscured b y his c o n t e m p o r a r y ,
W i l l i a m S h a k e s p e a r e , h e is regarded as o n e of t h e
g r e a t d r a m a t i s t s o f t h e E n g l i s h R e n a i s s a n c e . In
Doctor Faustus he has created o n e o f t h e m o s t c o m -
pelling characters in English literature.

THE STORY
Faustus, having studied and been disappointed by all the sci-
ences, decides to explore the world of magic. Through magic,
he calls up Mephistopheles, a devil, and makes an agreement
with him: he will give his soul to Lucifer in return for twenty-
four years of life. During this time, Mephistopheles will be his
servant and do anything he asks him to do. For the rest of his
life, Faustus indulges in every imaginable earthly pleasure and,
thanks to the magical intervention of Mephistopheles, meets
famous people from the past like Helen of Troy.

lustus makes a devilish

it with Mephistopheles.
 Doctor Faustus - Christopher Marlowe 3

As the end of the twenty-four years draws near, Faustus begins to realise the enormity of the
agreement he has made. He is terrified of death and begs to be saved, bid, at the end of the
play, he is taken to hell by the devils.

Faustus's Last Hour Text C I Q

This is the last scene in the play. It is eleven o'clock and, at midnight, Faustus must give his
soul to the devil and face eternal damnation.

Act 5, Scene 2 CHARACTERS

BAD ANGEL: N O W Faustus, let thine eyes with horror stare1 • Doctor Faustus,
a scholar
Into that vast perpetual torture-house.
• Bad Angel, a devil
There are the Furies2 tossing 3 damned souls < Mephistopheles,
On burning forks; their bodies boil in lead. a devil

There are live quarters 4 burning on the coals

That ne'er can die. This ever-burning chair
Is for o'er tortured souls to rest them in.
These that are fed with sops5 of flaming fire
Were gluttons 6 and loved only delicates
And laughed to see the poor starve7 at their gates. 10
But yet all these are nothing; thou shalt see
Ten thousand tortures that more horrid be.
FAUSTUS: O, I have seen enough to torture me.
BAD ANGEL: Nay8, thou must feel them, taste the smart 9 of all.
He that loves pleasure must for pleasure fall. 15
And so I leave thee, Faustus, till anon 1 0 ;
Then wilt thou tumble 11 in confusion.

[Exit BAD ANGEL. The clock strikes eleven]

FAUSTUS: Ah, Faustus, tossing: throwing
Now hast thou but one bare 12 hour to live, quarters: bodies
sops: small pieces
And then thou must be damned perpetually. 20
gluttons: people who
Stand still, you ever-moving spheres of heaven 13 , eat too much
That time may cease 14 and midnight never come! 7. starve: die from
hunger
Fair nature's eye 15 , rise, rise again, and make
Nay: no
Perpetual day; or let this hour be but 9. smart: sharp pain
A year, a month, a week, a natural day, 25 10. anon: soon
11. tumble: collapse
That Faustus may repent 16 and save his soul!
12. bare: only
O lente, lente currite noctis equi171 13.spheres of heaven:
planets
14. cease: stop
15.Fair nature's eye: the
GLOSSARY thou: you wilt: will
sun
thee: you shalt: shall
Note: Elizabethan English is 16. repent: say you are
thyself: yourself 1. stare: look fixedly
different from modern English. sorry for your sins
thine: yours
Here is a list of the most
art: are
2. Furies: goddesses who 17.0 lente, lente currite
frequently recurring archaic punished criminals in noctis equi: O slowly,
words and their modern hath: has, have Roman and Greek
slowly run, you
equivalents. doth: does mythology
horses of the night
4 THE RENAISSANCE - D r a m a
18. leap: jump
19. streams: flows
20. rend: tear
21. Yet will I call on him:
but I will call him
22. spare me: do not take
me
23.Stretcheth: stretches
24. bends ... brows:
looks angrily down at
Faustus
25. wrath: anger
26. Then: so
27. headlong: head first
28. gape: open wide
29. harbour: protect
30. You stars ... nativity:
Marlowe is referring
to astrology and the
belief that the
position of the stars
when you are born
can influence what
happens in your life
31. allotted: given me
32. draw up: pull up
33. entrails: the inside
part of an animal's or
person's body
34. yon: over there
35. labouring: pregnant
and slow-moving, as
if the cloud was about
to give birth
36. forth: out of you
37. limbs: parts of the
body
38. issue: come out of
39. watch: clock
40.'Twill... anon: it will
be over soon
4 1 . 0 God ... ransomed
me: O, God if you do
not want to (wilt not)
save me, do it for
your son, Jesus Christ,
who has freed (hath
ransomed) me
through his sacrifice
on the cross
4 2 . 0 , no end ... souls: A
damned soul must
suffer forever
43. Why w e r t . . . soul?:
why were (wert) you
not born without a
soul? (Faustus is
talking to himself as
if he were another
person)
44. this: this soul
45. Pythagoras'
metempsychosis: a
theory, attributed to
Pythagoras, which
The stars move still; time runs; the clock will strike;
The devil will come, and Faustus must be damned.
O, I'll leap 18 up to my God! Who pulls me down? 30
See, see where Christ's blood streams 19 in the firmament!
One drop would save my soul, half a drop. Ah, my Christ!
Ah, rend 20 not my heart for naming of my Christ!
Yet will 1 call on him 21 . O, spare me 2 2 Lucifer!
Where is it now? 'Tis gone; and see where God 35
Stretcheth 23 out his arm and bends his ireful brows 24 !
Mountains and hills, come, come and fall on me
And hide me from the heavy wrath 25 of God!
No, no!
Then 2 6 will I headlong 27 run into the earth. 40
Earth, gape 28 ! O, no, it will not harbour 29 me.
You stars that reigned at my nativity 30 ,
Whose influence hath allotted 31 death and hell,
Now draw up 32 Faustus like a foggy mist
Into the entrails 33 of yon 3 4 labouring 35 cloud, 45
That when you vomit forth 36 into the air,
My limbs 37 may issue 38 from your smoky mouths,
So that my soul may but ascend to heaven.
[The watch39 strikes]
Ah, half the hour is past!
'Twill all be past anon 4 0 . 50
O God,
If thou wilt not have mercy on my soul,
Yet for Christ's sake, whose blood hath ransomed me 41 ,
Impose some end to my incessant pain.
Let Faustus live in hell a thousand years, 55
A hundred thousand, and at last be saved.
O, no end is limited to damned souls 42 .
Why wert thou not a creature wanting soul? 43
Or why is this 44 immortal that thou hast?
Ah, Pythagoras' metempsychosis4S, were that true 46 , 60
This soul should fly from me and I be changed
Unto 47 some brutish 48 beast.
All beasts are happy, for, when they die,
Their souls are soon dissolved in elements 49 ;
But mine must live still to be plagued 50 in hell. 65
Curst 51 be the parents that engendered 52 me!
says that, when a person or 47.Unto: into 50. plagued: punished
animal dies, their soul 48. brutish: showing no 51. Curst: cursed (to curse
migrates to the body of human intelligence or someone is to ask God
another person or animal feeling or another supernatural
46. were that true: if that were 49. dissolved in elements: power to harm someone)
true disappear 52. engendered: gave birth to
 Doctor Faustus - C h r i s t o p h e r M a r l o w e 5

No, Faustus, curse thyself. Curse Lucifer,

That hath deprived thee of the joys of heaven.
[The clock striketh twelve]
O, it strikes, it strikes! Now, body, turn to air,
Or Lucifer will bear 5 3 thee quick to hell. 70
[Thunder and lightning]
O soul, be changed into little water drops,
And fall into the ocean ne'er to be found!
My God, m y God, look n o t so fierce on me!
[Enter LUCIFER, MEPHISTOPHELES and other DEVILS]
53. bear: carry
Adders 54 and serpents, let me breathe a while! 54. Adders: poisonous
Ugly hell, gape not 5 5 . Come not, Lucifer! 75 snakes
55.gape not: do not
I'll burn m y books. Ah, Mephistopheles! open up
[The DEVILS exeunt56 with him] 56. exeunt-, leave

COMPREHENSION
1 What, according to the Bad Angel, is happening to
the following in hell?
Fill in the table referring to the text.
damned souls (line 3)
live quarters (line 5)
o'er tortured souls (line 7)
gluttons (line 9)
the Furies are tossing them
on burning forks while
their bodies boil in lead
2 In lines 2 1 - 2 5 Faustus asks the planets to stand still.
What does he wish would happen?
3 What does Faustus believe might save him? (Line 32)
4 Why does he want to be hidden by mountains and
hills?
5 In line 4 0 where does he try to hide?
6 What does he ask the stars to do? (Lines 4 2 - 4 8 )
7 Underline the sentences where Faustus refers to
or addresses God and Christ. What image of God
does he portray?
• A loving and merciful God.
• A God of justice and punishment.
Is the image of Christ similar?
8 What compromise is he prepared to make with
God? (Lines 5 4 - 5 6 )
9 Why does he wish that Pythagoras's theory of
metempsychosis were true?
1 0 Into what does he want his body and soul
transformed? (Lines 6 9 - 7 1 )
What purpose would the transformation serve?
ü \ . f
5 - '^kjjgp:
6 THE RENAISSANCE - D r a m a

ANALYSIS
1 Focus on the Bad Angel's description of hell (lines
3 - 1 0 ) . Which of the senses do the details appeal to
most? Does the description reinforce the traditional
association of hell and heat?
2 Faustus uses short sentences, exclamations and
questions throughout his speech: 'O, I'll leap up to
my Cod!' (line 30) 'Who pulls me down?' (line 30)
'Ah, my Christ!' (line 32). Find other examples in the
text. What purpose do they serve?
• To show that Faustus is in a state of confusion and
desperation.
• To show that he is calm and meditative.
• To add drama to his speech.
• To make his speech more natural.
• Other:
3 Find examples in the text where Faustus:
- addresses himself;
- refers to himself in the third person.
What does this suggest about his state of mind?
4 The striking of the clock is mentioned three times.
What effect do you think the reference to the passing
of time would have on an audience?
There are fifty lines in Faustus's speech before the
clock strikes midnight. How many are there before
and after the half past eleven chime? What does this
suggest about how time seems to be passing for
Faustus?
5 Elizabethan audiences came from a wide range of
social backgrounds ( • p. C59). Which aspects of the
extract you have just read would have appealed to
the more popular sections of the audience and which
elements would have interested the more learned
spectators?
6 According to Christian doctrine, a sinner can save
his soul if he confesses his sin and makes an act of
sincere contrition. Why do you think Faustus's pleas
for mercy are unanswered?
• He does not truly believe in a loving and merciful
God.
• He never clearly admits to having committed a
grave sin.
• He asks for mercy because he is afraid of eternal
damnation and not because he is sorry for what he
has done.
• He continues to blame Lucifer for what has
happened (line 67) and does not take full
responsibility for his actions.

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P
rm

m
Blank verse Blank verse consists of unrhymed i a m b i c p e n t a m e t e r s - ten-syllable lines in which
unstressed syllables are followed by stressed syllables.

| There | are | the | Fu | ries | toss | ing | damn | ed | souls |

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

| On | burn | ing | forks; | their | bod | ies | boil | in | lead |

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

B l a n k verse is t h e verse f o r m t h a t m o s t c l o s e l y r e s e m b l e s t h e natural r h y t h m s of

English speech and it is the most frequently used verse form in English literature. It was
first used in drama by Christopher Marlowe and became the standard metre for plays in
t h e Elizabethan period. Doctor Faustus is written primarily in blank verse. However,
Marlowe did not always strictly adhere to its rules.

In lines 4 0 to 4 8 find:
a) examples of blank verse;
b) examples of lines that do not conform to the rules of blank verse.

ft Listen to the recording of lines 4 0 - 4 8 . Pay particular attention to the rhythm and stress
patterns of the verse form. Try to read the lines using the same rhythm and stress.
 Doctor Faustus - C h r i s t o p h e r M a r l o w e 7

STAC I N 6 T H E PLAY

Performance A printed play that you read is an incomplete blueprint of a playwright's work, which only
elements becomes complete when performed. Performance elements such as casting, the choice of
actors, costumes, the clothes the actors wear, lighting, how the stage area is illuminated
and stage scenery or props (properties), the stage furniture, are all part of a meaningful
system of signs t h a t , when added to the text, give t h e play its full m e a n i n g . Some
indications about the performance elements may be included in the playwright's stage
directions but it is generally the director of the play and his staff who make these decisions.
Through his choices a director tries to remain faithful to the playwright's intentions but also
to add his own personal vision of the play.

OVER T O Y O U Work in groups of four. Discuss:

a. Which famous actor would you cast in the role of Doctor Faustus? Consider elements
such as age, tone of voice, physical characteristics, etc. Justify your choice. Which of your
classmates might best interpret the part and why?
b. If you were directing the scene you have just read, what kind of lighting, costumes and
stage scenery would you use? Faustus looks upward towards salvation and downwards
towards damnation. How would you represent this through the stage lighting?
c. The text refers to 'devils' and 'adders and serpents'. Would you use actors to represent the
devils and serpents? What kind of costumes would they wear? Where would you position
them? How would they move?
d. What kind of stage scenery and props would you use to create a suitable setting for the
scene? Would you choose an elaborate stage set or would you prefer simplicity, allowing
the audience to use their imagination? What would the advantage of your choice be?

Faustus wanted to know more and do more than any other

mortal man. In the end he paid a very high price for his
superhuman powers. Today, as science pushes the frontiers of
human knowledge ever forwards, some people are arguing that
scientific research should be tightly controlled and, if necessary,
Smited, to avoid abuse by unscrupulous individuals or groups.
In which of the following fields do you think research should or
STould not be limited? Give details.
• Medicine
• Military technology
I Communications and information technology
• Space exploration
• Genetic modification of animals and plants.

A modern production of
Doctor Faustus in which just
few, simple props are used.
 8 THE RENAISSANCE - D r a m a

SiS
WRITERS' GALLERY
Early years Christopher Marlowe
was b o r n in Canterbury in 1 5 6 4 ,
the son of a prosperous shoemaker.

Education He was an e x c e p t i o n a l s t u d e n t a n d w h e n he was

f i f t e e n h e was awarded a s c h o l a r s h i p to King's S c h o o l in
Canterbury, one of the oldest schools in Britain. He continued his
studies at Cambridge University, where he took his Bachelor of Arts
in 1583. Three years later he received his Master of Arts degree in
spite of opposition by the University authorities, who suspected
him of converting to Roman Catholicism during a secret journey to
Rheims, France, the centre of Catholic sentiment. Marlowe at this
time was probably working for t h e government in Her Majesty's
CHRISTOPHER MARLOWE Secret Service, spying on Catholic conspirators, so the government
(1564-1593) authorities intervened on his behalf and the degree was granted.

University wits He moved to London, where he met other graduates who were involved in the literary
life of London. Together they formed a circle of young writers known as the 'University Wits'.

Plays From 1587 to 1593 he wrote and produced his four great plays: Tamburlaine Parts I and II, The
Jew of Malta, Edward the Second and Doctor Faustus. He was the first English playwright to use blank
verse* and to write genuine tragedy*. His works were highly successful and had a major influence on
other playwrights of the period including Shakespeare.

Tragic death Marlowe's death was mysterious; he was stabbed to death on May 30, 1 5 9 3 in a
tavern brawl. It is widely believed that he was deliberately assassinated for political reasons.

TASK
True or false? Correct the false ones.
a. Marlowe was born into a well-to-do family.
b. He was a very bright student and attended a
first-rate school and university.
c. He was never interested in either religious or
political matters.
d. In London he worked for a company called
'University Wits'.
e. He became a playwright and his works were
very famous in his own time.
f. He died a violent death at age twenty-nine.

BffPHM^^^^^B The fact that his life was so short makes Marlowe's contribution
^^^^^^^•••••BMBiill^B to drama even more remarkable. In many ways he gave to English
theatre the foundation on which Shakespeare was to build.
Each of his plays revolves around a protagonist who is obsessed by a ruling passion:
• Tamburlaine wishes to conquer the world;
• Edward is blinded by his homosexual love;
• Doctor Faustus aspires to unlimited knowledge;
• the Jew of Malta is obsessed by his love for gold.
However, his works are far more sophisticated than the medieval morality plays which told simple
tales of wickedness and well-deserved punishment. Marlowe created tragedies in which men, aware of
the potentially catastrophic consequences, make difficult decisions.
 Writers' Gallery - Christopher Marlowe

•i'iäMfr" • UrSik SSIP WMM Hif

Doctor Faustus, Marlowe's best-loved work,

is based on a collection of German stories
called the Faustbuch, w h i c h he probably The Tragical! Hiftoy of
read in English translation. The tales in
the Faustbuch narrate in prose the real-life the Life and Death
story of the German scholar and travelling
o / D o d o r Fauftus.
m a g i c i a n Georgius Faustus. Marlowe
transforms t h e s e simple stories of good With new Addiuons.
and evil i n t o a c o m p l e x drama w h i c h W r i t t e n by (I:/. zWL'ar
explores themes such as man's aspiration
to surpass all h u m a n limitation, and the
consequences of ambition when it is not
restricted by a sense of morality.
Marlowe established blank verse* as the
p r i n c i p a l verse f o r m of Elizabethan
drama. He avoided m o n o t o n y by varying
stresses and breaking up t h e lines with
pauses, e x c l a m a t i o n s a n d shortened
sentences, and using the syntax to reflect
the state of mind of the character.
In his short life Christopher Marlowe left a
lasting mark on English drama. His early
death undoubtedly deprived literature of
even greater and more developed works.
Printed for loh« Wright, and arc to be ibid si his f!'.op witboui
TTie title page for the 1620 - Newgate, at the iignc of clicBiUSc. 16*0.
edition of Doctor Faustus.

TASKS
1 Complete the sentences.
a. Marlowe's characters are people who ...
b. Compared to earlier theatrical works,
Marlowe's dramas...
c. His most famous play, Doctor Faustus, is based
on ...
d. His use of blank verse influenced ...
2 Marlowe's life was short and intense, and
ended tragically. Imagine the news of his sudden
death is announced in a TV news bulletin. Prepare
the brief news report and act it out for the rest of
the class.
10 THE RENAISSANCE - D r a m a

Romeo and Juliet

by William Shakespeare

All over the world, the names Romeo and Juliet are synonymous with romantic love.
Here are two definitions of love taken directly from the play:
Love is ...
'a smoke made with the fume of sighs.'
'a madness most discreet, a choking gall and a preserving sweet.'
Now try to write your own definition of love.
Love is ...

INTRODUCTION • Romeo and Juliet has always been one of Shakespeare's best-loved plays. It is an impassion-
ed cry in favour of love over hate, peace over war. It is simply one of the most gripping love stories ever told
( • Visual Link C3).

THE STORY
CHARACTERS
The Montagues and the Capidets are the two chief families of Verona, and for years they
The house of Capulet:
• Juliet have been enemies in a bitter feud. Romeo, a Montague, and Juliet, a Capulet, fall madly in
• Capulet, her father love ( • Text C2) but they realise that their families will try to stand in their way.
• Lady Capulet, her Everything starts to go wrong for the two lovers. In a fight, Romeo kills Tybalt and as a punish-
mother
• Tybalt, her cousin
ment, he is banished from Verona to Mantua. Juliet finds out that Romeo has to leave Verona
and so the two lovers decide to get married in secret. They are married by Friar Lawrence.
The house of
Montague: Juliet is very sad and depressed when Romeo goes away. Her father insists that the best way to
• Romeo cheer her up is to have her marry Paris, an old friend, but Juliet refuses. In desperation she asks
• Montague, his Friar Lawrence to help her get out of the marriage with Paris and reunite her with Romeo.
father
• Lady Montague, Friar Lawrence devises an ingenious plan to help Juliet. He tells her to drink a magic potion
his mother which will make her lose consciousness and everyone will think she is dead. However, she will
• Paris, suitor to wake up after forty-two hours, and when she does, Romeo will be there to take her to Mantua.
Juliet Juliet does as Friar Lawrence has instructed and everybody thinks she is dead.
• Friar Lawrence
Friar Lawrence sends Romeo a letter telling him about the plan but Romeo does not receive it.
He only hears that Juliet is dead. He rushes back to Verona and, when he gets to the graveyard,
he finds her seemingly lifeless body. Overcome by grief, he kills himself. When the effect of the
potion wears o f f , Juliet wakes up. She sees Romeo's dead body and commits suicide ( • Text C3).
The two families realise that their feud has led to the deaths of the two lovers and promise
never to fight again.

a Text C 2 What's in a Name?

It is night time and Juliet is on her bedroom balcony. She is talking out loud to herself but
does not realise that Romeo has climbed over the wall into her garden and is listening to her.

- • GLOSSARY Act 2, Scene 1: Capulets' orchard

(See note on Elizabethan JULIET: O Romeo, Romeo, wherefore 1 art thou Romeo?
English on p. C3)
Deny thy father and refuse thy name;
1. wherefore: why
Or if thou wilt not, be but sworn my love 2 ,
2. be ... my love: swear
you love me And I'll no longer be a Capulet.
 Romeo and Juliet - William Shakespeare 11

ROMEO [Aside]:
Shall I hear more or shall I speak at this? 5
JULIET: 'Tis but thy name that is my enemy;
Thou art thyself, though not a Montague.
What's Montague? It is nor hand nor foot,
Nor arm nor face, nor any other part
Belonging to a man. O be some other name! 10
What's in a name? That which we call a rose
By any other word would smell as sweet;
So Romeo would, were he not Romeo called,
Retain 3 that dear perfection which he owes4
Without that title 5 . Romeo, doff 6 thy name, is
And for thy name which is no part of thee,
Take all myself.
ROMEO: I take thee at thy word:
Call me but love and I'll be new baptised;
Henceforth 7 1 never will be Romeo. 20
JULIET: What man art thou that thus bescreened 8 in night
So stumblest on my counsel 9 ?
ROMEO: By a name 1 0
I know not how to tell thee who I am.
My name, dear saint, is hateful to myself, 25
Because it is an enemy to thee;
Had I it written, I would tear the word.
JULIET: My ears have yet not drunk a hundred words
Of thy tongue's uttering 11 , yet I know the sound.
Art thou not Romeo, and a Montague? 30
ROMEO: Neither, fair maid, if either thee dislike 12 .
JULIET: H O W cam'st thou hither 13 , tell me and wherefore?
The orchard walls are high and hard to climb,
And the place death, considering who thou art,
If any of my kinsmen 14 find thee here. 35
ROMEO: With love's light wings did I o'er perch 15 these walls,
For stony limits cannot hold love out,
And what love can do, that dares love attempt 16 :
Therefore thy kinsmen are no stop to me.

3. Retain: keep 9. stumblest on my counsel: 13.cams't thou hither: did

4. owes: owns
5. title: name
6. doff: get rid of
7. Henceforth: from now on
8. bescreened: hidden
overhears my thoughts
10. By a name: with a name
11. Of thy tongue's uttering:
of what you are saying
12. if either thee dislike: if you
do not like one or the other
you come here
14. kinsmen: family relations
15. o'er perch: climb over
16. And what love ... attempt:
a person who is in love has
the courage to do anything
12 THE RENAISSANCE - D r a m a

COMPREHENSION — —
1 In the opening lines (1-4) Juliet suggests how she 4 How does Juliet recognise Romeo?
and Romeo can solve their problem. Explain her 5 Why does Juliet describe the orchard as 'death' for
proposals in your own words. Romeo? (Line 34)
2 In line 18 Romeo speaks to Juliet. What gives him
6 What helped Romeo climb the walls of the orchard
the confidence to reveal himself?
and overcome his fear of death? (Lines 3 6 - 3 9 )
3 What does Romeo want Juliet to call him? (Line 19)

ANALYSIS —
1 Romeo's love for Juliet is almost religious in its 3 Which of the two characters seems more aware
intensity. Find two religious terms which Romeo uses and fearful of the dangers they are running? Quote
when speaking to Juliet. from the text.
2 Focus on the language that Romeo uses. What 4 It has been suggested that Romeo and Juliet suffer
adjective would you choose to describe it? a tragic fate because they are too impulsive. Find
• Bold • Passionate evidence of Romeo's impulsiveness in the text.
• Confident • Cautious
• Other:
Underline sentences in which Romeo says that his love
for Juliet has made him brave in the face of death.
How would you describe Romeo's personality?

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P
Dramatic One of the greatest tasks facing a playwright is capturing and m a i n t a i n i n g t h e audi-
tension ence's attention. This is often done through d r a m a t i c t e n s i o n or suspense. Suspense

Dramatic or tension is created when the audience is uncertain about what is going to happen. In
irony the case of the scene you have read there are two sources of suspense:
• At the beginning of the scene Juliet does not know that Romeo is in the orchard listen-
ing to what she is saying. The audience is, however, aware of Romeo's presence. This is
an example of dramatic irony. The audience knows something that one or more of the
characters on stage do not know. Dramatic irony is often used to add humour or sus-
pense to a scene. In this case, as Juliet speaks there is a danger that she may say some-
thing which Romeo will misinterpret. Overheard conversations are often the source of
misunderstandings in drama. The audience is kept in suspense until Romeo reveals him-
self in line 18.
• The fact that Romeo may be discovered by Juliet's family also creates suspense. The
tender atmosphere which the lovers create m a y at any m o m e n t be violated by the
hatred and violence of Juliet's family. The presence of danger heightens the tension
and makes the scene even more romantic.

TASKS 1 Explain how Romeo's aside in line 5 heightens the tension in the opening part of the scene.
2 Underline the sentences that remind the audience that Romeo is braving death in order
to declare his love for Juliet. How do these sentences contribute to creating suspense?

OVER T O Y O U In what kind of books and films is suspense the main feature? Think of a book you have read
or a film that you have seen that included elements of suspense. How did you feel as you
read the book or watched the film? Do you enjoy the anxiety created by suspense? Have you
ever felt that the feelings are too intense (in the case, for example, of horror stories or films)?
 Romeo and Juliet - W i l l i a m S h a k e s p e a r e 119

STACIN6THE PLAY

Stage Deciding where the actors should stand and how they should move is extremely important
directions in the staging of a play. Sometimes the playwright will make suggestions about the actors'
movements in his stage directions. These are usually included in the script in italics. It is
often, however, the director of the play who makes these decisions.

OVER T O Y O U Imagine you are staging a production of the scene you have just read. Focus on the moment
when Romeo reveals himself to Juliet. Try to imagine how you would deal with this moment.
Does Juliet hear Romeo before she sees him? Where has Romeo been hiding? Does he
emerge from the shadows, is he standing below balcony, does he step out from behind a
tree? Does he appear very suddenly and startle Juliet or does he reveal himself slowly? Try to
write stage directions for this key moment in the scene.

Romeo and Juliet belong to opposing factions in Verona during the Renaissance. In today's world there are many
groups that regard each other as enemies. Make a list of opposing groups that you know. What would happen if
a boy and girl from opposing groups fell in love?

Ah, What an Unkind Hour Text C 3

Romeo is at the graveyard. He has just killed Paris, who had tried to stop him seeing Juliet,
and is now sitting beside Juliet's seemingly lifeless body.

Act 5 Scene 3: A churchyard, outside the tomb of the Capulets

ROMEO: O m y love, my wife,
Death, that hath sucked the honey of t h y breath, GLOSSARY •-

Hath had nop'ower yet upon t h y beauty. (See note on Elizabethan

English on p. C3)
Thou art not conquered, beauty's ensign 1 yet
1. ensign: flag
Is crimson 2 in thy lips and in thy cheeks, 5
2. crimson: deep red
And Death's pale flag is not advanced there. 3. unsubstantial: not a
(...) part of this world
4. lean: thin, hungry
Ah, dear Juliet,
5. paramour: lover
W h y art thou yet so fair? Shall I believe 6. dim: dark
That unsubstantial 3 Death is,amorous, Depart: leave
, . , , , A . , i OMMM* chambermaids:
And that the lean abhorred monster keeps 10 female servants
Thee here in dark to be his paramour 5 ? Will I set up my
everlasting rest: Will
For fear of that, I still will stay with thee,
1 join you in death
And never from this palace of dim 6 night 10.And shake ... flesh:
Depart 7 again. Here, here will I remain and throw this heavy
weight of bad luck off
With worms that are thy chambermaids 8 ; O here 15 my tired body
Will I set up my everlasting rest 9 , 11. look your last: take a
j^Lvi [ut'L' last look
And shake the yoke of inauspicious stars 12. embrace: hug
13. seal: authenticate
From this world-wearied flesh 10 . Eyes, look your last 11 !
14. righteous: virtuous
Arms, take your last embrace 1 2 ! and, lips, O you 15.dateless ... Death:
20
The doors of breath, seal 13 with a righteous 1 4 kiss timeless contract with
all absorbing death
A dateless bargain to engrossing Death 1 5 ! ^ / j N ? /
V oJ
i.'S ' £S
tM
14 THE RENAISSANCE - D r a m a

16.conduct: poison Come, bitter conduct 16 , come, unsavoury 17 guide!

17. unsavoury:
unpleasant Thou desperate pilot, now at once run on
18. dashing: throwing The dashing 18 rocks thy seasick weary bark 19 ! q
violently (Romeo is
like a ship that is
Here's to my love [Drinks] O true apothecary 20 ! , 25
thrown against the Thy drugs are quick. Thus 21 with a kiss I die. [Dies]
rocks)
(...)
19. weary bark: tired boat
20. apothecary: chemist [Enter FRIAR LAWRENCE]

(It refers to the chemist FRIAR LAWRENCE: Romeo!

who had given Romeo
some poison)
21. Thus: in this way
22. stoops: bends over
23. Alack: expression of
regret or surprise
(arch.)
24. stains: leaves a mark
25.masterless: belonging
to no one
26. gory: covered with
blood
27. pale: dead
28. steeped: soaked,
bathed
29.Ah, what ... chance:
How unkind was the JULIET:
moment when these
horrible deeds were
done!
30. stirs: moves
31. comfortable:
FRIAR LAWRENCE:
supportive, consoling
32. thwarted our intents:
frustrated our plans
33. Thy husband in thy
bosom (heart):
Romeo
34. dispose of: send
35. Among a sisterhood:
in an order
36. Watch: guards
37. Come go: hurry up
and go
38. Go get thee hence: go JULIET:
away
39. timeless: untimely, at
the wrong time
40. churl: brute
41. Haply: perhaps, maybe
42. restorative: medicine
(the kiss will 'cure' her
of life and restore her
to Romeo)
43. dagger: short knife
44. sheath: cover for the CAPTAIN OF THE W A T C H :
blade of a knife
JULIET:
45. rust: to become
covered with rust (the
reddish-brown
substance that forms
on wet metal)
•
[FRIAR stoops22 and looks on the blood and weapons]
Alack 23 ! Alack! What blood is that which stains 24
The stony entrance of the sepulchre?
What mean these masterless 25 and gory 26 swords 30
To lie discoloured by this place of peace?
[Enters the tomb]
Romeo! O, pale 27 ! Who else? What, Paris too?
And steeped 28 in blood? Ah, what an unkind hour
Is guilty of this lamentable chance 29 !
•J ^i
[JULIET rises]
The lady stirs 30 . t J/\lrJ 35
O comfortable 31 Friar, where is my lord?
I do remember well where I should be;
And there I am. Where is my Romeo?
[Noise within]
I hear some noise, lady. Come from that nest
Of death, contagion, and unnatural sleep. 40
A greater power than we can contradict
Hath thwarted our intents 32 , Come, come away.
Thy husband in thy bosom 33 there lies dead;
And Paris too. Come, I'll dispose of 34 thee
Among a sisterhood 35 of holy nuns. 45
Stay not to question, for the Watch 36 is coming.
Come go 37 , good Juliet, I dare no longer stay.
Go get thee hence 38 , for I will not away. [FRIAR leaves]
What's here? A cup closed in my lover's hand?
Poison I see hath been his timeless 39 end. 50
O churl 40 , drunk all, and left po friendly drop
To help me after? I will kiss thy lips,
Haply41 some poison yet doth hang on them,
To make me die with a restorative 42 .
[Kisses him] Thy lips are warm. 55
[Within] Lead, boy, which way?
Yea, noise? Then I'll be brief. [Takes ROMEO'S dagger43] O happy dagger,
This is thy sheath 44 ; [Stabs herself]
there rust 45 and let me die.
[Falls on ROMEO'S body and dies]
 Romeo and Juliet - W i l l i a m S h a k e s p e a r e 121

COMPREHENSION —
1 Why does Juliet not appear to be dead? (Lines 1 - 6 ) 7 What, according to Friar Lawrence, has caused his
2 What does Romeo call 'death' in line 9? plan to fail?

3 Why does he think death is keeping Juliet in this 8 Where does Friar Lawrence want to send Juliet?
dark place? 9 Why is Juliet upset when she sees that the cup of
4 What reason does Romeo give for committing suicide? poison is empty?

5 What does Friar Lawrence see as he enters the tomb? 1 0 Why does Juliet hurry her final act?

6 What is the first question Juliet asks when she awakens?

ANALYSIS |
1 In lines 1 - 6 Romeo says that Juliet does not appear
to be dead. Explain the dramatic irony* in what he
says. What effect does the irony of the situation have?
It increases tension and suspense.
It adds an element of humour.
It makes the audience more involved.
It makes the scene more tragic.
2 Find two examples of personification* in Romeo's
speech.
3 Throughout the play Romeo says that he is a victim
of fate. In which line does Romeo repeat that destiny
has been cruel to him?
4 By committing suicide Romeo believes that he will
be reunited with Juliet spiritually, so in his final speech
he focuses on the physical aspects of their love.
Underline the parts of the body he mentions.
5 Several times during the play life is compared to a
sea journey. How does the metaphor* in line 24
extend this image?
6 When Friar Lawrence enters the tomb he speaks in
exclamations and questions. What does the way he
speaks reveal about his state of mind?
7 Juliet notices that Romeo's lips are still warm and
therefore that he is not dead long. How does this add
to the tragedy of the scene?
8 Find references to the setting in the scene you have
read. How do you imagine the stage should be set for
this scene? What kind of atmosphere do you think the
setting* should create?

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P
Tragedy Romeo and Juliet is a tragedy. This is a form of drama in which the chief character, the
tragic hero, undergoes a series of misfortunes which eventually lead to his downfall.
The hero passes from a state of happiness to a state of despair because of some weakness
- tragic flaw - in himself. The tragic hero is an important man of high social standing.
He is not evil - he is a mixture of good and bad. The audience understands his weakness
but feels pity for him because his misfortunes are greater than he deserves. He is usually
M
doomed from the beginning and there are often premonitions of his downfall in what
he says. It is often fate or supernatural elements that control his destiny, and death is
generally the only escape he can find from pain and suffering. Romeo is a good example
of a tragic hero. He belongs to an important family. A series of unfortunate events lead
to his downfall: he falls in love with Juliet - daughter of his enemies the Capulets - , he
kills Tybalt in a street fight, he does n o t receive Friar Lawrence's message . . . . Romeo's
tragic flaw is his impulsiveness and his passionate nature. He becomes totally engrossed
in his love for Juliet and he does not consider the consequences of what he is doing.

TASK Romeo's tragic flaw is his impulsiveness. Have you found any evidence of this trait in the
extracts you have read? What are the qualities that make the audience feel pity for Romeo?
OVER T O Y O U Can you name any other famous tragic heroes/heroines? Choose one of them, do some
research and briefly tell his/her story.
 122 THE RENAISSANCE - D r a m a

S T A C IN C T H E PLAY

Delivery Delivery in acting refers to the way an actor says his lines. The actor, with the help of the
director, must decide what tone of voice he is going to use, which words or expressions he is
going to emphasise, the pace at which he is going to deliver the lines, where he will make
pauses and what facial expressions or gestures he will make.

OVER T O Y O U Work in groups of six. Divide Romeo's final speech in the following way:
Lines 1 - 6 0 my love ... not advanced there.
Lines 7-11 Ah, dear Juliet... to be his paramour?
Lines 1 2 - 1 8 For fear... world-wearied flesh.
Lines 18-21 Eyes, ... engrossing Death!
Lines 2 2 - 2 4 Come, bitter conduct... seasick weary bark!
Lines 2 5 - 2 6 Here's to my love ...I die.
Each of you should take one section of the speech and learn it. Decide how you are going to
deliver your lines. The following notes may help you.
Tone of voice: loud voice or whisper? Facial expressions?
Quickly or slowly? Pauses?
Gestures while performing? Words to emphasise?
Use your imagination and think of interesting ways to create the greatest dramatic effect.

In Romeo and Juliet one of the main themes is the generation gap. The term 'generation gap' was invented in the
1960s to define the different outlooks on life that younger and older people have. Throughout the play older
people warn the two young lovers that they should be less impetubus. ( ln fact Romeo and Juliet meet, fall in love,
are parted and die in the space of just five days. The two young lovers do not listen to the advice of their elders.
They believe that nothing is as important as the love they feel for each other.
Do you feel that there is a gap in how younger people and older people see things in today's society?
Over which of the following issues is the difference in opinion most pronounced?
Work Money School and study Relationships Marriage
Dress Drugs Technology Race Nationalism
Choose one of the issues and explain how younger and older people's opinions differ with regard to it.

L [ to the world of music

The scene you have read in Text C2 has often been described as a 'love-duet' in which two lovers take turns in
declaring their love for each other. The reference to music is not surprising as the entire play has been a source
of inspiration for musicians through the centuries. Berlioz's dramatic symphony Romeo et Juliette, Tchaikovsky's
symphonic poem, Prokofiev's ballet music and, more recently, Dire Straits's song Romeo and Juliet have all been
inspired by the play.
Read the lyrics of the Dire Straits' song. The following elements from the play can also be found in the song. Can
you identify them?
-Juliet is above Romeo recalling the balcony scene.
- Juliet is startled by Romeo's presence.
- Romeo and Juliet come from the same social background.
- Romeo is prepared to run risks to show his love for Juliet.
- Romeo and Juliet use celestial imagery (stars/moon, etc.) to describe their love for each other.
 Romeo and Juliet - William Shakespeare 17

R o m e o a n d Juliet

A lovestruck1 Romeo sings a streetsuss2 serenade GLOSSARY

Laying everybody low3 with a lovesong that he made 1. lovestruck: in love
Finds a convenient streetlight steps out of the shade 2. streetsuss: clever
Says something like you and me babe how about it?4 3. Laying everybody
low: impressing
Juliet says hey it's Romeo you nearly gimme5 me a heart attack everybody
He's underneath the window she's singing hey la my boyfriend's back 4. how about it?: what
You shouldn't come around here singing up at people like that do you think?
Anyway what you gonna do about it? 5. gimme: give me
6. the dice ... start: it
Juliet the dice were loaded from the start6 was obvious from the
And I bet and you exploded in my heart beginning what the
And I forget 1 forget the movie song7 result would be
When you gonna realise it was just that the time was wrong Juliet? 7. movie song:
reference to the song
Come up on different streets they both were streets of shame 'There's a Place for
Us' from the
Both dirty both mean yes and the dream was just the same
soundtrack of West
And I dreamed your dream for you and now your dream is real Side Story, a film
How can you look at me as if I was just another one of your deals? based on the story of
Romeo and Juliet
When you can fall for chains of silver you can fall for chains of gold
8. thick and thin:
You can fall for pretty strangers and the promises they hold through good and
You promised me everything you promised me thick and thin8 bad times
Now you just say oh Romeo yeah you know I used to have a scene with him 9. meant (mean):
supposed
Juliet when we made love you used to cry 10. keep the beat: play
You said I love you like the stars above I'll love you till I die music
There's a place for us you know the movie song 11. the bars of a rhyme:
When you gonna realise it was just that the time was wrong Juliet? my music

I can't do the talk like they talk on TV

And I can't do a love song like the way it's meant9 to be
I can't do everything but I'd do anything for you
I can't do anything except be in love with you

And all I do is miss you and the way we used to be

All I do is keep the beat10 and bad company
All I do is kiss you through the bars of a rhyme11
Julie I'd do the stars with you any time

Juliet when we made love you used to cry

You said 1 love you like the stars above I'll love you till 1 die
There's a place for us you know the movie song
When you gonna realise it was just that the time was wrong Juliet?
A lovestruck Romeo sings a streetsuss serenade
Laying everybody low with a lovesong that he made
Finds a convenient streetlight steps out of the shade
Says something like you and me babe how about it?

'Thou are not conquered, beauty's

ensign yet is crimson in thy lips ...'
A scene from Franco Zeffirelli's Romeo
and Juliet (1968).
M
18 THE RENAISSANCE - D r a m a

A Midsummer Night's Dream

by William Shakespeare

Choose one of the situations below and write a letter to a problem page asking for help with your dilemma. Add
as many details as you like.
Situation A
Your father does not approve of the person you love
and you know he will never give you his consent to
get married. He has someone else in mind that he
believes would make a better match but you do not
love the other person.
Situation B
You are going to get married. You like your fiance/e
and you know that the marriage will be good but you
are really in love with someone else.
Situation C
You are in love with a man who is already engaged to
be married. Another man has declared his love but you
cannot forget your true love.
Situation D
You have been in love with a woman and planning
to marry her but suddenly you fall in love with another
woman and now you have no feelings for your
fiancee.

Each of the situations refers to one of the four main characters in A Midsummer Night's Dream: Hermia, Helena,
Lysander and Demetrius. When you have finished working on the play try to match each character to a situation.

INTRODUCTION • Shakespeare had great powers of i m a g i n a t i o n and his plays deal w i t h a vast range of
topics a n d situations. In A Midsummer Night's Dream t h e world o f fairies c o m e s i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h t h e
h u m a n world a n d s o m e very strange things h a p p e n .

THE STORY
The play takes place on the day and night before the wedding between Theseus and
Hippolyta. Egeus wants his daughter Hermia to marry Demetrius. She, however, is in love

CHARACTERS
with Lysander and so she refuses to do as her father says. Egeus asks Theseus to help him.
Theseus tells Hermia that under Athenian law a daughter must obey her father, and orders
Humans:
• Theseus, Duke of her to marry Demetrius within four days or face death.
Athens Hermia decides to escape from Athens with Lysander to a wood outside the city. Helena,
• Hippolyta, Queen
of the Amazons,
Hernia's close friend, is in love with Demetrius. The two had been lovers but had broken up.
engaged to Theseus Helena, however, wishes to restore their love and tries to win Demetrius's favour by telling
• Egeus, Hernia's him of Hermia and Lysander's plan to elope. Demetrius, followed by Helena, enters the wood
father
• Hermia, in love to search for Hermia and Lysander.
with Lysander The wood is inhabited by fairies. When Oberon hears Demetrius arguing with Helena, he tells
• Helena, in love
Puck to pour some magic love-juice on his eyes so that the couple will be reconciled.
with Demetrius
• Lysander, in love But Puck makes a mistake and pours the juice on Lysander's eyes, with the result that he falls in
with Hermia love with Helena. Demetrius and Helena have since been reconciled so now both Demetrius and
• Demetrius, in love
with Helena
Lysander are in love with Helena while Hermia is ignored ( • Text C4).
The lovers' lives have been thrown upside down by the fairies but Oberon decides to make
Fairies:
amends.
• Oberon, King of
the Fairies He tells Puck to put a juice on their eyes while they are sleeping that will restore them to their
• Puck, a mischievous former state, so, when Lysander wakes up, he is again in love with Hermia. The two former
goblin
friends quarrel ( • Text C5).
 A Midsummer Night's Dream - William Shakespeare 19

Theseus and Egeus forgive the lovers for running away and agree to Lysander marrying
Hermia. The play ends with three weddings: Theseus marries Hippolyta, Demetrius marries
Helena, and Lysander marries Hermia.

A Double Cherry Parted ESBSB3 Q

Puck has mistakenly put some love-juice on Lysander's eyes, so now both he and Demetrius
are in love with Helena, while nobody loves Hermia. Helena cannot believe that the two men
are in love with her and accuses her best friend, Hermia, of plotting with Lysander and
Demetrius to make fun of her.
A scene from the film
Act 3, Scene 2: Another part of the wood A Midsummer
Night's Dream (1935).
HERMIA: What love could press Lysander from my side?
LYSANDER: Lysander's love, that would not let him bide 1 ,
Fair Helena, who more engilds 2 the night
Than all yon fiery oes 3 and eyes of light.
[To HERMIA] Why seek'st thou me? Could not this make thee know 5

The hate I bare thee 4 made me leave thee so?

HERMIA: Y O U speak not as you think; it cannot be.
HELENA: Lo, she is one of this confederacy 5 .
Now I perceive 6 they have conjoined 7 all three
To fashion 8 this false sport in spite of me 9 . 10
Injurious 10 Hermia, most ungrateful maid 11
Have you conspired, have you with these contrived 12
To bait 13 me with this foul derision?
Is all the counsel 14 that we two have shared -
The sisters' vows 15 , the hours that we have spent 15
When we have chid the hasty-footed time
For parting us 16 - O, is all forgot?
All schooldays' friendship, childhood innocence?
We, Hermia, like two artificial 17 gods
Have with our needles created both one flower 18 , 20
Both on one sampler 19 , sitting on one cushion,
Both warbling 20 of one song, both in one key,

GLOSSARY 5. confederacy: conspiracy 13.bait: torment 17. artificial: highly

>«e note on Elizabethan
J g i i s h on p. C3)
bide: wait
1 engilds: brightens up,
embellishes
oes: round, shiny pieces of
material used to ornament
dresses
- bare thee: have for you
6. perceive: see
7. conjoined: joined together
8. fashion: create
9. in spite of me: to spite me,
to get at me
10. Injurious: hurtful, causing
injury
11. maid: girl
12. contrived: planned in a
secret way
14. counsel: talking as friends skilled in art
15. vows: promises 18. Have with our
16.When we have ... parting needles ... flower:
us: when we have criticised We embroidered a
(chid) time because it went flower together
by too quickly (hasty-
19. sampler: piece of
footed), forcing us to part,
embroidery
even though we would have
liked to spend more time 20. warbling: singing
together like a bird
 THE RENAISSANCE - D r a m a

21. incorporate: of one As if our hands, our sides, voices, and minds
body
Had been incorporate 21 . So we grew together
22. moulded: shaped
Like to a double cherry, seeming parted 25
23.Two of the first ...
Due but to one: like But yet an union in partition,
two bodies in one as Two lovely berries moulded 22 on one stem,
on a heraldic shield
So with two seeming bodies but one heart,
24. crest: decoration at
the top of a heraldic Two of the first, like coats in heraldry,
shield Due but to one 23 , and crowned with one crest 24 . 30
25. rent asunder: tear And will you rent our ancient love asunder 25 ,
apart
To join with men in scorning 26 your poor friend?
26. scorning: rejecting
It is not friendly, 'tis not maidenly.
27.Our sex ... for it: all
women will condemn Our sex as well as I may chide you for it 27 ,
you as I do Though I alone do feel the injury. 35
•

COMPREHENSION
1 Why does Lysander no longer love Hermia? 6 What activity does Helena recall them doing
together? (Lines 19-24)
2 Does Hermia believe what Lysander says?
7 In lines 24-30 Helena makes two comparisons. What
3 What does Helena think that Hermia, Lysander and
does she compare her friendship with Hermia to?
Demetrius have joined together to do?
8 Does she believe that she will be the only one to
4 Why is she particularly angry with Hermia?
criticise Hermia's behaviour?
5 How long have Helena and Hermia been friends?

ANALYSIS
1 In line 1 Hermia asks Lysander why he no longer 3 In lines 1 9 - 2 4 Helena describes how she and
loves her. How would you describe Lysander's reply? Hermia embroidered a flower together as an example
• Truthful • Straightforward • Hurtful of how close they were as friends. Which adjectives
• Insensitive • Reasonable would you choose to describe the example she
chooses?
What justification can be given for Lysander's harsh
• Intimate • Feminine • Trivial
reply?
• Striking • Calming
2 Helena asks three questions in her attack on
4 Helena says that she and Hermia were a 'double
Hermia. Underline them in the text. What effect do
cherry' (line 25). Do you think that this image is
you think Helena hopes to achieve through her
effective? Justify your answer.
questioning? She hopes:
• to embarrass Hermia into an admission of guilt. 5 In lines 1-10 there is end-of-line rhyming. Write
• to win Hermia over to her side. the same letter of the alphabet beside the words
rhyme. Read the lines aloud emphasising the rhyme
• to discredit Hermia in front of Lysander and
pattern.
Demetrius.
• to get answers and understand why Hermia has
betrayed her.
 A Midsummer Night's Dream - William Shakespeare 21

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P
Blank verse Shakespeare's plays have been described as poetic drama. Part of what gives his work its
Heroic COUplet poetic quality is the rhythm and musicality of the language. In the extract that you have
read Shakespeare uses two verse forms: blank verse and rhyming (or heroic) couplets.
Blank verse consists of unrhymed iambic pentameters - ten syllable lines in which
unstressed syllables are followed by stressed syllables.
| Is | all | the | coun | sel | that | we | two | have | shared - |
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

| The | sis | ters' | vows, | the | hours | that | we | have | spent |

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

A rhyming couplet consists of two lines of iambic pentameter that rhyme in pairs: AA,
BB, and so on.
HERMIA: | What | love | could | press | Lys | an | der | from | my | side? |
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

LYSANDER: | Lys | an | der's | love, | that | would | not | let | him | bide, |
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

TASK The first part of the extract that you have read is written in rhyming couplets, the second
part is blank verse. At what point does the change take place? Say why you think the verse
form changes. Consider the following points:
- as Helena gets angrier her language becomes freer;
- blank verse is better suited to the tone of what Helena is saying.

OVER TO YOU Listen to the recording of lines 2 6 - 3 5 . Pay particular attention to the rhythm and stress
patterns of the verse form. Try to read the lines using the same rhythm and stress.

STAC I N C T H E P L A Y
Setting A Midsummer Night's Dream takes place in the daytime world of Athens, a state of disciplined
order and down-to-earth reality, and the night-time world of the enchanted wood, a realm
of disorder and fantasy. These two distinct settings must be created by stage scenery, prop-
erties (props) and lighting. Settings for a play may vary from extravagant expensive sets to
essential or abstract staging, depending on the budget that is available and the personal
preferences of the director. Whatever the case may be, the stage setting should not be a dis-
traction but should enhance the audience's understanding of the play.

OVER T O YOU The speech in Text C4 takes place in the enchanted night-time wood where fairies and
disorder rule. Work in groups and decide what stage scenery, props and lighting you would
use for a performance of the speech in your classroom. Take into consideration the amount
of time you have to prepare scenery and props, the space that is available and the possible
sources of light. Be realistic in your suggestions. Discuss your proposals with other groups.
Choose the best ideas and plan a performance.

ODD
Hermia and Helena have been friends since childhood but have fallen out because of a misunderstanding caused
oy Puck's mistake. From your own experience and knowledge make a list of reasons why long, close friendships
sometimes break up.
FA* TIG
SMS.
w
i 22 THE RENAISSANCE - D r a m a

Text C 5 You Juggler! You Puppet!

Act 3, Scene 2: Another part of the wood
Hernia realises that Lysander really is in love with Helena and does not love her anymore.
She accuses Helena of stealing him from her.

HERMIA: O me, you juggler1, you canker-blossom 2 ,

GLOSSARY
(See note on Elizabethan
English on p. C3)
1. juggler: (artist who
keeps objects in the
air by throwing them
up quickly and
catching them again),
trickster, deceiver
2. canker-blossom: a
worm that eats into
and destroys a flower
3. maiden: young
woman, virgin
4. bashfulness: modesty
5. What, will... gentle
tongue: are you
trying to force me
into answering you?
6. Fie: expression of
disgust (arch.)
7. puppet: a small
human being or
animal
8. Ay, that way goes
the game: so, that is
the way she did it
9. perceive:see
You thief of love! What, have you come by night
And stolen my love's heart from him?
HELENA: Have you no modesty, no maiden 3 shame,
No touch of bashfulness 4 ? What, will you tear 5
Impatient answers from my gentle tongue 5 ?
Fie6, fie, you counterfeit, you puppet 7 , you!
HERMIA: Puppet? Why so? - Ay, that way goes the game 8 .
Now I perceive9 that she hath made compare 10
Between our statures 11 . She hath urged her height, 10
And with her personage, her tall personage,
Her height, forsooth 12 , she hath prevailed with him 13 .
And are you grown so high in his esteem 14
Because I am so dwarfish 15 and so low?
How low am I, thou painted maypole 16 ? Speak! is
How low am I? - 1 am not yet so low
But that my nails can reach unto your eyes 17 .
10. hath made compare: him: she has won him which people danced on
compared over May Day
11. statures: heights 14. esteem: favourable opinion 17.1 am not y e t . . . your eyes:
12. forsooth: truly 15. dwarfish: like a dwarf, short I am tall enough to scratch
13. she hath prevailed with 16. maypole: tall pole around your eyes out

COMPREHENSION
1 What does Hermia accuse Helena of doing? 3 What, according to Hermia, has Helena used to
win Demetrius's love?
2 Why does Hermia think Helena has called her a
puppet? 4 How does Hermia threaten to hurt Helena?

ANALYSIS
1 Hermia calls Helena a 'juggler', a 'canker-blossom'
and a 'thief of love' (lines 1-2). Try to explain why she
uses each of these offensive terms.
Example:
She calls Helena a juggler because she plays with other
people's emotions.
2 Helena accuses Hermia of being a 'counterfeit' and
a 'puppet'. Which of the two insults offends Hermia
more deeply? Do you think that Hermia is envious of
Helena's height?
3 There is a pun* in line 1 3: 'And are you grown so
high in his esteem ...'. Can you explain it?
 mm
:. -
if
A Midsummer Night's Dream - William Shakespeare 23

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P
Comedy Comedy is a major form of drama. In it the characters amuse and entertain us rather
Humour than engage our profound concern. We are confident that great disasters will not occur
and we know that the action will usually turn out happily for the chief characters.
H u m o u r is the main ingredient of a comedy. It can be divided i n t o three broad
categories:
• verbal humour, when what the characters say is funny;
• behavioural humour, when what the characters do is funny;
• situational humour, when the situation the characters find themselves in is funny.
In the case of most comedy the humour is a mixture of all three categories.

Say whether the following are examples of verbal, behavioural or situational humour.
- Hermia and Helena, two very refined, ladylike characters, insult each other and threaten
each other with physical violence.
- Hermia, who previously was loved by both Lysander and Demetrius, is now despised by
both of them.
-There is a double meaning in the expression 'high in his esteem' which means 'respected'
but also may be a reference to the fact that Helena is very tall.

OVER TO YOU Make a list of three comic actors that you admire. Discuss whether their comedy is primarily
based on verbal, behavioural or situational humour or if it is a mixture of all three.

STAC INC T H E P L A Y
Movement Movement can be used to reveal character and mood to the audience. A character may
change the way he walks, for example, according to the mood he is in. Movement can also
be used to indicate the relationships between characters. One character may, for example,
walk away from another in disgust or slowly approach another in a confrontation that
produces rising tension. Where characters should stand and how they should move must be
carefully planned in the rehearsal stages of a play.

OVER TO YOU The characters in Text C5 feel a range of strong emotions including anger, hatred, shock,
insecurity, disgust and vengeance. Discuss how each character is feeling as she delivers her
lines. Work on how you are going to convey these emotions through the character's
movements. Experiment with space. Have two actors perform the piece standing as far apart
as possible and then as close to each other as possible. Which of the two options worked
best? Are some of the lines better shouted from a distance? Are other lines more effective
whispered fiercely at close physical contact? Have the two actors act out the scene using
numbers instead of the script. This will allow them to focus on movement and body
language.
On the basis of your experimentation decide how the characters should move in this scene
and then prepare a performance.

Wouldn't it be nice sometimes to live under the protection of a magic spell like the sleeping couples in
A Midsummer Night's Dream?
If you were living under a magic spell, how would you like your life to change?
Here are two examples to help you:
I would be able to read people's minds.
I would be protected from all forms of physical danger.
i 24 THE RENAISSANCE - D r a m a

Hamlet
by William Shakespeare

Read the following story which is loosely based on the plot of Hamlet.
Winston Hamlet and his brother Roger are partners in a successful business. Roger is having an affair with Winston's
wife, Geraldine. Together they plan to kill Winston so that Roger will become the sole owner of the company. While away
on a fishing trip together, Roger pushes his brother overboard, and manages to convince the police that the drowning was
an accident. Just two months later he marries Geraldine.
Gertrude and Winston's son, Freddie, is horrified at his father's death and his mother's remarriage. When he receives an
anonymous letter saying that his uncle killed his father, he decides to take the law into his own hands.
As Winston is sitting in a restaurant with Geraldine, Freddie walks in and shoots him dead. He then asks the restaurant
owner to call the police and waits calmly until he is arrested. In court, he is found guilty of murder.
The judge is about to pass sentence. You are the judge. Choose one of the following sentences and explain why
you chose it.
• Life-in-prison • A fine (specify how much) • Any other sentence?
• A prison sentence (specify for • House arrest (specify for how
how long) long)

INTRODUCTION • Hamlet is probably the best-known character from Shakespeare's plays. He is a young
man who has to deal with the terrible trauma caused by his father's murder. What intrigues many theatre-
goers and literary critics is Hamlet's psychological make-up. Is he strong or weak? Is he really mad or is he
only pretending? These and many more questions continue to be asked about this fascinating character
( • Visual Link C4).

THE STORY
Claudius kills his brother Old Hamlet, marries his widow Gertrude and becomes King of
Denmark. One evening Hamlet sees his father's ghost who asks him to avenge his death. From
that day on he starts to act strangely and seems, to many people, to be going mad. He dearly
CHARACTERS wants to get revenge by killing Claudius but finds it hard to actually do it ( • Text C6).
• Hamlet, Prince of He rejects Ophelia, and continues to behave very oddly. Claudius begins to suspect that he
Denmark might know something about the murder and asks Polonius to spy on him.
• Ghost of Old While Hamlet is talking to his mother, Polonius hides behind a curtain to overhear what is
Hamlet, Hamlet's
father and former being said. Hamlet realises someone is there and stabs Polonius to death through the curtain
king ( • Text C7).
• Claudius, current Claudius then decides to send Hamlet
King of Denmark
and fortner king's away to England with two of courtiers
brother (Rosencrantz and Guildenstern), who
• Gertrude, Queen of are under orders to kill him. Hamlet
Denmark and
outsmarts them and returns home to
Hamlet's mother
learn that Ophelia has died in a state of
• Polonius, close
adviser to Claudius madness and desperation. UL
and father to In a final attempt to get rid of Hamlet,
Ophelia and Laertes I J I I
Claudius organises a sword fight between
• Ophelia, Polonius's
daughter, in love him and Laertes. His plan goes terribly
with Hamlet wrong, however, and although Hamlet 'To be, or not to be - that is the question.'
• Laertes, Polonius's does die, Claudius, Gertrude and Laertes scene from the film Hamlet (1990),
son starring Mel Gibson.
are also killed.
 Ham let - William Shakespeare 25

To Be or Not to Be Text C 6 «
In this very famous speech Hamlet asks why man does not lose his will to live despite the
obstacles he has to overcome.

Act III Scene I: A room in the castle

HAMLET: T O be, or not to be - that is the question.
Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer
The slings and arrows1 of outrageous 2 fortune,
Or to take arms against a sea of troubles,
And by opposing end them? To die - to sleep -
No more; and by a sleep to say we end
The heart-ache 3 , and the thousand natural shocks
That flesh is heir to 4 ; 'tis a consummation 5
Devoutly to be wish'd. To die - to sleep -
To sleep! perchance 5 to dream. Ay, there's the rub7; 10
For in that sleep of death what dreams may come,
12. whips and scorns:
When we have shuffled off 8 this mortal coil 9 , (fig.) blows
Must give us pause. There's the respect 10 13. wrong: unjust
actions
That makes calamity of so long life 11 .
14. contumely: offensive
For who would bear the whips and scorns 12 of time, 15 behaviour
The oppressor's wrong 13 , the proud man's contumely 14 , 15. pangs: sudden and
sharp feelings of pain
The pangs 15 of despised 16 love, the law's delay,
16. despised: rejected
The insolence of office, and the spurns 17 17. spurns: rejections
That patient merit of the unworthy takes 18 , 18. of the unworthy
takes: receives from
When he himself might his quietus make 19 20
people of little value
With a bare bodkin 20 ? Who would these fardels bear, 19. his quietus make:
write his own
To grunt 21 and sweat 22 under a weary 23 life,
quittance (document
But that the dread 24 of something after death - stating that he is free
from debt)
The undiscovered country from whose bourn 25
20. bare bodkin: naked
No traveller returns - puzzles26 the will, 25 dagger
And makes us rather bear those ills 27 we have 21. grunt: emit the
sound that pigs make
Than fly to others that we know not of?
22. sweat: perspire
Thus conscience does make cowards of us all, 23. weary: tiresome
And thus the native hue 28 of resolution 24. dread: fear
25. bourn: boundary,
Is sicklied o'er 29 with the pale cast 30 of thought; 30
limit
And enterprises of great pitch and moment 3 1 , 26. puzzles: confounds
With this regard32 their currents turn awry33, 27.ills: adversities
28. native hue: natural
And lose the name of action.
colour
29. sicklied o'er: turned
pale as if sick
GLOSSARY sticks that you shoot with 6. perchance: perhaps 30. cast: colour
a bow) 7. rub: impediment, obstacle 31. pitch and moment:
i See note on Elizabethan
2. outrageous: adverse importance
English o n p. C 3 ) 8. shuffled off: removed
3. heart-ache: pain 32. With this regard:
9. coil: spiral loop (here: body)
1. slings and arrows: (slings: 4. flesh is heir to: part of a because of this
pieces of cords with leather human life 10. respect: thought, 33. their currents turn
in the middle used to throw consideration awry: change
5. consummation:
stones; arrows: thin pointed conclusion 11. of so long life: last so long direction
 i132THE RENAISSANCE - D r a m a

COMPREHENSION -
1 Focus on lines 1-5. Consider the two metaphors: - ageing
'...to suffer - mistreatment by authority
The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune' - contempt
'to take arms against a sea of troubles' - unjust criticism
Which metaphor* represents passive submission to
the injustice and suffering of life and which one 6 What escape from life's misery does Hamlet
suggests active rebellion? suggest in lines 20-21?
2 What does Hamlet compare death to in lines 5-10? 7 In line 22 Hamlet uses the expression 'to grunt and
3 Which expression in line 10 interrupts Hamlet's flow of sweat'. Which negative aspect of life is he drawing our
thoughts and introduces a different line of reasoning? attention to?
• Social discrimination
4 In line 12 Hamlet says that when we die we are • Political injustices
freed from 'this mortal coil'. Consider the meaning of • Emotional turmoil
'coil' given in the glossary and explain what Hamlet • Physical hardship
means in your own words.
Which expressions suggest that man is nothing more
5 In lines 15-21 Hamlet describes the suffering and than a beast of burden?
injustices of life. Find expressions which refer to the
8 What is the 'undiscovered country' from which no
following:
traveller returns, which Hamlet refers to in lines 24-25?
- unrequited love
- inefficiency in legal procedures 9 What, according to Hamlet, stops man from taking
- political oppression action? (Lines 28-33)

ANALYSIS
1 Which semantic field do the expressions 'slings and 7 Which of the following adjectives would you
arrows' (line 3) and 'to take arms' (line 4) belong to? choose to describe the tone of Hamlet's speech?
What image of life do they suggest? Justify your choice by referring to the text.
2 By comparing death to sleep (lines 5-10) does • Angry • Optimistic
Hamlet depict it positively or negatively? • Proud • Philosophical
• Ironic • Melancholic
3 In the opening ten lines of Hamlet's speech each • Passionate • Dejected
infinitive is balanced by another of similar or opposite
8 In this speech Hamlet does not use the pronouns
meaning. Link each of the infinitives in column A of
or 'me'. Which personal pronouns does he use and
the table below with an infinitive in column B.
who do they refer to?
A to be to suffer to die to sleep Would you consider the speech to be:
B to take arms to dream not to be to sleep • Hamlet's personal reflections on his immediate
situation?
4 Focus on lines 9-10: 'To die - to sleep -/To sleep! • a general analysis of the human condition?
perchance to dream'. What effect does the repeated On the basis of the answers you have given can you
use of infinitives create? explain the universal appeal of the speech?
• A soft, lulling effect
9 What aspects of Hamlet's character emerge from
• A harsh, rhythmic effect
the speech?
5 In his list of the injustices man suffers (lines 15-21) • His confusion
Hamlet uses personification*. In line 15 time is • His lack of courage
personified and described as having 'whips' and • His melancholy nature
'scorns'. Can you find other examples of • His strong religious convictions
personification in lines 15-21? • His weariness
6 Which expression in line 30 parallels and contrasts • His desire for revenge
with the expression 'natural hue of resolution' in • His hatred of his uncle
line 29? Which words in line 30 link thought and • His indecision
disease? • Other:
 •
' ^»iäSf
Hamlet - William Shakespeare 27

WRITERS WORKSHOP
Soliloquy is a theatrical convention in which a character speaks aloud to himself. The
character may not necessarily be alone on the stage; other characters may be present
but if they are, it is assumed they do not hear the words of the soliloquy. The play-
wright uses soliloquy to convey directly to the audience the character's motives, inten-
tions and his innermost feelings and thoughts, or simply to fill in parts of the story.

Which of the following purposes does the soliloquy you have just read serve?
• To fill in parts of the story
• To explain Hamlet's motives
• To outline Hamlet's intentions
• To convey Hamlet's feelings about his immediate situation
• To express Hamlet's thoughts on fundamental human problems

Soliloquy is used to develop the story or to help the audience to understand the inner
feelings of a character. Can you think of a similar convention that is often used in cinema for
the same purposes?

Hamlet is talking to his mother while Polonius is listening tco their conversation behind a
curtain (arras).

Act III Scene 4: The Queen's closet

HAMLET: Now, mother, what's the matter?
QUEEN: Hamlet, thou hast thy father much offended.
HAMLET: Mother, you have my father much offended.
QUEEN: Come, come, you answer with an idle1 tongue.
HAMLET: GO, go, you question with a wicked 2 tongue.
QUEEN: Why, how now, Hamlet! GLOSSARY •-

HAMLET: What's the matter now? (See note on Elizabethan

English on p. C3)
QUEEN: Have you forgot me?
1. idle:lazy
HAMLET: No, by the rood 3 , not so. 2. wicked: bad, cruel
You are the queen, your husband's brother's wife; 10 3. rood: crucifix
And - would it were not so 4 ! - you are my mother. 4. would it were not
so: I wish it was not
QUEEN: Nay5, then, I'll set 6 those to you that can speak. true
HAMLET: Come, come, and sit you down; you shall not 1budge7; 5. Nay: no
6. set: send (Polonius
You go not till I set you up a glass and Claudius)
Where you may see the inmost part of you. 15 7. budge: move
i 28 THE RENAISSANCE - D r a m a

QUEEN: What wilt thou do? Thou wilt not murder me?
Help, help, ho!
POLONIUS: [Behind] What, ho! Help, help, help!
8. draws (his sword):
takes his sword out HAMLET: [Draws8] How now! A rat? Dead! for a ducat, dead!
9. slain: killed
[Makes a pass through the arras.]
10. rash: foolish, stupid
11. wretched: worthless
POLONIUS: [Behind] O! I am slain 9 . [Falls and dies] 20
12. Leave wringing: stop QUEEN: O me! What hast thou done?
twisting (from
HAMLET: Nay, I know not. Is it the king?
discomfort or anxiety)
13.1 shall, If... stuff: QUEEN: O ! what a rash 10 and bloody deed is this!
this I will do if I can HAMLET: A bloody deed! Almost as bad, good mother,
penetrate it
14. wag: shake, move As kill a king, and marry with his brother. 25
15.blurs ... modesty: QUEEN: AS kill a king!
makes your grace and
pale colour of
HAMLET: Ay, lady, 'twas my word.
modesty disappear [Lifts up the arras and discovers POLONIUS]
16.blister: thin watery
Thou wretched 11 , rash, intruding fool, farewell!
swelling under the
skin I took thee for thy better; (...)
17. vows: solemn Leave wringing 12 of your hands. Peace; sit you down, 30
promises
18.dicers' oaths: And let me wring your heart; for so I shall,
promises made by If it be made of penetrable stuff 13 (...)
gamblers
19. roars: makes a loud
QUEEN: What have I done that thou dar'st wag 14 thy tongue
noise (like a lion's) In noise so rude against me?
20. thunders: makes a
HAMLET: Such an act 35
loud noise (like that
of thunder) That blurs the grace and blush of modesty 15 ;
21. index: list (of crimes) Calls virtue hypocrite; takes off the rose
22. counterfeit
presentment: portrait From the fair forehead of an innocent love,
(not real presentation) And sets a blister 16 there; makes marriage vows 17
23. brow: upper part of a
As false as dicers' oaths 18 . 40
face, above the nose
24. Hyperion: in Greek (...)
mythology, a giant-
QUEEN: Ay me, what act
sized god with
superhuman powers That roars 19 so loud, and thunders 20 in the index 21 ?
25. threaten: say HAMLET: Look here, upon this picture, and on this,
menacing words
26. station: posture The counterfeit presentment 22 of two brothers.
27. New lighted on the See, what a grace was seated on this brow 23 - 45
heaven-kissing hill:
newly, freshly arrived
Hyperion 24 's curls, the front of Jove himself;
on the high hill An eye like Mars, to threaten 25 and command;
28. A combination and a A station 26 like the herald Mercury
form: a combination
of qualities and New lighted on the heaven-kissing hill 27 ;
physical presence
A combination and a form 28 indeed 50
29. seal: official mark in
a document Where every god did seem to set his seal 29 ,
30.mildew'd ear: To give the world assurance of a man.
diseased ear of com
31. wholesome: healthy
This was your husband. Look you now, what follows:
32.Could you ... moor: Here is your husband, like a mildew'd ear 30
you abandoned Old Blasting his wholesome 31 brother. Have you eyes? 55
Hamlet (fair
mountain) and chose Could you on this fair mountain leave to feed,
Claudius (moor:
And batten on this moor 32 ? Ha! Have you eyes?
desolate land; batten:
become fat) You cannot call it love, for at your age
 Macbeth 29
- William Shakespeare

The hey-day in the blood is tame 33 , it's humble 34 ,

And waits upon the judgement 35 ; and what judgement 60
Would step from this to this?
(...)
QLTEN: O Hamlet, speak no more!
Thou turn'st my eyes into my very soul;
And there I see such black and grained spots 36
As will not leave their tinct 37 . 65
HAMLET: Nay, but to live
In the rank sweat 38 of an enseamed 39 bed,
Stew'd 40 in corruption, honeying 41 and making love
Ch er the nasty sty 42 -
QBEEN: O, speak to me no more; 70
These words, like daggers43, enter in my ears;
No more, sweet Hamlet! 39. enseamed: lurid
LET: A murderer and a villain! 40. Stew'd: immersed
41. honeying: sweet
A slave that is not twentieth part the tithe 44 talking
Of your precedent lord; a vice 45 of kings; 75 42. nasty sty: disgusting
A cutpurse 46 of the empire and the rule pig's den
43. daggers: knives
That from a shelf the precious diadem stole,
44. tithe: tax often
And put it in his pocket! percent given to
support the local
No more! church
'Enter the GHOST in his nightgown.] 45. vice: clown (in
i: A king of shreds and patches 47 - 80 Morality plays 'vice'
impersonated human
Save me, and hover 48 o'er me with your wings, vices and wore the
You heavenly guards! What would your gracious figure 49 ? multicoloured clothes
that would later
: Alas, he's mad! become typical of
": Do you not come your tardy 50 son to chide 51 , clowns)
46. cutpurse: thief
that, laps'd in time and passion 52 , lets go by 53 85
47. shreds and patches:
The important acting of your dread 54 command? badly dressed
Oh say! 48. hover: stay in the air
49. would your gracious
n Do not forget: this visitation figure: what is your
s but to whet thy almost blunted purpose 55 . wish?
But. look, amazement 56 on thy mother sits. 50. tardy: hesitating
90
51. chide: reprimand
Oh. step between her and her fighting soul - 52. laps'd in time and
Conceit 57 in weakest bodies strongest works - passion: guilty of
letting time pass and
Speak to her, Hamlet.
the passion of
: How is it with you, lady? revenge cool
:: Alas, how is't with you, 53. go by: pass
95
54. dread: terrifying
That you do bend your eye on vacancy 58 , 55.but to whet...
Xnd with the incorporal air do hold discourse 59 ? purpose: only to spur
C—) you into action
56. amazement: great
"«Vhereon do you look? surprise
57. Conceit: imagination
» - d a y ... tame: your 35. waits upon the judgement: 37. leave their tinct: lose their 58.bend ... vacancy:
•dual drive should have puts rational thought first colour, fade look into an empty
iminished 36. grained spots: ingrained 38. rank sweat: smelly space
- -amble: unimportant marks perspiration 59. hold discourse: talk
' J K
4 30 THE RENAISSANCE - D r a m a

HAMLET: O n h i m , o n h i m ! ( . . . )
QUEEN: TO whom do you speak this?
HAMLET: D O you see nothing there?
QUEEN: Nothing at all; yet all that is I see.
HAMLET: Nor did you nothing hear?
QUEEN: No, nothing but ourselves.
HAMLET: Why, look you there! Look, how it steals away 60 !
My father, in his habit 61 as he liv'd!

60. steals away: disappears 61. habit: clothes

4 rat? Dead! for a ducat, dead!

i scene from Hamlet (1948),
tarring Laurence Olivier.
m

COMPREHENSION
1 When the queen speaks of 'thy father' (line 2) and
Hamlet speaks of 'my father' (line 3), are they
referring to the same person?
2 When Hamlet says that the queen will see 'the
inmost part of you' (line 15), is he speaking literally or
figuratively? Does the queen understand what her son
wishes to do?
3 Who does Hamlet think is hiding behind the
curtains?
4 What does Hamlet mean when he says that he
wants to 'wring' the queen's heart? (Line 31)
5 When the queen asks Hamlet what she has done to
6 From line 43 to line 57 Hamlet compares his father
and his uncle Claudius.
In which lines does he describe his father?
In which lines does he describe his uncle?
7 At what point in the text does the queen seem to
admit that she has done something evil?
8 What overcomes the queen's judgement according
to Hamlet in lines 59-61?
9 Hamlet thinks that the ghost has come to
reprimand him. For what?
1 0 Does the ghost want Hamlet to take revenge on
his mother? Refer to the text in your answer.

1
anger him (lines 33-34), does he answer her question 1 1 Underline the sentences in the text that suggest
directly? that the queen cannot see or hear the ghost.

ANALYSIS
1 In the opening lines of the text Hamlet uses the 2 Focus on lines 20-29. Hamlet thinks that he has
queen's own words to point the finger of accusation killed Claudius when in fact he has mistakenly
away from himself and towards her. Find two murdered Polonius. Underline sentences that convey
examples. Hamlet's dispassionate indifference to his crime. How
How would you describe Hamlet's attitude towards would you explain his lack of emotion?
his mother in these opening lines? • He feels his actions are justified because he is
• Provocative • Mocking avenging his father's death.
• Sympathetic • Respectful • He is close to madness and no longer able to feel
• Loving • Other: emotions.
• He has little interest in killing and revenge; he is
more passionate about saving his mother's soul.
 Macbeth - William Shakespeare 137

3 Find an example of personification* in lines 37-42. 9 What purpose does the appearance of the ghost
Referring to the text, complete the following serve?
metaphors*: • It heightens tension by introducing a potentially
The crime committed by the queen: frightening supernatural element.
- makes modesty lose • It helps the audience to follow the plot of the play.
- makes virtue become M It makes the audience more sympathetic towards
- replaces a rose with the queen.
- transforms marriage vows into H If the ghost is interpreted as an extension of
What do the metaphors have in common with each Hamlet's thoughts, it shows the more forgiving
other and with the queen's actions? side of his nature.
4 Make a list of the gods Hamlet mentions in 1 0 Focus on the character of the queen. What is her
describing his father (lines 46-55). What do these attitude towards Hamlet? Find evidence in the text
allusions* to Greek and Latin mythology suggest that suggests that:
about Hamlet's view of his father? - in the past her relationship with Hamlet was
In the image that follows (lines 54-55), Hamlet's positive: line
father and his brother Claudius are compared to 'two - she is afraid of what Hamlet might do in his current
ears of corn'. Why is Hamlet's father 'wholesome' state: line
while Claudius is 'mildew'd'? - she loves Hamlet and knows the gentle side of his
nature: line
5 Complete the following table which analyses the
- she thinks that Hamlet is suffering from some form
metaphor in lines 56-57.
of mental disorder: line
tenor ground vehicle - she is concerned about Hamlet's well-being:
line
Hamlet's father wholesome, beautiful
lowly, ugly, barren moor 1 1 The queen speaks primarily in questions and
love healthy, dignified exclamations. Find some examples in the text. What
does her form of speech convey about her state of
j lust batten
mind? Do you feel sympathetic or angry towards the
queen in this scene?
6 Examine lines 66-69. What in Hamlet's opinion is
n e relationship between Claudius and the queen 1 2 Consider the aspects of Hamlet's character that
rased on? Which words in particular convey Hamlet's emerge from this text. Which of the following
degust? adjectives would you choose to describe him on the
7 What aspects of Claudius's character does Hamlet basis of this scene?
jnderline in the metaphors in lines 73-78? • Passionate
• Rational
8 Focus on the apparition of the ghost (lines 88-93). • Forgiving
Toes his attitude towards the queen confirm or • Hysterical
contrast with Hamlet's? • Confused
"he ghost is often considered to be a figment of • Heartless
-amlet's imagination, an extension of his mind and • Mad
conscience. If this is the case, what does the ghost's • Righteous
Ktrtude towards the queen suggest about the
Are they the same adjectives that you would use to
^»ationship between Hamlet and his mother?
describe Hamlet in text C6?
II That Hamlet despises his mother and cannot
forgive her.
• That Hamlet is caught between wishing to avenge
his father's death but not wishing to punish his
mother, whom he loves.
i 32 THE RENAISSANCE - D r a m a

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P
Figure A figure of speech is any use of language which deviates from the obvious or common
of speech usage in order to achieve a special meaning or effect. We use figures of speech in every-
day conversation when we say, for example, 'money talks' (personification) or 'it's rain-
ing cats and dogs' (metaphor) or 'they are like two peas in a pod' (simile).
In literature, figures of speech are used to create a stronger intellectual or emotional
impact on the reader or spectator and to add a range of depth of association. For exam-
ple, when Hamlet describes his father and Claudius he uses striking figures of speech
which make the descriptions stronger and more memorable. When a writer's work is
rich in figures of speech we describe his style as figurative. The text from Shakespeare's
Hamlet that you have just read is an excellent example of highly figurative writing.

Choose two figures of speech form Text C7 that you find striking and explain why you think
they are particularly effective.
OVER TO YOU Re-write lines 41-53 in non-figurative style. Try to reduce what the characters say to its
essentials and avoid the use of figures of speech.
When you have finished, read the original figurative version and your new literal version
aloud. Comment with your classmates on how the impact of the text changes.

STAC I N C T H E P L A Y
Suspense One way of incorporating suspense into a play is by giving the audience more information
than the characters themselves have, and allowing them to see dangers that the characters
are unaware of. The anxiety created in this situation is similar to what we feel when, in real
life, we can see that an accident is about to occur but we are unable to warn the person who
will be the victim.
OVER TO YOU Examine the scene you have just read from three different perspectives: Hamlet's, the
queen's, and the audience's. Use the table below to determine what each of them knows (/)
or does not know (X).
Hamlet The queen The audience knows that...

Polonius is hiding behind the curtain.

Hamlet wishes to avenge his father's death.
The queen has been Claudius's accomplice.
Hamlet is talking to a ghost.

Do the characters and the audience share the same information?

Who has most information - Hamlet, the queen or the audience?
When a character and the audience do not share the same information it is important that the
playwright and the director draw attention to it. In the scene you have just read the queen
shares little of the information that the audience has. Go through the text and underline the
statements in which the queen's partial understanding of the situation emerges. Choose some
of the lines and discuss what facial expressions and movements should accompany what the
queen is saying, and in what tone of voice the lines should be delivered.

Hamlet criticises his mother for marrying her brother-in-law Claudius. He is like other sons and daughters who find
fault with their parents and are not afraid to say it.
What annoys young people about their parents?
Examples: they never listen to what we have to say. They think they know everything.
Add others.
 Macbeth - William Shakespeare 33

Macbeth
by William Shakespeare

When we say that The end justifies the means', we mean that anything we do is justifiable if it helps us reach an
objective. This line of thinking, however, can bring a person face-to-face with a moral dilemma in situations where
he must use slightly or totally illegitimate or immoral means to reach a legitimate objective.
1 Look at the following situations and indicate whether you think the end justifies (Yes) the means or not (No).
2 In small groups compare your answers.
3 One member of each group reports the results to the rest of the class.

Means End
Copy. Pass an exam. Yes No
Tell your boy/girlfriend a lie. Meet another boy/girl. Yes No
Spread false rumours about an opposing Win an election. Yes No
candidate.
Shoot and injure an unarmed burglar who Protect your property. Yes No
is robbing your house.
Evade taxes. Have enough money to provide a good Yes No
education for your handicapped child.
Take drugs that improve performance but Win a sports competition. Yes No
do not damage health.

INTRODUCTION • The Macbeths are n o ordinary couple. They are going to get CHARACTERS
to the top and n o one is going to stop them. Here is Shakespeare at his thrilling • Duncan, King of
best. Scotland
• Malcolm, Duncan's
son
THE STORY — • Donalbain,
On their return from a victorious campaign, Macbeth and Banquo meet three witches. The Duncan's son
• Macbeth, General
witches prophesy that Macbeth will be made Thane of Cawdor, while Banquo's sons will of the king's army
become kings. The first prediction comes true immediately. Lady Macbeth is not content, • Banquo, General
however, because she wants her husband to be king and convinces him to kill Duncan ( • Text of the king's army
• Fleance, Banquo's
C8). The king's sons are wrongly suspected of the murder and flee abroad. Macbeth is son
crowned king. • Macduff, Thane
of Fife
Macbeth feels that Banquo and his son could be a threat to his throne, so he orders their
• Lady Macbeth,
assassination. The murderers manage to kill Banquo but Fleance escapes. Soon after the Macbeth's wife
killing, Banquo's ghost appears to Macbeth and he becomes increasingly worried about his • Three witches
e\il actions, which he sees no way of stopping. His wife has also been shaken by events and • Banquo's ghost
• Seyton, an officer
skirts showing the first signs of madness. in Macbeth's army
He goes back to the witches to find out what will happen in the future. They tell him to be
Note: A thane was a
•ary of Macduff, who has joined Malcolm in England, where they are raising an army to Scottish nobleman
snack Macbeth and dethrone him. When Macbeth hears of their plan he sends his soldiers to who was given land
by the king.
'acduff's castle where they kill Macduff's wife and children.
 i140THE RENAISSANCE - D r a m a

Macduff and Malcolm gather their forces and march on Scotland. Macbeth sets up his
defences in Dunsinane Castle and waits for the enemy to arrive. Just before the battle, to his
great surprise, he hears that Lady Macbeth has committed suicide ( • Text C9). He fights
bravely but is killed in a fight by Macduff, while Malcolm is crowned king of Scotland.

Q [Text C 8 Unsex me Here

Lady Macbeth has just read the letter from her husband telling her that he has been made
Thane of Cawdor, and that Duncan is to stay in their castle that evening.

Act 1, Scene 5: A room in Macbeth's castle at Inverness

LADY MACBETH: (...) The raven 1
Himself is hoarse 2
That croaks3 the fatal entrance of Duncan
Under my battlements 4 . Come, you spirits
That tend 5 on mortal thoughts, unsex me here 6 , 5
And fill me, from the crown to the toe 7 , top-full
Of direst8 cruelty! Make thick my blood,
Stop up th' access and passage to remorse;
That no compunctious visitings of nature 9
Shake my fell purpose 10 , nor keep peace between 10
Th' effect and it 11 . Come to my woman's breasts,
And take my milk for gall 12 , you murdering ministers 13 ,
Wherever in your sightless substances 14
You wait on nature's mischief 15 ! Come, thick night,
And pall 16 thee in the dünnest 17 smoke of hell, is
That my keen knife see not the wound it makes,
Nor heaven peep 18 through the blanket 19 of the dark
To cry, "Hold 20 , hold!"
[Enter MACBETH]

Great Glamis! Worthy Cawdor! 21

Greater than both, by the all-hail 22 , hereafter 23 ! 20
GLOSSARY
Thy letters have transported me beyond
(See note on Elizabethan This ignorant 24 present, and I feel now
English on p. C3)
The future in an instant 25 .
1. raven: large black
bird, thought to bring MACBETH: My dearest love,
bad luck
Duncan comes here tonight. 25
2. is hoarse: cries out
roughly
3. croaks: makes a
harsh, low sound nature: natural feelings of Macbeth is referring to the 20. Hold: stop
4. battlements: top part conscience spirits 21.Great Glamis! Worthy
of a castle 10.Shake ... purpose: change 14. sightless substances: Cawdor!: Macbeth was
5. tend: take care of my ruthless plan invisible forms both thane of Glamis and
6. unsex me here: 11.nor keep ... it: come 15.wait ... mischief: help the thane of Cawdor
remove my between my plan and the evil forces in nature 22. all-hail: greeted by
femininity action itself 16. pall: cover everyone
7. crown to the toe: 12.And take ... gall: replace 17.dunnest: darkest 23. hereafter: in future
head to foot my milk with bitter 18. peep: give a quick 24. ignorant: lacking
8. direst: worst poison secretive look knowledge of the future
9. compunctious ... 13. ministers: here Lady 19.blanket: cover 25. in an instant: very soon
 Macbeth - William Shakespeare 141

LADY MACBETH: And when goes hence 26 ?

MACBETH: Tomorrow, as he purposes 27 .
LADY MACBETH: O! never
Shall sun that morrow see 28 !
Your face, my thane, is as a book, where men 30
May read strange matters. To beguile the time,
Look like the time 29 , bear welcome 30 in your eye,
Your hand, your tongue: look like the innocent flower
But be the serpent under't. He that's coming
Must be provided for 31 ; and you shall put 35
This night's great business into my despatch 32 ;
Which shall to all our nights and days to come
Give solely sovereign sway and masterdom 33 .
MACBETH: We will speak further 34 .
LADY MACBETH: Only look up clear 35 ; 40
To alter favour ever is to fear 36 .
Leave all the rest to me.

26. goes hence: goes away
27.as he purposes: so he
intends
28.Shall ... see: tomorrow
will not come for Duncan
29.To beguile ... the time: to
deceive the people around,
wear an expression that
suits the occasion
30. bear welcome: appear
welcoming, friendly
31. provided for: looked after
32. into my despatch: under
my control
33. sovereign sway
and masterdom: kingship
34. speak further: talk about
it again
35. look up clear: look at
me directly
36.To alter favour ... fear:
to change the expression
on your face means to
live forever in fear

COMPREHENSION
1 Lady Macbeth calls on the spirits of evil to suppress her natural sentiments as a woman. She uses three very
forceful images. Link each image with the aspect of her nature she wishes to suppress.
Lines 5-7: unsex me here ... direst cruelty Maternal instinct
Lines 7-11: Make thick my blood ... Th' effect and it. Femininity
Lines 11-14: Come to my woman's breasts... nature's mischief Remorse

2 Why does she want the night to be very dark? (Lines 14-15)
3 What advice does Lady Macbeth give her husband? (Lines 30-38)
4 What will they gain by committing the murder, according to Lady Macbeth?

ANALYSIS
1 A raven is a black crow which is often associated
with death. Why is it appropriate that this bird
sounds the fanfare' for Duncan's entrance into
Macbeth's castle?
2 Find an example of personification* in line 17. Which
s presented as the stronger force: heaven and the
Dowers of good or nighttime and the powers of evil?
3 Lady Macbeth greets her husbands by saying
'Great Glamis! Worthy Cawdor!'. Why does she use
his titles instead of a more personal form of
salutation?
4 Lady Macbeth encourages her husband to deceive
Duncan through his body language. Which body parts
does she tell him to be particularly careful about and why?
 i142THE RENAISSANCE - D r a m a

5 According to Lady Macbeth, her husband should Does Lady Macbeth use these veiled words because
pretend to be a flower while actually being the she is:
serpent beneath it. What associations do you make • testing how Macbeth will react to the possibility of
with the image of the serpent? murder?
6 Lines 35-36 contain a number of double meanings. • still unsure herself about the awfulness of murder?
provided for = fed or killed • afraid that direct language will make Macbeth
business = feasting or murder refuse to act?
despatch = carrying out the welcome or killing • other:

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P
Onomatopoeia Onomatopoeia is the literary term that is used when the sound of a word resembles
the sound it denotes. Examples of onomatopoeia can be found in verbs such as:
Wm buzz: the sound a bee makes
slam: the sound of a violently closed door
mm bang: the noise made by an explosion.
8®Sl
Jftlf.
TASK Find an example of onomatopoeia in the opening lines of Lady Macbeth's speech.
Ssmm
OVER TO YOU Link the onomatopoeiaic words to the sounds they denote.
hiss sound made by frying food
rattle sound made by a drink that contains a lot of gas
screech sound made by a snake
sizzle little, low, crying sound
whimper short knocking sound made when something is shaken
mm - fizz unpleasant high-pitched cry

STAC I N 6 T H E P L A Y
Tone In everyday speech the tone of voice we use can change the meaning of what we say. A
simple expression such as 'sit down' can become an order, an invitation or a question
depending on the tone that is used. Actors also use tone of voice to convey meaning. In the
extract you have just read, for example, line 26 'And when goes hence?' can be read as a
simple question or in a way that suggests that Duncan may never leave the castle,
depending on the tone the actor uses.
Occasionally the playwright will make suggestions about the tone that should be used. Words
such as 'angrily', 'playfully' or 'remorsefully' may appear in the stage directions. However, it
is usually the actor and the director who decide what tone would be most appropriate.
OVER TO YOU Work in three groups. Each group should focus on a section of Lady Macbeth's soliloquy.
Group 1 Lines 4-7 Come, you spirits ... Of direst cruelty!
Group 2 Lines 7-11 Make thick my blood ... Th'effect and it.
Group 3 Lines 11-14 Come to my woman's breasts ... on nature's mischief!
Experiment with different tones of voice when you say the lines: whisper them, hiss them
fiercely, speak them as if in a trance, chant them like a spell.

When Lady Macbeth says 'unsex me here', she implies that she should turn into a man in order to be able to
organise and carry out Duncan's murder.
From our twenty-first century perspective, does this idea that only men are capable of being clinically cruel and
cold-hearted still seem valid?
Can you think of any female characters in books, films or on TV that are cold-hearted and cruel? Discuss with your
classmates.
 Macbeth - William Shakespeare 37

The Sound and the Fury Text C 9

Macduff's and Malcolm's army, made up of English and Scottish soldiers, is about to attack
Macbeth's army, which is defending the castle ofDunsinane.

[Enter with drum and colours, M A C B E T H , SEYTON and soldiers.]

\LACBETH: Hang out our banners 1 on the outward walls;

The cry is still, "They come!" Our castle's strength
Will laugh a siege to scorn 2 ; here let them lie,
Till famine and the ague3 eat them up 4 .
Were they not forced5 with those that should be ours6,
We might have met them dareful, beard to beard 7 ,
And bear them backward home 8 .
[.4 cry within, of women]
What is that noise?
SEYTON: It is the cry of women, my good lord.
IExit]
?ETH: I have almost forgot the taste of fears. 10

The time has been, my senses would have cooled

To hear a night-shriek 9 ; and my fell of hair
Would, at a dismal treatise, rouse and stir,
As life were i n ' t 1 0 . 1 have supped full with horrors:
Direness11, familiar to my slaughterous 12 thoughts, 15

Cannot once start me 13 .

SRe-enter SEYTON]
Wherefore 14 was that cry?
\: The queen, my lord, is dead.
ETH: She should have died hereafter 15 :
There would have been a time for such a word 16 .

ARY 9. The time ... night-shriek:

*e on Elizabethan
on p. C 3 )
tanners: flags
Nir castle's strength ...
i: they will never be
b to capture our castle
ne: fever
t them up: weaken them
I they can no longer fight
taced: reinforced
•±Oie that should be ours:
zae Scottish soldiers
Wanting against Macbeth
» e might ... beard: we
m z h t have fought them in
lie open, man-to-man
... home: and forced
" a m back to where they
• n e from
in the past I would have
been afraid if I heard a cry
in the night
10. fell of hair ... As life were
i n ' t : when 1 heard a
frightening story (dismal
treatise) my hair (fell of
hair) would stand up (rouse
and stir) as if it were alive
11. Direness: horror
12. slaughterous: murderous
13. Cannot once start me:
cannot frighten me now
14. Wherefore: what was the
reason for?
15. hereafter: later
16. a time for such a word: a
better time to hear this
 THE RENAISSANCE - D r a m a

17.Creeps ... day: one Tomorrow, and tomorrow, and tomorrow,

day follows
(creeps) another in Creeps in this petty pace from day to day 17 ,
the same To the last syllable of recorded time 18 ;
insignificant way;
creep: move in a
And all our yesterdays have lighted fools
slow, quiet, careful The way to dusty death 19 . Out, out, brief 20 candle! 25
way
Life's but a walking shadow, a poor player 21
18.T0 ... time: until
the end of the That struts and frets 22 his hour upon the stage,
world And then is heard no more: it is a tale
19. And all ... dusty Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury,
death: every day
we have lived (all Signifying nothing. 30
our yesterdays),
somebody has been
shown the way 20. brief: short 22. struts and frets: show dignity and
(lighted) to death 21. player: actor tries unsuccessfully to passion

COMPREHENSION
1 Does Macbeth believe that his castle can withstand 4 Does the future hold any promise for Macbeth?
a siege?
5 Does he take any pleasure from thinking of the past?
2 Why does he not fight the enemy army in man-to-
man combat? 6 Can he see any meaning in life?

3 Why is Macbeth no longer fearful?

ANALYSIS
1 Find an example of personification* in Macbeth's 5 Macbeth describes life in a series of striking images
opening lines (1-5). (lines 25-30). Link each image to the aspect of life he
wishes to underline.
2 In line 10 fear is presented as if it were a type of
food. Underline the expression that establishes this Life is a ... Life is ...
association. The food imagery is continued in line 14
brief candle insubstantial
'I have supped full with horrors'. Try to explain this
walking shadow meaningless
image in your own words.
poor player undignified
3 Focus on line 19 'She should have died hereafter'. tale told by an idiot short
The word 'should' can mean 'would' or 'ought to'
and the line can be interpreted in a sympathetic or
unsympathetic way. If the meaning 'would' is taken, it 6 Macbeth's mood changes dramatically in the
suggests that Macbeth no longer cares about his wife. course of this extract. Which of the adjectives below
If 'should' is interpreted as 'ought to', it implies that best describe his mood in the following lines?
Macbeth feels his wife's death is premature, and that Lines 1-8
perhaps he could have intervened to save her, or at Lines 10-1 7
least had time to mourn her. Read the line in different Lines 19-30
ways to suggest the two meanings. If you were the defiant philosophical sombre
director of the play which of the two interpretations hesitant reflective confident
would you choose? nostalgic morbid
4 What is the effect of the repetition* of the word
tomorrow in line 21 ? How do you think this line
should be delivered?
• Slowly in a weary tone
• Quickly in a frantic tone
• Other:
 Macbeth - William Shakespeare 39

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P
Metaphor The language of Shakespeare's plays is highly poetic. One of the elements that gives his
work a poetic quality is the use of metaphors. A metaphor is an implied comparison
which creates a total identification between the two things being compared. Words
such as 'like' or 'as' are not used. A metaphor is made up of three elements:
the tenor, i.e. the subject under discussion (for example, 'life');
the vehicle, i.e. what the subject is compared to (for example, a 'candle');
the ground, i.e. what the poet believes the tenor and the vehicle have in common (for
example, 'brevity').
Metaphors have several important functions. They arouse emotions and feelings and
help us to create mental pictures that are memorable. They often appeal to our senses.
They compress meaning into a few lines and help us to understand difficult abstract
ideas by making reference to familiar concrete items.

TASKS 1 Consider the metaphors in lines 26-30. In each case 'life' is the tenor. What are the
- vehicles and the grounds?
mm 2 Which of the metaphors for life in Macbeth's soliloquy do you find most striking and why?
''Hmk3 Do any of the metaphors help you to create mental pictures? Could you draw a picture
which would illustrate any of the metaphors?

OVER TO YOU Write your own metaphor for life and explain the ground. Example:
Life is a maths lesson.
Ground: the more time passes the less you understand!

STAC INC T H E P L A Y
Timing Timing refers to the pace at which an actor delivers his lines. Through timing an actor can
direct the audience's attention to what is most important for the understanding of a play.
If an actor delivers all his lines at the same pace it is difficult for the audience to identify
and absorb essential information. This is particularly the case when the language of the
play is highly figurative as is the case in Shakepearean drama. Choosing the correct places
to pause and the correct speed of delivery is an essential part of an actor's preparation.

OVER TO YOU Actors have many techniques which they use to improve their timing. One such technique is
the addition of 'silent lines' to the text. These are lines that are not spoken aloud. The
unspoken words help the actor to achieve the appropriate timing.
Consider Macbeth's soliloquy at the end of the extract you have read. Read the soliloquy,
saying the added words (in italics) silently to yourself and the original text aloud.

Life's but a-walking shadow, [nothing more] a poor player [of no consequence]
That struts and frets his hour upon the stage, [of pain and disillusion]
And then is heard no more [gone forever]: it is a tale [a sad tale]
Told by an idiot, [who does not understand what he says] full of sound and fury, [empty noises]
Signifying nothing.
Choose a short extract (4-6 lines) from the material you have studied. Add some 'silent
lines'. Learn the passage by heart and prepare to perform the piece.

Macbeth, having been the most powerful man in Scotland, is now totally disillusioned with life. If you were to
meet him, what questions would you ask him?
3repare some questions. Split up into pairs. Student A is the interviewer. Student B is Macbeth. When Student A

-as finished asking his questions, invert roles.

 Sonnets
by William Shakespeare

INTRODUCTION • Shakespeare is known as 'the Bard', which means 'poet'. This is because much of the
language in his plays is poetic and because he also wrote poems. You are going to read two of the 154 son-
nets that have come down to us. These two, like m a n y others, give unusual perspectives on the theme of
love.

rDBDD DD
Have you ever felt that nothing is going right in your life? Have you ever wished that you were better-looking or
richer or more intelligent? Have you ever wished that you had more friends? If you have, then you will find it easy
to understand Shakespeare, who, in this poem, thinks about those times when he can see nothing good in his life.
Read the poem and find how he lifts himself out of depression.

o T e x t CM Sonnet 29
• Visual Link C6 When in disgrace with fortune and men's eyes,
I all alone beweep 1 my outcast state 2 ,
And trouble 3 deaf Heaven with my bootless 4 cries,
And look upon myself, and curse 5 my fate,

Wishing me like to 6 one more rich in hope, 5

Featured' like him, like him with friends possess'd 8 ,
Desiring this man's art 9 and that man's scope 10 ,
With what I most enjoy contented least 11 ;

Yet in these thoughts myself almost despising 12 ,

Haply 13 I think on thee, - and then my state 10
(Like to a lark 14 at break of day arising
From sullen 15 earth) sings hymns at heaven's gate 16 ;

For thy sweet love remember'd such wealth brings 17 ,

That then I scorn 18 to change my fate with kings.

GLOSSARY 6. Wishing me like to: 12. despising: hating

(See note on Elizabethan
English on p. C3)
1. beweep: cry over
2. outcast state: condition of
being exiled, separated
3. trouble: disturb
4. bootless: useless
5. curse: complain angrily
about
desiring to be
7. Featured: looking
8. with friends possess'd:
having friends
9. art: skill
10. scope: knowledge
11. With ... least: not even
enjoying the things I most
like doing
13. Haply: perhaps
14. lark: very small song bird
15.sullen: dark, sad
16. heaven's gate: doors of
paradise
17.thy sweet love ... brings:
the remembrance of your
love brings such richness
18. scorn: refuse
 Macbeth - William Shakespeare 41

COMPREHENSION
1 Why does the poet weep? (Line 2) 3 What changes the poet's mood?
2 What does he envy in other men? 4 Who does the poet feel superior to, according to
a. (line 5) line 14?
b. (line 6)
c. (line 6)
d. (line 7)
e. (line 7)

ANALYSIS
1 Focus on line 2. How does the poet suggest that he 7 The table below illustrates the poet's view of his
feels lonely and unloved? Can you find any other 'state' at the beginning and at the end of the poem.
evidence in the poem that the poet feels lonely?
Beginning of the poem End of the poem
2 What is heaven commonly believed to listen to?
Why does the poet feel that heaven is deaf? (Line 3) Heaven Heaven
Kings The poet
3 Focus on lines 5-8. Does the poet envy other men
Other men Kings
their material possessions? What do these lines
The poet Other men
suggest about how the poet feels about himself?
4 Consider line 8. Does this line suggest that the In what sense does the poet, like the lark, 'ascend' in
poet is happy or sad? In this line there is the the course of the poem?
juxtaposition of two opposites. What are they?
8 Work out the rhyming scheme of the sonnet*.
5 The only image that the poem contains occurs in
Where does the rhyming scheme change? Would you
line 11, where the poet compares himself to a lark
agree that the last two lines of the sonnet summarise
ascending in the sky. Would you agree that the image
its content?
is more striking because it is alone? What graphic
The poem is written in iambic pentameter* - five pairs
feature attracts our attention to the image?
of unstressed/stressed syllables. Break line 1 into its
6 Explain how line 12 contrasts with line 3. syllables and then mark the stressed syllables.

WRITERS W O R K S H O P
Simile A simile is a figure of speech in which a comparison between two distinctly different
things is indicated by the word Tike' or 'as'. Like a metaphor, a simile is made up of
three elements:
the tenor, i.e. the subject under discussion;
the vehicle, i.e. what the subject is compared to;

the ground, i.e. what the poet believes the tenor and the vehicle have in common.

Consider the simile in lines 11-12.

What is the subject under discussion? The tenor is
What is the subject compared to? The vehicle is
What do the two have in common? The ground is
OVER TO YOU Try writing a simile for an emotional state such as happiness, sadness, fear. Examples:
I was as happy as a lottery winner who had just been handed his cheque for a million pounds.
My heart was like a stone that sank to the bottom of a well.

-low do you pull yourself out of a state of depression or unhappiness? Make a list of the things you do that help to
cheer you up.
 Rm' .

ki 4 2 T H E RENAISSANCE - P o e t r y

Can someone love us if we are not very good looking or even quite ugly? Are we condemned to a life of misery if
we do not look like a film star? Read what Shakespeare thinks in the following poem. "

Q Text C l l Sonnet 130

GLOSSARY
My mistress' eyes are nothing like the sun;
(See note on Elizabethan
English on p. C3) Coral is far more red than her lips' red:
1. dun: dark If snow be white, why then her breasts are dun 1 :
2. wires: long, thin
pieces of metal. In If hairs be wires 2 , black wires grow on her head.
Elizabethan poetry
the word 'wire' was
used to refer to I have seen roses damask'd 3 , red and white,
golden, shiny hair But n o such roses see I in her cheeks;
3. damask'd: light red
And in some perfumes is there more delight 4
or pink
4. delight: pleasure Than in the breath that from my mistress reeks 5 .
5. reeks: has an
unpleasant smell
6. grant: admit I love to hear her speak, - yet well I know
7. go: walk That music hath a far more pleasing sound: 10
8. treads: walks with a I grant 6 I never saw a goddess go 7 , -
heavy step
9. As any ... compare: My mistress, when she walks, treads 8 on the ground.
as any woman who
was mistakenly
praised for being more And yet, by heaven, I think my love as rare
beautiful than her As any she belied with false compare 9 .

COMPREHENSION —
1 The poet describes his love through a series of 3 The sonnet can be divided into two parts, one in
comparisons. Complete the table below with the which the poet views his mistress objectively and the
terms of comparison. other where he views her subjectively.
Which lines give an objective view?
the poet's mistress terms of comparison
Which lines give a subjective view?
eyes Can you explain the last two lines of the sonnet in
her lips your own words?
her breasts
her hairs 4 Is the poet's mistress the same as other women
her cheeks described in poems? Is the poet disappointed by
her breath this or is it her uniqueness that makes his love 'rare'?
the way she walks (Line 1 3)

Are the comparisons negative or positive?

2 In describing his mistress the poet appeals to the

reader's sense of sight, smell and hearing. Say which
comparisons appeal to which sense.
Sight lines
Smell lines
Hearing lines

I
 Sonnets - William Shakespeare 43

ANALYSIS —
1 The terms of comparison Shakespeare used 4 Work out the rhyming scheme of the sonnet. At
(eyes/sun, lips/coral, breasts/snow, etc.) are typical of which line does the rhyming scheme change? Would
Elizabethan courtly love poetry. Do you find these you agree that the last two lines are different from the
comparisons original or banal? Does Shakespeare use rest of the poem? In what way?
them seriously or is he ridiculing this type of poetry?
5 The poem is written in iambic pentameter* - five
2 Imagine you had to read the poem aloud. What pairs of unstressed/stressed syllables. Break line 1 into
tone of voice would you use? its syllables and then mark the stressed syllables.
• Ironic • Comic • Serious
• Romantic • Mocking • Apologetic
• Other:
3 Although it was written as a witty attack on courtly
love sonnets, the message of the poem is serious.
Which of the following statements best summarises
the theme of the poem?
• Women should not be glorified in poetry.
• There are many different types of beauty.
• True love does not demand physical perfection.
• Beauty lies in the eye of the beholder.

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P
Parody A parody imitates the work of another author, usually with the intention of ridiculing
it. Shakespeare's Sonnet 130 is a parody of a form of poetry which was popular in
Elizabethan England. The Petrarchan love sonnet, in which a poet compared his lover
to natural beauties, was named after the fourteenth-century Italian poet who wrote a
series of love sonnets for his beloved Laura. This form of poetry was first imitated in
England by Sir Thomas Wyatt ( • p. C55) at the beginning of the sixteenth century and
met with great success. Shakespeare himself often wrote this form of love sonnet.
However, in Sonnet 130 he chooses to make fun of it.

Sonnet 1 30 is almost a mocking reply to a Petrarchan sonnet. Using the Shakespearean

'reply' as a basis try to to reconstruct the type of sonnet that is being parodied.

Petrachan Sonnet Sonnet 130

My mistress' eyes are like the sun My mistress' eyes are nothing like the sun
(...) (•••)

Do you know of any other forms of parody, for example, films that parody other films or
comic actors that imitate and parody famous people? Think of an example and try to explain
how it works.

•DB
Shakespeare says in this poem that you can love someone even if they are not good-looking. Which of the
following, do you think, are factors in attracting one person to another?
• Sense of humour • Sensitivity • Wealth • Intelligence
• Physical strength • Vulnerability • Social class
Add some more factors of your own.
 i 44 THE RENAISSANCE - Drama

WRITERS' GALLERY

r-ÄrSK The beginnings Little is

known about the events of
William Shakespeare's life. He was born in Stratford-upon-Avon in
1564, probably on April 23rd. His father, a glover by trade, was a
prominent local figure who held important positions in the
government of the town. His mother came from a prosperous
local family.
William Shakespeare probably attended Stratford grammar
school, but he did not go on to study at university. When he was
eighteen he married Anne Hathaway, who was eight years his
s e n i o r , and six months later his first child Susanna was born,
followed three years later by twins Hamnet and Judith.
W I L L I A M SHAKESPEARE
It is commonly believed that Shakespeare left Stratford to avoid
(1564-L616)
being arrested for poaching.

Career He went to London where he did a series of jobs, including holding theatre-goers' horses
outside playhouses. He eventually became an actor, and by 1592 he was sufficiently well-known as a
dramatist to be the subject of an attack by the playwright Robert Greene (1558-1592). Greene wrote a
pamphlet in which he complained that uneducated dramatists were becoming more popular than
university men like himself. In it he called Shakespeare 'an upstart Crow, beautified with our feathers'.

Success and prosperity In 1595 Shakespeare joined an important company of actors called The Lord
Chamberlain's Men (later changed to The King's Men) and performed at court. His success as a dramatist
grew. He mixed in high social circles and the Earl of Southampton, to whom he dedicated his sonnets,
became his patron and friend. His improved financial standing allowed him to invest in the building
of the Globe Theatre and in 1597 he bought New Place, the finest house in Stratford.

Retirement and death He retired to his hometown in 1611, where he died on April 23rd 1616.

TASK
Answer these questions.
\J a. When and where was Shakespeare born?
b. Who did he marry and at what age?
c. Why did Robert Greene call him 'an upstart crow'?
d. What was The Lord Chamberlain's Men?
e. What was The Globe?
laB f. How did he spend the last years of his life?
Wi

His sources Shakespeare wrote thirty-seven plays in a period of

WORKS
about twenty years, from 1591 to 1611. He used many sources for
his plays including the classical Greek and Latin writings of Plutarch and Plautus, the Italian works of
Matteo Bandello, Giraldo Cinzio and Ser Giovanni Fiorentino, and the English historian Holinshed's
Chronicles of England, Scotland and Ireland (1577), a source of material for many Elizabethan playwrights.
 Writers' Gallery - William Shakespeare

•mm- - ^msmmm :,mmmm" mmm^mmmm.

Shakespeare did not publish his plays. Some of his works were put together from notes taken in the
theatres or reconstructed from memory by actors. They are referred to as Bad Quartos. Quartos are
large-sized books made of sheets of folded paper. They are called 'Bad' because they are full of gaps
and mistakes.
In 1623, seven years after Shakespeare's death, two former actors and friends of Shakespeare's,
Heminge and Condell, decided to publish the first collection of his plays. The so-called First Folio
included thirty-five plays that were divided into 'Comedies, Histories and Tragedies'.

The Four Periods The plays were not dated. However, approximate dates have subsequently been
given to them based on:
• references to contemporary events in the play;
• references to the works of other writers which are dated;
• style, plot, characterisation and metre used in the play.
Shakespeare's plays are usually divided into four periods:

First Period The first period covers the years from 1590 to 1595 and was a period of learning and
experimentation. In these years Shakespeare wrote very different types of plays:
• chronicle plays dealing with the history of England, such as Henry VI and Richard III;
• comedies which include A Midsummer Night's Dream and The Taming of the Shrew;
• the tragedies Titus Andronicus and Romeo and Juliet.

'In the Globe Theatre, Southwark' from Vischers View of London (1616).
 THE RENAISSANCE - Poetry

<k

Second Period During the second period, from 1596 to the turn of the century, Shakespeare focused
on chronicle plays and comedies and it is generally agreed that it was during these years that he
wrote his best comedies, including The Merchant of Venice, The Merry Wives of Windsor, Much Ado
About Nothing, As You Like It and Twelfth Night, which base their comedy on a wide range of themes
such as the pain and pleasure of love, mistaken identity and the degrading of materialistic and
humourless people.

Third Period During the third period, from 1600 to 1608, Shakespeare wrote his great tragedies.
These plays have given world theatre unforgettable characters such as Hamlet, King Lear, Othello
and Macbeth.
The comedies that were written in this period no longer have the bright, optimistic appeal of earlier
works. The darker elements that are found in works such as Measure for Measure seem to suggest that
Shakespeare was experiencing difficulties in his personal life which made his outlook rather
pessimistic.

mm Fourth Period A return to a happier state of mind is reflected in the plays of the final period from
m 1609 to 1612. The Tempest, for example, is set in the ideal world of an enchanted island where an
atmosphere of magic, music, romance and harmony prevails.
Shakespeare is widely regarded as
one of the greatest dramatists in
world literature. The universal
^SSff" • I N appeal of his work is based on its
timeless themes, unforgettable
characters and powerful language.
His ability to engage the audience's
attention has remained unsurpassed
to the present day.

cene from Prospero's

Dks, a Peter Greenaway film
>97) based on The Tempest
William Shakespeare.

a TASK
Take notes under the following headings and prepare a short talk on Shakespeare's plays.
Sources:
Bad quartos:
r ; First folio:
WM
Main characteristics and major plays of:
- First period:
- Second period:
- Third period:
- Fourth period:
r"a'wftfe
Shakespeare's reputation is based on:
 •M&K

Writers' Gallery - William Shakespeare 47

\mmmmm-r mwmm^

Plays for audiences The relationship between audiences and

SHAKESPEARE'S
THEATRICAL GENIUS performers was very intimate in Elizabethan theatres. Spectators
sat on the stage or stood close to the performer and openly
expressed their opinions about what was taking place on stage. Shakespeare had an unparalleled
ability to entertain all sections of his audiences; the more intellectual elements enjoyed the poetic
language and subtle characterisation of his work while the less educated spectators delighted in the
compelling storylines, gory battlescenes and humorous intrigues.

Variety of themes The variety of timeless themes in Shakespeare's works is unsurpassed:

• the appeal of an unsophisticated life in harmony with nature (As You Like It)-,
• ambition and jealousy, deception and crime (Macbeth, Othello);
• greed, corruption and ingratitude (King Lear);
• love and politics (Antony and Cleopatra);
• crime, guilt and punishment (Macbeth, Richard III);
• the all-conquering power of love (Much Ado About Nothing);
• the impatience of youth (Romeo and Juliet);
• the pains and pleasures of love (The Merry Wives of Windsor, Much Ado About Nothing, As You Like It).

Unforgettable characters Shakespeare portrayed an unforgettable gallery of characters:

• Hamlet, a complex and sensitive idealist who is paralysed by indecision;
• King Lear, a proud misguided father who loses his mind when he understands his daughters' true
nature;
m
J^isss

• Othello, a naive victim of his enemy's envy and treachery;

• Macbeth, a soldier who is transformed into King Lear mourning the death
of his daughter, Cordelia.
murderer by ambition;
• Lady Macbeth, a scheming, ambitious wife
who realises, too late, the horror of what she
has done;
• Richard III, a liar, manipulator and murderer.

Mastery of language The highly poetic quality

of the language is a feature of all Shakespeare's
plays. In Elizabethan theatres scenery and props
were almost non-existent so Shakespeare had to
conjure up settings, moods, and atmospheres
with his words. His richly dense language, with
its striking imagery and musicality, is perhaps
his greatest legacy. Many of the lines from his
plays are so memorable that they have become
everday sayings in the English language, for
example All's Well That Ends Well (title of a play),
'Neither a borrower nor a lender be' (Hamlet).

TASK —
Prepare a brief talk in which you outline the reasons for Shakespeare's greatness.
THE RENAISSANCE - Poetry

Shakespeare's sonnets - 154 in all - were first published in 1609

THE SONNETS
without the knowledge or consent of their author. Though there
is very little direct evidence which might point to a specific date of composition, on stylistic grounds
it is believed that they were written at an earlier date.
The sonnets have been conventionally divided into two groupings:
Sonnets 1-126 are addressed to or concern an unnamed 'fair youth', probably Shakespeare's friend
and patron the Earl of Southampton.
Sonnets 127-154 are about a woman who is conventionally referred to as the 'dark lady', presumably
Shakespeare's mistress. The poet speaks about his troubled love for the woman (who is married) and
describes a painful relationship in which they are both unfaithful to each other.

Themes The range of emotions explored in the sonnets is extraordinary: confident declarations of
unselfish love, sad parting words, expressions of joy at reunion or bitter disappointment at mutual
infidelity.

Styles The range of styles is greatly varied. In many sonnets the style is complex and rich while in
others the vocabulary, syntax and form are disarmingly simple. The best of the sonnets are widely
considered to be the finest love poems in English literature.

TASK
Answer these questions.
a. How many sonnets did Shakespeare write?
b. Who are sonnets 1 - 1 2 6 addressed to?
c. Who is the 'dark lady'?
d. Are all the sonnets written in the same style?

The few existing documents about Shakespeare only certify that

THE REAL SHAKESPEARE
he was b o r n in Stratford-upon-Avon in 1 5 6 4 , got married at
eighteen, had three children, left Stratford and went to London, became an actor and owned a share
of the Globe Theatre. Evidence also exists that he returned to Stratford in his forties, bought a big
house, looked after his properties and died in 1616. In his will there is no mention of returns from
plays or poems. Only six examples of his handwriting exist: six signatures, all with a different
spelling of his name. His death went totally unnoticed. Scholars have wondered how someone with
Shakespeare's social and educational background could know so much about history, Italy, Latin,
Greek and all the other subjects that filled his plays. For over a century now many have voiced their
doubts about the real identity of the author of 'Shakespeare's plays'.
 Writers' Gallery - William Shakespeare

The works of Shakespeare: TIMELINE

Period I Approx. date Plays
Plays of Experimentation 1590-1591 Henry VI (parts I, II, III) (History plays)
Titus Andronicus (Tragedy)
1592-1593 Richard III (History play)

The Comedy of Errors (Comedy)

1593-1594 The Taming of the Shrew (Comedy)

The Two Gentlemen of Verona (Comedy)

1594-1595 Love's Labour's Lost (Comedy)
Romeo and Juliet (Tragedy)
Richard II (History play)
A Midsummer Night's Dream (Comedy)
King john (History play)

1593-1595 Sonnets

Period II
Artistic maturity: 1596-1597 The Merchant of Venice (Comedy)
Lyrical masterpieces The Merry Wives of Windsor (Comedy)
and Chronicle Plays Henry IV (I, II) (History plays)
Much Ado About Nothing (Comedy)
Henry V (History play)

1598-1599 As You Like It (Comedy)

Twelfth Night (Comedy)
Julius Caesar (History play)

Period III
The Great Tragedies 1600-1601 Hamlet (Tragedy)
Troilus and Cressida (Tragedy)

1602-1603 All's Well That Ends Well (Comedy/Romance)

Measure for Measure (Comedy/Romance)
Othello (Tragedy)

1604-1605 King Lear (Tragedy)

Macbeth (Tragedy)

1606-1607 Antony and Cleopatra (Tragedy)

Coriolanus (Tragedy)

1608 Timon of Athens (Tragedy)

Period I V
Last Plays 1609 Pericles (Tragedy)

Cymbeline (Romance)
1609-1610
The Winter's Tale (Romance)

The Tempest (Romance)

1611
Henry VIII (probably incomplete, History play)
 Historical and Social Background

Britain 1485-1625
The kings and queens of England in the sixteenth century all descended
THE TUDOR YEARS
from a Welsh squire, Owen Tudor. This dynasty produced three great
Three great leaders leaders who left an indelible mark on the country:
• Henry VII ( 1 4 8 5 - 1 5 0 9 ) restored people's faith in the monarchy;
• Visual Link CI • Henry VIII (1509-1547) established the Church of England;
• Visual Link C5 • E l i z a b e t h I ( 1 5 5 8 - 1 6 0 3 ) encouraged exploration of and trade with other
continents which would lead later to the creation of the British Empire.

Over the previous century the institution of the m o n a r c h y had been

GOVERNMENT greatly weakened by bitter feuds which meant that one king followed
another in quick succession. Henry VII's main achievement was to stay in power
for over twenty years and prove that the monarchy could play a stabilising role
in the country.
Henry VIII A weak m o n a r c h y had meant a strong parliament, but a stronger m o n a r c h y
meant a weaker parliament with major decisions being taken in consultation with
a very small group of loyal advisers. In the case of Henry VIII, this often meant
only one adviser, the most influential of whom was the Archbishop of York, Sir
Thomas Wolsey.
The nobles At local level, the nobles, who had held a lot of power in the Middle Ages, saw
their influence watered down. The private armies that each local lord organised
to help maintain feudal control over his own area were banned, and central
government increasingly took over total responsibility for law and order.

The sixteenth century was the century of the revolt against the Roman
RELIGION
Catholic Church in Europe, which became known as the R e f o r m a t i o n
The Reformation and saw the foundation of the Protestant Churches. The English Reformation was

In this Protestant propaganda

picture, a dying Henry VIII is
telling his son, Edward VI, to
uphold the true Protestant
religion. The pope has collapsed
at Edward's feet.
 Historical and Social Background 51

instigated by Henry VIII and initially revolved around his private life. When he
realised that his wife could not give him the male successor he so desperately
wanted, he asked the Pope to grant him a divorce so that he could marry Anne
Boleyn. When the Pope refused, he decided that the English Church would break
away from Rome, and with the Act of Supremacy in 1534, he became the head The Act of Supremacy
of the Church of England. The irony of this story, which was to have a lasting
effect on English history, is that his new wife bore him a girl, Elizabeth I.
The break with the Roman Catholic Church was greeted favourably by most The Anglican Church
English people, who were glad to see the end of interference by the Pope in takes shape
national affairs. Henry consolidated the new Church by closing all the monasteries
between 1536 and 1539, and gradually the Anglican Church took on its role as • Visual Link C2
the official state Church. The publication of the first B i b l e in the English
language (1539) and the Book of Common Prayer (1584) helped a great deal to
bring the new religion closer to the people.
Not everybody agreed with the Reformation and religious disputes were to breed Religious disputes
intolerance and violence for many years to come.
Under the reign of Mary, Henry VIIPs daughter by
his first wife and a Catholic, Protestant leaders were
executed, while Elizabeth I, although by no means a
religious fanatic, prohibited the celebration of the
C a t h o l i c mass. It was not until the following
century, however, that the divisions brought about
by the English Reformation would lead to open
conflict.

The burning in Antwerp in 1536 of

the heretic William Tyndale, who
wrote the first English translation
of the New Testament (1562).

Tudor England was basically self-sufficient. Food was in adequate supply

THE ECONOMY
and the population grew steadily. Many people were involved in the wool AND EVERYDAY LIFE
and cloth industry and, up until about 1550, Holland continued to be
England's most important trading partner.
The need to produce more and more wool meant that life in the countryside
began to change. It was more profitable to keep sheep than grow crops, so there Urbanisation
was a move away from arable farming and crop-growing to pasture. This meant
that fewer people were needed to work the land, and a process began that in the
following centuries would see millions of people move from the country to
towns and cities.
Most towns were not much bigger than villages with the exception of London,
which continued to grow rapidly as eighty percent of the nation's trade was
carried out there. The towns were populated by merchants and craftsmen, but
living conditions were very poor and the lack of public sanitation was a constant
cause of disease.
However, Tudor England still remained basically a rural country with only ten Rural England
percent of people living in towns while ninety percent lived in villages, as they
had done in the Middle Ages. The local lord still held considerable power in his
area but the system of feudal slavery disappeared. There were no more serfs and a
farmer was secure on his land as long as he paid the rent.
Life was not easy for anyone in Tudor England, whether in the country or town, The Poor Law
but the Poor Law that was passed in 1601 would improve conditions for later
52 THE RENAISSANCE - The Context

generations. The law stipulated that parishes had to provide schools, hospitals and
childcare for orphans, and houses of correction for drunkards and tramps in their
local community. Although it would take over 400 years to complete, this was the
first small step in the setting up of what we now know as the 'welfare state'.

For centuries, England's main rival in Europe had been France, and this
ENGLAND AND THE REST
OF THE WORLD continued to be the case throughout the reign of Henry VIII, when a
number of wars were fought which brought no great gain to either side.
England and France The balance of power in Europe was changing, however, and the old rivalry
between the two neighbours was to be of secondary importance in the second
half of the sixteenth century.
Expanding markets With the collapse of the Dutch wool market in 1550, England found itself in a
position where it had to find new markets and new forms of trade to sustain
economic and social development. With this aim in mind, Elizabeth I looked
beyond Europe towards America and Asia. The first step towards c o l o n i a l
expansion was the building of a fleet that could transport goods and protect the
nation's interests at sea.
England and Spain With the fleet in place, the one great obstacle that remained in England's way
was Spain. Spanish explorers were already opening up the American continent
for exploitation and had no intention of letting the English share in their gains.
• Visual .Link C5 From 1584 almost to the end of Elizabeth's reign, England and Spain fought a
war for the control of the seas. One of the main protagonists in the war was Sir
Francis Drake, who led the first expedition to circumnavigate the world between
1577 and 1580. He also took part in the battles that resulted in the destruction of
the Spanish Armada in 1588.

Colonial expansion: Military success meant that the road was clear for English entrepreneurs to
a. The New World establish colonies and open up new horizons for trade. Sir Walter Raleigh was
one of those intrepid pioneers. He helped establish a colony in Virginia in North
America and brought back potatoes and tobacco to Europe.
b. Asia On the other side of the world the East India Company, which was set up in
1601, started to do business with countries in Asia and laid the foundations for
the colonisation of India.

During Elizabeth I's reign,

England became a powerful,
prosperous nation in which
trade and arts flourished.
 Historical and Social Background 159

A direct consequence of the war between England and Spain was the colonisation c. In Ireland
of Ireland. Elizabeth and her advisers were afraid that the Spaniards would use
Ireland, which had remained Catholic during the Reformation, as a base to attack
England. The Irish were defeated by the forces of Lord Mountjoy in 1601 and
their leaders had to flee. Elizabeth also encouraged Protestant farmers to take
land in Ireland in the hope that a sizeable Protestant colony would help pacify
the island. This colonisation continued throughout the seventeenth century and
was particularly successful in the north of the country.

When the last of the Tudor monarchs, Elizabeth I, died in 1603, she left
behind a realm that had changed greatly since her grandfather Henry VII had
THE TUDOR LEGACY
become king in 1485. It was a prosperous and progressive country whose monarch Prosperity and progress
commanded the respect of the people both as head of the Anglican Church and
head of state. Prosperity brought a renewed interest in culture and learning. The
arts, particularly in the form of theatre and poetry, flourished. It was a country that
had fought to gain respect on the world stage and would expand its power and
influence in a way that must have been difficult to imagine at the time. However,
on the domestic front, storm clouds were gathering. As James I's reign drew to a
close in 1625, the rivalries between Parliament and monarchy and between the Trouble ahead
different religious denominations were about to explode into open conflict.

TASKS
1 Link each sentence to a person.
a. 'The king follows my advice. I could manipulate him if I wanted to.' Sir Thomas Wolsey
b. 'Why do I have to disband my army? Will the king be able to defend me then?' A nobleman
c. 'Marry me. I'll give you a boy.' Elizabeth I
d. 'With this Act of Supremacy I declare myself the Head of the Church of England.'
Sir Francis Drake
e. 'We have to stop the Protestants. Arrest their leaders. Put them to death.'
Mary I
f. 'Next week I'm travelling to Amsterdam on business.'
g. 'Your Majesty, the Spanish Armada is destroyed. Our great country is safe.' Henry VIII
h. 'I have created a kingdom where the arts flourish and people appreciate the A cloth merchant
importance of culture and learning.' Anne Boleyn
2 Choose one of the topics and prepare a brief talk (max. 5 minutes). Use websites to find further information.
Elizabethan England Henry VIII Elizabeth I The Reformation Overseas explorations and the wars with Spain

MAIN EVENTS: The Renaissance

1485--1509 Reign of Henry VII
1509 -1547 Reign of Henry VIII
1534 Act of Supremacy
1536 -1539 Monasteries closed
1539 First Bible in English
1547--1553 Reign of Edward VI
1553--1558 Reign of Mary 1
1558--1603 Reign of Elizabeth 1
1577--1580 Sir Francis Drake sails around the world
1584 The Book of Common Prayer
1588 The Spanish Armada destroyed
1601 The Poor Law
The East India Company is set up
56 THE RENAISSANCE - The Context

An illustration for the

Shepherdes Calender
(1579) by Edmund
Spenser.

The Faerie Queene or more levels. Originally intended to be twelve books, only half of the work was
completed. Each book recounts the adventures of a knight, who represents one
of the twelve virtues that make a perfect gentleman. The main theme of the work
is the glorification of Queen Elizabeth and her court. In fact, at the end of the
story, Prince Arthur, the most important knight, is to marry the Faerie Queene
Gloriana, who represented Queen Elizabeth.
The Faerie Queene shows Spenser's great gift for creating refined and vivid word
pictures, and his ear for the musicality of the language. He introduced a new
metre into English poetry called the Spenserian stanza, which consisted of eight
lines of ten syllables plus a twelve-syllable line containing six iambic feet, with
the rhyming scheme ABABBCBCC. Spenser's belief that poetry should deal with
subjects far removed from everyday life and should be written in refined
language - unlike that which was used by common people - became the basic
principle for poetry throughout much of the Elizabethan period.
Although it introduced new elements inspired by classical and continental
Renaissance models, Elizabethan love poetry maintained many of the features of
the courtly love poems of the Middle Ages. The lady to whom the poem was
addressed was distant and idealised and the poetic language was highly ornate
and musical. Poems were often set to music and sung to the accompaniment of
an instrument.

TASK
Choose the correct option. 4 Edmund Spenser wrote
1 During Elizabeth's reign the arts flourished 7a] religious poems each of which glorifies one of
because the twelve virtues.
[a | the economy was strong and people had more b] allegorical poems which, on one level, are
time and money for the arts, meant to glorify the reign of Queen Elizabeth.
b ! Greek refugees introduced classical Greek 5 In The Fairie Queene, Spenser
culture to England. [a] uses a new poetic metre and highly refined
2 Italy was regarded language.
a] with both contempt and admiration. I b] glorifies the everyday life of common people.
b | with suspicion and scorn.
3 Sir Philip Sidney wrote
~a~l tales in the style of Boccaccio's tales.
[~b] sonnets based on Petrarch's themes and style.
 The Literary Background 161

While much Renaissance poetry is of a very high quality, the greatest

literary works of the period are plays. The medieval tradition of Mystery
DRAMA
and Miracle plays continued under the reign of Henry VII. However, after the
schism from Rome and the Reformation, Henry VIII put an end to medieval
religious drama. Humanism revived interest in classical drama and the plays of
Plautus, Terence and Seneca, among others, were translated into English,
published and widely read. Seneca's tragedies were particularly popular and
created a taste for horror and bloodshed.
An example of Seneca's influence on English drama can be seen in the works of
Thomas Kyd. His highly popular play about bloody revenge called The Spanish Thomas Kyd
Tragedy ( 1 5 8 7 ) has m a n y Senecan e l e m e n t s including horror, villains, (1558-1594)
corruption, intrigue and the supernatural.
Early English Renaissance playwrights accepted some of the conventions of clas-
sical theatre, but they adapted the form to suit their needs and did not content
themselves with simply producing poor imitations of classical models.
For several reasons English drama flourished under Elizabeth I and James I: Why drama flourished
• theatre appealed to all social classes, from the sovereign to the lowest class;
• plays could be understood by the illiterate, who formed the largest section of
the population;
• there had been a strong theatre-going tradition in Britain since the Middle
Ages; •
• the theatre was patronised by the Court and the aristocracy;
• the language of drama was less artificial than that of poetry;
• there was a great number of talented playwrights who produced works of extra-
ordinary quality;
• the prosperity of the Elizabethan and Jacobean periods meant that people had
both the time and money to go to the theatre.
Drama was strictly linked to the Elizabethan world view which emphasised above The principle of order
all else the principle of order. Early Elizabethans believed that a hierarchy existed
in the natural world which ascended from inanimate objects to animals, men,
angels and eventually God. Man was the central link in this chain: his body
linked him to the animal world below him while his soul linked him to the spiri-
tual world above him. Man was at the centre of the universe because the moon,
the sun, the planets and the stars all revolved in orbit around the earth.
A number of factors, however, weakened Elizabethan beliefs in the principle of Questioning the principle
universal order. The development of modern experimental science, for example, of order
established that the earth and other planets revolved around the sun, thus
displacing man from the centre of creation. In The Prince (1513) Machiavelli
rejected the notion of a divinely ordained political hierarchy and explained how
political power could be won and held with no reference to the will of God.
Much Elizabethan drama is concerned with the hierarchical order of the universe
and what may occur if it is broken. In Macbeth when the king is killed the natural • Texts C8 and C9
order of society is broken, and the result is chaos and tragedy. The loss of order is
also reflected in the natural world (darkness in daytime, owls killing falcons,
horses eating each other) and in the inner world of the characters (Lady
Macbeth's insanity). Only at the end of the play, when the rightful king sits on
the throne, is order restored. The breaking of the laws of order may also result in
comedy. In A Midsummer Night's Dream the disciplined ordered world of Athens is • Texts C4 and C5
contrasted with the night-time wood, which is a dark realm of disorder, chaos
and confusion. Elizabethan heroes are no longer the allegorical paragons of
virtue of Medieval drama. They are full of passion and doubts and constantly
question the world that surrounds them.
58 THE RENAISSANCE - The Context

A play performed
on a platform raised
in the yard.

The actors The actors were direct descendants of Medieval street performers. In spite of the
popularity of their performances, a law passed in 1572 still classified actors as
vagabonds, thus putting them at risk of being imprisoned depending on the will
of the various authorities. In order to overcome the problem they worked in
companies patronised by a nobleman, whose name the company took (The Earl
of Leicester's Men, The Lord Chamberlain's Men). The nobleman gave them a
letter of permission which allowed them to travel around the country and
perform without fear of punishment.
The companies Companies generally played in London in the winter and spring and travelled
and their patrons around the country in summer, when the city was often ravaged by plague.
At the time when Shakespeare was acting there were approximately twenty
companies of actors in London and more than one hundred provincial troupes.
As acting was considered immoral, there were no women in the companies
female parts were played by boys whose voices had not yet changed. An average
play had a cast of about twenty. The main parts were played by company actors
Three or four boys were hired for the women's roles, and six or more hired men
played the minor roles or worked as musicians, stage managers, wardrobe
keepers, prompters and stage hands. Some actors doubled for two or more minor
parts. Actors had to have good memories, strong voices and the ability to sing,
dance and fence. The costumes they wore were very elaborate sixteenth-century
creations which did not respect historical accuracy.

The theatres Until the building of permanent playhouses, plays were performed in inns, on a
platform raised in the yard. Guests at the inn watched the performances from the
second-storey galleries, while the common people took their places in front o '
the stage.
Playhouses were at first built outside the city walls because they were consider
to be centres of corruption. The first playhouse built in London was The Theatre
in 1576, followed by The Rose, The Swan and The Globe (1599). The comp
to which Shakespeare belonged, The Lord Chamberlain's Men, was one of
 The Literary Background 59

few companies that owned its own playhouse. By the end of Shakespeare's career
they had two theatres: The Globe and The Blackfriars.
Elizabethan theatres were built with the inn yard model in mind. They were
polygonal or circular three-tiered structures, open to the sun and rain. In the case Structure of an
of The Globe, the open courtyard and three semi-circular galleries that Elizabethan theatre
surrounded it could hold more than 1,500 people. The stage projected out into
the courtyard about five feet above the ground and had two main parts:
• the outer stage was a rectangular platform where the main action of the play Outer and inner stage
took place. It was covered by a thatched roof but had no front or side curtains;
• the inner stage stood behind the outer stage and was concealed by a curtain.
This stage was used when a scene took place in a more confined space (for
example the tomb scene in Romeo and Juliet) or when a character was supposed to
overhear the action on the main stage. On either side of the inner stage there was
a door through which actors entered and disappeared.
Below the floors of the outer and inner stages was a large cellar called hell. Actors in
'hell', who played the parts of ghosts, demons or fairies, would make dramatic
appearances through trap doors onto the main outer stage.
Over the main stage there was a third space which could be used by musicians,
represent a balcony scene or stand for the walls of a city. Above the third level
there was a series of pulleys which
>~> " could be used to suspend fairies,
8 PALL
' SS CHV*«M
angels, ghosts and thunderbolts.
Many special effects were used in Special effects
the theatre. Death scenes were very
I gory and realistic and animal organs
and blood were often used to make
battle scenes more realistic.
The audiences became very involved Audiences
in the play, particularly the spectators
in the yard, who were very close to
the action. Their tickets were
cheaper than the tickets of the
spectators sitting in the galleries
and they participated by cheering,
hissing and even throwing rotten
vegetables.

A view of London in the early sixteenth

century showing St Paul's cathedral and
The Theatres on The South Bank.

TASK
Cross out incorrect statements. - only appealed to the higher, educated classes.
Elizabethan drama: - often included the themes of order and hierarchy.
- had strong links with classical Greek and Latin drama. - emphasised the centrality of Nature as a guide to
- often featured the themes of corruption, intrigue human actions.
and revenge. - often dealt with the consequences of the disruption
- flourished because it was popular with all social classes. of hierarchical order.
60 THE RENAISSANCE - The Context

WBHßp'4 S OF THE PAST

THE ELIZABETHAN THEATRE

This is what The Globe theatre looked like.

TASKS
1 Match letters and words.
galleries upper stage open courtyard actors'entrances onto the stage entrance 'special effects'level
outer stage hell inner stage
A= F =
B= G=
C= H=
D= I =
E=
2 Draw your own simplified plan of an Elizabethan theatre and prepare an oral description.
 The Literary Background 61

The two outstanding playwrights of the era were Christopher Marlowe ( • pp.
C2-C9) and William Shakespeare ( • pp. C10-49). One of their contemporaries,
Ben Jonson, also made a significant contribution to the drama of the period. He Ben Jonson
is best remembered for his play Volpone (1606), a satire on greed and corruption. (1572-1637)
The main character Volpone is a rich avaricious Venetian. He is surrounded by
people who pretend to be his friends because they want to inherit his fortune.
Volpone pretends to be ill and tricks his so-called friends into giving him
expensive gifts, thus punishing them for their insincerity.
Jonson also wrote a series of successful masques. A masque was an elaborate form Masques
of court entertainment originally developed in Italy that involved poetic drama,
music, song, dance and splendid costuming. The plot was slight and often
introduced mythological and allegorical elements. The characters, who wore
masks, were played by ladies and gentlemen of the court. The play ended with a
dance when the players removed their masks and took members of the audience
as partners.

Prose writing in the Renaissance period did not reach the same standards
of excellence as poetry or drama. The geographical expeditions of the era
PROSE
gave rise to travel literature in which writers gave accounts of the voyages of
explorers such as Walter Raleigh and Francis Drake.
The great interest in classical and continental literature led to the translation of Accounts of explorations
many books into English: Thomas North's translation of Plutarch's Lives (1579), and translations
Chapman's translation of Homer (1610)
and Paterick's Machiavelli were all very
influential works.
The Authorised Version of the Bible, produced The Bible
in 1611 by a team of forty-seven scholars,
is unquestionably one of the works which
greatly influenced the development of
English prose style. Every Protestant home
had a copy of the Bible and many families
listened to daily readings.

One of the most important figures in the Francis Bacon

development of English prose style was (1561-1626)
Francis Bacon. He wrote in Latin and in
English, and is best remembered for his
Essays ( 1 6 2 5 ) , inspired by the French Essays
writer M o n t a i g n e . Bacon rejected the
long-winded overly ornate Elizabethan
style and replaced it with a plainer, more
Francis Bacon, philosopher
straightforward style, thus helping to and statesman.
pave the way for modern English.

TASK
Answer these questions.
a. What work is Ben Jonson best remembered for?
b. What vices are ridiculed in his most important play?
c. Where were masques performed?
d. What kind of prose works were mainly developed
in Elizabethan England?
e. How did Bacon influence the development of
English prose style?
62 THE RENAISSANCE - The Context

MEANWHILE, ELSEWHERE

LINK TO ITALIAN LITERATURE: Petrarch

Petrarch (Francesco Petrarca, 1304-1374) was one of the leading figures in the Italian Renaissance, and during the
English Renaissance his work inspired early sonnet writers like Wyatt and Surrey ( • p. C55).
Here is one of the many sonnets that Petrarch wrote in praise of Laura, the woman he loved.

Feeling ashamed that I still seem to pass Vergognando talor ch'ancor si taccia,
Over your beauty, Lady, in my rhyme, Donna, per me vostra bellezza in rima,
I remember when I for the first time Ricorro al tempo ch'i' vi vidiprima,
Saw you, made for my love as no one was. Tal che nuli'altra fia mai che mi piaccia.

But the burden11 find crushes my frame2, Ma trovo peso non da le mie braccia,
The burden cannot be polished3 by my file4, Ne ovra da polir colla mia lima;
And my talent which knows its strength and style Pero I'ingegno, che sua forza estima,
In this attempt becomes frozen and lame5. Ne I'operazion tutto s'agghiaccia.

Several times I moved my lips to cry; Piu volte gia per dir le labbra apersi;
But my voice was constrained within my lungs. Poi rimase la voce in mezzo 7 petto.
Which is the sound that can soar6 up so high? Ma qual son pona mai salir tant'altro?

Several times I began writing songs; Piü volte incominciai di scriver versi;
But pen and hand and intellect were bound7 Ma la penna e la mano e I'intelletto
To be conquered and caught in the first sound. Rimaser vinti nel primier assalto.

• GLOSSARY 3. polished: made

lighter
1. burden: heavy
weight, the hard task 4. file: pen, writing skills
of describing your 5. lame: disabled,
beauty and my love handicapped
for you 6. soar: fly
2. frame: body 7. bound: tied

TASKS
1 Work out the rhyme scheme of the sonnet.
The original Italian version is ABBA ABBA CDE
CDE. Is it the same as the original?

2 What problem is introduced in the first eight

lines (octave) of the sonnet?
3 In the last six lines (sextet) does the poet
resolve the problem? (See page C55)
Petrarch.
 The Literary Background 167

CROSS-CURRICULAR LINK
-{to Tragedy
Tragedy
A tragedy is a play in which events have disastrous or fatal consequences for all or some of the characters,
and tragedy has been a popular form of theatre from Greek times up until the present day.
The Roman writer Seneca, whose nine tragedies were translated into English during the sixteenth century,
influenced many dramatists of the day, including William Shakespeare.
Seneca's tragedies and Renaissance tragedies often had some of the following features in common:
1 crime 5 revenge
2 bloodthirsty scenes 6 long reflective soliloquies
3 witchcraft and the supernatural 7 powerful rhetoric
4 very ambitious characters 8 characters who go through emotional crises

PROJECT
a. Choose two (or more) of the following plays.
b. Write the plots in your own words.
c. Explain, with reference to the story and/or the actual text, which of the features listed above
the plays have or do not have in common.

Seneca (Lucius Annaeus c. 4 BC-AD 65) - Troades, Phaedra, Thyestes, Agamemnon, Hercules Furens

Thomas Kyd (1558-1594) - The Spanish Tragedy (1587) - one of the most popular tragedies in the Elizabethan
period. • p. C57.

William Shakespeare (1564-1616): Romeo and Juliet (c.1595) • pp.C10-17, Hamlet (c.1601) • pp. C24-32,
Macbeth (c.1605) • pp. C33-39.

PROJECT
Choose one of the plays you have analysed and one of the following modern tragedies:
Tom Stoppard (1937-): Rosencratz and Guilderstern are Dead (1966)
Arthur Miller (1915-): Death of a Salesman (1940)

Compare them by answering the following questions:

a. What is the tragedy in the play?
b. What emotional crises do the characters go through?
c. Are any of the characters heroic?
d. Is there a lot of violence and crime?
e. In which play are the stage directions more complete?
f. Are any of the characters very ambitious?
g. Which play do you feel is more realistic?
h. Are there many long speeches?
 THE PURITAN,
RESTORATION AND
AUGUSTAN AGES
1625-1776
The mind is its own place, and in itself
Can make a Heaven of Hell, a Hell of Heaven.
From Paradise Lost (Book I) b y J o h n Milton
 John Donne
INTRODUCTION • J o h n D o n n e was an i n t e n s e l y p a s s i o n a t e m a n . In t h e f o l l o w i n g two p o e m s h e
speaks directly to his mistress and to God. He uses c o m p l e x and sometimes contorted images, but w h e n
the reader goes to the trouble o f understanding what t h e y m e a n , he fully understands what love and
religious faith m e a n t to this hot-blooded poet.

If God really loves us why does he allow us to fall into the temptation of sin? Should He do more to help us to stay
on the right path? Read what John Donne suggests God should do to keep him from sinning.

Q m m Batter My Heart
Batter 1 my heart, three-person'd God 2 ; for, you
As yet but 3 knocke, breathe, shine 4 and seeke to mend;
That I may rise, and stand, o'erthrow mee, and bend 5
Your force, to breake, blowe, burn and make me new.

I, like an usurpt towne, to another due 6 ,

Labour 7 to'admit you, but Oh to no end 8 ,
Reason your viceroy in mee, mee should defend 9 ,
But is captiv'd and proves weak or untrue.

Yet dearely I love you, and would be lov'd fain 10 ,

But am betroth'd unto 1 1 your enemie:
Divorce mee, untie, or breake that knot againe,
Take mee to you, imprison mee, for I
Except 1 2 you enthrall mee 1 3 , never shall be free,
Nor ever chaste, except you ravish mee 1 4 .

GLOSSARY 1. Batter: strike violently 8. to no end: with no result

Note: here is a list of the most 2. three-person'd God: the 9. Reason ... defend:
frequently recurring archaic words Holy Trinity (God the reason, who represents
and their modern equivalents. Father, God the Son and God in the poet, should
thou: you defend him
God the Holy Spirit)
thee: you 10. fain: willingly
but: only
thyself: yourself 11.betroth'd unto: engaged
thy: your shine: polish
to be married to
thine: yours bend: direct, apply
12. Except: unless
art: are to another due: owing
hath: has, have 13. enthrall mee: make a
duty and obedience to
doth: does slave of me
another
wilt: will 14. ravish mee: possess me
shalt: shall 7. Labour: work hard sexually, rape me
 HÜJliJi
.. gBBXfcti

John ü o n n e 3

COMPREHENSION
1 What does the poet ask God to do in line 1 ? 6 What desire does the poet express in
line 9?
2 What, according to the poet, has God done up
until this point? 7 In line 10 the poet says that he is betrothed to
God's 'enemy'. Who is he referring to in your opinion?
3 What must God do in order to make the poet rise
What does the poet ask God to do with this union?
and stand? (Line 3)
8 In which lines does the poet suggest that he is
4 What does the poet compare himself to in line 5?
unworthy of God's love?
He says that he owes obedience to another; who do
you think he is referring to? 9 How, according to the poet, can God make him
free?
5 What is God's viceroy in line 7? Why is it unable to
defend the poet? 1 0 How can God make him chaste?

ANALYSIS — —
1 Although this is a religious poem the language the 5 The poem is made up of three sentences. Find
poet uses is violent. Underline all the verbs in the where each sentence begins and ends. Which
poem which suggest violent action. sentences are made of quatrains (4 lines) and sestets
(6 lines)?
2 In line 1 the poet speaks of the 'three-person'd
God' which has the obvious meaning of the Trinity. 6 Find an example of alliteration* in the poem.
The idea of trinity is developed throughout the poem
as God is described as three different persons. In
7 Look at this example of enjambement*.
Batter my heart, three person'd God; for, you
which lines is God described as:
As yet but knocke, breathe, shine and seek to mend;
- a king? Line
Find another one in the first four lines of the poem
- a conqueror? Line
and an example from the last four lines of the poem.
- a lover? Line
3 There are also three different images of the poet. In
8 Look at this example of internal pause* or
which lines does he compare himself to: caesura*.
Batter my heart, (pause) three person'd God;
- a door/gate? Line
(pause) for, (pause) you
- a town? Line
- a woman? Line Find other examples in the poem.

4 The poem is based on a series of oppositions. Fill in 9 Would you consider the rhythm* of the poem to be
the table below with the elements that oppose the regular or broken? How does the rhythm of the poem
words and expressions in the left-hand column. reflect the disorder and emotional disturbance of the
poet's mind?
Batter knocke
that 1 may rise and stand 1 0 Work out the rhyming scheme of the poem.
breake, blowe, burn (Consider that 'enemie' in line 10 may be
bethroth'd pronounced to rhyme with T in line 12.)
Except you enthrall me
chast

How do you think these violent oppositions affect the

tone of the poem? Do they make it more:
• passionate? • calm?
• religious? • dramatic?
• striking? • other:
\ i 4 THE PURITAN AGE - Poetry

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P
Conceit A conceit is a figure of speech which draws a comparison between two strikingly diff
ent things. In Batter My Heart, for example, the poet uses a conceit when he compa
himself to a usurped town. Much Elizabethan poetry used very conventional image
but John Donne and other metaphysical poets ( • p. D94) tried to use a wide range
sources including science, theology, alchemy and travel to make their imagery mo
innovative and effective.
SNEfK^lliiP jj^p
In Batter My Heart the poet compares himself to a door or gate which has been closed to
Cod, a town which has been occupied by God's enemy and a woman who is engaged to
God's rival. Which of these conceits do you find most striking and effective and why?

OVER TO YOU Striking comparisons similar to the conceits of the metaphysical poets are often used in so
You're the cream in my coffee (Cole Porter)
You are in my blood, you're my holy wine (Joni Mitchell)
And after all, you're my wonderwall (Noel Gallagher)

Work in groups. Make a list of language areas that are not usually considered 'poetic', for
example the language of computers, sport, food, household objects, etc. Try to make con-
ceits for friends or loved ones or people you hate using these language areas. For example-
You are my screensaver.
You are cigarette ash on my favourite ice-cream.

Read your best conceits aloud to the rest of the class.

John Donne wants God to force him to be good. He says that God must imprison him because he does not have
enough self-discipline to resist sin and temptation.
Are there any areas of your life in which you feel you should have more self-discipline?
Are you disciplined in your approach to school and study?
Are you disciplined in what you eat, or do you find it difficult to resist the temptation of junk food?
Would people who know you describe you as 'dependable', 'punctual', etc.?
 John üonne 5

Is it true that when two people are head over heels in love it is as if they become one person? Read the following
poem and find out what John Donne thinks.

The Good-Morrow1 [Text 1)2

I wonder, by my troth 2 , what thou, and I

Did, till we lov'd? Were we not wean'd 3 till then?
But suck'd on countrey pleasures, childishly 4 ?
Or snorted 5 we in the seven sleepers den 6 ?
'Twas so; But this, all pleasures fancies bee 7 . 5
If ever any beauty 8 I did see,
Which I desir'd, and got, 'twas but a dreame of thee.

And now good morrow to our waking soules,

Which watch not one another out of feare;
For love, all love of other sights controules 9 , 10
And makes one little roome an every where.
Let sea-discoverers to new worlds have gone,
Let Maps to others, worlds on worlds have showne 10 ,
Let us possesse our world, each hath one, and is one.

My face in thine eye, thine in mine appeares, 15

And true plaine hearts doe in the faces rest,
Where can we finde two better hemispheares
Without sharpe North, without declining West?
What ever dyes, was not mixt 11 equally 12 ;
If our two loves be one, or, thou and I 20
Love so alike, that none do slacken 13 , none can die.
An allegorical representation
of a lover who is burning in
the flames of passion.

GLOSSARY
(See note on p. D2)
1. Good Morrow: good
morning
2. by my troth: truly
3. wean'd: grown up
(to wean: to gradually stop
feeding a baby milk and
start giving it ordinary
food)
4. But suck'd ... childishly:
did we only enjoy
ourselves like carefree
children?
5. snorted: snored
6. seven sleepers den:
according to legend, seven
young Christians from
Ephesus were walled up alive
as they attempted to escape
persecution by the emperor
Decius. They were found
alive over two centuries later
7. But this ... fancies bee: all
other pleasures are only
imaginary and not
real when compared to our
love
8. beauty: beautiful woman
9. For love ... controules:
true love removes
(controules) the desire to
see other people and
places
10.Let Maps ... showne: other
worlds can be discovered
with maps
11. mixt: mixed
12. What ever dyes ...
equally: the poet is
saying that because
their love is perfectly
balanced, it will never
die. At that time it was
believed that the lack
of perfect balance and
proportion in the
elements of which all
bodies are constituted
caused decay and death
13. slacken: to become
weaker
•
\ i 6 THE PURITAN AGE - Poetry

COMPREHENSION
1 The poem opens with a question. Formulate the
question in your own words. What possible answers
does the poet suggest in lines 2 - 4 ?
2 Is the poet's present lover the first woman he has
had a relationship with?
3 What setting is suggested in the second stanza?
Where are the lovers and what time of day is it?
Refer to the text to support your answer.
4 Why are the lovers uninterested in new sights,
discoveries and worlds?
5 What does the poet see reflected in his lover's
eyes?
6 What does the poet compare himself and his lov
to in line 1 7?
7 Why does he believe that their love will never die?

ANALYSIS
1 The poet refers to the lovers' past, present and future. Identify the lines that refer to each period.
Past: lines Present: lines Future: lines
2 The poet suggests that the lovers were childish and immature before they fell in love. Underline the words in
lines 2 - 4 that create the idea of childishness.
3 Focus on the opening lines. Find examples of:
- rapid questions:
- an exclamation:
- 'non-poetic' vocabulary:
- a run-on line*:
Would you agree that the language of the opening stanza is similar to that of everyday speech?
How do you find the opening lines of the poem?
• Dramatic • Striking • Original • Banal • Other:
4 Now that the poet has found true love he feels that the past is no longer relevant. What expression does he u s e
in line 5 to dismiss that past as unimportant?
5 In the second stanza the poet says that he and his lover have created one world through their love. How many
times are the words 'one' and 'world' repeated in the stanza?
6 In line 9 the poet suggests that lovers sometimes watch each other out of fear. What may be the causes of
these fears in your opinion? Are the poet and his lover subject to these fears?
7 Lines 11-13 introduce the concept that love conquers space. In a complex conceit* a parallel is drawn between
geographers and lovers. Complete the parallel as illustrated in the table below.

Sea-discoverers through their overseas have reduced the new which they share with
expeditions world to maps others

The poet and his lover through the true love that have reduced the world which
they feel for each other to

8 In the second stanza the universe is reduced to a room. In the third stanza it is reduced to an even smaller
space. What is it?
9 Focus on line 18. Why do you think the north is described as 'sharpe' and the west is considered 'declining'?
In the new world the lovers create there is no north or west. By excluding them what does the poet hope not to
have in his world?
• Coldness • Light • Old age • Romance • Mystery • Illness
1 0 Explain how, in the last lines of the poem, the poet suggests that love also conquers time.
 John üonne 7

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P
Diction The term diction refers to the choice of words in a literary work. A writer's diction may
be described, for example, as abstract or concrete, colloquial or formal, technical or
common, literal or figurative. It may also be drawn from a particular lexical source.
John Donne's poetic diction is often colloquial and rough. This is in sharp contrast to
other poets of the period who used extremely refined diction. It is one of the features of
John Donne's poetry that makes it so innovative and striking.

Underline any words in the poem that you consider to be colloquial or 'non-poetic' in a
traditional sense.

OVER TO YOU There are numerous adjectives to describe a writer's diction. Among them the most common
are:
ornate artificial plain simple colloquial literary
up-to-date archaic concrete abstract literal figurative

Read the brief extracts below and choose:

BPH®; a) one or more adjectives from the list above which you think accurately describe the diction;
b) one or more adjectives that you think would be inappropriate in describing the diction.
mm Discuss your choices with your classmates.

Fixer of Midnight From Paradise Lost

He went to fix the awning 'Is this the region, this the soil, the clime,'
Fix the roping Said then the lost Archangel, 'this the seat
In the middle of the night That we must change for Heaven?, this mournful gloom
On the porch ... For that celestial light?
Reuel Denney John Milton

You Fit Into Me Come Home from the Movies

You fit into me Come home from the movies
Like a hook into an eye Black girls and boys
A fish hook The picture be over and the screen
An open eye. Be cold as our neighbourhood
•it:/• »S^g№ Margaret Atwood Come home from the show,
Don't be the show.
La Belle Dame Sans Merci Lucille Clifton
Ah, what can ail thee, knight-at-arms
Alone and palely loitering;
The sedge is wither'd from the lake,
And no birds sing.
John Keats

•DB
|ohn Donne says to his lover that she is the only woman for him and that he hopes their love will never die. These
are common themes in songs. Try to think of titles of songs or words from songs where these themes are
expressed.
 \i8 THE PURITAN AGE - Poetry

WRITERS' GALLERY

Early years John Do

born in London in 1572
Roman Catholic family at a time when members of that faith
under increasing pressure to conform to the teaching of the
Brail established Church of England. Donne was educated at Oxford
possibly Cambridge but was not allowed to take a degree beca
his religion. He travelled abroad, visiting Italy and Spain
returning to London with a view to starting a career as a diplo
London in the 1590s was the centre of intellectual and lite
life in England and Donne took full advantage of all it had
offer. He led a wild life and was described by one of
JOHN DONNE contemporaries as 'a great visiter of ladies, a great frequenter
(1572-1631) plays and a great writer of conceited verses'.

Religion Throughout this period Donne was tormented by the question of his religion. If
remained loyal to the Roman Catholic faith, he would have to give up any hope of a success
career. On the other hand, three generations of his family had suffered exile and even death
defend their right to be Catholic. His own brother Henry had died in prison for sheltering a prie
Donne spent years studying all the points of dispute between the Church of England and th
Catholic Church, and finally in 1593 he decided to convert to the Protestant faith.

Career He started his diplomatic career when he entered the service of Sir Thomas Egerton, Lord
Jr Keeper of England, as his chief secretary. In 1601 he was elected Member of Parliament and at the
age of twenty-nine seemed set for an illustrious political career. A single act destroyed his bright
prospects. He secretly married Lord Egerton's niece and was imprisoned for marrying a minor
without her guardian's consent. He was soon released, but he was dismissed from his position as
Egerton's secretary. He and his wife moved a short distance from London and managed as well as
they could under difficult financial circumstances.
In his personal life this was a happy time for Donne, and he An illustration from
wrote many of the Songs and Sonnets which deal with the theme one of John Donne's
works depicting man
of love in this period. Professionally, however, things were going and the universe.
from bad to worse. He made applications to several possible
/ a - patrons but was unable to get a new state appointment.
He became seriously ill in 1 6 0 8 - 1 6 0 9 and wrote a treatise in
favour of suicide. Many of the Divine Poems, in which Donne
explores the concepts of sin and judgement, date from this
period. Having unsuccessfully tried to regain a career in politics
and diplomacy, Donne turned his attention to the Church. He
wrote essays and pamphlets condemning the Church of Rome.
In 1615 he was ordained into the Church of England and was
mm
later made an honorary Doctor of Divinity at Cambridge.
When he was elected Dean of St Paul's Cathedral he made a
series of memorable sermons which earned him the reputation
of being the greatest preacher of his generation. John Donne
died in 1631 aged fifty-nine.
 Writers' Gallery - John Donne

'"nMMHHH While his sermons won him public acclaim, John Donne wrote
poetry exclusively for personal pleasure. During his lifetime his
poems were read only by his circle of friends in manuscript form. It was not until two years after his
death that they were published. His literary production includes:
• Satires written in the 1590s based on the Latin models of Juvenal and Horace. The targets of these
works were the social evils of the day;
• Songs and Sonnets, a collection of love poems;
• Divine Poems, a collection of religious poetry;
• Sermons and meditations, which include Donne's weekly sermons and his opinions on a wide range
of religious topics.

Metaphysical poetry Donne was a great literary innovator and is widely considered to be the
founder of the metaphysical school of poetry ( • p. D94). His work was characterised by the use of
paradoxes*, epigrams*, puns* and conceits*, i.e. striking images that associate dissimilar ideas. Much
of the poetry written in the period in which he lived was musical, ornate and respectful: he rejected
these standards and wrote poems which were original, striking and irreverent. His use, for example, of
religious imagery in love poems and images of physical love in religious poetry shocked his
contemporaries, and his work was not widely appreciated in the eighteenth or nineteenth centuries.
His reputation grew at the beginning of the twentieth century, when his passionate, dramatic poetry
became popular again, and it is only since then that he has been widely recognised as one of the great
poets of the English language.

TASKS /
1 Choose the correct option.
1 John Donne was born
_a] a Catholic.
_bj a Protestant.
2 In his youth he devoted himself to
0 studying Greek and Latin classics.
_bj women, theatrical performances and
writing poems.
3 Converting to the Church of England was
an easy step which Donne took
lightheartedly.
~b~l a very difficult decision which Donne
thought about for years.
4 Donne's brilliant political career was
_aj destroyed by his secret marriage to his
patron's niece.
b long and successful, thanks to Sir Thomas
Egerton's protection.
5 Unable to find new employment, he
[a] contemplated and wrote about suicide.
1 b 1 decided to write poems in honour of Sir
Thomas Egerton.
6 When he was ordained into the Church of
England he
[~a~1 became a famous preacher,
bJ started travelling on delicate diplomatic
missions.
2 Tick the expressions that can be applied to
Donne's poetry.
• Poems written for personal pleasure.
• Poems expressing love for nature.
• Religious or love poetry.
• Paradoxes, epigrams, puns and conceits.
• Musical, ornate and respectful poetry.
• Original, striking and irreverent.
• Epic poetry about heroic deeds.
• Passionate, dramatic poetry.
\i177THE PURITAN AGE - Poetry

Andrew Marvell
INTRODUCTION • There is something very modern about the poetry of Andrew Marvell. He may have
written over three hundred years ago, but his sophisticated imagery and direct style are perfectly suited to
the tastes of the twenty-first century reader.

The poet is trying to convince a girl to be his girlfriend. Read the poem and decide for yourself if the girl will be
convinced by his argument.

Q To his Coy1 Mistress2

• GLOSSARY
(See note on p. D2)
1. Coy: reluctant
2. Mistress: a woman to
whom a man pledges
his love. In modern
times it refers to a
woman who has a
sexual relationship
with a married man
3. Had we: if we had
4. coyness: shyness
5. were no: would not
be
6. Should'st rubies find:
would find rubies
(precious red stones)
7. Humber: river that
flows through Hull,
Marvell's home town
8. the Flood: the Flood
which God sent to
cover Earth. Only
Noah and his Ark
survived it. The poet
means 'very ancient
times'
9. Till ... Jews: until the
end of time. It was
believed that the Jews
would convert to
Christianity on
Judgement day
10.Times ... hurrying
near: the flying
chariot of time
approaching fast
11. yonder: over there, in
the distance
Had we3 but World enough and Time,
This coyness 4 Lady were no 5 crime.
We would sit down, and think which way
To walk, and pass our long Loves Day.
Thou by the Indian Ganges side
Should'st rubies find 6 :1 by the Tide
Of Humber7 would complain. I would
Love you ten years before the Flood8:
And you should if you please refuse
Till the conversion of the Jews9.
(...)
But at my back I always hear
Times winged Charriot hurrying near 10 :
And yonder 11 all before us lye
Desarts12 of vast Eternity.
(...)
Now therefore, while thy youthful hew 13 is
Sits on thy skin like morning dew14,
And while thy willing 15 Soul transpires
At every pore with instant Fires,
Now let us sport us 16 while we may;
And now, like am'rous birds of prey17,
Rather at once our Time devour,
Than languish in his slow-chapt pow'r 18 .
Marvell's Coy Mistress may have I
like this girl, who was painted by Van
Dyck between 7 622 and 1627.
12. Desarts: deserts 15. willing: full of desire that we devour our time
13. hew: colour ('hue') 16. sport us: enjoy ourselves now, rather than lan
14. dew: drops of water that 17. birds of prey: birds which its jaws that slowly
form on outdoor surfaces at kill and feed on other animals everything (slow-chapt
night 18. Rather ... pow'r: it is better with slowly moving jaiwfc
 Andrew Marvell 11

Let us roll all our Strength, and all 19. And tear ... strife:
and enjoy our
Our sweetness, up into one Ball: pleasures with great
And tear our Pleasures with rough strife 19 , 25 determination (rough
strife: violent battle)
Through the Iron gates of Life. 20. Thus: in this way
Thus 20 , though we cannot make our Sun 21. though ... run: even
Stand still, yet we will make him run 21 . if we cannot stop time
(our Sun) we can beat
it by living life with
great intensity
•

COMPREHENSION
1 In the world the poet describes in lines 1-10 there
are no limits to time and space and therefore he and
his lover do not need to hurry their love. Say whether
the following lines refer to time or space.
Lines 3^1: Lines 5-7:
Lines 8 - 1 0 :
2 In lines 11-14 the poet explains why he feels the
need to act immediately. Try to explain his argument
in your own words.
3 In the final section the poet suggests that he and
his mistress should seize the day and become lovers.
In doing this what will they conquer?

ANALYSIS
1 Focus on the imagery* of lines 11-12. The poet says
that 'Times winged Charriot' is directly behind him.
What does this striking image suggest about his
perception of time? How does it contrast with the view
of time presented in the first verse?
2 How would you define the tone of the opening verse?
• Humorous • Playful • Facetious
• Angry • Persuasive • Other:
What is the tone of lines 11-14?
• Humorous • Ironic • Solemn
• Pessimistic • Sombre • Other:
Do you agree that there is a sharp change of tone
from the first verse to the second?
3 In lines 13-14 the poet looks to the future and to
life after death. What image does he use to convey his
vision? Do you consider the image to be optimistic or
pessimistic? Justify your choice.
4 Consider lines 15-18 in which the poet focuses on
the woman's youth. He compares her complexion to
morning dew. Is the choice of the part of the day
significant?
In lines 1 7-18 he describes her soul as 'willing' and
associates it with fire. What does this suggest about
the lady's feelings for the poet?
5 Underline the verbs in lines 19-28. Are they
predominantly static or dynamic? Do they suggest that
the poet and his lover will take action or remain
motionless victims of time?
6 In the final verse the poet suggests that although
they cannot stop time, they can master it by living
each moment of their lives intensely. The concept of
the victim becoming master is conveyed through a
series of contrasts. Link each of the words in column A
with a contrasting word or expression in column B.
A B
amorous sweetness
devour run
strength birds of prey
pleasures slow-chapt
stand still strife
7 Does the tone of the final part of the poem differ
from the rest? How would you describe it?
• Triumphant • Optimistic • Sarcastic
• Playful • Other:
8 Identify the rhyme scheme of the poem. Is it regular
throughout? Count the syllables in each line. What
kind of line does Marvell use?
• tetrameter* • pentameter* • hexameter*
Find examples of in-line pauses* (marked by commas)
and run-on lines*. What effect do they have on the
poem? Choose from the following or add your own.
• They make the rhythm less regular and therefore less
lightweight.
• They make the poet's language more similar to
natural speech.
• They interrupt the flow of the poem.
• They add to the musicality of the poem.
 \i179THE PURITAN AGE - Poetry

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P
Hyperbole Hyperbole (Greek for 'overshooting') is an overstatement or a deliberate exaggeration,
used either for serious or comic effect. It is frequently used in everyday speech in
expressions such as:
'I've told you a million times not to put your feet on the sofa!'
'There are thousands of reasons why studying Greek and Latin is useful.'

aife In literature, hyperbole is used to catch the reader's attention. Its two fundamental uses
are diametrically opposed: to underline the gravity of the point the writer is making or
to add an element of humour.

Find examples of hyperbole referring to space and time in the first verse of the poem To his
Coy Mistress.
Is the hyperbole used to underline the seriousness of the point the poet is making or to add
a touch of playful humour?

OVER TO YOU Experiment with hyperbole. Write three sentences in which you use hyperbole for comic
effect.
The English lesson was so boring the birds in the trees outside fell asleep.
Mr Wakefield's nose is so large that it enters a room a full minute before the rest of his body.
While I was waiting for the bus I grew a three-inch beard.

Marvell is urging a woman to become his lover. He believes that because life is so short, each day should be fully
enjoyed. This concept was first developed by the Latin poet Horace: 'Carpe Diem, quam minimum credula
postero' ('Seize the day, and believe in the future as little as you can').
This timeless theme inspired the Italian prince and poet Lorenzo De Medici in the fifteenth century:
Quant'e bella giovinezza Youth is so gay
che si fugge tuttavia! How quickly it slips away!
Chi vuol esser lieto sia: Be happy while you may
di doman non c'e certezza! For tomorrow might be your last day!
and the sixteenth-century French poet Pierre de Ronsard:
Cueillez, cueillez votre jeunesse: Pick, pick your youth
Comme a cette fleur, la veillesse Like thisflower's,old age
Fera ternir votre beaute. Will spoil your beauty.
Now it is your turn. Add two or three more examples of 'Carpe diem' situations to the following:
I have an important test on Monday and I should be preparing for it. My friends are going to a football match
I think: Carpe diem! And I go with them.
 Writers' Gallery - Andrew Marvell

WRITERS' GALLERY

Andrew Marvell was born on

31st March 1621. He started
writing poetry, primarily in Greek and Latin, during his life as a
student at Cambridge University, from which he graduated in 1638.
From 1642 to 1 6 4 6 he travelled abroad to France, Holland,
Switzerland, Spain and Italy. When he returned to England he
became the tutor of twelve-year-old Mary Fairfax at her Yorkshire
home. It was at this time that he wrote some of his greatest
poems, including To his Coy Mistress. His friend John Milton rec-
ommended him for the position of Assistant Latin Secretary to
the Council of State, a post he secured in 1657. In 1659 Marvell
was elected M.P. for his home town of Hull. He remained in poli-
ANDREW MARVELL
tics for over twenty years, taking part in diplomatic missions to
(1621-1678)
Holland and Russia. He died in 1678.

Poetry Today Andrew Marvell is best remembered for the lyrical

WORKS
poems he wrote during the two-year period he spent as a tutor in
Yorkshire. At the time of writing, these poems were only known to a few of Marvell's close friends
including Milton ( • pp. D14-22), and it was not until three years after his death that they were
printed for a wider audience. Marvell drew inspiration from a wide range of sources including the
Cavalier poets ( • p. D94) and John Donne ( • pp. D2-9) but, like Milton, it was his classical training
that exercised the greatest influence on his work. His poetry shows his passion for life and his great
love of nature. Marvell was in some respects a forerunner of the Romantic movement ( • pp. E115-
116) in his sheer enjoyment of the open air and country life.

Satirical poems From 1667 to the end of his life Marvell wrote a series of satirical poems about
public figures and the events of the day. His biting satirical attacks were directed towards political
leaders, members of the aristocracy, the Court and the king himself. To protect Marvell, the satirical
poems were only circulated among friends in manuscript form. It was not until 1688, ten years after
his death, that they were published.

Prose Marvell's prose work consists of political pamphlets and a long series of newsletters he wrote
to his constituents on the work of Parliament. The letters are important historical documents because
they give us information about proceedings in Parliament at a time when no other records were kept.
In the eighteenth century Marvell was chiefly remembered as an outstanding patriot and politician.
Marvell the poet had always had his admirers, but it was only at the beginning of the nineteenth
century, during the Romantic period, that he was given the recognition he deserved.

TASK
True or false? Correct the false statements.
a. Marvell's best works include lyrical poems which
were published anonymously during his lifetime.
b. Marvell was greatly influenced by his studies of
ancient Greek and Latin authors.
c. Unlike poets before him, his love of nature is
authentic and sincere: nature is not just a
source of inspiration for similes and metaphors.
d. Marvell's poems are full of sadness and a sense
of incumbent tragedy.
e. Marvell's satirical poems against prominent
members of the society of his time (including
the king) were published posthumously.
f. The letters Marvell wrote to the people who
had elected him to Parliament are of
considerable historical importance.
\i1 4 THE PURITAN AGE - Poetry

Paradise Lost
by John Milton

D B 13D
In the Bible, the figure of Satan stands for Evil while God stands for Good. Since then, in literature and art, Satan
has been depicted in many different ways. In groups, think of a book, a painting, or a film in which Satan is one
of the characters and answer the following questions.
1 What does he look like? 4 Does he have any special powers and if so, what are
2 What kind of place does he live in? they?
3 Does he have any followers and/or enemies and if 5 Is the impression that is given of Satan positive,
so, who are they? negative or neutral?

INTRODUCTION • When he sat down to write Paradise Lost, J o h n Milton was inspired by religious fer-
vour and helped by a masterful command of the language. It took him five years to complete what has
since been recognised as the greatest epic poem in English literature. His picture-in-words of Hell is so
vivid that the reader feels he can almost walk into the page and find himself surrounded by the fires of
damnation ( • Visual Link D4).

THE STORY
Paradise Lost is a retelling of the Bible story of Man's expulsion from Paradise in twelve
books. In Books I and II, Satan has just been defeated in battle by God and banished to
Hell, from where he plans with the other fallen angels to get revenge. In Books III and IV he
flies to Earth, sees Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden and resolves to tempt them to dis-
obey God. In Books V-VIII the archangel Raphael tells Adam and Eve about Satan's rebel-
lion and their own creation, and warns them not to eat the fruit from the tree of knowledge.
In Book IX Adam and Eve eat the forbidden fruit and are expelled from Paradise in Books X
and XI, while Satan celebrates his victory. The last book (Book XII) is an account by the
archangel Michael of what will happen after the fall of Man up to the coming of the
Messiah.

Q H a H Better to Reign in Hell (Book I)

Satan is addressing his followers soon after their arrival in Hell, but instead of crying
over what has been lost he gives an inspiring and defiant speech.

(...)
'Is this the region, this the soil1, the clime 2 ,'
Said then the lost Archangel 3 , 'this the seat4
That we must change 5 for Heaven, this mournful gloom 6
For that celestial light? Be it so 7 , since he
GLOSSARY

(See note on D2)

1. soil: land 3. lost Archangel: Satan 5. change: exchange depressing darkness
2. clime: country 4. seat: place 6. mournful gloom: sad and 7. Be it so: let us accept this
 Paradise Lost - John Milton 15

Who now is sovran 8 can dispose and bid 9 5

What shall be right: farthest from him is best,
11. happy fields: heaven
Whom reason hath equalled, force hath made supreme
(allusion to the
Above his equals 10 . Farewell, happy fields 11 , Elysian fields of Greek
mythology)
Where joy for ever dwells 12 ! Hail13, horrors! hail,
12. dwells: lives
Infernal World! and thou, profoundest Hell, 10 13. Hail: welcome
Receive thy new possessor - one who brings 14. What matter...
greater: It does not
A mind not to be changed by place or time.
matter where I am
The mind is its own place, and in itself because I am still the
same as I was before.
Can make a Heaven of Hell, a Hell of Heaven. I am almost as good
What matter where, if I be still the same, 15 as God who beat me
in battle
And what I should be, all but less than he
15.the Almighty ...
Whom thunder hath made greater 14 ? Here at least hence: God, who
We shall be free; the Almighty hath not built built this place for us
and not for himself
Here for his envy, will not drive us hence 15 ; ( n o t . . . for his envy),
Here we may reign secure, and in my choice 16 , 20 has no intention of
attacking it and
To reign is worth ambition, though in Hell 17 : sending us away
Better to reign in Hell than serve in Heaven. (hence)
16.choice: opinion
17.To reign ... Hell: the
8. he ... sovran: he who rules lO.farthest... equals: it is he is and he only won important thing is to
(God) better to be as far away as power because his rule, even if it is in
9. dispose and bid: do and possible from God. armies were stronger than Hell
command 1 am as intelligent as mine
»

COMPREHENSION
1 Where is Satan? 4 Does Satan accept that God is his superior?
2 Is he happy to be far from God? Why? 5 Will his new surroundings change the way Satan
3 According to Satan, how did Cod defeat him - by thinks?
power or reason? Did this represent a true victory for 6 List the reasons why Satan feels that Hell is
God, in his opinion? preferable to Heaven.

ANALYSIS
1 The extract contains contrasting descriptions of 4 Although Milton wrote Paradise Lost to praise
Heaven and Hell. Underline them in the text. What God, some critics feel that Satan is the true hero of
images of the two places are conveyed? the poem. Does Satan have any heroic qualities in
2 God is never mentioned explicitly in the text. your opinion?
Underline words and expressions that refer to him. 5 Consider lines 2 - 4 . They are examples of run-on
How is God described by Satan? Choose from the line* (enjambement*).
adjectives below. Find other examples of run-on lines in the text.
• Ambitious • Just • Loving What is the effect of this device?
• Competitive • Evil • Devious It makes Satan's speech
• more poetic but more artificial.
3 Choose three adjectives from the list below to
• flow more naturally.
describe Satan. Justify your choices by referring to the
text.
Courageous • Evil • Ambitious • Proud
Fearless • Selfish • Humble
 \i183THE PURITAN AGE - Poetry

6 4 |J Paradise Lost is written in blank verse*. Blank verse is generally regarded as the poetic metre
that most closely resembles the rhythm of natural
| 'Is | this | the | re| gion, | this | the | soil, | the | clime,' speech
| in English. Would you agree that Satan
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 speech sounds natural? Do you think that it could
successfully be performed as a theatrical monologue?
| Said | then | the | lost | Arch | an | gel, | 'this | the | seat |
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 7 Milton was heavily influenced by his classical
The metre is not regular throughout. Sometimes studies. In his poetry he often used words of Latin
Milton varies the number of syllables or the unstressed- origin. Link the words in column A below to the
stressed syllable pattern. Listen again to the recording Latinate equivalent that Milton uses (in column B).
of the following four lines and analyse them as above. A B
Receive thy new possessor - one who brings
place celestial
A mind not to be changed by place or time.
deepest possessor
The mind is its own place, and in itself
heavenly region
Can make a Heaven of Hell, a Hell of Heaven.
hellish infernal
owner profoundest

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P
Style Style refers to the way a writer says what he wants to say. It is usually analysed in terms
of the diction (i.e. the choice of words), the sentence structure or syntax, the density
and types of imagery, the rhythm and sounds. Many adjectives are used to classify types
of style including formal, oratorical, ornate, sober, simple, elaborate, conversational.
Styles are also classified according to literary periods or traditions, for example, meta-
physical style and Restoration prose style, or according to an important work, for exam-
ple Biblical style. Style may also be described by making reference to its greatest expo-
nent, for example, Shakespearean style, Miltonic style and Byronic style.

TASK Milton's style is very distinctive and is often referred to as grand style. The features are:
- the choice of words of Latin origin;
- allusions to the classical world;
- long sentence structures.
Find examples of each feature in the extract you have read.

OVER TO YOU Experiment with style. Rewrite the first ten lines of Satan's speech in a more informal style.
STEP ONE - Substitute the underlined words with other words or expressions (see list
below).
STEP T W O - Make sentences shorter and use any device that you think might make the
speech more informal.
sad darkness the bright lights of heaven No problem king say and do whatever he likes
bye-bye heaven where everyone is always happy Hi there, you deepest
'Is this the region, this the soil, the clime,' Start like this:
Said then the lost Archangel, 'this the seat Is this the place that we
That we must change for Heaven, this mournful gloom must exchange for Heaven?
For that celestial light? Be it so. since he I guess we're going to have
Who now is sovran can dispose and bid to get used to ...
What shall be right: farthest from him is best,
Whom reason hath equalled, force hath made supreme
Above his equals. Farewell, happy fields.
Where joy for ever dwells! Hail, horrors! hail,
Infernal World! and thou profoundest Hell (...)
Learn your version of the speech by heart and perform it for your classmates.
 Sonnet XVIII - John Milton 17

Satan says that, even though he has been defeated, he will build a new empire in Hell and never accept God's
supremacy. It almost seems that Milton has unintentionally made Satan into a hero who fights bravely against
adversity.
Try to think of examples of people, or groups of people, who fight or have fought against adverse circumstances
when it might have been easier to give up. The following areas where people can become heroes in the face of
adversity should help you get some ideas:
sport
family life
politics
social work
study
career development
natural disasters
war
illness

An engraving
Gustave Dore
• Paradise Lost
\i1 8 THE PURITAN AGE - Poetry

Q Text D 5 Sonnet XVIII: On the Late Massacre in Piemont

The Waldensians, or Valdesi, are a Protestant community that has lived for cen
a number of valleys that connect Italy to France. Milton, who was a devout Prot
and virulently anti-Catholic, wrote this poem when he heard about a massa
Waldensians by Catholic troops in 1655.

Avenge1, O Lord, thy slaughter'd 2 saints, whose bones

Lie scatter'd 3 on the Alpine mountains cold,
Ev'n them who kept thy truth so pure of old 4 ,
When all our fathers worshipp'd stocks and stones 5 ;

Forget not: in thy book 6 record their groans 7

Who were thy sheep 8 and in their ancient fold 9
Slain 10 by the bloody Piemontese that roll'd
Mother with infant down the rocks. Their moans

The vales redoubl'd to the hills, and they

To Heav'n 11 . Their martyr'd blood and ashes sow
O'er all th' Italian fields where still doth sway

The triple tyrant 12 ; that from these may grow

A hundred-fold, who having learnt thy way
Early may fly the Babylonian woe 13 .

GLOSSARY 8. sheep: followers Christian writer

(See note on D2)
1. Avenge: get justice for
2. slaughter'd: murdered
3. scatter'd: thrown over a
wide area
4. Ev'n ... old: those who
preserved the true, pure
religion in earlier times
5. stocks and stones:
inanimate things
6. thy book: the book that
God will consult on
Judgement day, when he
decides who will go to Hell
or Heaven (Revelations
20:12)
7. groans: cries of pain
9. ancient fold: old church
(fold: the group of people
you belong to and share
the same beliefs as)
10. Slain: killed
11.Their moans ... Heav'n:
their cries of pain (moans)
intensified (redoubl'd) as
they rose from the valleys
to the hills and then up to
Heaven
12.Their martyr'd blood ...
tyrant: the blood of these
martyrs is like seeds sown
all over Italy where the
Pope (the triple tyrant)
still rules (doth sway). A
reference to the Latin
Tertullian's famous phrase
'The blood of the martyrs
is the seed of the Church'
and the parable of the
sower (Matthew 13:3-9)
13.that from ... woe: that
from these seeds the
Protestant community
may multiply. The new
converts from Catholicism
will avoid the fate of all
Catholics which is to be
punished by God
(Babylonian woe). The
ancient city of Babylon
was considered a city of
perdition and was
identified by Protestants
with Rome.

COMPREHENSION
1 Who are the 'slaughter'd saints' mentioned in line 1 ? 4 Did the Piemontese spare the women and
2 Where did the massacre take place? children?

3 What does the poet admire about the Waldensian's 5 Who still rules Italy, according to the poet?
faith? 6 What does he hope will happen in the future?
 Sonnet XVIII - John Milton 19

ANALYSIS — —
1 Underline any words or expressions in the text that
refer to the Waldensians. Which of the following
characteristics do you think are emphasised?
• Their saintliness
• Their courage
• Their skill in fighting
• Their hatred of Catholics
• Their purity
• Their long-standing religious traditions
Justify your answer by referring to the text.
2 The images of the massacre are quite striking. Find
an image that has a strong visual appeal and one that
appeals to your sense of hearing.
5 Find examples of run-on-lines* (enjambement*) in
the poem. Do you feel that this device makes the
sentences long and complicated or gives a more
natural flow to the language?
4 How would you describe the style* of the poem?
• Elevated • Colloquial • Relaxed
• Formal • Sombre
• Other:
One of the elements that contributes to creating the
style is allusions* to other great works of literature.
Use the notes in the glossary to identify allusions to
the Bible and other works of literature.
5 The poem is written in the form of a sonnet*.
Identify the rhyme scheme and then say whether the
poem is divided into an octave and a sestet
(Petrarchan sonnet) or three quatrains and a couplet
(Shakespearean sonnet).

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P
Didactic Poetry, plays, novels and stories whose primary purpose is to guide, instruct or teach
literature come under the heading of didactic literature. They are distinguished from purely
PÜ imaginative works (sometimes called 'mimetic' works) whose goal is purely to interest
and appeal to the reader. Didactic literature was particularly popular in seventeenth-
century England. Much of the poetry of the period was written to educate the readers
on subjects as diverse as morality, religion, philosophy, gardening and beer-making.
Propagandist literature is a particular type of didactic literature which tries to convince
the reader to take a position or direct action on a contemporary moral or political issue.
Milton's Paradise Lost may be considered to be didactic literature, while his sonnet On the
Late Massacre in Piemont falls into the category of propagandist literature.
Work in groups. Discuss how effective Milton's On the Late Massacre in Piemont is as
propagandist literature. In the course of your discussion answer these questions.
a. What was your reaction to the poem when you first read it? Were you surprised by the
vehemence of Milton's attack?
b. Do you think that Milton is objective in how he depicts the historical facts?
c. Do you think that the poetic form allows Milton to be more subjective? If he had written
an essay or a newspaper article, would the reader have demanded greater historical
authenticity and more analysis?
d. Do you think that poetry is an appropriate vehicle for political messages or do you think
they are better conveyed through journalism? What, if any, are the advantages of
expressing your political message in a poem?
Think of a poem, novel, film or song that you would consider didactic or propagandist.
Explain to your classmates the message contained in the work.
Think about examples such as Animal Farm by George Orwell, songs like Sunday, Bloody
Sunday by U2 and films like Schindler's List.

•DO 1
Do you know any other songs that have political themes? If you do, find the lyrics of the song, make copies for
your classmates and listen to the song together. Do some research on the theme of the song and give a short talk
on what the song is about.
\i187THE PURITAN AGE - Poetry

WRITERS' GALLERY
Background and education
J o h n Milton was born in
London in 1608 into a wealthy, well-educated family. His father,
who had been disinherited by his family for b e c o m i n g
Protestant, instilled in his son from an early age a love of learn-
ing and strong religious beliefs. By the age of sixteen he could
write in Latin and Greek and had a good knowledge of
Philosophy. He attended Christ's College, Cambridge, where he
took his Master of Arts degree and distinguished himself as an
outstanding student. For a period of time he considered taking
religious orders, but finally decided to move back home, where
he continued his studies and wrote.
JOHN M I L T O N
In 1638 he visited France and Italy. However, when news of the
(1608-1674)
Civil War in England reached him he returned home.

Political views He was an adamant supporter of Cromwell and Parliament, and when King Charles I
was executed he wrote a pamphlet in which he voiced his approval, saying it was the people's right to
call to account a Tyrant or Wicked King, and after due conviction to depose him and put him to death.
He was rewarded for his pamphlet when Parliament offered him the position of Latin Secretary to the
Commonwealth, a post comparable to a Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs today. Milton, who had
always had weak eyesight, was going blind, and doctors warned him not to take the job as it involved
translating into Latin all the government's foreign correspondence. Milton replied that he had to do
his duty for the Commonwealth and accepted the position. He eventually went totally blind.

Final years After the Restoration Milton spent a brief period in prison for the part he had played
in the Commonwealth, but he was well-respected and had powerful friends and so was soon
released. He spent the last years of his life in retirement dedicating himself to the writing of his
masterpieces: Paradise Lost, Paradise Regained and Samson Agonistes. He died in 1674.

TASK
Underline the answers to these questions in the text.
a. What religion was Milton born into?
b. In which subjects did he excel?
c. What countries did he travel to in 1638?
d. What event persuaded him to return home?
e. What job was he offered as a reward for his anti-
Royalist stance?
f. Why was he arrested after the Restoration?

H f f M M H John Milton's work can be divided into three phases.

ii^HI^HMailliiHillii^lilH Phase I: Early poems and a masque The first phase covers his
years as a student. When only fifteen years old he wrote his first poems, which were paraphrases of
Psalms. While studying at Cambridge he wrote poetry in Latin, as was the custom at the time, but it
was his burning ambition to produce great poetry in his native language, and in 1629 he wrote his
first masterpiece, the Ode on the Morning of Christ's Nativity, a celebration of the coming of Christ and
the abandonment of pagan Gods.
Milton was fascinated by Italian culture. He studied writers like Petrarch, Dante and Tasso, and their
works influenced his early poems L'Allegro and II Penseroso (1632).
 Writers' Gallery - John Milton

In 1634 his masque Comus, which combined music, verse and dancing, was first performed. In 1637
he published his greatest minor poem, Lycidas, a pastoral elegy written in remembrance of the death
of a fellow student.

Phase II: Prose writings In his second phase of creativity Milton focused on prose writing. In 1643
he published The Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce, claiming the right of a husband or wife to dissolve
a marriage on the grounds of incompatibility. In his personal life Milton had married a seventeen-
year old girl, the daughter of a Royalist family, in 1642. She left him after just a few weeks, largely, it
is said, because of his austere attitude to life and their religious differences. The two were, however,
reconciled, but Milton never fully forgave his wife and became a strong supporter of divorce.
One of his greatest prose works, Areopagitica ('Things to be declared before the Areopagus', a hill in
Athens where a respected council met to take important decisions), published in 1644, is Milton's
impassioned plea for freedom of speech and the press. In this pamphlet he compares the Greek
council and the English Parliament, which had just
passed a law controlling the press.
In the same year he wrote the pamphlet Of Education JOANNIS M I L T O N l
which promoted encyclopaedic educational schooling
for the formation of humanistic leaders. However, while
Angli
PRO POPULO ANGLICANO
publicly Milton explained the importance of a broad
education, in private he did n o t h i n g to educate his DEFENSIO
daughters. His eldest daughter was totally illiterate. Contra CUuJii zAr,on)mi, alias SMmafii,
Because his eyesight was failing he taught his other Dcfcnfioncm R.EQIAM.
daughters to read m e c h a n i c a l l y to him in foreign
languages, without understanding the words they read.
They took revenge by selling books from their father's
library.
In 1649 he wrote The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates, in
which he justified the execution of Charles I. England
was criticised by several European countries for the
execution of the monarch* In reply, Milton wrote Pro
Populo Anglicano Defensio (Defence of the People of
iftND/N/,
England) and Pro Populo Anglicano Secunda Defensio Typi« VH GmLmu. Anno Domini iSji.
(Second Defence of the People of England) in 1651 and
1654 respectively. Both documents were written in Latin The title page for Pro Populo Anglicano
Defensio (1651).
so that they could be read throughout Europe.

Phase III: Poetic masterpieces After the Restoration in 1660 Milton retired from public life and
dedicated himself to the writing of his great poetic masterpieces. He had always wanted to write an
epic poem in English in the classical style of Virgil's Aeneid, and initially he had considered the legend
of King Arthur as a suitable subject matter. However, he eventually chose the Fall of Man as his theme
and set to work on Paradise Lost. Published in 1667, Paradise Lost tells the story in twelve books of
Satan's banishment from Heaven and his attempt to take revenge on God through the temptation of
Adam and Eve. The poem is written in blank verse and observes the classical epic conventions:
• the hero is a figure of great importance. Adam represents the entire human race;
• the setting of the poem is ample in scale: the action takes place on Earth, in Heaven and in Hell;
 ,;2 2 THE AUGUSTAN AGE - Poetry

St

• the action involves superhuman deeds in battle and a long and arduous journey: Paradise Lost includes
the war in Heaven and then Satan's journey to the newly-created world to corrupt mankind;
• there are catalogues of some of the principal characters, introduced in formal detail: in Book I
Milton describes the procession of fallen angels;
• an epic poem is narrated in an elevated style that is deliberately distanced from ordinary speech:
Milton's grand style* is created by the use of Latinate diction and syntax, wide-ranging allusions
(there are references to Homer, Virgil, Dante, Tasso, Ariosto, Spenser and the Bible) and long
listings of names; .
• the narrator begins by stating his theme and invoking a muse: in the opening lines Milton calls on
God to be his guiding spirit in writing his 'adventurous song';
• the narrative starts when the action is at a critical point: Paradise Lost opens with Satan and the
fallen angels in Hell, gathering their forces and plotting revenge. It is not until Books V-VII that we
learn from the angel Raphael about the events in Heaven that led to this situation.
Milton wanted to write a poem in praise of God. As he said in one of his sonnets, he wanted to use
his literary gifts 'to serve therewith my maker'. Some critics have claimed that the true hero of
Paradise Lost is, however, Satan. It has also been suggested that Milton may have identified a parallel
between Satan's struggle against the absolute power of God and his own fight against the absolute
authority of the monarchy.
In 1671 Milton published Paradise Regained in four books. Written in the same epic style as Paradise
Lost, it tells the story of Christ's temptation by Satan in the desert. In the same year he also published
Samson Agonistes, a play depicting the events leading up to the killing of Samson by the Philistines. It
observes the conventions of Greek tragedy and includes choruses, messengers and reports instead of
direct speech.

Reputation For over two hundred years Milton was regarded as one of the greatest writers in the
English language. At the beginning of the twentieth century some influential literary figures such as
Ezra Pound and T.S. Eliot ( • Module G) criticised his 'grand style', claiming that it was artificial and
rhetorical and too far removed from the speech of common people. Other critics have since argued
that his style is appropriate to the subject matter and epic form, and have rehabilitated him to a pre-
eminent role in English literature.

mm TASK
Prepare to speak for thirty
seconds about John Milton's
works. Concentrate on
selecting the most important
information. You may use the
M... •
spidergram as a guideline.
s
 ofPf-gf®

e
The Rape of the Lock
fry Alexander Pope

Briefly describe your morning routine. How much time do you spend showering, getting dressed, etc.? What is
the most annoying part of your routine? Is there any part that you enjoy?

INTRODUCTION • Alexander Pope's massive literary output included much-admired translations of both
the Iliad and the Odyssey but his most famous poem is about a bizarre domestic incident. W h e n one of his
friends, Lord Petre, cut off a lock of Miss Arabella Fermor's hair, Belinda in the poem, their two families,
started a feud. To defuse the tension he wrote The Rape of the Lock, which made fun of the incident
( • Visual Link D5).

Beauty Puts on all its Arms Text D 6

This text is taken from the first of the five Cantos that make up the complete poem.

And now, unveil'd 1 , the Toilet stands display'd2,

Each Silver Vase in mystic Order laid.
First, rob'd 3 in White, the Nymph 4 intent adores,
With Head uncover'd, the Cosmetic Pow'rs.
A heav'nly Image in the Glass appears, 5
To that she bends, to that her Eyes she rears5;
Th' inferior Priestess6, at her Altar's side,
Trembling 7 , begins the sacred Rites of Pride.
Unnumber'd 8 Treasures ope 9 at once, and here
The various Off'rings of the World appear; 10
From each she nicely culls with curious Toil 10 ,
And decks 11 the Goddess with the glitt'ring Spoil 12 .
This casket India's glowing Gems unlocks 13 ,
And all Arabia breathes 14 from yonder 15 Box.
The Tortoise here and Elephant unite, 15
Transform'd to Combs, the speckled 16 and the white.
Here Files of Pins 17 extend their shining Rows, '... Th' inferior Priestess ... Trembling,
Puffs18, Powders, Patches 19 , Bibles, Billet-doux 20 . begins the sacred Rites of Pride.'
Aubrey Beardsley illustrated the 1896-
edition of The Rape of the Lock.

GLOSSARY 7. Trembling: shivering with 1 3 . c a s k e t . . . unlocks: 17. Pins: pieces of metal

1. unveil'd: uncovered
2. Toilet... display'd: dressing
table stands in all its glory
3. rob'd: dressed
4. Nymph: Belinda
5. rears: raises
6. inferior Priestess: the
servant
excitement
8. Unnumber'd: countless
9. ope: open
10.culls ... Toil: carefully
chooses
11. decks: decorates
12. glitt'ring Spoil: shining
products
box (casket) reveals used to keep hair in
(unlocks) the treasures of place
India 18. Puffs: pads to put
14. breathes: emanates face powder on
perfume 19. Patches: artificial
IS. yonder: over there beauty spots
16. speckled: with spots (made 20. Billet-doux: love
from tortoise shell) letters
,;2 4 THE AUGUSTAN AGE - Poetry

21.The Fair ... Charms: Now awful Beauty puts on all its Arms;
the Lady becomes
more beautiful The Fair each moment rises in her Charms 21 , 20
22. awakens: wakes up Repairs her Smiles, awakens 22 ev'ry Grace,
23. by Degrees: gradually
And calls forth all the Wonders of her Face;
24. purer Blush: a better-
looking red colour Sees by Degrees 23 a purer Blush 24 arise,
25. keener Lightnings And keener Lightnings quicken 25 in her Eyes.
quicken: more acute
sparks of light appear The busy Sylphs 26 surround their darling Care; 25
26. Sylphs: guardian These set the Head, and those divide the Hair,
angels
27. plait the Gown: fold
Some fold the Sleeve, whilst others plait the Gown 27 ;
the dress And Betty's 28 prais'd for labours not her own.
28. Betty: the servant
•

COMPREHENSION
The extract you have read can be divided into four parts. Say at which line each section begins and ends.
- Belinda takes her place before the dressing table: line ... .... to line ;
- the work begins: line to line ;
- description of the objects on the dressing table: line . to line ;
- the work is completed: line in line
Part 1 Part 3
a. How is Belinda dressed? g. What can be found in the boxes from India and
b. What does she 'adore'? (Line 3) Arabia?
c. Whose image appears in the glass? (Line 5) h. What are the combs made of?
How does Belinda react to it? i. What other objects can be found on Belinda's
d. Why is Betty referred to as 'inferior'? dressing table?
Part 2 Part 4
e. What do the expressions 'Unnumber'd Treasures' j. Betty starts to apply Belinda's make-up. What
(line 9) and 'various Off'rings of the World' (line 10) changes take place in Belinda's face?
refer to? k. Who helps Betty in preparing Belinda? What
f. Who is the 'Goddess' in line 12? specific tasks do they carry out?

ANALYSIS
1 There are several examples of religious imagery* in 5 In line 18 Pope lists the things on Belinda's dressing
the text, for example: 'Each Silver Vase in mystic table. Which one stands out from the others?
Order laid'. (Line 2) Why do you think Pope includes this incongruous
Find other words and expressions that are usually element?
associated with this semantic field. To show:
2 Belinda's dressing is also compared to military • that dressing had almost a religious significance for
procedures, for example: 'And decks the Goddess Belinda.
with the glitt'ring Spoil'. (Line 12) • that religion was of little importance to her.
Explain why lines 1 7 and 19 reinforce this association. • that she was fervently religious.
3 Does comparing Belinda's dressing to a religious 6 Belinda is never referred to by name in the text.
ceremony and military matters make it seem more Underline the words and expressions Pope uses to
solemn or trivial? refer to her and her behaviour. What impression do
4 Products from distant, exotic lands are cited in the you get of her? Do you think of her as:
description of Belinda's dressing table. What are they • humble • modest
and where are they from? Does Pope make reference • vain • sophisticated
to them to highlight Belinda's: • elegant • frivolous
• sophistication and refinement? • other:
• vanity and frivolity?
 The Rape of the Lock - Alexander Pope 25

7 Examine the verse form used in the poem. 9 Find an example of personification* in line 19.
a. Focus on the first two lines:
1 0 Find an example of an oxymoron* in line 19.
| And | now, | un | veil'd, | the | Toi | let | stands | dis | play'd, |
| Each | Sil | ver | Vase | in | my | stic | Or | der | laid.1 1 |Explain the ironic use of the word 'purer' in line 23.
How many syllables are there in each line? Can you identify an example of internal rhyme in the
same line?
b. Mark the stressed syllables ' and the unstressed
syllables Which of the following stress patterns is 1 2 Which of the following adjectives would you use
used? to describe Pope's diction*?
• Anapestic* • Trochaic* • Iambic* • Colloquial • Vague •Scientific
c. Which of the following is the correct definition of • Rich »Plain m Ornate
the verse form used by Pope? • Precise • Concise
• Heroic couplet* • Alexandrine* • Blank verse*
1 3 How would you describe the tone of the poem?
d. Is the metre and structure of the poem regular or
• Solemn • Ironic • Elevated
irregular on the whole?
• Mocking • Playful • Religious
8 Identify the sound device that is used in line 18. • Other:

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P
Mock-heroic A m o c k - h e r o i c (or m o c k - e p i c ) poem imitates the elevated style and conventions
(invocations of the Gods, descriptions of armour, battles, extended similes, etc.) of the
epic genre in dealing with a frivolous or minor subject. The mock-heroic has been
widely used to satirise social vices such as pretentiousness, hypocrisy, superficiality, etc.
The inappropriateness of the grandiose epic style highlights the trivial and senseless
nature of the writer's target.
The Rape of the Lock is an example of the mock-epic form. In it Pope uses the lofty,
serious style of classical epics not to describe battles or supernatural events, but to
satirise the seriousness with which friends in his circle treated a breach of manners at a
social gathering: the stealing of a lock of hair.

The Rape of the Lock contains all the standard features of the epic genre:
A dream message from the gods Epic feast
Arming the heroes journey to the underworld
M r - J Sacrifice to the gods General combat
M . & Exhortation to the troops Intervention of the gods
Single combat Apotheosis
•
a Kt :-. r -mm
J Which of the epic features is parodied in the extract you have just read?

OVER T O Y O U Experiment with the mock-heroic style. Write sentences in which you compare people or
mm everyday occurrences to characters or events in epic poetry.
HI Example: The journey was endless. When I got home I felt like Odysseus returning to Ithaca!

In the extract from The Rape of the Lock you have read, Alexander Pope makes fun of the elaborate extent Belinda
goes to in order to make herself beautiful. How do you feel about the issue of vanity and the beauty industry?
 THE AUGUSTAN AGE - Poetry

LINK
{ to the world of music
In 1972 American singer/songwriter Carly Simon released the song You're So Vain, which became a worldwide
hit. There was much speculation at the time about who the subject of the song was. Many people believed the
song was about Mick jagger, the lead singer of the rock band The Rolling Stones (who actually sings backing
vocals on the chorus), others claimed it was about the actor Warren Beatty.

Read the lyrics of the song and compare it to Alexander Pope's attack on vanity. Which of the two is more direct?
Which is more effective?

You're So Vain
You walked into the party like you were walking onto a yacht Carly Simon.
Your hat strategically dipped1 below one eye
Your scarf it was apricot
You had one eye on the mirror as you watched yourself gavotte2
And all the girls dreamed that they'd be your partner
They'd be your partner, and ...

You're so vain, you probably think this song is about you

You're so vain, I'll bet you think this song is about you
Don't you? Don't you?

You had me several years ago when I was still quite naive3
Well you said that we made such a pretty pair
And that you would never leave
But you gave away the things you loved and one of them was me
I had some dreams, they were clouds in my coffee
Clouds in my coffee, and ...

I had some dreams they were clouds in my coffee

Clouds in my coffee, and ...
Well I hear you went up to Saratoga and your horse naturally won
Then you flew your Lear jet4 up to Nova Scotia
To see the total eclipse of the sun
Well you're where you should be all the time
And when you're not you're with
Some underworld spy or the wife of a close friend
Wife of a close friend, and ...

GLOSSARY

1. dipped: pulled down

2. gavotte: dance (a gavotte is a fast, happy French dance)
3. naive: inexperienced, innocent
4. Lear jet: a luxurious private plane
 Writers' Gallery - Alexander Pope 27

WRITERS' GALLERY
Early years Alexander Pope
LIFE AND WORKS
was born in London in 1688,
the o n l y son of a cloth m e r c h a n t . At the age of twelve he
suffered from tubercolosis of the bone, which stunted his growth
and left him deformed and sickly for the rest of his life. Because
his family was Catholic he could not attend public schools or go
to university, so he was largely self-educated. He based his
studies on the Classics and French and Italian authors.

Writing career From a very early age he showed a gift for

writing. W h e n he was just sixteen years old he wrote his
Pastorals ( 1 7 0 9 ) , which were based on classical models and
ALEXANDER POPE showed his skill in using poetic metre. In his twenties he wrote
(1688-1744) Essay on Criticism (1711), based on Horace's Ars Poetica, where he
' ' sets out his principles for writing poetry.
Written while he was still in his mid-twenties, The Rape of the Lock (1712-1714) is a masterpiece of
the mock-heroic*. It concerns the quarrel between two families caused by Lord Petre's cutting a love-
lock from the head of Arabella Fermor, Belinda in the poem. It is a playful poem full of paradoxes*,
witty observations and humorous epic allusions. It makes fun of the fatuous upper-class society it
depicts and shows Pope's unrivalled mastery of the heroic couplet*. The Rape of the Lock established
Pope's reputation in literary circles. He became friends with Jonathan Swift and, together with some
other leading literary figures, they formed the 'Scriblerus Club' to discuss topics of contemporary
interest and to ridicule all false tastes in learning. In 1720 he completed a translation of Homer's
Illiad, and his translation of The Odyssey, which appeared in 1726, gave him financial independence.
He was one of the first poets to become economically self-sufficient through his poetry, and he was
widely recognised as the leading man of letters of his day.
The Dunciad (1728) is Pope's most celebrated satire. It is written in the mock-heroic style and is an
attack on the author's literary rivals, critics and enemies, who are grouped together and called
'Dulness'. In it Pope describes the triumph of banality (Dulness), which takes over all the arts,
sciences, the theatre and the court and leads the world to cultural chaos and artistic bankruptcy.
Pope spent the last years of his life in Twickenham outside London, where he led a largely reclusive
life. In later years his health declined and he became physically dependent on others. He died in
1744.

Reputation Alexander Pope was the most celebrated poet of the early part of the eighteenth
century. In the second half of the century he fell out of favour, as tastes began to change and his
sophisticated poetry was considered to lack feeling. He did not appeal to readers again until the
beginning of the twentieth century, when once more his wit and technical ability found an
appreciative public.

TASK
Prepare a short report on Pope following the outline:
education health precocious artistic talent
different poetic forms reputation
,;2 8 THE AUGUSTAN AGE - Poetry

Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard

by Thomas Gray

INTRODUCTION • Although T h o m a s Gray wrote many other poems, his Elegy Written in a Con
Churchyard is the one that has caught the imagination of generations of readers. Certain lines like
Paths of Glory lead but to the Grave', are among the best-known in the language. The poem also has a
cial place in English literature because it marks the transition from the Augustan to the early Romantic

Graveyards are often sad a n d s o m e t i m e s mysterious. T h e y are nearly always q u i e t places w h e r e p e o p l e can think
a b o u t their d e a d loved o n e s undisturbed by t h e noise a n d bustle of everyday life. T h e narrator in this p o e m has
w a n d e r e d into a graveyard a n d thinks a b o u t t h e m a n y p o o r p e o p l e w h o are buried t h e r e . He asks himself if their
lives are of less value than t h e lives of t h o s e w h o have b e e n rich a n d successful. Read on a n d find t h e answer.

Q Text D 7 The Paths of Glory Lead but to the Grave

• GLOSSARY (...)
1. blazing: burning For them no more the blazing 1 Hearth 2 shall burn,
with strong, bright
flames
Or busy Housewife ply her Evening Care 3 :
Hearth: where a fire No Children run to lisp their Sire's Return 4 ,
is burning Or climb his Knees the envied Kiss5 to share.
ply her Evening
Care: do her
household jobs, like Oft did the Harvest to their Sickle yield 6 , 5
preparing dinner, in Their Furrow oft the stubborn Glebe has broke 7 ;
the evening
How jocund did they drive their Team afield8!
4. to lisp ... Return: to
greet their father How bow'd the Woods beneath their sturdy Stroke 9 !
when he comes home
from work
Let not Ambition mock 10 their useful Toil 11 ,
5. envied Kiss: the
children are jealous Their homely Joys and Destiny obscure; 10
of one another
Nor Grandeur 12 hear with a disdainful 13 Smile,
because they all
want to kiss their The short and simple Annals 14 of the Poor.
father
Oft... yield: they The Boast of Heraldry15, the Pomp 16 of Pow'r,
often gathered the And all that Beauty, all that Wealth e'er 17 gave,
crops (Harvest) (a
sickle is a tool for Awaits alike 18 th' inevitable Hour. is
cutting grass, corn, The Paths of Glory lead but to the Grave.
etc.)
Their Furrow ...
broke: They often
ploughed (furrow:
plough) the land their horses (Team) through 12. Grandeur: the nobility, rich (Heraldry is the study of the
to prepare it for the fields (afield) people history and insignia of
planting 9. How bow'd ... Stroke: 13. disdainful: showing families)
How jocund ... how the woods bent down disrespect 16. Pomp: ostentation
afield: how happy beneath their strong blows 14. Annals: history 17. e'er: ever
they were (jocund) 10. mock: make fun of 15. Boast of Heraldry: the 18. Awaits alike: they all wait
when they drove 11.Toil: hard work pride of the aristocracy for
 Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard - Thomas Gray 29

Nor you, ye Proud 19 , impute to these the Fault 20 ,

If Mem'ry o'er 21 their Tomb no Trophies raise,
Where thro' the long-drawn Isle and fretted Vault 22
The pealing Anthem swells the Note of Praise23.

Can storied 24 Urn 25 or animated 26 Bust

Back to its Mansion 27 call the fleeting 28 Breath?
Can Honour's Voice provoke the silent Dust,
Or Flatt'ry 29 sooth 30 the dull cold Ear of Death?

Perhaps in this neglected Spot 31 is laid

'Oft did the Harvest to their Sickle yield... How bow'd the
Some Heart once pregnant with 32 celestial Fire, Woods beneath their sturdy Stroke!' An illustration for
Hands that the Rod of Empire might have sway'd, Thomas Gray's Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard.

Or wak'd to Exstacy the living Lyre33.

books that contained
all the knowledge
But Knowledge to their Eyes her ample Page gathered throughout
Rich with the Spoils of Time did ne'er unroll 34 ; 30 history (ample Page
Rich with the Spoils
Chill Penury 35 repress'd their noble Rage36, of Time)
And froze the genial Current of the Soul 37 . 35. Chill Penury: cold
poverty
Full many a Gem 38 of purest Ray serene 39 , 36. Rage: burning
ambition, energy
The dark unfathom'd 4 0 Caves of Ocean bear 41 :
37. genial Current of the
Full many a Flower is born to blush 42 unseen, 35 Soul: talent, artistic
sensibilities and
And waste its Sweetness on the desart 43 Air.
abilities
(...) 38. Full m a n y a Gem:
many precious stones
like diamonds
39. of purest Ray serene:
19. ye Proud: you proud sung in honour of the dead 30. sooth: make calm transparent (serene:
people person 31. Spot: place clear), of the highest
20.impute ... Fault: think it is 24. storied: old and valuable 32. pregnant with: full of quality
a fault or defect 25. Urn: container that can be 40. unfathom'd:
33.Hands ... Lyre: this person
21. o'er: over used to hold the ashes of a might have been an empe- mysterious, so far
2 2 . t h e long-drawn Isle ... dead person ror who held (sway'd) a down in the sea that
Vault: the centre of the 26. animated: lifelike sceptre (Rod of Empire) in they have never been
church and the decorated 27. Mansion: big house his hand or played the lyre seen
ceiling 28. fleeting: lasting for a short beautifully 41. bear: hold
23.The pealing ... Praise: time 3 4 . B u t . . . unroll: they never 42. blush: blossom,
resounding (pealing) reli- 29. Flatt'ry: (flattery) insincere had the chance to open bloom
gious songs are played and praise (unroll) and study the 43. desart: desert

COMPREHENSION
1 Who does 'them' refer to in line 1 ? • Death, the great leveller, does not respect ancestry,
power, beauty or wealth.
2 Which adjectives would you use to describe the lives
of the people buried in the graveyard? (Second stanza) • Power, beauty, ancestry and wealth can make life
better and death more comfortable.
• Simple • Outdoor • Rural
• Sophisticated • Wealthy • Happy • Death can take people away but it cannot remove
II Physical • Intellectual the memory left by their beauty, power, ancestry or
wealth.
3 According to the poet in the third stanza, what
5 Who are the 'Proud' referred to by the poet in the
should Ambition and Grandeur not do?
fifth stanza? Are they buried inside the church or
4 Which of the following statements corresponds to outside in the graveyard? How do their tombs differ
the view expressed by the poet in the fourth stanza? from those of the humble villagers?
, ; 30 THE AUGUSTAN AGE - P o e t r y

6 In the sixth stanza the poet gives two examples of the Link each metaphor to the talent or quality it refers to.
trophies mentioned in the previous stanza. What are
Metaphor Talent/quality
they?
Heart once pregnant with great statesmanship
7 What is the 'Mansion' of 'fleeting Breath' in line 22?
celestial Fire
8 In lines 2 3 - 2 4 the poet asks if the honours and Hands that the Rod of musical genius
flattery that important people have received during Empire might have sway'd
their lifetime can help them after they have died. (Hands that) wak'd to poetic inspiration
Does the poet know the answer to this question? Exstacy the living Lyre
9 In the seventh stanza the poet says that the people
buried in the graveyard may have had talents or l O Two factors, according to the poet in the eighth
qualities that they never exploited. He uses three stanza, stopped the people buried in the graveyard
metaphors* to indicate them. from realising their full potential. What are they?

ANALYSIS
1 In the first stanza the poet presents images of
simple rural life. Say which senses they appeal to
(S = Sight, H = Hearing, T = Touch).
I I blazing Hearth shall burn
] Housewife ply her Evening Care
[ | Children run to lisp
1 | the envied Kiss to share
2 In the third, fourth and fifth stanzas the poet
reflects on the humble lives of rural workers and the
more sophisticated lives of prominent men of society.
a. Which social group do these expressions refer to?
useful Toil Ambition homely Joys
Destiny obscure Grandeur
Boast of Heraldry Beauty Wealth
b. The poet seems to be defending the humble life of
rural workers. From whom and what?
5 Focus on the two metaphors in the final stanza.
How would you interpret them?
• People have many different types of talent.
• Talent often goes unnoticed.
• Great talent is of no use to the dead.
• The world of nature is more beautiful that anything
man can produce.
Do you find them both equally effective?
6 The poet often changes the normal word order of
a sentence.
For example, the normal word order of:
Oft did the Harvest to their Sickle yield
would be:
The harvest often yielded to their sickle
Find other examples of unusual word order in the poem.
7 Alliteration* is one of the elements that adds
musicality to the poem. Find some examples.

3 Personification* is widely used throughout the 8 Define the rhyming scheme. Is it regular throughout?
poem. Give a line reference for the personification for 9 How would you define the rhythm* of the poem?
each of items in the table below: • Regular • jerky
• Slow-moving • Fast-moving
abstract inanimate natural
• Measured
ideas objects elements
"lO Would you consider the structure of the poem to
ambition: storied urn: the woods:
be carefully planned or spontaneous? justify your
grandeur: bust:
answer.
memory: dust:
1 1 As a person of culture and 'knowledge', the poet
honour:
is clearly not like the people who are buried in the
flattery:
graveyard. Do you think that he identifies himself
knowledge: with the other people he refers to in the poem
death: (Ambition, Grandeur, Proud)? How would you
describe the poet?
4 Find two examples of rhetorical questions* in the •t Melancholy • Solitary
extract from the poem. • Gregarious • Light-hearted
If the ideas had been formulated in statements rather • Reflective • Satirical
than questions would they have been as effective? • Isolated • Optimistic
 Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard - Thomas Gray 31

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P
Synecdoche In synecdoche (Greek for 'faking together') a part of something is used to signify the
whole or vice versa, although this latter form is quite rare. An example of synecdoche
from everyday speech can be found in the proverb 'Many hands make light work',
where the expression 'many hands' means 'the labour of many people'.
An example of the whole representing a part can be found in expressions such as 'Put
some Deep Purple on the CD player', where the name of the band is used to signify one
of their CDs.
Synecdoche can be effective in drawing someone's attention to one particularly
interesting aspect of what you are talking about.

In the fifth stanza of Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard, Thomas Gray uses synecdoche to
represent a church. Can you identify the parts that represent the whole?

Use synecdoche to represent the following:

school a doctor an animal (dog, cat, elephant, etc.)
a car a policeman each of the seasons

One of the themes in Gray's poem is that many ambitious and talented people never succeed in fulfilling their
dreams because they are too poor ('Chill Penury repress'd their noble Rage').
Does the amount of money a person has limit what he can achieve in today's world?
Does money play an important part in becoming one of the following?
A leading politician A top sports person A top actor, actress or singer
A leading scientist A top lawyer A university professor
Are there any other fields where you think money can make the difference between being successful or not?
 P
\ i 32 THE P U R I T A N AGE - P o e t r y

WRITERS' GALLERY
äBBB
T h o m a s G r a y was b o r n i
SBlll
London to a prosperou
I I HiSi m i d d l e - c l a s s f a m i l y . E d u c a t e d first at E t o n , h e w e n t o n t o
Cambridge, where he became friends with Horace Walpole, th
•
h son of t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r . F r o m 1 7 3 9 t o 1 7 4 1 he t r a v e l l e
a r o u n d E u r o p e w i t h W a l p o l e , b u t w h i l e in Italy t h e t w o
quarrelled and Gray returned h o m e alone. T h a t same year h '
father and his close friend Richard West died, and Gray return
to live for a time with his m o t h e r in the small village of Stoke
Poges in Buckinghamshire. W h i l e there he wrote the Sonnet o~
the Death of Richard West, his Ode on Adversity and the unfinished
Hymn to Ignorance. After this period of reclusion he returned t o
C a m b r i d g e , w h e r e he g r a d u a t e d in Law in 1 7 4 3 a n d was
THOMAS GRAY reconciled with Walpole. He was t h e n a p p o i n t e d Professor of
(1716-1771) Modern History at Cambridge, where he died in 1771.

In 1 7 5 0 Gray sent Walpole a manuscript of his m o s t celebrated

WORKS
poem Elegy Written in a Conntry Churchyard. It was published in
1751 to great acclaim, making Gray one of the most celebrated poets of the time. In his poem Gray
describes t h e small village graveyard of Stoke Poges, where the poet muses about the lives of the
villagers who lie buried there and contemplates mortality and h u m a n potential. At the end of the
p o e m he considers his own d e a t h and wonders if in s o m e way his art will grant h i m a form of
immortality. Little material was to follow his great poetic masterpiece: a small collection of six poems
in 1 7 5 3 and his two Pindaric odes, The Bard and Progress of Poesy in 1 7 5 7 . He t h e n started doing
research for a history of English poetry which he intended to write. He also travelled around Scotland
ggf and England recording his impressions in letters, which reveal his great interest in ancient Celtic and
Norse poetry and his love of nature. In 1 7 6 8 he published Poems, which included his imitations of
Celtic and Norse verse, such as The Fatal Sisters and The Descent of Odin (1761), which reawakened
interest in ancient northern European mythology.
1i
Reputation Gray's beautifully-written verses, which reveal a shift from neoclassical rationality to
introspection and sentimentality, greatly influenced a new generation of poets that emerged at the
end of t h e century. As a matter of fact, the g l o o m y m e l a n c h o l y and meditative quality of Elegy
Written in a Country Churchyard were new in t h e neoclassical period. It struck a chord with other
writers, who began to write in a similar style and became known as the 'Graveyard poets'.

TASK
Correct the following sentences.
a. Thomas Gray was largely self-educated as he
was born into a poor family.
b. He never left the little village of Stoke Poges
where he was born.
c. His most celebrated poem is a sonnet written to
mourn the death of his dear friend Richard West.
d. He never achieved great popularity in his own
lifetime.
e. He was fascinated by Greek mythology.
f. The themes of his masterpiece, Elegy Written in
a Country Churchyard, are love and pain of
separation.
 ama in
The Way of the World
by William Congreve

Living with o t h e r p e o p l e is n o t always e a s y b e c a u s e every individual has habits a n d ways of d o i n g t h i n g s t h a t

o t h e r p e o p l e m a y n o t like.
Imagine t h a t you have d e c i d e d t o g o and live with a n o t h e r person for a long period. Draw up a list of rules t h a t
you insist y o u r partner m u s t respect if your life t o g e t h e r is t o work o u t . For e x a m p l e :
Wash the dishes straight after eating.
Wear earphones when listening to music.

INTRODUCTION • W h e n p e o p l e w e n t t o t h e t h e a t r e in t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y
t h e y wanted t o have a laugh and be amused. T h o s e w h o w e n t to see The Way of the World were certainly
n o t disappointed. Brilliant dialogue a n d an ingenious if c o m p l i c a t e d plot kept t h e audience o n t h e edge
of their seats. Yet Congreve did n o t write o n l y t o entertain, a n d m a n y of t h o s e w h o were amused b y his
plays were really l a u g h i n g at t h e m s e l v e s a n d t h e faults of t h e i r society t h a t h e satirised so a c c u r a t e l y
( • Visual Link D5).

THE STORY
Mirabell wants to marry Millamant but her aunt, Lady Wishfort, will not give her consent.
While Mirabell tries to convince Lady Wishfort to change her mind, a number of people do all
they can to prevent the marriage. In the end, all objections are overruled and the lovers marry.

Any More Conditions? Text D 8 Q

Millamant and Mirabell are talking about what their lives will be like if they get married,
and Millamant sets out some conditions that she would like Mirabell to respect.

Act 4, Scene 1 CHARACTERS

(...) • Mirabell, a man
• Millamant, a
MILLAMANT: (...) I'll lie a-bed 1 in a morning as long as I please.
woman
MIRABELL: Then I'll get up in a morning as early as I please. • Lady Wishfort,
MILLAMANT: Ah, idle creature 2 , get up when you will 3 - and d'ye 4 hear. I won't Millamant's aunt
be called names after I'm married; positively 5 I won't be called names.
MIRABELL: Names! 5

MILLAMANT: Ay, as 6 wife, spouse, my dear, joy, jewel, love, sweetheart and
t h e rest of t h a t nauseous c a n t 7 in w h i c h m e n and their wives are so
6. Ay, as: Yes, like
fulsomely 8 familiar; I shall never bear 9 that - Good Mirabell, don't let us
7. nauseous cant:
be familiar or fond 1 0 , nor kiss before folks, like my Lady Fadler and Sir insincere talk
Francis; nor go to Hyde Park together the first Sunday in a new chariot 1 1 , 10 8. fulsomely:
excessively
to p r o v o k e eyes a n d w h i s p e r s 1 2 , a n d t h e n n e v e r t o be seen t h e r e
9. bear: accept, stand
together again, as if we were proud of one another the first week, and
10. don't let... or fond:
let us not behave in
an affectionate way
GLOSSARY
11. chariot: carriage
1. I'll lie a-bed: I will stay in 2. idle creature: lazy person 4. d'ye: do you 12. whispers: words
bed 3. will: want 5. positively: absolutely spoken quietly
, , 34 THE RESTORATION AGE - D r a m a

ashamed of one another for ever after. Let us

never visit together, nor go to a play together,
but let us be very strange 13 and well-bred 14 ; but 15
let us be strange as if we had been married a
great while, and as well-bred as if we were not
married at all.
MIRABELL: Have you any more conditions to offer?
Hitherto 15 your demands are pretty reasonable. 20
M I L L A M A N T : Trifles 1 6 . - As 17 liberty to pay and

receive visits to and from whom I please; to

write and receive letters without interrogatories
or wry faces 1 8 on your part. To wear what I
please, and choose conversation with regard 25
only to my own taste 19 ; to have no obligation
upon me to converse with wits 2 0 that I don't
like, because they are your acquaintance 21 , or to
be intimate with fools 22 , because they may be
your relations 23 . Come to dinner when I please; 30
dine in my dressing room when I'm out of
humour 24 , without giving a reason. To have my
closet 25 inviolate; to be sole empress of my tea-
table 2 6 , which you must never presume to
approach without first asking leave 27 . And lastly, 35
Mariage ä la Mode
(1743) by William wherever I am, you shall always knock at the
Hogarth. door before you come in. These articles
subscribed28, if I continue to endure 29 you a little
longer, I may by degrees30 dwindle into 31 a wife.

13. strange: detached
14. well-bred: polite
15.Hitherto: up to now
16. Trifles: things of little
importance
17. As: Like
18. wry faces: expressions
showing displeasure
19. to m y own taste: that I like
20. wits: intelligent people
21.acquaintance: person you
know
22. intimate with fools: friendly
with stupid people
23. relations: family members
24. out of humour: in a bad
mood
25.closet: private room
2 6 . b e sole ... tea-table: be left
alone when I am having
tea
27. asking leave: asking for
permission
28. subscribed: accepted
29. endure: tolerate
30. by degrees: gradually
31. dwindle into: become
(diminishing myself)

COMPREHENSION
1 What are Mirabell and Millamant discussing?
2 In her speech Millamant makes a list of conditions. Find examples in the text of the following:
Things ...
- she and her husband should not do together;
- she should be free to do;
- she should not be obliged to do;
- her husband should not do;
- her husband should do.
3 How does Mirabell react to Millamant's requests?
 The Way of the World - William Congreve

ANALYSIS -
1 Which of the following adjectives would you use to 4 Mirabell and Millamant have strong feelings for
describe Millamant? Justify your choices. each other and decide to marry at the end of the
• Determined • Dependent play. In her speech do you think that Millamant is
• Sweet • Nonconformist showing the selfish, domineering side of her nature,
• Outspoken • Domineering or is she simply being brutally honest with the man
• Humorous • Honest she loves?
• Other:
5 Which adjectives would you choose to describe the
2 In her speech Millamant paints a picture of a language used by the two characters?
typical upper-class marriage (the type of marriage she
• Colloquial • Conversational
rejects) in the second half of the seventeenth century.
• Formal • Intimate
Was the institution of marriage at that time based on
• Educated • Refined
true emotions or social conventions? Support your
• Sophisticated
answer by referring to the text.
• Other:
3 How were women treated in the type of marriage
Millamant rejects? Were they considered equal or
inferior to their husbands? Refer to the text.

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P
The term 'wit' was originally used to refer to intelligence or inventiveness. In the six-
teenth and seventeenth century it came to be used to indicate ingenuity in literary
invention and it was frequently used to describe the brilliant and surprising imagery of
the metaphysical poets ( • p. C94). In the second half of the seventeenth century the
term 'wit' became associated with humour. It was used to refer to the humorous lin-
guistic invention and wordplay which characterised the comic style of Restoration
dramatists. It has maintained this meaning to the present day.
An example of wordplay can be seen in Congreve's choice of names for his characters.
Each character is called after a particular personality trait. This form of character nam-
ing already existed in Morality plays ( • p. B47), but Congreve uses it not for didactic
purposes, but for comic effect.

The following is a list of names of the characters in The Way of the World. Match each name
to a corresponding definition.
Mirabell a person who has a thousand lovers
Millamant a very wilful person
Witwould a man who looks at all the beautiful women he sees
Wilfull a person who would like to be intelligent but is not
Fainall a person who wants something desperately
Wishfort a person who is false

OVER T O Y O U Use the same technique to make up names for famous people or people that you and your
classmates know.
Miss Everlate somebody who always arrives late
Mr Enormouth somebody who never stops talking
Mrs Lookame somebody who likes attention
„ J?
36 THE RESTORATION AGE - D r a m a

STAC INC THE PLAY

Dialogue- In a play such as The Way of the World the action, i.e. what the characters do, is of limited
driven plays importance. Most of the events of the play take place in genteel drawing rooms and consist
of characters speaking to each other. When producing dialogue-driven plays where there is
little physical action, a director must find alternative ways of holding the audience's
attention. He must highlight the play's strengths which, in the case of Congreve's work, is
the sparkling dialogue, but also add elements which the audience will find visually
appealing. He must, however, make sure that any additions do not detract from the original
spirit of the play.

OVER T O Y O U Read the review of a modern staging of The Way of the World. Make a list of the innovations
the director used to make the play more visually appealing to his audience.

in formal present-day clothes and black of the prettier characteristics of a pretty

Giles Havergal's production of
Congreve's great comedy is reduced to a
playing time of two and three-quarter
hours. This deprives us of a number of
pleasant lines, but also sharpens up the
plot mechanism, which in the first half
of the evening can sometimes be slowed
down by the wit. The best of the wit is
amplified by Sue Blane's black-and-
white set, scribbled over1 in seventeenth-
century handwriting wherever there's
room.
When the lights go up, there is a table,
centre, covered with legal documents and
sunounded by three young men dressed
lawyer's gowns. Principally they are
employed as scene-shifters2, but
sometimes take an active part in the
business; for example, when Mirabell
and Millamant have agreed to exchange
a marriage contract, one of them
produces the document and hands it over.
Millamant's acceptance of Mirabell's
marriage proposal is beautifully done
by Paola Dionisotti, her final promise to
'dwindle into a wife' spoken with a
proper understanding of the consciously
artificial words. This feeling of
collaboration with the audience is one
mise-en-scene3, with dialogues some-
times spoken to the spectators rather
than the characters on the stage, and
offstage people kept visible by placing
them into niches4 on either side of the
stage, where they can show us what they
think of what is going on. Rupert
Frazer's Mirabell is inclined to freeze
into the attitudes of a tailor's dummy ,
but they are graceful attitudes and
reinforce the grace of his dialogue.
Review by B. A Young, FINANCIAL TIMES,
16 March, 1984
(adapted and abridged)

1. scribbled over: written hastily move scenery and props 5. tailor's dummy: an object
and carelessly 3. mise-en-scene: staging made to look like a real person
2. scene-shifters: people who 4. niches: secluded spaces for fitting clothes

Work in groups. Imagine you have to stage the scene from The Way of the World you have read.
What would you do to make it visually appealing? Make notes under the following
headings:
Setting (for example: seventeenth century or some other historical period?)
Costumes
Lighting
Stage scenery/props

In a humorous way, Mirabell and Millamant are saying that a successful marriage needs careful planning. On a
scale from 0 (not important) to 10 (very important), say how important the following factors are in helping to
make a marriage a success.

- Come from the same town: _ Have the same hobbies and interests:
- Come from the same social background: - Like the same kinds of food:
- Come from the same religious background: - Have the same level of education:
- Have the same skin colour:
 Writers' Gallery - William Congreve

WRITERS' GALLERY
Although he was born in
England, William Congreve
was educated in Ireland, where his father had been posted by the
army. He attended a prestigious grammar school and then he
received his Master of Arts at Trinity College, Dublin.
Congreve started writing at a very young age. While still in his teens
he wrote a novel which won him the respect of many influential
literary figures and allowed him to have his first play, The Old
Bachelor (1693), performed at the Drury Lane Theatre in London. It
was an immediate success, running for the then unprecedented
length of two weeks. His next play, The Double Dealer, although now
considered an improvement on his first work, was not so well
W I L L I A M CONGREVE
received by the critics or audiences of the day.
(1670-1729)
Although for Love ( 1 6 9 5 ) and the tragedy The Mourning Bride
(1697) were successes. The Way of the World (1700), later considered to be Congreve's masterpiece,
was coolly received by the public and critics. Disappointed by the negative response, Congreve gave
up playwriting at the early age of thirty. He spent the rest of his life holding some m i n o r
government positions and writing occasional poetry and librettos for several operas. He also
translated the French playwright Moliere's Monsieur de Pourceaugnac. He was a very popular man and
throughout his life was highly respected by other eminent literary figures. This allowed him to live
mostly on his reputation and royalties from his plays. He died in 1729 in a carriage accident and was
buried in the Poets' Corner of Westminster Abbey.

William Congreve was a true master of comedy. He drew

WORKS
inspiration from a world he knew well: the fashionable, licentious
and often amoral court of Charles II.
Unlike other writers of the time, he did not create characters that were gross or farcical. His characters
were refined men and women who talked wittily and displayed quick brains and a sharp sense of
humour. Millamant in The Way of the World is a perfect example of Congreve's art: she is an
exquisitely well-drawn character, a lady of fashion who displays her intelligence, humour and heart
through her brilliant speeches. Congreve's work is witty and amusing but it also has a serious side. In
The Double Dealer, Love For Love and particularly in The Way of the World, he criticises the class to
which the play is addressed, accusing it of having lost the true value of love and replaced it with
sexual excess. One of the reasons for the lack of success of The Way of the World may indeed have been
that the theatre audience had gradually become aware that they were laughing at themselves.

TASK
Answer these questions. d . What are the main themes in Congreve's plays?
a. How old was Congreve when he started his e. Which of the following describe Congreve's
literary career? dialogues?
b . Which one of his plays is considered to be his • Witty • Moralistic
masterpiece? • Clever • Entertaining
c. Why were Congreve's characters different from • Everyday • Intelligent
those commonly found in contemporary plays? • Brilliant • Philosophical
 She Stoops to Conquer
by Oliver Goldsmith

Misunderstandings can sometimes be tragic but are often comic. The humour in many funny scenes in novels, plays
and films is based on one or more of the characters misunderstanding a situation. Complete the following task.

Richard meets Elaine at a disco and invites her out. They arrange to meet in a pub the following evening. When he
walks into the pub he sits down beside a woman he thinks is Elaine. She looks and is dressed very like her but she
is a completely different person. Complete the following dialogue.
RICHARD: Hi, have you been waiting long?
Ms X: Sorry?
RICHARD: Ah! Come on! Where would you like to go for dinner?

INTRODUCTION • Goldsmith believed that theatregoers wanted to be amused. Many of the plays that
were written by his contemporaries were sentimental comedies, which he thought were over-sentimental.
In She Stoops to Conquer, his most successful play, there is very little sentiment but a lot of comedy.

THE STORY
Sir Charles Marlow and his friend Hardcastle arrange a marriage between their children,
Marlow and Miss Hardcastle. On his way to visit the girl, the young man asks some local peo-
ple if they can recommend an inn where he can spend the night. Tom Lumpkin decides to have
some fun and tells him that the Hardcastle house is the best inn in the area. So, when he gets
there, he thinks that Hardcastle is the landlord of the inn ( • Text D9) and that Miss
Hardcastle is a maid who is working there. This misunderstanding gives rise to many amusing
situations until Marlow eventually
SHE STOOPS TO CONQUER; realises his mistake. Miss Hardcastle,
A COMEDY IN FIVE ACTS.—BY OLIVER GOLDSMITH. who has met Marlow both as herself
and as a maid, is sure that he loves
her, and so the couple marry.

Note: The title of the play refers to the

fact that Miss Hardcastle pretends to
be from a lower social class to see if
she loves Marlow and if he loves her.
She 'Stoops', i.e. goes down the social
scale, to 'Conquer', i.e. win his love.

CHARACTERS
• Hardcastle
• Miss Hardcastle, his
daughter
The title page • Sir Charles Marlow
from an edition • Marlow, his son
of She Stoops • Tom Lumpkin, Miss
to Conquer. Hardcastle's cousin
 She Stoops to Conquer - Oliver Goldsmith 206

You cannot be serious Text D 9 Q

Marlow thinks that Hardcastle's house is an inn, so he has ordered his servants to drink
as much as they want, believing that the landlord will be happy at making a lot of
money on beer. Hardcastle, however, believes that Marlow, who he correctly thinks is the
son of his friend Sir Charles Marlow and a welcome guest in his home, is abusing his
hospitality.

(Act IV)
[Enter HARDCASTLE.]

(...)
GLOSSARY
HARDCASTLE: (...) But, though I say nothing to 1 your own conduct, that of
1. to: about
your servants is insufferable. Their manner of drinking is setting a very 2. not to spare the
cellar: drink as much
bad example in the house, I assure you.
as they wanted to
MARLOW: I protest, my very good sir, that's no fault of mine. If they don't 3. make up for my
deficiencies:
drink as they ought they are to blame. I ordered them not to spare the 5
compensate for the
cellar 2 .1 did, I assure you. (To the side scene.) Here let one of my servants fact that I do not
come up. (To him.) My positive directions were, that as I did not drink drink
4. below: downstairs,
myself, they should make up for my deficiencies 3 below 4 .
where the servants
HARDCASTLE: Then they had your orders for what they do! I'm satisfied5! live

MARLOW: They had, I assure you. You shall hear from one of themselves. 10 5. I'm satisfied: Now I
have proof of what I
[Enter SERVANT drunk.] suspected
You, Jeremy! Come forward, sirrah 6 ! What were my orders? Were you 6. sirrah!: Sir! (said in
an arrogant way)
not told to drink freely, and call for what you thought fit7, for the good fit: appropriate
of the house? Fleet Street: street in
London where there
HARDCASTLE: [Aside) I begin to lose my patience. 15
were over thirty
JEREMY: Please your honour, liberty and Fleet Street 8 for ever! Though I ' m taverns
but a servant, I'm as good as another man. I'll drink for no man before 9. d a m m y : (damn me):
an exclamation
supper, sir, dammy 9 ! Good liquor will sit upon a good supper, but a which expresses anger
good supper will not sit upon - hiccup 10 - my conscience, sir. or annoyance
10. hiccup: involuntary
MARLOW: You see, my old friend, the fellow is as drunk as he can possibly 20
sound that shows
be. I don't know what you'd have more, unless you'd have the poor that he has drunk too
much
devil soused in a beer-barrel 11 .
11. soused in a beer-
HARDCASTLE: Zounds! 12 He'll drive me distracted 13 if I contain 14 myself any barrel: put into a
longer. Mr. Marlow, sir; I have submitted to your insolence for more container full of beer
so that he is
than four hours, and I see no likelihood 15 of its coming to an end. I'm 25 completely wet
now resolved to be master here, sir, and I desire that you and your 12. Zounds!: exclamation
expressing
drunken pack 16 may leave my house directly. indignation
MARLOW: Leave your house! - Sure, you jest 1 7 , my good friend! What, 13. distracted: mad
when I'm doing what I can to please you! 14. contain: control
15. likelihood:
HARDCASTLE: I tell you, sir, you don't please me; so I desire you'll leave my 30 probability
house. 16. pack: group of wild
animals
MARLOW: Sure, you cannot be serious! At this time of night, and such a
17. you jest: you are
night! You only mean to banter me 18 ! joking
HARDCASTL'E: I tell you sir, I ' m serious; and, now that my passions are 18. banter me: make fun
of me
roused 1 9 , I say this house is mine, and I c o m m a n d you to leave it 35 19. m y passions are
directly. roused: I am angry
40 THE AUGUSTAN AGE - Fiction

20. A puddle in a storm: MARLOW: Ha! ha! ha! A puddle in a storm 2 0 .1 shan't stir 21 a step, I assure
a puddle is a small
pool of water. During you. (In a serious tone.) This your house, fellow! It's my house. This is my
a storm a puddle is house. Mine, while I choose to stay. What right have you to bid 2 2 me
insignificant. Marlow
is saying that he is leave this house, sir? I never met with such impudence, curse me, never 40
not afraid of
in my whole life before!
Hardcastle
21.stir: move HARDCASTLE: Nor I, confound me if I ever did 23 ! To come to my house, to
22. bid: order call for what he likes, to turn me out of my own chair, to insult the
23.confound me ... did:
family, to order his servants to get drunk, and then to tell me This house
I certainly never did
(in an angry tone) is mine, sir. By all that's impudent, it makes me laugh. Ha! ha! ha! Pray, 45
24.bantering: in a joking sir, (bantering 24 ) as you take the house, what think you of taking the rest
tone
25. brazen-nosed of the furniture? There's a pair of silver candlesticks, and there's a fire-
bellows: bellows are screen, and here's a pair of brazen-nosed bellows 25 , perhaps you may
used to blow air into
a fire. The top of this take a fancy to 2 6 them?
bellows is made of MARLOW: Bring me your bill, sir, bring me your bill, and let's make no more so
brass
words about it.
26. take a fancy to: like,
want to have HARDCASTLE: There are a set of prints, too. What think you of the Rake's
27. Rake's Progress: set Progress27 for your own apartment?
of engravings by the
English artist William MARLOW: Bring me your bill, I say; and I'll leave you and your infernal
Hogarth (1697-1764)
house directly. 55
28. slumbers: sleep
29. hearty: big
HARDCASTLE: Then there's a mahogany table, that you may see your face in.
30. well-bred: well MARLOW: My bill, I say.
brought up
HARDCASTLE: I had forgot the great chair, for your own particular slumbers28,
31.coxcomb: stupid
man who spends too after a hearty 29 meal.
much time and MARLOW: Zounds! Bring me my bill, I say, and let's hear no more on it. 60
money on his clothes
and appearance HARDCASTLE: Young man, young man, from your father's letter to me, I was
32. bully: someone who taught to expect a well-bred 30 modest man, as a visitor here, but now I
uses strength or
power to frighten and find no better than a coxcomb 31 and a bully 32 ; but he will be down here
intimidate weaker presently 33 , and shall hear more of it.
people
33. presently: soon
[Exit.]
•

COMPREHENSION
1 What does Hardcastle complain to Marlow about
in the opening lines of the scene?
2 Does Marlow think that Hardcastle is angry because:
• the servants are drinking too much?
• the servants are drinking too little?
3 Marlow's servant, Jeremy, starts a saying but
does not finish it (lines 18-19). Can you guess how
the saying should finish? Is what Jeremy says
coherent?
4 What course of action does Hardcastle choose to take?
5 What is Marlow's initial reaction to Hardcastle's
suggestion that he should leave the house?
6 Why does Marlow claim that the house is his?
(Lines 38-39)
7 What sarcastic suggestion does Hardcastle make
when Marlow says that the house is his?
8 Does Hardcastle listen to what Marlow is saying in
the final lines of the scene?
9 In his last statement Hardcastle indirectly reveals his
true identity to Marlow. How?
 She Stoops to Conquer - Oliver Goldsmith 41

ANALYSIS
1 What information does the audience have that:
- Hardcastle does not? - Marlow does not?
How does having more information affect the
audience's response to the play?
• It makes it easier to understand.
• It creates tension among the audience.
• It allows them to see the humour in the situation.
• It gives them a deeper insight into the psychology
of the characters.
2 In the sentences below, Hardcastle expresses his
feelings of annoyance with the behaviour of Marlow's
servants.
a. Put them in order from the expression of least to
the expression of most annoyance.
I ] Now that my passions are roused (...)
I command you to leave it directly.
• I say nothing to your own conduct, that of
your servants is insufferable.
I He'll drive me distracted if I contain myself any
longer.
I I I desire that you and your drunken pack may
leave my house directly.
I I I begin to lose my patience.
b . Find the line reference for each statement in the
text. As the scene develops, does Hardcastle's
anger increase or diminish?
3 In lines 45^18 Hardcastle seems to have reached
the climax* of his anger. As the scene proceeds how
does he channel his emotions?
• By taking physical action against Marlow.
• By verbally abusing Marlow.
• By making Marlow the target of his sarcasm.
4 Focus on the character of Marlow.
a. How would you describe his attitude towards
Hardcastle, whom he believes to be an inn-keeper,
and Jeremy, his servant?
• Respectful • Condescending
• Patronising • Apologetic
• Detached • Rude
b . Marlow's attitude towards those he considers to be
of lower social rank (Jeremy, Hardcastle as the inn-
keeper and Kate as a barmaid) would have been
perfectly acceptable to an eighteenth-century
audience. Would a modern audience view his
behaviour in the same way?
5 One of the comic elements of the scene is created
by the lack of communication between Hardcastle
and Marlow. At what point in the scene does it
become clear that the two characters are not really
listening to each other?
6 Underline expressions that are repeated in the
passage. What purpose does repetition serve?
• It makes the language more poetic.
• It intensifies the humour by adding a crescendo
effect.
• It helps the audience to follow the plot.
• It underlines key concepts that are essential to the
understanding of the themes of the play.

STAC INC THE PLAY

Farce Farce is a type of comedy designed simply to make an audience laugh. Typical
ingredients of farce include ludicrous plots, deception, mistaken identity, discovery,
coincidence, misunderstanding, caricature, type characters, verbal humour and
physical horseplay. Farce is one of the oldest and most popular forms of theatre.
Farcical elements can be found in the ritual celebrations and theatre of ancient Greece,
the plays of the Roman writers Plautus and Terence, medieval Morality plays, the
Commedia deU'arte, Moliere, Charlie Chaplin and today in the films of Jim Carrey and
Woody Allen. It is also a major ingredient in many television sitcoms.
Farce is often referred to as 'low comedy' because it does not require intellectualism or
literary sensitivity of the audience. Paradoxically, however, this 'low' form of comedy
can be extremely demanding and challenging for the actors and the director.
 THE AUGUSTAN AGE - D r a m a

OVER T O Y O U 1 The scene from She Stoops to Conquer that you have just read contains the following
farcical elements:
• the type character: Jeremy, the drunken servant;
• misunderstanding: between Hardcastle and Marlow.
How would you deal with these farcical elements of the play? Answer these questions.
a. How should the actor playing Jeremy deliver his lines? Practise saying the lines in a
'drunken state'.
b . When Marlow calls him to the front of the stage how should he walk?
c. How should he look (clothes, stage make-up)?
When you have discussed these issues prepare a short performance of lines 12-19.
2 Focus on the section from line 42 to the end of the scene. An outraged and sarcastic
Hardcastle is no longer listening to an increasingly irritated Marlow, who is asking for the bill.
a. Should the actor playing Hardcastle move or stand still as he makes Marlow the butt of
his sarcastic jokes? If you think he should move, describe his movements. In what tone
should he deliver his lines?
b . Should each of Marlow's requests for the bill be delivered in the same tone? How should
the actor show Marlow's growing impatience?
c. Consider the timing of the section. Should there be long gaps between Hardcastle's lines
or should they be delivered as a single speech? Should Hardcastle's lines drown out
Marlow's request for the bill?
When you have discussed these points, apply your ideas to a performance of this part of the
text.

The scene you have read is funny because Hardcastle and Marlow are victims of a misunderstanding. Think of a
situation, from your own experience or from a book or film, in which the humour was based on a
misunderstanding. Complete the details below.
People involved:

Where:

Misunderstanding:

What happened:
 Writers' Gallery - Oliver Goldsmith 43

WRITERS' GALLERY
Oliver Goldsmith was born in
the west of Ireland, the son of
a poor clergyman. He entered Trinity College in Dublin as a
scholarship student and had to do a series of menial jobs,
including selling street ballads and waiting tables, to finance his
studies. In 1750 he tried to enter the Church, but his request for
ordination was refused. He went to Edinburgh to study
medicine, and then spent a few months at the Dutch university
of Leyden before setting off on a journey which took him to
France, Switzerland and Italy. He made a meagre living playing
Irish tunes on the flute, and often depended on food distributed
at convent gates to survive.
OLIVER GOLDSMITH
(1730-1774) In 1756 he arrived destitute in London, where he unsuccessfully
attempted a career in medicine. He found work as a hack writer,
reviewer and translator and worked for several periodicals. He wrote his Chinese Letters - later re-
published as The Citizen of the World, (1762) - a series of satirical essays describing English life
through the eyes of a Chinese visitor. He became friends with the influential critic and writer Samuel
Johnson ( • p. D104) and began to mix in literary circles. He was, however, notorious for spending
money in gambling and drinking, and his financial state was constantly precarious.
In 1768 he wrote his first play - The Good Natur'd Man - which, after initial rejection, was performed
at Covent Garden to moderate success. His theatrical masterpiece, She Stoops to Conquer, which
followed, was well-received by the critics and immensely popular with the public. Between these two
plays he published his best-known poem, The Deserted Village, which draws in part on his childhood
memories of Ireland.
Despite his success as a writer, his inability to handle his finances often led him to the brink of
bankruptcy, and in fact he died in poverty in 1774.

Oliver Goldsmith was often in desperate need of money, so much

WORKS
of his writing was done in haste and is of inferior quality. He did,
however, write three remarkable works:
• A novel, The Vicar of Wakefield (1766), which is still widely read. It tells the story of the kindly
reverend Dr Primrose, whose strong faith in God and belief in the essential goodness of mankind
help him and his family to overcome adversity. The novel is often criticised as overly sentimental
and pedantic. However, it holds an important place in the history of English literature as it is
considered a forerunner of the didactic novels of the nineteenth century.
• A poem, The Deserted Village (1770), which inspired the poets of the Romantic period. In the
poem Goldsmith looks back nostalgically to the idyllic pastoral life of the small country village of
Auburn (probably inspired by Goldsmith's childhood village in the west of Ireland).
• A play, She Stoops to Conquer (1773), his greatest literary achievement, which continues to be
staged today. Criticising contemporary drama as unimaginative and melodramatic Goldsmith, for
his masterpiece, looked for inspiration to an earlier form of drama, the Comedy of Manners of the
Restoration period ( • pp. D 9 6 - 9 7 ) . The play's well-structured comic plot, based on mistaken
identities and likeable characters, made it an instant success with theatre audiences and helped
breathe new life into an art form that was experiencing a particularly colourless period.

TASK
Prepare a brief report on the life and works of Oliver Goldsmith.
46 THE AUGUSTAN AGE - Fiction

COMPREHENSION
1 Why did Robinson decide to keep a written record of his experience?
2 Which is now a stronger force in Robinson: his reason or his sense of hopelessness?
3 Match A and B to reconstruct Robinson's pros and cons.

A B
He is alone on a desert island with little hope
of being found
He is far from the rest of the world
He does not have the company of other men
He has no clothes
He has no means of defence
He has nobody to talk to
he has been saved from death and may also be
but saved from this terrible situation,
the weather is warm so he will not suffer from
cold.
there are no wild beasts that will harm him.
however God has helped him to have everything he
needs for his survival,
he is alive.
he will not die of starvation because the island
is fertile.

4 When Robinson has finished making his list, he draws a conclusion about life in general.
Explain it in your own words.

ANALYSIS
1 Focus on the character of Robinson.
a. Find evidence in the text that:
- he is literate: lines
- he has strong religious beliefs: lines
- he believes in the power of reason: lines
- he is familiar with the world of trade and commerce: lines
- he has a practical approach to solving problems: lines
b. Which of the following social categories do you think Robinson most likely belongs to?
• Unskilled lower class labourer
• Middle class merchant/professional
• Aristocratic gentleman
Give reasons for your choice.
2 In his 'Evil' column, Robinson cites both psychological and material needs,
a. Tick the table below according to which kind of need is expressed.
Evil Psychological Material

I am divided from Mankind, a Solitaire, one banish'd from humane Society.

I have no Clothes to cover me.
I am without any Defence or Means to resist any Violence of Man or Beast
I have no Soul to speak to, or relieve me.

b. Do the same for the 'Good' column of Robinson's list.

Good Psychological Material
But 1 am not starv'd and perishing on a barren Place, affording no Sustenance.
But I am in a hot Climate, where if I had Clothes I would hardly wear them.
But I am cast on an Island, where I see no wild Beasts to hurt me, as I saw
on the Coast of Africa: And what if I had been Shipwreck'd there?
But God wonderfully sent the Ship in near enough to the Shore, that I have
gotten out so many necessary things as will either supply my Wants, or
enable me to supply my self even as long as I live.
 Robinson Crusoe - Daniel Defoe 47

c. Does Robinson answer each 'psychological need' with a 'psychological solution'?

Which is more dominant: the practical or the emotional side of Robinson's nature?
3 Robinson's language is characterised by a series of 'balanced couples' which may be repetitions of the same
idea ('Condition, and the Circumstance I was reduc'd to'), or opposites ('good/evil').
a. Find the missing elements in the following couples.
Reason/ Debtor/
Comforts/ something Negative/
b. Which adjective would you choose to describe the language Robinson uses to express himself?
• Balanced • Emotional
• Confused • Precise
• Rational • Journalistic
• Poetic
c. What does Robinson's language reveal about his personality?

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P
Narrative technique refers to the way a story is told - how the author presents the
reader with the setting, characters, actions and events that make up a work of fiction.
In a first-person narrative the reader sees the event unfold through the eyes of a single
character: the narrator speaks as 'I' and is himself a character in the story. The reader's
vision of the story or point of view is limited to what the first-person narrator himself
knows, experiences, infers or can find out by talking to other characters.
The first-person narrative is commonly associated with non-fictional literary forms such
as biography, memoirs or diaries. When used in fictional works it lends authenticity,
creating the illusion that the narrator is relating events that he has personally witnessed
or experienced. As the reader 'sees the world through the narrator's eyes', he is often
encouraged to identify and sympathise with the narrator's views.

1 Who is the T of the passage from Robinson Crusoe you have just read?
Explain why this is an example of first-person narrative.
2 When Daniel Defoe first wrote Robinson Crusoe he presented it to the public as a true
story, not as a work of fiction. How did the narrative technique he chose help him to deceive
his readers?

Using the first-person narrative technique write the opening five to ten lines of a fictional
work that you think would capture the attention of readers.

The English saying 'Every cloud has a silver lining' means that there is something positive about any negative
situation. For example, in the terrible event of someone close to us dying, we often realise how important friends
and relatives are and appreciate them more than we normally would.
Think of a situation where a cloud has a silver lining and tell your classmates about it.
48 THE AUGUSTAN AGE - Fiction

Text D l l Civilising Friday

Robinson and Friday return to the place where, the previous day, Robinson had res
Friday from his fellow cannibals.

(...)
I kept1 there with him all that Night; but as soon as it was Day, I beckon'd
to 2 him to come with me, and let him know, I would give him some
Cloaths 3 , at which he seem'd very glad, for he was stark 4 naked: As we
went by the Place where he had bury'd the two Men, he pointed exactly to
the Place, and shew'd 5 me the Marks that he had made to find them again,
making Signs to me, that we should dig them up again, and eat them; at
this I appear'd very angry, express'd my Abhorrence 6 of it, made as if I
would vomit at the Thoughts of it, and beckon'd with my Hand to him to
come away, which he did immediately, with great Submission. I then led
him up to the Top of the Hill, to see if his Enemies were gone; and pulling
out my Glass 7 , I look'd, and saw plainly 8 the Place where they had been,
but no appearance of them, or of their Canoes; so that it was plain they
were gone, and had left their two Comrades behind them, without any
search after them.
But I was not content with this Discovery; but having now more Courage,
GLOSSARY and consequently more Curiosity, I takes9 my Man Friday with me, giving
him the Sword in his Hand, with the Bow and Arrows at his Back, which I
Note: the verbal
suffix -ed was often found he could use very dextrously 10 , making him carry one Gun for me,
spelt -'d for example
and I two for my self, and away we march'd to the Place, where these
'sav'd' instead of
'saved'. Creatures had been; for I had a Mind now to get some fuller Intelligence 11
of them: When I came to the Place, my very Blood ran chill 12 in my Veins,
1. kept: stayed
2. beckon'd to: gestured and my Heart sunk within me, at the Horror of the Spectacle: Indeed it
3. Cloaths: clothes was a dreadful 1 3 Sight, at least it was so to me; though Friday made
4. stark: completely nothing of it: The Place was cover'd with humane 1 4 Bones, the Ground
5. shew'd: showed
dy'd 1 5 with their Blood, great Pieces of Flesh left here and there, half
6. Abhorrence: disgust
7. Glass: telescope eaten, mangl'd and scorch'd 1 6 ; and in short, all the Tokens 1 7 of the
8. plainly: clearly triumphant Feast they had been making there, after a Victory over their
9. takes: took
Enemies; I saw three Skulls, five Hands, and the Bones of three or four Legs
10.dextrously: skilfully
11.get... Intelligence: and Feet, and abundance of other Parts of the Bodies; and Friday, by his
know more Signs, made me understand, that they brought over four Prisoners to feast
12. chill: cold
upon; that three of them were eaten up, and that he, pointing to himself,
13. dreadful: horrible
14. humane: human was the fourth: That there had been a great Battle between them, and their
15.dy'd: coloured next King 18 , whose Subjects it seems he had been one of; and that they
16.mangl'd and had taken a great Number of Prisoners, all which were carry'd to several
scorch'd: twisted and
burnt Places by those that had taken them in the Fight, in order to feast upon
17. Tokens: signs them, as was done here by these Wretches 1 9 upon those they brought
18. next King:
neighbouring King
hither 20 .
19. Wretches: evil people I caus'd Friday to gather all the Skulls, Bones, Flesh, and whatever
20. hither: here remain'd, and lay them together on a Heap 21 , and make a great Fire upon
21. Heap: one on top of
the other it, and burn them all to Ashes: I found Friday had still a hankering 2 2
22. hankering: hungry Stomach after some of the Flesh, and was still a Cannibal in his Nature;
 Robinson Crusoe - Daniel Defoe 49

but I discover'd 2 3 so m u c h Abhorrence at the very

Thoughts of it, and at the least Appearance of it, that he
durst not discover it 24 ; for I had by some Means let him
know, that I would kill him if he offer'd 25 it. 45
When we had done this, we came back to our Castle,
and there I fell to work for my Man Friday; and first of
all, I gave him a pair of Linnen Drawers 26 , which I had
out of the poor Gunner's Chest 2 7 I m e n t i o n ' d , and
which I found in the Wreck 28 ; and which with a little 50
Alteration fitted him very well; t h e n I made him a
Jerkin 2 9 of Goat's-skin, as well as my Skill would allow;
and I was now grown a tollerable good Taylor 30 ; and I
gave him a Cap, which I had made of a Hare 31 -skin, very
convenient, and fashionable enough; and thus he was 55
c l o a t h ' d 3 2 for the present, tollerably well; and was
mighty well 3 3 pleas'd to see himself almost as well
cloath'd as his Master: It is true, he went awkwardly34 in
these Things at first; wearing the Drawers was very
awkward to him, and the Sleeves of the Wastcoat 3 5 60
hnaay snowing nis
gall'd 36 his Shoulders, and the inside of his Arms; but a submission to Robinson.
little easing them where he complain'd they hurt him, and using himself 37
to them, at length he took to them very well 38 .
The next Day after I came h o m e to my Hutch 3 9 with him, I began to
consider where I should lodge him 4 0 , and that I might do well for him,
and yet be perfectly easy 41 my self;
(...)
But I needed n o n e of all this Precaution; for never Man had a more
faithful, loving, sincere Servant, than Friday was to me; without Passions,
Sullenness 4 2 or Designs 4 3 , perfectly oblig'd and engag'd 4 4 ; his very
Affections were ty'd 45 to me, like those of a Child to a Father; and I dare
say, he would have sacrific'd his Life for the saving mine, upon any
occasion whatsoever; the many Testimonies 46 he gave me of this, put it
out of doubt, and soon convinc'd me, that I needed to use no Precautions,
as to my Safety on his Account 47 .

23. discover'd: showed
24. he durst not discover it:
he was afraid to say or show
it
25.offer'd: tried
26. Linnen Drawers: linen
underpants
27.Gunner's Chest: on the
ship, Robinson had found
some clothes in a box
(chest) that belonged to
one of his shipmates (the
Gunner)
28. Wreck: the ship
29.Jerkin: sleeveless jacket
30. Taylor: (tailor) a man who
makes clothes
31. Hare: rabbit-like animal
32.cloath'd: dressed
33. mighty well: very
34. awkwardly: uncomfortably
35. Wastcoat: (waistcoat) jacket 42. Sullenness: silent
36. gall'd: rubbed against and displeasure or anger
hurt 43. Designs: secret plans
44. oblig'd and engag'd:
37. using himself: getting used
grateful and
3 8 . a t length ... well:
interested in what he
eventually he liked them
was doing
39. Hutch: shelter
45.ty'd: linked
40. lodge him: find a place for
46. Testimonies: examples
him to live
47. on his Account:
4 1 . b e perfectly easy: feel safe because of him
50 THE AUGUSTAN AGE - Fiction
COMPREHENSION
1 What did Friday think they should do with the two
bodies? How did Robinson react to the idea?
2 What did Robinson find when he returned to the
place where Friday's enemies had been?
3 What had happened, according to Friday?
ANALYSIS
1 Focus on the relationship between Robinson and
Friday.
a. Find two incidents in the text where Robinson's
wishes prevail over Friday's.
b. Examine the two episodes involving heavy physical
labour; the carrying of arms and the gathering
and burning of the human remains (lines 38^t0).
Do the two characters share the work equally?
c. Which word in line 9 suggests that the two
characters are not on an equal footing?
d. How does Robinson refer:
• to Friday in
-line (16):
- line (68):
- line (70):
• to the other natives in
- line (20):
- line (36):
• to himself in
- line (58):
- line (70):
e. What does Robinson's use of names reveal about
his attitude towards people that are not of his own
race and culture?
f. How would you define the relationship between
Robinson and Friday?
• They show each other mutual respect.
• Robinson feels superior to Friday and feels the
need to 'civilise' him.
• Robinson is curious about the differences in
culture that emerge.
• Friday feels that he owes Robinson a debt of
gratitude for saving his life.
• Robinson treats Friday like a slave and has no
consideration for his feelings.
• Robinson exploits Friday.
• Robinson wishes to protect and educate Friday.
• Other:
4 Friday clearly wished to eat some of the hu
remains. What stopped him from doing so?
5 What did Robinson do when he returned to his
shelter?
6 Why did Robinson feel that it was not necessary
protect himself from Friday?
2 Focus on the descriptive passages in the extract,
from line 24 to line 29 and from line 46 to 63. How
would you define Robinson's descriptions?
• Vague
• Precise
• Detailed
• Scientific
• Poetic
• Verbose
• Concise
• Other:
3 The two episodes which Robinson describes are
very different. The aftermath of the cannibals' feast is
shocking and extraordinary, while the providing of
clothes for Friday is relatively trivial and mundane.
a. Does Defoe mark the difference between the two
episodes by a change in style or is the same style
used throughout the passage?
b. How would you describe the style used by Defoe?
• Emotional
• Lyrical
• Journalistic
• Pseudo-scientific
E Over-elaborate
c. What effect does this style create?
• It makes the material seem more convincing.
• It involves the reader on an emotional level.
• It helps the reader to understand how Robinson
felt.
• It allows the reader to form his own response to
the material.
m Other:
 Robinson Crusoe - Daniel Defoe 51

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P
Realism The term realism is used to denote the attempt by writers to present an accurate
imitation of life as it is. The realist sets out to write fiction which reflects a world that is
convincing and recognisable to the common reader. He does this by:
• writing about ordinary characters, usually of the middle class, who have no special
gifts. Under normal circumstances these characters would live unexceptional lives,
but in special conditions they may display a kind of heroism;
• placing the characters in a setting that is familiar to the reader;
• using a special literary style that gives the reader the illusion of actual experience. The
style may be defined as reportorial or journalistic, and it seems to render the events in
a matter-of-fact way;
• being unselective in his choice of subject matter;
• dealing, in the same way, with both the trivial and the extraordinary;
• paying great, almost scientific attention to descriptive detail.

Use the checklist below to determine which of the features of a realistic novel Daniel Defoe's
Robinson Crusoe displays. Tick the features you have found in the extracts you have read.
Main character
• He belongs to the middle class.
• He has no exceptional talents.
• Under special circumstances he shows heroic qualities.
Setting
• He lives in surroundings that are familiar to the common reader.
Style
• The events of the story are rendered with little emotion or sentiment, in what may be
described as a journalistic style.
• Both trivial and extraordinary events are described in the same way.
• Descriptions are detailed.
OVER T O Y O U The following extract is an example of non-realistic writing. It is taken from Mary Shelley's
Frankenstein ( • pp. E88-95) and describes the moment in which Frankenstein is woken from
his sleep by the monster he has just created. The emotionally-charged atmosphere is created
by the use of words like started, horror, chattered and convulsed. The vague description of the
monster heightens the tension by leaving much to the reader's imagination. Use the features
of realism - lack of emotion, attention to detail, etc. - to re-write the passage in a more
matter-of-fact, journalistic style.

Original Version
I started from my sleep with horror; a cold dew covered my forehead, my teeth
chattered, and every limb became convulsed; when, by the dim and yellow light of the
moon, as it forced its way through the window shutters, I beheld the wretch - the
miserable monster whom I had created. He held up the curtain of the bed; and his eyes,
if eyes they may be called, were fixed on me. His jaws opened, and he muttered some
inarticulate sounds while a grin wrinkled his cheeks. He might have spoken, but I did
not hear; one hand was stretched out, seemingly to detain me, but I escaped and
rushed downstairs.

Realistic R e - w r i t e
It was 4.08 a.m. when I awoke from my sleep and saw the monster standing by my bedside.
My initial fear was caused by the monster's appearance and my uncertainty about his intentions.
He was...
52 THE AUGUSTAN AGE - Fiction

Crusoe thinks that Friday's eagerness to eat his dead comrades is barbaric and totally uncivilised. What does the
term 'uncivilised' mean to you? What would you regard as uncivilised behaviour in our society? Discuss with your
classmates.

LINK
-[ to the world of television
When it was published in 1 719, Robinson Crusoe was a runaway success. Part of its appeal was based on the fact
that readers believed that it was the true-life account of a shipwrecked sailor. People have always been fascinated
by true stories and today's public is no exception. The phenomenal success of Reality TV programmes (television
programmes based on real-life incidents) shows the public's continuing interest in the lives of others.
Reality TV programmes come in varying formats but they all share one basic characteristic: they are about real
people in real situations. Read the descriptions of popular Reality TV programmes in Britain and the USA, and say
if you have ever watched them or similar programmes.
What do you think the appeal of these programmes is?
The advancement of printing technology in the seventeenth century made a best-seller like Robinson Crusoe
possible. How has the advancement of technology (home video cameras, web cams, Internet access) contributed
to the evolution of Reality TV?
Many people enjoyed Robinson Crusoe because they identified with the values and morals of the story's hero. Do
participants in Reality TV reflect the values and lifestyles of the people who watch them?

Do you want to be stranded on an island for 39 days for your

chance to win $ 1 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 ? Eating anything you can hnd,
like rats, bugs, fish and wild animals? Sixteen contestants on
CBS' Survivor have decided that's what they want to do!
This game show is unlike any other. Sixteen contestants
(survivors) are on an island and separated into two tribes. In
each episode the tribes challenge each other in endurance
tests and the losing tribe has to vote one of ^ members °H
the island. The first contestant eliminated gets $2,5UU. tach
contestant after that wins more money up until the final
contestant who wins 1 Million Dollars!

COPS
Cops takes you to the streets to
witness real police in action as they
confront the crime gripping a
nation's cities and comfort the
victims of violence.
Mobile cameras follow these real-
life cops around the clock, with no
restrictions on taping. During off-
duty hours, the camera goes behind
the scenes to capture the effects of
the job on their personal lives.
BIG BROTHER
A new show, with a new look at television. This concept wasfirstdeveloped
in burope, but has been brought to North America by CBS. It's called Bis
Brother. Ten contestants have to live with each other for 100 davs for a
chance to win $500,000. The contestants have never met before and no one
knows what's going to happen. It takes place in a special house somewhere
in America. The Big Brother house isn't too large and is equipped with 28
cameras and 60 microphones watching the ten contestants constantly There
is no privacy in this house. There are cameras everywhere! The contestants
have to make their own food and grow their own vegetables Every other
week one contestant will be voted out of the house through telephone polls
1 he last one to remain will win a jackpot of $500,000!
 Writers' Gallery - Daniel Defoe

mNsmsfmm WRITERS' GALLERY

Family background and

education Little is known
about the personal life of Daniel Defoe. Even his date of birth is
not certain because his father, a Protestant Dissenter, did not
accept the authority of the State Church and refused to register
his son's birth. We do know, however, that Daniel Foe - he later
changed his name to the more fashionable Defoe - was born in
London, probably in September 1660. In his early years Defoe
attended a school for Dissenters, where he got a solid education.
When he finished his studies he went into trade and travelled
extensively in Europe.

DANIEL DEFOE Career On his return to England he got married and

(16607-1731) established himself as a hosiery merchant. After the failure of his
business he turned to writing to earn money. He was deeply
interested in politics and wrote pamphlets and essays on the political issues of the day. His writings
were often critical of political institutions and the established Church; as a result of some of the
opinions he expressed he was arrested and spent time in prison.
Throughout his life Defoe was fascinated by trade and got involved in a number of mercantile
projects. However, most of his business ventures failed and he found himself in financial difficulty.
A helping hand came from Robert Harley, the leader of the Tory party, who offered him a job as a
secret agent for the government. Harley also helped him to set up his own journal, The Review, on
the condition that in his writings he would not attack the government.

Later years When he was sixty years old Defoe turned to novel-writing, and in 1719 he produced
his masterpiece, Robinson Crusoe. The next five years saw the appearance of four more novels and a
pseudo-factual account of London during the plague, A Journal of the Plague Year. In 1724 he
published a guide book in three volumes based on his travels around Britain, in which he gave a
detailed description of Britain in the early part of the eighteenth century. He died in 1731.

Early writings Daniel Defoe was a prolific writer. His earliest

WORKS
writings were political and largely consisted of pamphlets, essays
and articles for journals. He was well respected as a satirist and his satirical pamphlet The Shortest
Way with the Dissenters won him great popularity. In it Defoe, a Dissenter himself, demanded the
extermination of Dissenters, exaggerating and ridiculing views held by the State Church. He was
fined, imprisoned and pilloried for the work. While in prison he wrote the poem Hymn to the Pillory,
a mock-Pindaric ode* which was sold in the streets to his many supporters.

Fiction It was not until late in his literary career that Defoe turned to writing prose fiction. He had
read of the adventures of a sailor, Alexander Selkirk, who had been put ashore on the desert island of
Juan Fernandez in the Pacific Ocean, where he survived for five years before being rescued. Defoe
used Selkirk's story as the basis for his fictional work Robinson Crusoe. At the time when Defoe was
writing, the public demand was for fact-based writings such as diaries, travel journals, biographies
and letters. Fiction was viewed with suspicion by the Puritan middle-class readers, as it was
considered to be a form of lying. Defoe found a way around this prejudice: he presented his work as
a true story based on real events. He also made a direct appeal to Puritan readers by including moral
54 THE AUGUSTAN AGE - Fiction

•m m t • Ü K r w - w w • ssm mm

The poster for the film ROBIN

Moll Flanders (1996). WRIGHT
MORGAN
FREEMAN
STOCKARD
CHANNING

lessons in his work and showing that an SansÄI;:;

ordinary man such as Robinson, who
believed in God and in the principles of
self-reliance and hard work, could
overcome any obstacle. In this way,
Robinson Crusoe became the model of the
middle class, a self-made man convinced
that Britain had a right and duty to bring
civilisation to other parts of the world.
Following the success of Robinson Crusoe
Defoe wrote four more novels between
1 7 2 0 and 1724: Captain Singleton, Moll
Flanders, Colonel Jack and Roxana.

Features All of Defoe's novels share the

same characteristics:
• they are presented as memoirs or
autobiographies and are narrated in the
first person;
• the setting is contemporary and realistic;
• there is no real plot: the protagonist is presented in a chronological series of episodes;
• the main character overcomes misfortune through self-reliance, hard work and belief in God;
• each of the characters repents his evil actions and prays to God for salvation;
• the prose style is plain yet powerfully effective.

TASK
Cross out the false statements.
a. Defoe's literary career started out with political
pamphlets, essays and press articles.
b. Defoe gained a reputation as a satirist.
c. The Shortest Way with the Dissenters is a
pamphlet suggesting a quick way of getting rid
of Protestant Dissenters.
d. Hymn to the Piilory is a satirical mock-Pindaric ode.
e. Defoe used the diary of a sailor, Alexander
Selkirk, as a basis for an epic poem.
f. Defoe wrote a novel that met the demand for
fact-based writings.
g. The Puritans did not receive the work well
because of its immoral content.
h. After Robison Crusoe Defoe wrote four more
novels which have completely different
features.
i. Defoe's characters fight against difficulties by
placing great faith in Cod and in their own
resources.
 A Modest Proposal - J o n a t h a n Swift 55

A Modest Proposal
by Jonathan Swift

Briefly d e s c r i b e t h e p h o t o .
W h a t is y o u r reaction t o it?
Do you think that child poverty could be
e l i m i n a t e d in t o d a y ' s w o r l d o r is it p a r t of a
p r o b l e m t h a t will always b e with us?

Children in Africa

INTRODUCTION • J o n a t h a n Swift was a complex character who showed how literature could be used
to make man aware of his own and society's shortcomings. Read his proposals for the solution of the
problem of child poverty in eighteenth-century Ireland.

A Modest Proposal Text 1 ) 1 2

For Preventing The Children of Poor People in Ireland

From Being A Burden 1 to Their Parents or Country, and
For Making Them Beneficial to The Public

It is a melancholy object to those who walk through this great town or

travel in the country, when they see the streets, the roads, and cabin 2
GLOSSARY •-
doors, crowded with beggars3 « ! the female sex, followed by three, four, or
Burden: something
six children, all in rags4 and importuning every passenger for an alms 5 . too heavy to carry/to
These mothers, instead of being able to work for their honest livelihood, bear
cabin: poor housing
are forced to employ all their time in strolling 6 to beg sustenance for their
beggars: poor people
helpless infants: who as they grow up either turn thieves for want 7 of 10 begging in the street
work, or leave their dear native country to fight for the Pretender 8 in rags: old and torn
clothes
Spain, or sell themselves to the Barbadoes 9 .
an alms: money
I think it is agreed by all parties that this prodigious number of children in strolling: walking
the arms, or on the backs, or at the heels o f 1 0 their mothers, and around
frequently of their fathers, is in the present deplorable state of the 15 want: absence
Pretender: James
kingdom a very great additional grievance 1 1 ; and, therefore, whoever Stuart, son of James II
could find out a fair, cheap, and easy method of making these children (1688-1766)
sound, useful members of the commonwealth, would deserve so well of 9. Barbadoes: this is a
reference to the fact
the public as to have his statue set up for a preserver of the nation. (...) that many Irishmen
There is likewise 12 another great advantage in my scheme, that it will 20 emigrated to the West
Indies
prevent those voluntary abortions, and that horrid practice of women
10. at the heels of:
murdering their bastard children, alas! too frequent among us! sacrificing the following
poor innocent babes I doubt more to avoid the expense than the shame 13 , 11. grievance: problem
12. likewise: as well
which would move tears and pity in the most savage and inhuman breast.
13. shame: moral
The number of souls in this kingdom being usually reckoned 14 one million 25 discomfort
and a half, of these I calculate there may be about two hundred thousand 14. reckoned: calculated
56 THE AUGUSTAN AGE - Fiction
15. breeders: able to have
children
16. apprehend: think
17. distresses: difficult
conditions
18. this being granted:
even supposing that
19. miscarry: lose an
unborn child
20. reared and provided
for: maintained and
taken care of
21. utterly: totally
22. liable: subject
23. of my acquaintance:
that I know
24. wholesome: healthy
25.stewed: cooked in
sauce
26. fricassee: meat dish
27. for breed: to make
more children
28. fore or hind quarter:
front or back part
29. title: right
30. a prolific diet: food
that encourages
conception
31. Lent: forty days
before Easter, when
Catholics are not
supposed to eat meat
32. glutted: full to excess
33. popish: Catholic
34. endeavoring: trying
35. relieving: helping
•
couples whose wives are breeders 15 ; from which number I subtract thirty
thousand couples who are able to maintain their own children, although I
apprehend 16 there cannot be so many, under the present distresses17 of the
kingdom; but this being granted 1 8 , there will remain a hundred and 30
seventy thousand breeders. 1 again subtract fifty thousand for those women
who miscarry 19 , or whose children die by accident or disease within the
year. There only remains one hundred and twenty thousand children of
poor parents annually born. The question therefore is, how this number
shall be reared and provided for 20 , which, as I have already said, under the 35
present situation of affairs, is utterly 21 impossible (...).
I shall now therefore humbly propose my own thoughts, which I hope
will not be liable 22 to the least objection.
I have been assured by a very knowing American of my acquaintance 23 in
London, that a young healthy child well nursed is at a year old a most 40
delicious, nourishing, and wholesome 24 food, whether stewed 25 , roasted,
baked, or boiled; and I make no doubt that it will equally serve in a
fricassee 26 or a ragout.
I do therefore humbly offer it to public consideration that of the hundred
and twenty thousand children already computed, twenty thousand may 45
be reserved for breed 27 , whereof only one-fourth part to be males; which is
more than we allow to sheep, black cattle or swine; and my reason is, that
these children are seldom the fruits of marriage, a circumstance not much
regarded by our savages, therefore one male will be sufficient to serve four
females. That the remaining hundred thousand may, at a year old, be 50
offered in the sale to the persons of quality and fortune through the
kingdom; always advising the mother to let them suck plentifully in the
last month, so as to render them plump and fat for a good table. A child
will make two dishes at an entertainment for friends; and when the family
dines alone, the fore or hind quarter 28 will make a reasonable dish, and 55
seasoned with a little pepper or salt will be very good boiled on the fourth
day, especially in winter.
I grant this food will be somewhat dear, and therefore very proper for
landlords, who, as they have already devoured most of the parents, seem
to have the best title 29 to the children. 60
Infant's flesh will be in season throughout the year, but more plentiful in
March, and a little before and after; for we are told by a grave author, an
eminent French physician, that fish being a prolific diet 30 , there are more
children born in Roman Catholic countries about nine months after Lent 31
than at any other season; therefore, reckoning a year after Lent, the markets 65
will be more glutted 32 than usual, because the number of popish 33 infants is
at least three to one in this kingdom: and therefore it will have one other
collateral advantage, by lessening the number of papists among us.
I profess, in the sincerity of my heart, that I have not the least personal
interest in endeavoring 34 to promote this necessary work, having no other 70
motive than the public good of my country, by advancing our trade,
providing for infants, relieving 35 the poor, and giving some pleasure to the
rich. I have no children by which I can propose to get a single penny; the
youngest being nine years old, and my wife past child-bearing.

COMPREHENSION
1 What, according to the writer, saddens people who
walk through Dublin or travel in Ireland?
2 What do the children of the poor do when they
grow up?
3 How should the person who solves the problem
created by poor children be honoured?
4 What are the main causes of the voluntary abortion
or the murder of illegitimate children? (Paragraph 3)
5 Find the statistics in the fourth paragraph which
refer to this information.
Number of:
- inhabitants in the kingdom of Ireland;
- couples in which the wife is of child-bearing age;
- couples who can maintain their children financially;
- miscarriages/infant deaths per annum;
- children born to poor parents.
ANALYSIS
1 In the opening paragraphs the writer seems to be
sympathetic to the cause of the poor. He speaks of
poor women who would like to have an 'honest
livelihood', refers to the children of the poor as
'helpless' and 'innocent' and wishes to make them
'sound, useful members of the commonwealth'. Does
the attitude expressed by the writer towards the poor
at the beginning of the text prepare the reader for
the suggestion he is about to make? Why does Swift
want the reader to be 'unprepared' for the proposal
in the sixth paragraph?
2 The passage is written in the style of a scientific
discourse. Divide the text into the following parts:
- Identification of a principal and secondary problem
to be addressed: paragraph(s)
- Close analysis of the problem including relevant
statistical data: paragraph(s)
- Proposal of solution and its ramifications:
paragraph(s)
- Conclusion: paragraph(s)
A Modest Proposal - Jonathan Swift 57
6 Who informed the writer about the nutritional
potential of young children?
7 How many children of the poor will be reserved for
breeding? What will the male/female ratio be among
the breeders? What will happen to the remaining
children of the poor?
8 Why should the children who are to be sold for
consumption be well-fed in the last month of their
first year?
9 Why does the writer think that landlords would
make good consumers of children?
1 0 Why will infant's flesh be particularly plentiful in
March?
1 1 What is the ratio between Catholic and non-
Catholic children in Ireland?
1 2 What proof does the writer give of having no
personal financial interest in his proposal?
3 Some features that we normally associate with
scientific, economic or political texts are included in
the passage. Find examples of the following:
- use of statistics;
- references to authoritative sources.
4 Focus on the attention to detail. Underline the
number of ways a child can be cooked, according to
the writer, in the sixth paragraph. Find another
example in which the writer shows great attention to
detail.
5 What effect do the pseudo-scientific style of the
text and the attention to detail create? Which ending
would you choose for the following statement?
The detached scientific style of the passage and the
attention to detail ...
a. ... makes the proposal less horrific.
b . . . . makes the proposal even more horrific.
6 Find references in the text where the writer
describes his proposal as 'modest' or 'humble'.
Does the writer's insistence on the modest nature of
his proposal make it seem even more outrageous?
58 THE AUGUSTAN AGE - Fiction

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P
Satire Satire is the art of ridiculing a subject through laughter and scorn. While comedy evokes
laughter as an end in itself, satire uses laughter as a weapon against a vice. Satire may be
directed at an individual, a type of person, a social class, an institution, a political ideology,
a nation or even the entire human race. Satirists try to use their art to improve the world we
live in. By making the vice they target contemptible and repulsive, they hope to contribute
to its elimination ( • Visual Link D5).
f -
A satire may have several targets. Making references to Text D12 say which you would
consider to be the objects of Swift's satire in A Modest Proposal.

OVER T O Y O U Which contemporary social injustice would you choose to satirise? What preposterous
solution to the problem would you put forward as your 'modest proposal'?

Satire does not exist only in literature. It is also popular in films, TV shows, songs, comic strips, cartoons, etc.
Can you think of any examples?

LINK
-[ to the world of music
After he had seen a documentary about the devastating effects of famine in Ethiopia, Irish pop singer Bob Geldof
called upon his fellow musicians to join together to raise funds for the stricken people. He wrote the song Do
they know it's Christmas?, which he recorded with a host of other pop celebrities including George Michael, Bono
of U2 and Sting. The record was released in November 1984 and was a huge Christmas hit all over the world.
All proceeds from the record were spent on helping famine victims in Ethiopia.

ft Read the lyrics of the song and then answer the questions below.
Do they Know it's Christmas? But when you're having fun
It's Christmas time There's a world outside your window
There's no need to be afraid And it's a world of dread and fear
At Christmas time Where the only water flowing
We let in light and we banish shade Is the bitter sting of tears
And in our world of plenty And the Christmas bells that ring there
We can spread a smile of joy Are the clanging chimes of doom
Throw your arms around the world Well tonight thank God it's them instead of you
At Christmas time
Feed the world
But say a prayer Let them know it's Christmas time
Pray for the other ones Feed the world
At Christmas time it's hard Do they know it's Christmas time at all?

1 Both Bob Geldof's song and Jonathan Swift's essay address social issues. They both try to draw public
attention to the problem of poverty and, in the case of Geldof's song, the devastating effect of famine. Is the
tone of the two works similar? Which of the two would you consider to be harsher?
2 In the opening lines of the song Geldof underlines man's humanity. Find sentences in which mankind is
described as warm and loving. Does Swift make any references to man's goodness in his work?
Swift's is a biting attack on man's inhumanity to man. Geldof's work is an appeal to man's humanity. Which of
the two is more effective, in your opinion?
3 Do you respond better when people criticise negative aspects of your personality or when they appeal to your
more positive instincts?
 Gulliver's Travels - Jonathan Swift 59

Gulliver's Travels
by Jonathan Swift

Does the perfect human being exist? Jonathan Swift certainly did not think so. He was an acute observer of
human faults and frailties and pointed out in no uncertain way how imperfect we are.
Here are some common faults: pride, greed, aggression, cruelty, jealousy.
Add to the list and give a practical example of one of them.
For example, greed: sometimes, even though people are very rich, they do not relax and enjoy their wealth but keep
working to get even richer.

INTRODUCTION • Gulliver's Travels appeals to both children and adults for different reasons. Children
are fascinated by the lone traveller who has adventure after adventure in strange lands peopled by tiny
midgets, giants and talking horses. For an adult the book is a highly sarcastic and often funny condem-
nation of man's ignorance, cruelty and pride.

THE STORY
On being shipwrecked, Lemuel Gulliver swims to the island ofLillipid. He is amazed to find
that all the inhabitants are no more than six inches (13 cm) tall. He then travels to other
strange places, including Brobdingnag ( • Text D13), a land of giants, before ending his
adventures among the Houyhnhnms, a sophisticated and highly intelligent race of horses.

The Benefits of Gunpowder »^•»«i

Gulliver explains to the king of Brobdingnag how people in Europe use gunpowder, and offers
to help make it for him. GLOSSARY •

l. But, great
TRAVELS PART II allowances ... other
nations: because the
A Voyage to Brobdingnag king knew nothing
Chapter 7 (altogether
unacquainted) of the
(...) world outside his own
But, great allowances should be given to a King who lives wholly secluded kingdom (wholly
secluded), we must
from the rest of the world, and must therefore be altogether unacquainted have sympathy for
with the manners and customs that most prevail in other nations 1 : the him and make a
special effort to
want of 2 which knowledge will ever3 produce many prejudices, and a certain understand him
narrowness of thinking, from which we and the politer countries of Europe 5 the want of: the lack
of
are wholly exempted 4 . And it would be hard indeed, if so remote a Prince's
3. ever: always
notions of virtue and vice were to be offered as a standard for all mankind.
4. exempted: free from
To confirm what I have now said, and further to show the miserable effects 5. will ... belief: will be
of a confined education, I shall here insert a passage which will hardly obtain hard to believe
In hopes ... favour:
belief 5 . In hopes to ingratiate myself farther into his Majesty's favour 6 , I 10 in order to make the
told him of an invention discovered between three and four hundred years king like me more
ago, to make a certain powder, into a heap 7 of which the smallest spark of heap: a massed
quantity
fire falling, would kindle 8 the whole in a moment, although it were as big kindle: set fire to

I ^ ^ ^ ^
60 THE AUGUSTAN AGE - Fiction
9. rammed: pushed
10. hollow: empty
11. brass: a soft metal
12. lead: a hard metal
13.discharged: shot
14. ranks: lines of soldiers
15.batter: beat, knock
16. masts and rigging:
parts of a ship that
hold up the sails
17. lay all waste: destroy
everything
18. engine: cannon
19.besieging: attacking
20. rip up: tear up
21. burst: explode
22. splinters: pieces of
wood and stone
23. dashing out:
smashing
24. the manner of
compounding them:
how to mix them
25. pretend to dispute:
try to challenge or
oppose
26. tribute of
acknowledgement:
thank you
as a mountain, and make it all fly up in the air
together, with a noise and agitation greater than is
thunder. That, a proper quantity of this powder
rammed 9 into an hollow 10 tube of brass 11 or iron,
according to its bigness, would drive a ball of iron
or lead 12 with such violence and speed as nothing
was able to sustain its force. That the largest balls 20
thus discharged 13 , would not only destroy whole
ranks 1 4 of an army at once, but batter 1 5 the
strongest walls to the ground, sink down ships
with a thousand men in each, to the bottom of the
sea; and when linked together by a chain, would 25
cut through masts and rigging 16 , divide hundreds
of bodies in the middle, and lay all waste 17 before
them. That we often put this powder into large
hollow balls of iron, and discharged them by an
e n g i n e 1 8 into some city we were besieging 1 9 , 30
which would rip up 2 0 the pavements, tear the
houses to pieces, burst 21 and throw splinters 22 on
every side, dashing out 2 3 the brains of all who
came near. That I knew the ingredients very well,
which were cheap, and common; I understood the 35
manner of compounding them 24 , and could direct
his workmen how to make those tubes of a size
proportionable to all other things in his Majesty's
kingdom, and the largest need not be above a hundred feet long; twenty
or thirty of which tubes, charged with the proper quantity of powder and 40
balls, would batter down the walls of the strongest town in his dominions
in a few hours, or destroy the whole metropolis, if ever it should pretend
to dispute 25 his absolute commands. This I humbly offered to his Majesty
as a small tribute of acknowledgment 26 in return of so many marks that I
had received of his royal favour and protection 27 . 45
The King was struck with horror at the description I had given of those
terrible engines, and the proposal I had made. He was amazed how so
impotent and grovelling 28 an insect as I (these were his expressions) could
entertain such inhuman ideas, and in so familiar a manner as to appear
wholly unmoved at all the scenes of blood and desolation, which I had 50
painted as the common effects of those destructive machines, whereof 29
he said, some evil genius, enemy to mankind, must have been the first
contriver 3 0 . As for himself, he protested, that although few things
delighted him so much as new discoveries in art or in nature, yet he would
rather lose half his kingdom than be privy to 3 1 such a secret, which he 55
commanded me, as 32 I valued my life, never to mention any more.
27.marks ... protection: the 28. grovelling: low, servile 31.be privy to: know
many favours he had done 29. whereof: of which 32. as: if
for me 30. contriver: inventor
 Gulliver's Travels - J o n a t h a n Swift 61

A strange effect of narrow principles and short viewsl that a prince possessed
of every quality which procures veneration, love, and esteem; of strong
parts 33 , great wisdom and profound learning, endued with 3 4 admirable
talents for government, and almost adored by his subjects, should from a 60

nice unnecessary scruple, whereof in Europe we can have no conception, let

33. of strong parts: with
slip an opportunity to put into his hands, that would have made him a strong character
absolute master of the lives, the liberties, and the fortunes of his people. 34. endued with: with

COMPREHENSION
1 According to Gulliver (paragraph 1) why should
the king be excused for not being acquainted with
the 'manners and customs' of other nations?
2 What are the negative repercussions of the king's
'confined education'? (Paragraph 1)
3 In which lines in the second paragraph does
Gulliver define:
- gunpowder? Line to
- guns/cannons? Line
- bullets/cannon balls? Line
Why doesn't Gulliver refer to these inventions by name?
4 In the second paragraph Gulliver explains the uses
of the powder to the king. Use the text to link the
verbs in box A with the expressions in box B.
5 Gulliver says that he knows the ingredients for the
powder (paragraph 2). What does he volunteer to do
for the king in return for the 'royal favour and
protection' he has received?
6 Under what circumstances would the king need
the powder, according to Gulliver?
7 How does the king react to Gulliver's proposal?
8 What does he command Gulliver never to do
again?
9 What does Gulliver attribute the king's reaction to?
(Paragraph 4)

destroy batter sink down cut through 1 0 What opportunity has the king let slip by,
A
lay waste rip up tear dash out according to Gulliver?
the houses to pieces all before them
whole ranks of an army at once
B the brains of all who came near the pavements
the strongest walls to the ground masts and rigging
ships with a thousand men in each

ANALYSIS
1 From whose point of view is the episode narrated? 3 Focus on the second paragraph.
• Gulliver's • The king's a. In his speech on gunpowder Gulliver refers to
• An external narrator • Both Gulliver's and the king's numbers and measurements. Find examples in the
text.
2 Focus on the first paragraph. b . How would you describe Gulliver's description of
a. Which expressions show that Gulliver feels that his gunpowder and its uses?
culture is superior to the king's? ft Logical • Scientific • Incoherent
b. How would you define Gulliver's attitude towards • Subjective • Practical IS Theoretical
the king? OS Other:
• Sympathetic • Patronising c. What impression of Gulliver is created? Choose
II Respectful • Dismissive from the following adjectives.
IS Other: • Rational SB Passionate • Precise
II Emotional S Scientific • Detached
• Logical • Creative
IS Other:
 THE AUGUSTAN AGE - Fiction

4 Focus on the third paragraph.
a. Underline the words and expressions that convey
the king's:
- reaction to Gulliver's proposal;
- assessment of Gulliver;
- opinion of the creator of gunpowder.
b. On the basis of his reaction to Gulliver's suggestions,
which of the following adjectives would you choose
to describe the king?
• Narrow-minded • Detached • Passionate
• Humane • Prejudiced • Conservative
• Other:
5 Which of the two characters, Gulliver or the king,
represents Swift's point of view? justify your answer.
6 In the first paragraph Gulliver accuses the king of
having 'prejudices' and 'narrowness of thinking'.
In the second paragraph he speaks of the king's
'confined education' and in the fourth paragraph he
refers to his 'narrow principles and short views'. Are
these accusations more appropriately applied to the
king or to Gulliver? Justify your answer.
7 Re-read the first sentence of the second paragraph.
Does the episode Gulliver recounts expose the
'miserable effects' of the 'confined education' of the
king?
Do you detect an ironic twist in this sentence?
8 Does the physical difference between the king and
Gulliver take on another meaning in the light of your
analysis?
9 Which of the following are targets of Swift's satire?
• The British sense of superiority
• The British monarchy
• Western civilisation
• Gunpowder
• Man's insensitivity to the suffering of others
• Man's disregard for human life
• Man's obsession with power
• The British parliamentary system
Which target do you think he most successfully ridicules?
1 0 How would you define Swift's style?
• Poetic • Figurative • Ornate
• Complex • Clear • Simple

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P
Unreliable An unreliable narrator is one whose interpretation and evaluation of events do not
narrator coincide with the beliefs held by the author. The unreliability of a narrator is not
always immediately obvious. The reader is often initially led to believe that the
narrator is reliable, and encouraged to share his viewpoint. The delayed exposure of the
fallibility of the narrator adds humour and bite to a satirical text.

TASK In Text D1 3 Gulliver is a fallible narrator. At what point in the passage does it become clear
that he is unreliable, i.e. that Swift does not share his beliefs?

OVER T O Y O U The character in the passage who represents Swift's point of view is the king. Briefly re-tell
the story from the king's viewpoint. Start like this:
One day Gulliver informed me that he had something very important to tell me. He started to
describe a powder which he said...
Does the new version maintain the same level of humour and satirical bite as the original?

The king is amazed to hear that humans use gunpowder to kill each other and destroy each other's cities.
Gulliver is amazed the king is so ignorant of the ways of the world and the realities of war.
Organise a debate in which one side supports the view that in the future, through education and diplomacy, we
will be able to build a world which will not need weapons or armies.
The other side supports the view that there will always be armies, weapons and wars because man is by nature
power-hungry and violent.
 Writers' Gallery - J o n a t h a n Swift

WRITERS' GALLERY
••••••••I^HH Family and education Jonathan
Swift was born in Dublin of
English parents. His father died before he was born and he was
maintained by a rich relative. He was educated at Trinity College,
Dublin, where he was an unruly and uninterested student.

Stella In 1 6 8 9 he moved to England, where he b e c a m e a

secretary to Sir William Temple, a retired statesman. Frustrated in
his expectations of a career, he returned to Ireland and was
ordained a priest in the Church of Ireland. Life as a modest parish
priest did not suit him, however, so he returned to Temple's home
as a tutor to a young girl, Esther Johnson, who was to play an
important role in his life and whom he would later immortalise as
'Stella' in his writings.

In London When his patron died in 1699, Swift returned to Dublin, where he was later joined by
Esther-Stella. During one of his frequent trips to London he met Addison and Steele ( • p. D104)
who published Swift's A Tale of a Tub. Like most writers of the period, Swift was actively involved in
politics and initially he supported the Whigs. Disgusted, however, by their alliance with the
Dissenters, he joined the Tories. He became a close friend of Tory leaders and was introduced to
writers of similar political views, such as Pope ( • pp. D23-27), Gay ( • p. D108) and Congreve ( • pp.
D33-37). Together they formed the 'Scriblerus Club' to discuss topics of contemporary interest and
collaborate on joint literary projects.
It was during his time spent in London that he wrote a series of letters to Esther-Stella, which were
posthumously (1768) published as the Journal to Stella. The letters, written in part in baby talk, show
Swift's softer side and give a fascinating view of life in London at the beginning of the eighteenth
century. While in London Swift started seeing another young lady, whom he called 'Vanessa' in the
poem Cadenus and Vanessa. The relationship ended abruptly when 'Vanessa' demanded that he choose
between her and Stella. The separation led to Vanessa's death 'of a broken heart' in 1723.

Back in Ireland In 1713 Swift moved back to Ireland where, outraged by the injustices he perceived
in England's treatment of Ireland, he used his writing skills to support Irish causes, producing some of
his most memorable political pamphlets. The publication of A Modest Proposal for the Universal Use of
Irish Manufacture (1720), The Drapier's Letters (1724) and his masterpiece Gulliver's Travels (1726) won
him public acclaim. Swift's final years were spent largely alone and with serious health problems,
which became even worse after Stella's death in 1728. He died at the age of seventy-eight and was
buried in St Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin, by the side of his beloved Stella.

The man and the writer Jonathan Swift was a complex, passionate individual. His biting satirical
writing has often given rise to the idea that he was a misanthrope. However, he showed great
concern for his fellow human beings, spending a third of his income on charities and dedicating
much of his time and writing to the causes of the poor and the victims of injustice.

TASK
Jonathan Swift had a c o m p l e x personality. After reading about his life, what opinion have you formed of
the m a n ?
 ays
64 THE AUGUSTAN AGE 229THEAUGUSTANAGE-Fiction

Jonathan Swift was a prolific writer who is best remembered for

WORKS
three great satirical works.
The Battle of the Books (1704) is a mock-heroic satire in which Swift imagines a real battle between
books at the Royal Library over the controversy about ancient and modern learning. The Ancients
iMfSgSt—.-I
•* -
are led by Homer while the Moderns are under the leadership of Milton.
iPlliSfft A Tale of a Tub (1704) is a satirical allegory about the three major religious groupings in eighteenth-
» 1
century Britain: Roman Catholics, Anglicans and Dissenters. The narrator tells the story of a father
who leaves each of his three sons a coat (the Christian religion) with strict instructions that on no
account should they alter it. Peter (St - the Roman Catholic Church), Martin (Luther - the Anglican
Church) and Jack (Calvin - the Dissenters) gradually disobey their father by altering their coats to
make them more fashionable. Though the book was meant to defend the Church of England, many
passages pour a torrent of ridicule on all three opponents.
Gulliver's Travels (1726) is generally regarded to be Jonathan Swift's masterpiece, one of the great
literary works and perhaps the greatest satiric work of all time. Like all of his other writings, Swift
published the Travels under a pseudonym. Several of his writings had already incurred the wrath of
important people, and there was enough criticism of the English government and monarchy to
bring charges of sedition. Initially Swift set out to write a satire on the vices and follies of his time,
but as the work proceeded he widened his aim to target virtually every aspect of human experience.
Swift's satire is pointed and pessimistic: his task is to expose absurdities, not to provide remedies.
The book takes the form of a parody of travel literature, which at the time was very popular. It is
divided into four books:
In Book I Lemuel Gulliver, a surgeon on a merchant ship, tells of how he was shipwrecked and
washed up on the island of Lilliput, where the inhabitants are only six inches tall. Despite their
diminutive size, the Lilliputians have delusions of grandeur, and the pomp of their emperor
(representing the British monarchy) and their war with their neighbours across the channel (the war
between England and France) are made to look ridiculous.
In Book II Gulliver is in Brobdingnag, a kingdom of giants. In an interview with the king about
European civilisation, Gulliver boasts about the marvels of gunpowder and the glory of the judicial
system. To Gulliver's surprise, the king is horrified and says that what he has heard would lead him
to believe that mankind is 'the most pernicious Race of little odious Vermin that Nature ever
suffered to crawl upon the surface of the Earth'.
In Book III Gulliver visits Laputa, a flying island where the nobles literally have their heads in the
cloud. Here the satire is directed against philosophers, men of science and historians. On Laputa
Gulliver meets philosophers who have become so absorbed in their speculations that they are totally
divorced from reality.
In Book IV Gulliver travels to the land of the Houyhnhnms, rational horse-like creatures that are
contrasted with the filthy humanlike Yahoos. The two races represent the two extremes of human
potential: rationality and bestiality. When Gulliver returns home, he feels so alienated from his own
species that he prefers to spend his time in the stable with the horses than with his own family.

TASK
Condense the text 'Swift's works' into a thirty-second talk. As you do not have much time you should
only c h o o s e the most significant information.
 Pamela - Samuel Richardson 65

Pamela
by Samuel Richardson

People have many different ways of letting someone know they like them. Sometimes a smile or a wink is a way
of saying you would like to know another person better. A more direct approach would be to say straight out,
'Where have you been all my life?' to someone you have never spoken to before.

1 Try to think of five different strategies that people use to attract the attention of someone they like.
2 Make a list of all the strategies on the board and vote to see which one most people in the class think is most
effective.

INTRODUCTION • Samuel Richardson was one of the c h i e f e x p o n e n t s of the epistolary n o v e l in

English. An epistolary novel was a series of letters between the main characters, that together made up
a coherent story. Pamela was the most successful of this type of novel in the eighteenth century and,
like many successful books and films today, encouraged Richardson to write a sequel, Pamela II.

THE STORY
Pamela Andrews is a poor, intelligent fifteen-year-old. When her kind employer, Lady B, dies,
• Pamela Andrews, a
she has to work for her son, Mr B, who tries to seduce her in every possible way, but she young servant girl
rejects him indignantly. To break down Pamela's resistance, he takes her off to his country • Mr B, Pamela's
master
house and imprisons her for forty days. He continues to put pressure on her to give in to his
desires ( • Text D14) and almost rapes her twice. In desperation Pamela thinks of commit-
ting suicide, but she realises that even though her master has treated her abominably, she
quite likes many things about him. Mr B accepts that violence and harassment will get him
nowhere, and is delighted to find that when he expresses his love for Pamela in gentler terms,
she reveals her tender feelings towards him. She turns down his first offer of marriage but
eventually accepts that she can trust him and agrees to become his wife.
The novel is made up of letters, written mostly by Pamela, and her personal diary of events.

Lucifer in the Shape of my Master Text D 1 4

This passage is taken from Pamela's diary. She is walking in the garden with Mr B.

Wednesday Morning
(...)
He presently began by squeezing my hand; and then, truly, all the way we GLOSSARY •-
walked, he would put his arm about my waist. I would have removed his bid: ordered
arm: but he called me little fool! and bid 1 me not distrust his honour. Had rely upon it: count
on it
he not told me, he said, that I might rely upon it 2 ? And it would be better
3. abundance ...
for me if I did. praiseful things: a
He then said abundance of kind and praiseful things 3 , enough to make me lot of compliments
designs: objective
proud, had not his designs 4 been so apparent. After walking about, he led
alcove: a covered,
me into a little alcove 5 in the further part of the garden, which having a hidden place
ST., ^ ^,f* ^

66 THE AUGUSTAN AGE - Fiction

passage through it, I the less resisted 6 ; and still the less, as he had led me
through o n c e without stopping; but then stopping in it, he began to be 10
very t e a z i n g 7 . He made m e sit on his knee; and still on my struggling
against such a freedom, he bid me rely on his honour, solemnly assuring
6. which having ...
resisted: I agreed to m e that I might 8 . But then kissing me very often, though I resisted every
go to the alcove time, I told him, at last, and would have got from him 9 , that I would not
because I knew there
was a passage stay with him in this place. I would not be so freely used. And I wondered 15
through it he should so demean himself 1 0 .1 told him, moreover, that he would level
7. teazing: (teasing)
playful all distance between us, and I should lose all reverence 1 1 for him; though
8. I might: I should he was the son of my ever-honoured lady 12 .
9. and would ... him:
He held me fast 1 3 notwithstanding 1 4 , professing honour all the time with
and wanted to get
away from him his mouth, t h o u g h his actions did n o t correspond. I begged and prayed 20
10. demean himself: that he would let me go: and had I not appeared quite regardless of 1 5 all he
lower himself to my
level said, and resolved n o t to stay, if I could help it, I knew n o t h o w far he
11. reverence: respect would have proceeded:
12. my ever-honoured
(...)
lady: Lady B
13. fast: tight and close He put his arm round me, and his other hand on my neck; which made
14. notwithstanding: me more angry and bold 1 6 ; and he said, ' W h o t h e n am I?' 'Why', said I, 25
despite what I had
said (struggling from him, and in a great passion) 'to be sure, you are Lucifer
15.and had I not ... himself in the shape of my master, or you could not use me thus 1 7 .' 'These
regardless of: and
had I not ignored
are t o o great liberties,' said he, in anger; 'and I desire, that you will n o t
16. bold: courageous, less repeat them, for your own sake: for if you have no decency towards me, I'll
shy
have n o n e towards you.' 30
17. use me thus: abuse
me like this I was r u n n i n g from h i m ; and had got at a little distance, w h e n he in a
18. haughty: arrogant h a u g h t y 1 8 tone, called out, ' C o m e back! Pamela, c o m e back w h e n I bid
19. alike: equally
you!' Too well I knew, as I told y o u before, that every place was alike 1 9
20.and perhaps ... did
not: if I did not obey dangerous to me; and that I had nobody to run to for safety: and I stopped
him he might use my
at his call; for he stopped too, as if to see if I would obey him, and perhaps 35
disobedience as an
excuse to punish me to have a pretence against m e if I did n o t 2 0 ; or in disdain 2 1 to run after a
21. disdain: it would be girl as me. 'How can I, sir,' said I, throwing abroad 2 2 my supplicating arms,
dishonourable for
him to run after his 'how can I go back, to a gentleman who has so demeaned himself to his
servant girl p o o r servant girl?' ' C o m e b a c k , ' repeated he in a m o r e h a u g h t y t o n e ,
22. throwing abroad:
throwing out
throwing out in a threatening m a n n e r one arm, and looking taller than 40
23. With unwilling feet: usual, as I thought, and he is a tall, and very majestic man.
reluctantly, because I
What could I do? With unwilling feet 2 3 , and slow, I went back; and seeing
did not want to
24. endeavour: try h i m look angry, I held m y hands together, and wept, and said, 'Pray sir,
25. Command from me forgive m e . ' (...) 'I will endeavour 2 4 , sir,' said I 'always to preserve t h a t
... with pleasure: I
do not mind dying if
decency towards you, that veneration for you, which is due from me to the 45
that is what you want son of that ever-honoured lady, who taught me to prefer my honesty to my
26. shew: show
life. Command from me, sir, that life, and I will lay it down with pleasure 25 ,
27. seek not: do not try
28. fabric: my character
to shew 26 my obedience to you. But I cannot be patient, I cannot be passive,
and morals when my virtue is in danger. For God's sake, sir, seek not 2 7 to destroy the
29. affected: moved and
fabric 28 which your good mother took so much pleasure in building up.' 50
touched emotionally
30.yards: 1 yard: 0.9144 He seemed affected 2 9 , yet angrily said, he never saw such a fool in all his
m
life! And walking by the side of m e some yards 3 0 without saying a word,
31. attend him: wait for
him he at last went in, bidding me attend h i m 3 1 in the garden after dinner.
•
 Pamela - S a m u e l R i c h a r d s o n 67

COMPREHENSION
1 What did Mr B tell Pamela to rely on as she tried to
resist his advances?
2 Pamela accuses Mr B of 'levelling all distances'
between them (lines 16-1 7). Explain what she means
in your own words.
3 When Mr B asks 'Who then am I?' (Line 25) What
reply does he expect? How does he react to Pamela's
answer?
4 Why, according to Pamela, does Mr B stop running
after her?
5 Why does Pamela ask for forgiveness? (Line 44)
6 Why does Pamela go back when Mr B calls?
7 What is Pamela prepared to sacrifice for her
master? What is she not prepared to sacrifice?

ANALYSIS
1 Find examples of the following narrative techniques in the passage:
a. narration of events c. dialogue which is indirectly reported
b. dialogue which is directly reported d. description.
Which narrative techniques does Richardson use most?
2 From whose point of view* is the story told? Can we tell if Pamela is describing exactly what happened? Have
we any direct insight into what Mr B is thinking? How are Mr B's thoughts indirectly presented in the text?
3 Focus on the character of Pamela. Which of the following adjectives best describe her?
• Helpless • Obedient • Calculating • Innocent • Two-faced
• Dignified • Independent • Moralistic • Determined • Diplomatic
4 Consider how Mr B is presented in the passage. How would you describe him?
• Arrogant • Manipulative • Authoritarian • Patient • Tenacious • Intimidating
5 Pamela is told through a series of letters and a personal journal. What effect(s) does the journal style create?
• It helps the reader to understand what the narrating character (in this case Pamela) is thinking.
• It encourages the reader to identify and sympathise with the narrator.
• It gives the reader an objective account of events.
• It makes the reader the 'addressee' of the letters or journal and involves him more directly in the story.

WRITERS W O R K S H O P
,
The novel of T h e novel of i n c i d e n t and t h e novel of c h a r a c t e r are two broad categories that are
incident and widely used to classify novels. The novel of incident is story-driven: the plot is carefully
the novel of developed and the reader's attention is held by the unfolding of events. The novel of
character character is character-driven and focuses on the character's motive for what he or she
does and how he or she will turn out as a person. In this type of novel the reader finds
psychologically complex characters, whose inner worlds of feelings and emotions are
explored and analysed.
In the extract you have read is the emphasis on what the characters do or the motives
behind their actions? On the basis of your analysis, do you think that Samuel Richardson's
Pamela is generally classified as a novel of incident or a novel of character?
Most works strike a balance between the development of storyline and character analysis,
but some genres favour one of the two: adventure or science fiction stories, for example,
are generally story-driven, while love stories or stories exploring human relationships are
usually character-driven. Can you think of a novel, play or film that you would consider to
be predominantly story-driven or character-driven?

Do you admire Pamela for the way she deals with Mr B? Do you think her reaction is just right or should she
have behaved differently? Discuss in groups.
 i 68 THE AUGUSTAN AGE - Fiction

WRITERS' GALLERY
Early years Samuel Richardson
was born into a lower middle
class family. When he was seventeen years old he was apprenticed
to a printer, whose daughter he married, and in 1721 he set up his
own printing business. He was extremely hard-working and his
business prospered and grew. On the personal front, however, he
suffered tragedy: six of his children died in infancy and his wife
died in 1 7 3 1 . Two years later he remarried and had six more
children, four of whom survived.

Writing career Richardson's career as a writer began at an early

age. By the time he was thirteen he was composing letters for
SAMUEL RICHARDSON young lovers and writing prefaces and dedications for booksellers.
(1689-1761) He started novel-writing almost by accident at the age of fifty-one.
He was asked to compose a guide to letter-writing on the problems
of daily life for the poorly-educated. While writing the models he occasionally continued the same
subject from one letter to another. One such 'series' of letters involved a father writing to his
daughter in service on hearing that her master had tried to seduce her. The exchange of letters
between father and daughter gave him an idea for a novel. He had heard the story of a young girl in
service who had preserved her virtue and was rewarded by marriage, and he used this as his central
theme. He interrupted his work on the letter-writing guide and set to work on Pamela, or Virtue
Rewarded (1740) which he completed in just two months. The collection of model letters was
published a year later as Letters to and for Particular Friends.
Richardson went on to write two more novels: Clarissa ( 1 7 4 7 - 1 7 4 8 ) and Sir Charles Grandison
( 1 7 5 3 - 1 7 5 4 ) . In later life he suffered from nervous disorders which today would probably be
identified as Parkinson's disease. He died in 1761.

Pamela Richardson, along with Defoe ( • pp. 4 4 - 5 4 ) and

WORKS
Fielding ( • pp. 70-78), is credited with giving shape to perhaps
the most influential literary genre of the past three centuries: the novel. Written in an epistolary
form and as a personal journal, Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded (1740) became, by eighteenth-century
standards, a best-seller. The epistolary form which he used in it was already popular in France but
Richardson took it to new heights. The single-story plot, built on domestic conflict in familiar
indoor settings, contrasted greatly with the episodic adventures in an exotic desert island setting of
Defoe's Robinson Crusoe ( • pp. D44-54). Richardson also explored the psychological dimension of
characters and showed a deep insight into the workings of the heart. The influential contemporary

a»« literary critic Dr J o h n s o n ( • p. D104), said, 'if you were to read Richardson for the story your
impatience would be so much fretted that you would hang yourself... but there is more knowledge
of the human heart in one letter of Richardson's than in all of Tom Jones.'
In 1742, Richardson published a second part to Pamela, where the heroine is displayed as a perfect
wife and mother, who writes long letters of advice on moral, domestic and general subjects.
Although very successful at the time, today it is considered of less importance.

Clarissa Written again in the epistolary form, Clarissa, Richardson's second novel, tells the story of a
well-bred young lady who, against the advice of her family, elopes with an unscrupulous man who
holds her prisoner and rapes her. When she realises she has made a mistake, she distances herself from
 Writers' Gallery - Samuel Richardson

her persecutor and dies alone in shame and grief. Clarissa, the longest novel in the English language
(over a million words), was very well received in England and on the continent, where it was translated
into French, Dutch and German.
Sir Charles G r a n d i s o n For his third and final
novel, Sir Charles Grandison (published in seven
volumes 1 7 5 3 - 1 7 5 4 ) , Richardson chose a male
protagonist. T h e novel tells t h e story of t h e
b e n e v o l e n t Sir Charles, who is torn between his
love for a beautiful English woman, Harriet Byron,
and an Italian noble lady, Clementina Porretta. Sir
Charles is saved from his dilemma when, at the last
minute, the Roman Catholic Clementina refuses to
marry a Protestant heretic. Sir Charles remains loyal
to his faith, returns to England and marries Harriet.

Reputation Samuel Richardson was a self-educated

tradesman who had little formal literary training,
yet he made an impact on English literature which
is nothing less than remarkable. His work, which in
the nineteenth century was particularly criticised
for excessive sentimentality and moralism, is today
acknowledged as having been extremely influential
in the development of the English novel.

'He held me fast notwithstanding, professii

honour all the time with his mouth, thougl
his actions did not correspond.' From Pam<

TASK
Choose the correct option. 4 Pamela aims to
1 Samuel Richardson was !~a~l entertain readers with humorous situations.
fb"l stimulate readers to meditate on the
® aprinter by trade.
b j a publisher rewarding principles of virtue.
2 He suffered 5 Richardson's second novel, Clarissa, is
[a] from extremely poor health, 1 a j a completely different novel, narrated in
[bj devastating personal tragedies. the third person.

3 His first novel, Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded, is "b] also based on letters.

[a~l made up of an exchange of letters 6 Sir Charles Grandison is

between father and daughter. the male protagonist of Richardson's third
about a father struggling to persuade his epistolary novel.
daughter to preserve her virtue. [5] the main character of a play which
Richardson wrote in later life.
70 THE AUGUSTAN AGE - Fiction

Tom Jones
by Henry Fielding

Think of a film where there is a fight scene and answer the following questions.
1 Who was fighting? Were they individuals or groups?
2 Were they using weapons and, if so, what were they?
3 Was anyone killed or injured?
4 How did the fight end?
5 Was it realistic or comic?

INTRODUCTION • H e n r y Fielding described Tom Jones as a ' c o m i c epic in prose'. It is i n d e e d epic

l e n g t h a n d d e s c r i b e s a h u g e c r o s s - s e c t i o n o f p e o p l e i n a h u m o r o u s way. F i e l d i n g h a d a n in-de
knowledge of h u m a n nature and depicted his characters with all their vices and virtues. T o m Jones is
n o m e a n s a p e r f e c t h u m a n b e i n g b u t , for all his faults, h e c o m e s across as o n e of t h e m o s t lova
characters in English literature ( • Visual Link D5).

CHARACTERS
• Tom Jones, Mr
Allworthy's nephew;
Blifil's half-brother
• Mr AUworthy, a
country gentleman;
Tom's and Blifil's
uncle
• Blifil, Tom's half-
brother
• Squire Western, Mr
Allworthy's
neighbour
• Sophia, Squire
Western's daughter
• Thwackum, Tom's
and Blifil's teacher
THE STORY
As a new-born baby, Tom is abandoned and found in the bedroom of Mr AUworthy, a kind,
gentleman who brings him up along with his dead sister's child, Blifil. The two boys are t
different; while Tom is honest, brave and trustworthy, Blifil is insincere, cruel and scheming
One of the boys' teachers is Mr Thwackum, a brutish and sadistic church chaplain. He
an alliance with Blifil against Tom ( • Text D15) and manages to convince MrAllwo
disown the boy. Tom is forced to leave his home and seek his fortune.
During his travels Tom has many adventures and shows what a generous and able man
is. He is also very handsome and many women fall for him, but he is still in love with
childhood sweetheart, Sophia.
To his great surprise, Mr AUworthy finds out that Tom's mother was his own sister. He
realises that he has been tricked into believing that Tom was wicked and welcomes him
home. Tom marries Sophia and forgives everyone who has wronged him, including his b
brother Blifil.

Text D15 A Battle Royal

Thwackum and Blifil have heard Tom talking to a girl in the woods and want to know H
she is. The girl runs off while Tom faces his two opponents.

... And now Thwackum, having first darted 1 some livid lightning from his
- > GLOSSARY fiery eyes, began to thunder forth, 'Fie upon it! 2 Fie upon it! Mr Jones. Is it

1. darted: flashed
2. Fie upon it!: archaic
expression of disgust
3. wicked slut: immoral
woman
hath: has
abridged ... tuition:
you no longer need
lessons from me
possible y o u should be t h e p e r s o n ? ' - 'You see,' answered J o n e s , 'it is
possible I should be here.' - 'And w h o , ' said Thwackum, 'is that wicked
slut 3 with y o u ? ' - 'If I have any wicked slut with m e , ' cries J o n e s , 'it is
possible I shall not let you know who she is.'- T c o m m a n d you to tell me
immediately,' says Thwackum: 'and I would not have you imagine, young
man, that your age, t h o u g h it h a t h 4 somewhat abridged the purpose of
tuition 5 , hath totally taken away the authority of the master. The relation
 Tom Jones - Henry Fielding 71

of t h e m a s t e r .and s c h o l a r is i n d e l i b l e ; as, 10
indeed, all o t h e r r e l a t i o n s are; for t h e y all
derive their original f r o m h e a v e n . I w o u l d
have you t h i n k yourself, therefore, as m u c h
obliged t o o b e y m e now, as w h e n I t a u g h t
y o u y o u r f i r s t r u d i m e n t s . ' 'I b e l i e v e y o u 15
w o u l d , ' cries J o n e s , 'but t h a t will not
h a p p e n , unless you had t h e same b i r c h e n 6
argument t o convince m e . ' 'Then I must tell
you plainly,' said Thwackum, 'I am resolved
to discover the wicked wretch 7 .' 'And I must 20
t e l l y o u p l a i n l y , ' r e t u r n e d J o n e s , 'I a m
resolved you shall n o t . ' T h w a c k u m t h e n
offered to advance, a n d J o n e s laid h o l d of
his arms; w h i c h M r Blifil e n d e a v o u r e d t o
rescue 8 , declaring, 'he would n o t see his old 25
master insulted.'

Jones now finding himself engaged with

two, t h o u g h t it necessary t o rid h i m s e l f of
o n e of his a n t a g o n i s t s as s o o n as possible.
He, therefore, applied t o t h e weakest first; 30
a n d , l e t t i n g t h e p a r s o n go, h e d i r e c t e d a 'lories now finding himself
engaged with two, thought it
b l o w at t h e y o u n g s q u i r e ' s b r e a s t , w h i c h necessary to rid himself of one ...'
luckily taking place, reduced h i m to measure
his length o n the ground 9 .
T h w a c k u m was so i n t e n t on t h e discovery, t h a t , t h e m o m e n t he f o u n d 6. birchen: with a stick
(Thwackum used to
h i m s e l f at liberty, he stept forward directly i n t o t h e fern 1 0 , w i t h o u t a n y beat Jones)
great c o n s i d e r a t i o n of w h a t m i g h t , in t h e m e a n time, befal 1 1 his friend; 7. wretch: evil person
b u t h e h a d a d v a n c e d a v e r y few paces i n t o t h e thicket12, before Jones 8. endeavoured to
rescue: tried to save
having defeated Blifil, overtook the parson, and dragged h i m backward by
9. reduced him ... on
the skirt of his coat. the ground: he fell
and lay on the ground
This parson had b e e n a c h a m p i o n in his y o u t h , a n d had w o n m u c h
10. fern: a green plant
h o n o u r b y his fist, b o t h at s c h o o l a n d at t h e u n i v e r s i t y . He h a d now, with large leaves
indeed, for a great n u m b e r of years, declined the practice of that noble art; 11.befal: happen to
12. thicket: a group of
yet was his courage full as strong as his faith, and his body n o less strong
bushes and small trees
t h a n e i t h e r . He was m o r e o v e r , as t h e r e a d e r m a y , p e r h a p s , have 13.conceived: realised
c o n c e i v e d 1 3 , s o m e w h a t irascible in his n a t u r e . W h e n he l o o k e d b a c k , 14. stretched out: lying
15.in the rear: from
therefore, a n d saw his friend stretched out14 o n t h e ground, a n d f o u n d
behind (Thwackum
h i m s e l f at t h e same t i m e so roughly h a n d l e d by o n e w h o h a d formerly used to beat him on
the backside)
b e e n o n l y passive in all c o n f l i c t s b e t w e e n t h e m , (a c i r c u m s t a n c e w h i c h
16. heroe: hero
h i g h l y aggravated t h e w h o l e ) his p a t i e n c e at l e n g t h gave way; he threw 17. undaunted
h i m s e l f i n t o a posture of o f f e n c e , a n d c o l l e c t i n g all his force, a t t a c k e d intrepidity: fearless
bravery
J o n e s in the front, with as m u c h impetuosity as he had formerly attacked
18.his bosom ... blow:
h i m in the rear 1 5 . you could hear a loud
noise when his chest
Our h e r o e 1 6 received the enemy's attack with t h e most u n d a u n t e d
(bosom) was hit
intrepidity17, and his b o s o m resounded with the blow18. This he 19. presently: soon
p r e s e n t l y 1 9 r e t u r n e d w i t h n o less v i o l e n c e , a i m i n g 2 0 l i k e w i s e at t h e 20. aiming: targeting
 4

72 THE AUGUSTAN AGE - Fiction

21. dexterously: skilfully

22. belly: stomach
23.two pounds ...
proceed: Thwackum
had eaten so much
(two pounds: one
pound: 0.4536 kg)
that (whence: from
where) when Jones
hit him in the
stomach there was no
noise (hollow:
empty)
24. lusty: powerful
25. much more pleasant
... describe: it was
more enjoyable and
easier to see the fight
than to write or read
about it
26. the latter: Thwackum
2 7 . t h a t . . . dubious: there
was no doubt who
would win the fight
28. engaging: fighting
29.for though ... duet:
although Thwackum
(the pedagogue) had
recently been used to
beating his students
individually (the
human instrument:
the human body),
like a musician who
plays on his own, he
was still able to join
Blifil in beating Jones,
as if they were two
musicians playing a
duet
30.The victory ...
numbers: the side
which had more
people would win the
fight
31.on a sudden:
suddenly
32. paid their
compliments: hit
33.d-n'd: damned: an
expression which
shows you are angry
with someone
34. ROYAL: a battle royal
is a noisy confused
fight
35. raged: continued
36. laid sprawling:
knocked down
37.to apply for quarter:
to surrender, to admit
defeat
38.happening... the
field: he was going
through the field
with some friends by
chance
parson's breast; but he dexterously 2 1 drove down the fist of Jones, so that
it r e a c h e d o n l y his b e l l y 2 2 , where two p o u n d s of beef and as m a n y of
pudding were then deposited, and whence consequently no hollow sound
could proceed 2 3 . Many lusty 2 4 blows, much more pleasant as well as easy 60
to have seen, than to read or describe 25 , were given on both sides: at last a
violent fall in which Jones had thrown his knees into Thwackum's breast,
so weakened the latter 2 6 , that victory had been n o longer dubious 2 7 , had
not Blifil, who had now recovered his strength, again renewed the fight,
and, by engaging 2 8 with Jones, given the parson a moment's time to shake 65
his ears, and to regain his breath.
And n o w b o t h together attacked our heroe, whose blows did n o t retain
that force with which they had fallen at first; so weakened was he by his
combat with Thwackum: for though the pedagogue chose rather to play
solos on the h u m a n instrument, and had been lately used to those only, 70
yet he still retained enough of his ancient knowledge to perform his part
very well in a duet29.
T h e victory, a c c o r d i n g to m o d e r n c u s t o m , was like t o be d e c i d e d by
n u m b e r s 3 0 , w h e n , o n a sudden 3 1 , a fourth pair of fists appeared in t h e
battle, and immediately paid their compliments 3 2 to the parson; and the 75
owner of them at the same time, crying out 'Are not you ashamed, and be
d—n'd 3 3 to you, to fall two of you upon one?'
T h e battle, w h i c h was of t h e kind, t h a t for d i s t i n c t i o n ' s sake is called
ROYAL 34 , now raged 35 with the utmost violence during a few minutes; till
Blifil b e i n g a s e c o n d t i m e laid s p r a w l i n g 3 6 b y J o n e s , T h w a c k u m 80
condescended to apply for quarter 3 7 to his new antagonist, who was now
found to be Mr Western himself: for in the heat of the action n o n e of the
combatants had recognized him.
In fact, that honest squire, happening, in his afternoon's walk with some
company, to pass through the field 3 8 where the bloody battle was fought, 85
and having concluded from seeing three men engaged, that two of them
must be on a side, he h a s t e n e d 3 9 from his c o m p a n i o n s , and with more
gallantry 4 0 t h a n policy 4 1 , espoused 4 2 t h e cause of t h e weaker party. By
which generous proceeding 4 3 , he very probably prevented Mr J o n e s from
b e c o m i n g a v i c t i m t o t h e w r a t h 4 4 of T h w a c k u m , a n d to t h e p i o u s 4 5 90
friendship which Blifil bore his old master; for besides the disadvantage of
such odds 4 6 , J o n e s had not yet sufficiently recovered the former strength
of his broken arm 4 7 . This reinforcement, however, soon put an end to the
action, and Jones with his ally 4 8 obtained the victory.
39. hastened: left quickly 45. pious: hypocritical. was up against two
40. gallantry: courage Blifil seemed to be a opponents
41. policy: wisdom, sagacity perfect, virtuous boy, but 47. broken arm: Jones had
42. espoused: supported he was insincere and broken his arm while
43. By which generous calculating rescuing Mr Western's
proceeding: thanks to his 46. odds: probability. In the daughter, Sophia, when she
help fight the odds were against fell off her horse
44. wrath: anger Jones winning because he 48. ally: Mr Western
 Tom Jones - H e n r y Fielding 238

COMPREHENSION
1 What does Tom Jones refuse to tell Thwackum? 6 When Tom was Thwackum's student, why was he
2 What expression does Thwackum use to refer to passive in all conflicts between them? In what sense
the lady who is hiding? did Thwackum, the teacher, attack Tom from the rear?

3 What excuse does Blifil make for getting involved 7 Why did no 'hollow sound' emerge from the
in the fight? parson's belly?

4 While Tom is fighting with Blifil what does
Thwackum do? Is he concerned about Blifil's well-being?
5 How did Thwackum 'win honour' at school and at
university?
8 What saved Thwackum from being beaten by Tom?
9 Why does Squire Western feel that the parson
should be ashamed of himself?
TO Apart from the fact that he was fighting against
two adversaries, what made Tom Jones's chances of
obtaining victory slim?

ANALYSIS
1 Which narrative mode is used in the text? 8 Find information in the text that suggests that
• Narration of events • Dialogue • Description Thwackum:
2 Is the narrator* internal or external to the story? - is authoritarian;
Does the reader see the episode from more than one - has a fiery temper;
point of view*? - is gluttonous;
3 Find a sentence in which the narrator addresses the - has no concern for others;
reader directly. - inflicts corporal punishment on his students;
Find a line in the text where the narrator refers to the - has always enjoyed physical combat.
art of writing. Thwackum is a teacher and a parson. Is his behaviour
Who does the pronoun 'our' refer to in line 54? fitting for an educator and a man of God?
Would you define the relationship between the 9 Thwackum personifies hypocrisy, one of the vices
narrator and the reader as close or distant? that Fielding targets throughout his novel. How
Which of the following words would you choose to would you describe the way in which Fielding attacks
define the narrator? Thwackum and what he represents?
• Detached • Unobtrusive • Omnipresent • Bitter • Sarcastic • Humorous
• Interfering • Objective • Humorous • Effective • Pedantic • Heavy-handed
• Other:
1 0 Focus on the description of the fight scene
4 Before becoming a novelist Henry Fielding was a
(paragraphs 2 - 8 ) .
successful playwright. What aspect of his novel-
Find where the narrator:
writing was clearly influenced by his experience in the
- describes the blows as pleasant to see;
theatre? What elements of the passage you have just
- compares fighting to playing music;
read would make it suitable for a stage performance?
- refers to blows as 'compliments'.
5 Are the characters in the passage presented through:
Which of the following adjectives best suits the
- their words and actions?
description in your opinion?
- their thoughts and feelings?
• Light-Hearted • Solemn • Graphic
Is there any evidence in the text that Fielding is
• Violent • Realistic
interested in the inner worlds of his characters?
• Other:
6 Which of the following adjectives would you
choose to describe Tom? 1 1 What is the overall tone of the passage?
• Arrogant • Heroic • Gallant • Satirical • Light-hearted • Detached
• Impetuous • Stoic • Philosophical • Rational
• Other:
7 Fielding often plays with the names of his characters.
Thwackum is a combination of 'thwack', which means 1 2 Fielding described his novel as a 'comic epic in
'to give a hard and noisy blow' and 'um' which means prose'. Can you identify both epic and comic
'them'. Why does Fielding give the character this name? elements in the passage you have read?
239 THE AUGUSTAN AGE - Fiction

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P
The narrator In a novel the person who is telling the story is referred to as 'the narrator'. The narrat
may be first-person or third-person.
• The first-person narrator has a part in the story. He speaks as 'I' and usually talks
about himself although he may also narrate a story about other people.
• The third-person narrator stands outside the story. He always refers to the characters
by name or uses the third-person pronouns 'he', 'she' or 'they'.
The third-person narrator may be omniscient or non-omniscient.
• The o m n i s c i e n t n a r r a t o r knows everything about the fictional world he is
describing. He reports on all the characters and events and knows not only what
characters do but also their thoughts and motivations.
• The non-omniscient narrator tells the story in the third person, but limits himself to
what is experienced, thought and felt by a single character or at most by a very
limited number of characters in the story.
The narrator may also be intrusive or non-intrusive.
• The intrusive narrator has opinions about the characters and expresses his views on
the personalities or events.
• The non-intrusive narrator does not comment or evaluate. He remains impartial
and describes without intruding.

Referring to the definitions above and the passage you have read, explain why t h e narrator
in Henry Fielding's Tom jones is defined as a third-person omniscient intrusive narrator.

OVER T Q Y O U The intrusive narrator usually openly addresses the reader t o c o m m e n t or evaluate on what is
happening in the story. He may summarise past events, anticipate future developments or
offer moral generalisations on topics that are related or unrelated to the plot.
Read the following extract from Tom jones. Add an intrusion in which the narrator addresses
the reader directly.
Example:
Mr Allworthy had been absent a full quarter of a year in London. I regret, reader, that I cannot
tell you exactly what he was doing because it was a delicate matter of a private nature.

From Tom Jones, Chapter III

Mr Allworthy had been absent a full quarter of a year in London, on some very
particular business (...) He came to his house very late in the evening and after a short
supper with his sister, retired much fatigued to his chamber. Here, having spent some
minutes on his knees (...) he was preparing to step into bed, when, upon opening the
cloaths, to his great surprise, he beheld an infant wrapt up in some coarse linnen in a
sweet and profound sleep, between his sheets. He stood some time lost in astonishment
at this sight; but as good nature had always the ascendant in his mind, he soon began
to be touched with sentiments of compassion for the little wretch before him.

Thwackum kept discipline in the classroom by beating his students, and in the text you have read Tom is, in s o m e
ways, getting his own back on his old teacher. Do you think that corporal punishment might be an effective way
of keeping students under control? W h a t do you think are the best ways to maintain discipline in a classroom?
Discuss with your classmates.
 Writers' Gallery - Henry Fielding

WRITERS' GALLERY
Early years Henry Fielding
was born into an aristocratic
family in Somerset, in 1707. He was educated first at Eton, then
for two years at the Dutch University of Leyden. A decline in
family fortunes obliged him to interrupt his studies and return to
London where, in the nine-year period from 1728 to 1737, he
wrote over twenty plays. Much of his work was satirical and
targeted the leading political figures of the day, exposing political
and social corruption. His last play, Love in Several Masques,
enraged the government to the extent that it introduced the
Licencing Act of 1737, according to which all plays had to be
submitted for the censorship of the Lord Chamberlain.
HENRY FIELDING
Career Fielding decided to stop writing for the theatre and
(1707-1754)
turned his literary talents to novel-writing. He married a lady of
means and resumed his legal studies, qualifying as a court lawyer in 1740. In his legal work he came
into contact with people of all social ranks, and this helped him to see the good and evil in society,
which he describes in his novels.
In 1744 his wife died and, three years later, in the face of much criticism, he married her former
maid. He continued to be successful in his legal career. In 1748 he was made Justice of the Peace for
Westminster and the following year London Magistrate. He was seriously concerned about social
injustice and judicial corruption, and dedicated much of his time to improving prison conditions
and fighting for judicial reform. He and his brother J o h n were responsible for London's first
organised police force.
Fielding's health was poor, so in 1754 he decided to move to Portugal, where he hoped the more
temperate climate would help him recover. After a few months, however, he died and was buried in
the English cemetery in Lisbon.

Plays Fielding was a successful playwright and wrote some

WORKS
notable plays including Tom Thumb: a Tragedy (1730), which
ridicules one of the most popular forms of theatre at the time: the heroic tragedy.
Novels His true talent emerged, however, when he turned his attention to novel-writing. His first
novel is a parody of Samuel Richardson's best selling Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded ( • pp. D65-67).
Fielding deplored the sentimentality, hypocrisy and middle-class moralising of Richardson's work. In
his novel An Apology for the Life of Mrs Shamela Andrews (1741) he depicts Richardson's central
character not as an innocent virtuous girl but as a scheming, devious social climber.
His second novel, The History of the Adventures of Joseph Andrews (1742), tells the story of Pamela's
good and modest brother Joseph, who has to defend his virtue from the attacks of his mistress, Lady
Booby. In 1747 Fielding began work on his greatest literary achievement: The History of Tom Jones, A
Foundling ( • pp. D70-74).
Features of Tom J o n e s More than any other writer of his time, he saw the vast potential of the
novel as a new literary genre. Several features of his novel mark it out as a clear development of and
improvement on the works of Defoe and Richardson:
• the plot is no longer a series of episodes or a single story: it involves a large cast of characters,
representing various social ranks, and the episodes are interwoven in a structured and organised way;
THE AUGUSTAN AGE - Fiction

« «i

• each of the novel's eighteen books

is prefaced by an introductory
chapter in which the reader is
reminded that what he is reading
is fiction, and instructions are
given on how to approach what
for contemporary readers was a
relatively new literary form;
• an omniscient third-person
narrator is used to c o m m e n t on
the action. The reader is not asked
to identify with the protagonists,
and the detachment allows him
to appreciate the comic episodes;
• the story is not used as a vehicle
for Puritan moralising. Tom is
not, for example, criticised for his
numerous sexual encounters.
Fielding's belief that man, whatever
his financial standing or social
background, has a natural inclina-
tion towards goodness emerges
indirectly from the action in the
novel and the warmly h u m a n e
manner in which the characters are
portrayed.
Fielding's classical education and
aristocratic family background
distinguished him from other
novelists of the early eighteenth century, like Defoe and Richardson. He considered the novel to be a
'comic epic in prose', dealing not with heroic actions but with the trivial events of daily life. His
final novel Amelia shows his deep concern for social issues. His humour and his innovations in the
structure of the novel have earned him the title of 'father of the English comic novel'.

TASK
Prepare to answer these questions in no more than 1 0 0 words:
a. W h a t were Henry Fielding's most memorable works?
b . W h a t are the innovative elements in his novels?
 Tristram Shandy - L a u r e n c e Sterne 77

Tristram Shandy
by Laurence Sterne

Can you explain the play on words and double meanings in the following sentences?
In jail, convicts use cell phones. Math teachers have lots of problems.
Santa's helpers are subordinate clauses. It is better to love a short girl than not a tall.
When a clock is hungry it goes back four seconds. To some, marriage is a word; to others, a sentence.

INTRODUCTION • Tristram Shandy is u n i q u e in t h e history of English literature. In a period w h e n t h e

c o n v e n t i o n s for t h e n o v e l were b e i n g laid d o w n b y writers s u c h as Defoe, Fielding a n d R i c h a r d s o n ,
Laurence S t e r n e c h a l l e n g e d t h o s e c o n v e n t i o n s . U n f i n i s h e d s e n t e n c e s , b l a n k pages, e x u b e r a n t digres-
sions, wordplay, dashes, diagrams and e c c e n t r i c typography are just s o m e of t h e i n n o v a t i v e features of
this remarkable work. T h e m o s t r e v o l u t i o n a r y aspect, however, is t h e t i m e structure. S t e r n e does n o t
present t h e reader with a c h r o n o l o g i c a l order of events, b u t follows t h e t h o u g h t patterns of t h e m a i n
character. This m e a n s t h a t ideas and stories are m i x e d up together in a confused way just as t h e y are in
our m i n d s ( • Visual Link D5).

THE STORY
In simple terms Tristram Shandy is an autobiography in which Tristram tells the
story of his life from infancy, through adolescence, and up to early manhood.
However, most of the book is a series of digressions which move away from the main
story into areas which range from philosophy and science to religion and military
strategy. The reader is dragged away from the main story to such an extent that
Tristram's birth is only described in Volume III. Tristram goes into great detail in
describing his father, Walter, a man of great learning who tends to get lost in
convoluted philosophising and his Uncle Toby ( • Text D16) who is obsessed with
military fortifications. The book ends in Volume IX with yet another digression
which leaves the reader wondering why the book should finish at that particular point.

You Shall See the Very Place M S B

When he was a soldier, Uncle Toby was wounded in his private parts. In this text he CHARACTERS
offers to show Mrs Wadman, whom he likes, where exactly he was wounded. Corporal • Uncle Toby,
Trim is Uncle Toby's servant. Tristram's uncle
• Mrs Wadman, a
Volume IX, Chapter XX lady Uncle Toby likes
• Corporal Trim,
Uncle Toby's servant

GLOSSARY •-

Note: the verbal

suffix -erf was
commonly spelt -'d

— You shall see the very place, Madam, said my uncle Toby. 1. blush'd: became red
Mrs Wadman blush'd1 — look'd towards the door — t u r n ' d pale — in the face
 THE AUGUSTAN AGE - Fiction

blush'd slightly 2 again — recovered her natural colour — blush'd worse 10

than ever; which for the sake of 3 the unlearned reader, I translate thus —
"L—d4! I cannot look at it —
What would the world say if I look'd at it?
I should drop down5, if I look'd at it —
2. slightly: a bit
3. for the sake of: in
I wish I could look at it — 15
order to help There can be no sin in looking at it.
4. L—d: Lord —I will look at it."
5. drop down: faint
6. Whilst: while
Whilst 6 all this was running through Mrs Wadman's imagination, my
7. parlour: sitting room uncle Toby had risen from the sopha, and got to the other side of the par-
8. garret: small room in lour7-door, to give Trim an order about it in the passage — 20
the attic * * * * * * * * * * *
9. prithee: an archaic
form of 'please' * * * * * — I believe it is in the garret8, said my uncle
10. step directly for it: Toby — I saw it there, an' please your honour, this morning, answered
get it now
11.Montero cap: a
Trim — Then prithee 9 , step directly for it 10 , Trim, said my uncle Toby, and
hunter's hat bring it into the parlour. 25
12. lame: disabled
The Corporal did not approve of the orders, but most chearfully obey'd
13. quoth: said
14. shews: shows them. The first was not an act of his will — the second was; so he put on his
15.mere words: words Montero cap 11 , and went as fast as his lame 12 knee would let him. My uncle
alone
Toby returned into the parlour, and sat himself down again upon the sopha.
16.first springs:
beginning — You shall lay your finger upon the place — said my uncle Toby. — I 30
17. mist which hangs will not touch it, however, quoth 13 Mrs Wadman to herself.
upon: fog that
surrounds This requires a second t r a n s l a t i o n : — it shews 14 what little knowledge is
18. endeavour: try got by mere words 15 — we must go up to the first springs 16 .
19. thrice: three times Now in order to clear up the mist which hangs upon 17 these three pages,
20. emunctories: nasal
passages I must endeavour 18 to be as clear as possible myself. 35

21. whereabouts: where Rub your hands thrice 19 across your foreheads — blow your noses — cleanse
22. blow: injury your emunctories 20 — sneeze, my good people! — God bless you —
23. gave a slight glance:
quickly looked at Now give me all the help you can.
24. waistband: the top
part of his trousers Volume IX Chapter XXVI
25.plush breeches: good (...)
quality trousers
26. It fell out otherwise: — And whereabouts 21 , dear Sir, quoth Mrs Wadman, a little categorically,
something different did you receive this sad blow 22 ? — In asking this question, Mrs Wadman 40
happened
gave a slight glance 23 towards the waistband 24 of my uncle Toby's red plush
27.St Nicolas: a
fortification breeches 25 , expecting naturally, as the shortest reply to it, that my uncle
28. salient: projecting Toby would lay his fore-finger upon the place — It fell out o t h e r w i s e 2 6 —
29. St Roch: a
fortification for my uncle Toby having got his wound before the gate of St Nicolas21, in
30. stick a pin: point to, one of the traverses of the trench, opposite to the salient 2 8 angle the 45
using a pin
demibastion of St Roch29; he could at any time stick a pin 30 upon the iden-
31.sensorium: brain
32.Namur: city in tical spot of ground where he was standing when the stone struck him:
Belgium where Uncle this struck instantly upon my uncle Toby's sensorium 31 — and with it,
Toby fought
struck his large map of the town and citadel of Namur'2 and its environs,
33. purchased: bought
34. pasted down: stuck which he had purchased 3 3 and pasted down 3 4 upon a board by the 50
on Corporal's aid 35 , during his long illness — it had lain with other military
35. aid: help
36. lumber: material that
lumber 3 6 in the garret ever since, and accordingly the Corporal was
has been stored away detached in to the garret to fetch it.

My uncle Toby measured off thirty toises 3 7 , with Mrs Wadman's
from the returning angle before the gate of St Nicolas; and with such a vir-
gin modesty laid her finger upon the place, that the goddess of Decency, if
then in being — if not, 'twas her shade 3 8 —
finger wavering 3 9 across her eyes — forbid her to explain the mistake.
COMPREHENSION
1 The passage revolves around a basic misunder-
standing about the word 'place'. When Uncle Toby in
line 8 offers to show Mrs Wadman the very place, he
intends the place (on a map) where he suffered his
injury. What does Mrs Wadman think he means?
2 What is Mrs Wadman's reaction to being shown
the place? Is she at all curious?
3 In line 20 Uncle Toby gives Trim an order 'about it'.
Is it immediately clear what 'it' refers to?
4 Uncle Toby orders Corporal Trim to 'step directly
for it' (line 24). What physical handicap makes
'stepping directly' an act which is 'not of his (Corporal
Trim's) will', i.e. something he cannot do even if he
wants to?
ANALYSIS
1 The chapter opens with Uncle Toby and Colonel
Trim calling upon Mrs Wadman.
What do you think the asterisks at the beginning of
text represent?
• Bad language which is unprintable.
• Gestures such as shaking hands, sitting down, etc.
II The pleasantries exchanged by the characters.
2 Why does the narrator choose to use asterisks?
Because:
• what is said would be offensive to the reader.
• the initial exchanges between the characters would
be of little interest to the reader.
• they liven up the page graphically.
3 In which line in the opening paragraph does the
narrator refer to the readers?
4 In lines 8-11 the narrator describes Mrs Wadman's
reaction to Uncle Toby's proposal, which he then
translates into thoughts in lines 1 2 - 1 7 .
Link each reaction to a thought.
Example:
Reaction: Mrs Wadman blush'd
Thought: L d! I cannot look at it.
Tristram Shandy - L a u r e n c e Sterne 79
scissors,
37. toises: units of
ss measurement
38.if not ... shade: if she
was not there, it was
shook her head, and with a her shadow
39. wavering: shaking
5 In lines 3 0 - 3 3 the misunderstanding between
Uncle Toby and Mrs Wadman continues. What is
Mrs Wadman referring to when she says she will not
touch 'it'?
6 Uncle Toby suffered his injury 'below the waist'.
Where is this made obvious in the text? Does this
explain Mrs Wadman's embarrassed reaction to Uncle
Toby's suggestion that she should see the place?
7 Where and how was Uncle Toby injured?
8 What was the 'it' (referred to in question 3) that
Corporal Trim was sent off to get?
9 Why didn't Mrs Wadman explain her
misunderstanding to Uncle Toby?
Reaction Thought
Look'd towards the door
Turn'd pale
Blush'd slightly again
Recovered her natural colour
Blush'd worse than ever
5 Consider the exchange between Uncle Toby and
Corporal Trim in lines 2 0 - 2 9 . Is the complete dialogue
reported? What graphical devices does the narrator
use to replace the missing information?
6 In lines 3 4 - 3 8 the narrator again addresses the
reader. He announces that he is going to 'clear up the
mist', implying that he is going to clarify some ideas
that may not have been fully understood. He says he
must clear himself. What does he invite the reader to
do? In what way has the reader 'cleared' himself? Can
you explain the play on word 'clear'?
7 It is not until Chapter XXVI that the
misunderstanding about the word 'place' is resolved
and the meaning of 'it' is revealed to the reader. How
does delaying these revelations affect the text?
• It intensifies the humour. • It frustrates the reader.
• It builds up expectation. • It confuses the reader.
80 THE AUGUSTAN AGE - Fiction

8 Which adjective(s) would you choose to define the ideas or illogical associations in the text that show the
tone in which the narrator addresses the reader? Lockean influence in Sterne's writing?
• Friendly • Detached • Pedantic
1 0 Laurence Sterne is generally acknowledged as an
• Sarcastic • Playful • Serious
innovator of the highest originality who pointed the
• Other: way for twentieth-century writers such as James Joyce,
9 Laurence Sterne was influenced by the philosopher Virginia Woolf and Marcel Proust. Like his modern-day
John Locke's theory on the associaton of ideas, which counterparts, Sterne transforms his readers from
holds that man's thoughts are linked together passive recipients to active contributors. In what way
irrationally, without any apparent logical connections. is the reader called upon to make an active
Are there any examples of incomplete, interrupted contribution to the text you have just studied?

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P
The The term anti-novel refers to novels that break with the traditional conventions of the
anti-novel genre. Anti-novels rely for their effect on the confounding of the reader's expectations by:
• the omission or annihilation of traditional elements (character, plot etc.);
I i tf-V' I • the introduction of innovative elements.

TASK Laurence Sterne is widely considered to be the father of the English anti-novel. Some of the
Kill anti-novel features of his masterpiece Tristram Shandy include:
fits5 • . - a non-conventional plot in which the hero of the story is born in the third volume of the book;
- an eccentric narrator who, for example, tells the reader to turn back several pages and read
a passage a second time;
- syntactical, layout and typographical innovations such as unfinished sentences, blank
pages and dashes or asterisks which the reader must interpret.
Jmk
>' Which of the features of the anti-novel can you identify in the passage you have read?

OVER T O Y O U An example of a typographical innovation which Sterne used in Tristram Shandy can be seen
in the following extract from Volume IX, Chapter 4:
Whilst a man is free — cried the Corporal, giving a flourish with his stick thus —

A thousand of my father's most subtle syllogisms could not have said more for celibacy.

Use a typographical feature to express an idea of your

own.
For example:
I got the ball on the halfway line. I skipped past a midfield
player and a defender. There was just the goalkeeper
between me and the goal. I ran first to the left, dropped my
shoulder, rounded him on the right and stuck the ball into
the left hand corner of the goal.

In Tristram Shandy Laurence Sterne broke all the rules that had been established for novel writing. Do you know any
form of contemporary comedy (films, TV shows, stand-up comedians) that you would consider unconventional?
In what way are they innovative?
 Writers' Gallery - Laurence Sterne

aisiia WRITERS' GALLERY

Early years Laurence Sterne
was born in Ireland of English
parents. W h e n he was eleven years old his family settled in
Halifax, in the north of England, and he attended the local
grammar school. In 1731 Sterne's father died, leaving the family
penniless. With the financial help of a generous relative, Sterne
succeeded in entering Jesus College, Cambridge, as a sizar (poor
student) and received his degree in 1737. He then entered the
Anglican church and b e c a m e a vicar in a small parish in
Yorkshire.

Family life In 1 7 4 1 Sterne married Elizabeth Lumley.

LAURENCE STERNE However, their family life was not very happy. Despite personal
(1713-1768) misfortune, Sterne seemed to make the most of his situation. He
spent his time playing the violin, reading widely, painting,
socialising with the local gentry and courting the local ladies. He earned a reputation as a preacher
and his sermons were eagerly awaited.

Writing career In 1759 he began work on his novel The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy,
Gentleman. The first version of Volumes I and II was rejected, but a revised version of the material
was published in 1760. The novel was successful despite the fact that many influential men of
letters, including Dr Johnson ( • p. D104), Richardson ( • pp. D65-69) and Goldsmith ( • pp. 38-43),
expressed negative opinions. Sterne became a celebrity and was well received by London's
fashionable society and invited to court. As a result of his literary success he was offered the curacy
of Coxwold in Yorkshire, where he named his home, Shandy Hall. In 1761 he published four more
volumes of Tristram Shandy, which again met with great success. He undertook a seven-month tour
of France and Italy during 1765, which provided him with material for a second novel, A Sentimental
Journey (published in 1768). After his travels he returned to London, where he fell in love with Mrs
Eliza Draper, the young wife of an official of the East India Company, for whom he wrote a journal
(Letters from Yorick to Eliza), which was published after his death in 1768. Soon after his burial
Sterne's body was taken by grave robbers and used for an anatomy lecture in Cambridge. Someone
recognised the body, and it was quietly returned to the grave. It is now buried close to Shandy Hall,
which has become a museum.

•S^^^HfflPWRI^^^^^H Tristram Shandy Sterne's literary reputation is built mainly on

his masterpiece The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy,
Gentleman. Written in nine volumes, it is unquestionably one of the most original works in the
history of English literature. There is no plot in the conventional sense of the word (the reader has to
wait until Volume III for the main protagonist to be born) and there is no clearly identifiable
beginning, middle or end to the storyline. Essentially the book is a series of exuberant digressions on
subjects as diverse as birth and death, joy and sorrow, wit and folly. The narrator, Tristram,
introduces the reader to a series of memorable characters:
• Walter, Tristram's father, whose obsession is science;
• Uncle Toby, Walter's brother, whose passion is the recreation of military sieges;
• Corporal Trim, who shares Toby's love for all things military;
82 THE AUGUSTAN AGE - Fiction

• Parson Yorick, the argumentative yet amiable local vicar;

• Dr Slop, the incompetent man midwife who delivers Tristam;
• Mrs Wadman, the neighbour who wishes to marry Toby.
Uncle Toby and Parson Yorick are generally regarded as two of the great comic characters in English
literature.
The cast of eccentric characters is only one example of originality in Tristram Shandy. Sterne seems to
h a v e set o u t to d e l i b e r a t e l y u n d e r m i n e t h e rules for n o v e l w r i t i n g as e s t a b l i s h e d by D e f o e ,
Richardson and Fielding. Indeed, his work is often referred to as an anti-novel. Other examples of
innovation are:
• t h e f r a g m e n t e d storyline, in w h i c h t h e s e q u e n c e of events is deliberately disordered. S t e r n e
m a i n t a i n e d t h a t this n o n - l i n e a r approach to storytelling was more successful in capturing t h e
essence of h u m a n experience;
• a new perception of time. Influenced by Locke's Essay concerning Human Understanding, Sterne believed
that time as measured by the clock had little relation to time as perceived by the h u m a n mind;
• typographical innovations which included blank pages, dots, dashes, passages in foreign languages,
chapters reduced to one line and misplaced chapters.

Sentimental Journey Sterne's second and last novel

Sentimental Journey through France and Italy ( 1 7 6 8 ) is
written in a similar style to Tristam Shandy. In it Sterne
uses the character of Parson Yorick, who describes his
j o u r n e y t h r o u g h France (he never actually reaches
C
Italy). T h e novel is a parody of t h e travel literature (.''"raws ^ -'/V//^,
which was popular at the time and, in particular, the 'vCliENOE sj,,:
v J»-
^;
work of Tobias Smollet, who is caricatured in the book
as Smelfungus.
T h e e x t e n t of Laurence Sterne's creative genius was
o n l y truly appreciated after his death. His great skill
in creating comic characters influenced a host of later
writers, including Charles Dickens ( • Module F). His
e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n w i t h t h e n o t i o n of t i m e a n d free
association of ideas foreshadowed Bergson's theory of
'la duree' and J a m e s Joyce's ( • Module G) 'stream of
c o n s c i o u s n e s s ' . He is widely regarded as o n e of the
truly outstanding figures in English literature.
"'><• CapiiW. IW-«
lit m Arr.v a I.JAM .
Puhlish'd by IS. I iufl-h<'8. Sulloll.- Strrrt.
The title page for an early nineteenth-century and mm/ /"• luiil <n ill /'".i/mvAV/.,
edition of A Sentimental Journey. 1ROB.

TASK
Prepare a brief report on the life and works of Laurence Sterne.
 ontext
Historical and Social Background

Britain 1625-1702
In order to understand the political and social developments in Britain in
the seventeenth century, we must first have a clear idea of the religious
make-up of the country. The vast majority of the population belonged to one of
the following three religious groups:
• The Church of England (Anglican Protestants). This was the official state
Church as established by Henry VIII during the Reformation. It did not differ
greatly from the Roman Catholic Church and had a hierarchical structure
governed by archbishops and bishops. To many English people it was a living
symbol of their country's independence from what they saw as a corrupt Pope
in Rome.
• The Roman Catholic Church (Catholics). A sizeable minority did not accept
the Reformation and remained Catholic in the hope that the Reformation
would be overturned and that their religion would become the religion of
state as it had been in the past.
• Puritans, Presbyterians and Dissenters. These groups, also known as non-
conformists, started to form during the reign of Elizabeth I. They were
Protestants who believed that the Reformation had not been radical enough and
that the Church of England was still too close to the Roman Catholic Church.
They elected their ministers and criticised as undemocratic the hierarchical
structure of the other Churches. They had
very strict moral principles and believed that
the way to salvation lay in a life of hard
work and avoidance of all forms of frivolous
entertainment.
As we shall now see, these religious
differences were to have an enormous
influence on seventeenth-century Britain.

The Tudor m o n a r c h s had made it

DIVINE RIGHT OF KINGS
clear, beyond any doubt, that it was
the king or queen who ruled the country
and not Parliament. This autocratic attitude
was brought to even further lengths by
J a m e s I and reached a high point during
the reign of Charles I ( 1 6 2 5 - 1 6 4 9 ) , who
believed he had a divine right to rule and
his acts were answerable only to God. In
1629 Charles even dissolved Parliament
and ruled for eleven years without one.

'ing Charles I.
 /249 THE PURITAN, RESTORATION AND AUGUSTAN AGES - The Context

King v. Parliament The Puritans, however,

refused to accept passively the
systematic discrimination
they were subjected to. The
House of Commons gradually
became a Puritan stronghold
from which opposition to the
king was organised. W h e n
Charles was forced to reopen
Parliament in 1640 to ask for
taxes to finance a war in
Scotland, Parliament refused
to help him and insisted on
having more say in the run-
ning of the country. They also
accused him of not doing
enough to suppress Catholics,
though his unwillingness to
• Visual Links D1 and D2
do so may have been because
his wife was Catholic. The
breaking point between the
two sides came when Parlia-
ment demanded control of
the army (1642). Charles's This is an illustration (1658) of Oliver Cromwell standing
on Error and Fiction. The three figures on the column on
refusal meant that Civil War
The Civil War the right are England, Scotland and Ireland.
was inevitable.

Oliver Cromwell A Puritan army, under the command of Oliver Cromwell, was organised to fight
against the king's royalist forces, which included lords, nobles and members of
the Anglican church. The Puritans were popularly known as 'Roundheads'
because they had very short hair while the supporters of Charles were known as
'Cavaliers'. The war ended with a Puritan victory and Charles was executed on
June 30th 1649.
The Republic Cromwell and his followers set about founding a republic, which became known as
the Commonwealth. The monarchy and the House of Lords were abolished while
the country was ruled according to Puritan principles. The new republic's greatest
asset was Cromwell, a charismatic political leader and a brilliant military strategist
at the head of the efficient 'New Model Army'. His military exploits included the
suppression of rebellions in Ireland and Scotland and the defeat of both Holland
and Spain. On his death in 1658 there was no one of the same calibre to follow
him, so the Commonwealth fell into decline and eventually collapsed in 1660.
The Restoration After twenty years of political strife, the English people were happy to welcome
back the monarchy in the form of Charles II, who had lived in exile in France.
This period is known as the Restoration because the system of government
• Visual Link D3 returned to what it had been before the Cromwellian revolution. Opposition
from Catholics and Puritans was suppressed but Charles, mindful of the mistakes
his predecessors had made, was careful to consult Parliament before making
decisions, and so managed to maintain a peaceful balance of power.
The relative tranquillity of Charles' reign, which lasted twenty-five years, was
fames II interrupted when J a m e s II ( 1 6 8 5 - 1 6 8 8 ) came to the throne and once again
religion was a catalyst for conflict. James was a Catholic and wanted to re-
establish Catholicism as the main religion in the land. His policy of appointing
Catholics to top government positions was a serious threat to a Protestant
 Historical a n d Social Background 8 5 uUffl

establishment that feared losing power. They found a champion, however, in

William III ( 1 6 8 9 - 1 7 0 2 ) , whose Protestant army forced James to flee from William III
England to Ireland. William followed him across the Irish Sea and his victory at
the Battle of the Boyne in 1690 marked the definitive end to any Catholic hopes
of ever again acceding to the English throne.
William's victory became known as the Glorious Revolution because he was the The Glorious Revolution
first monarch to officially recognise the constitutional rights of Parliament. The
Bill of Rights, an 'Act Declaring the Rights and Liberties of the Subjects' (1689) The Bill of Rights
clearly marked the boundaries of the monarch's powers; for example:
• no law could be passed or repealed without the approval of Parliament;
• all taxation had to be approved by Parliament;
• no armed forces could be kept within the kingdom without the consent of
Parliament.
With the passing of this bill the era of the divine right of kings had finally come
to an end.

ggspsgiP
IE PAST ,, - ,, -v v ' •

THE DIVINE RIGHT OF KINGS

Read what fames I said about the Divine Right of kings.

The kings were, before any Parliaments were holden 1 or laws made; and by
them was the land distributed (which at the first was wholly 2 theirs), states
erected and forms of government devised3 and established. And it follows of
necessity the Kings were the authors and makers of the laws and not the
laws of the Kings. And according to these fundamental laws it lies in the
power of no Parliament to make any kind of law without his sceptre giving it
the force of a law.
(...) And as ye 4 see it manifest that the king is over-lord of the whole land, so
is he master over every person that inhabiteth the same, having power over
the life and death of every one of them (...) A good king will frame 5 all his
actions to be according to the law, yet is he not bound thereto 6 but of his
good will, and for good example-giving to his subjects.
(1598)
(...) The state of monarchy is the supremest thing upon earth: for kings are not only God's lieutenants 7 upon
earth and sit upon God's throne, but even by God himself they are called gods. In the Scriptures kings are
called gods, and so their power after a certain relation is compared to the Divine power.
(From a speech to Parliament - 1610)
GLOSSARY
3. devised: planned 6. bound thereto: obliged to
1. holden: held 4. ye: you do it
2. wholly: completely 5. frame: shape 7. lieutenants: substitutes

TASK
These sentences re-phrase the concepts expressed in the texts above. Put them in the order they appear in the text.
The king is the supreme ruler of the land and of all its people.
A good ruler will act according to the law not because he has to, but out of good will and to set a good
example for his subjects.
Parliament cannot make laws unless the king agrees.
Monarchs existed before Parliaments and laws were created.
Kings are God's representatives on earth and their power derives to them from God.
/86 THE PURITAN, RESTORATION AND AUGUSTAN AGES - The Context

TASKS — —
1 The seventeenth century was an age of conflict. 2 Find words that match these definitions.
Match the opponents in columns A and B. a. Religious groups that distanced themselves radically
from the Church of Rome.
A B b. Principle stating that the monarch is only
Anglican protestants answerable to God.
James II
c. Republic founded by Cromwell.
Kings Roundheads
d. Return of the monarchy.
Cavaliers Catholics
e. Conflict with little bloodshed.
Oliver Cromwell Parliament f. Document limiting the monarch's powers.
William III Charles 1

W h a t was life like for the average English person in this century of
THE ECONOMY AND
EVERYDAY LIFE religious and political conflict?
In general, working life was very much as it had been in Tudor times, as
Improved standard eighty percent of the population continued to make a frugal living off the land.
of living In the second half of the century, however, there was a marked improvement in
the economy, mainly thanks to newly-created wealth being brought back from
the colonies. The way in which spices were used to preserve meat is an example
of how colonial expansion improved the quality of life in England. Previous
generations only ate fresh meat because they had no way of preserving it and
consequently, for long periods during the winter, they were limited to a
vegetarian diet. When pepper and other spices were brought back from India and
the East, meat was available all year round.
Free time How people spent their free time was greatly influenced by the political climate.
When the Puritans came to power, all forms of public entertainment were
banned and all theatres were closed. The Restoration produced a strong reaction
against the moral rigidity of the Commonwealth and people started having fun
again. London became a booming theatrical centre, while sports of various kinds
were played, including fox hunting and a rudimentary form of football.
London London continued to be the country's main social, political and economic centre
despite two events which greatly disturbed the life of the city. The outbreak of
plague in 1 6 6 5 and the Great Fire of 1 6 6 6 decimated the population and
destroyed most of the buildings.
Gradually the city recovered from these two terrible blows and grew so quickly in
the latter years of the century that by 1700 one tenth of the English population
lived there. The economic prosperity that characterised this period can be seen in
the construction of such public buildings as St Paul's Cathedral, which was
started in 1675, the Bank of England (1694) and the Stock Exchange (1698).

As we have seen, the e c o n o m i c boom of the second half of the

ENGLAND AND THE REST
OF THE WORLD seventeenth century was greatly helped by colonial expansion. This
expansion was one facet of an economic policy called Mercantilism that
Mercantilism was put into practice by successive governments from the end of the seventeenth
century right through the eighteenth century. The acquisition of new colonies
was encouraged because they provided cheap raw materials and new markets for
goods produced in England.
At war with Holland In 1652 conflicting interests over control of sea trade led to a series of naval wars
with Holland. After two years the Dutch were defeated and no ships challenged
the English trade vessels on the seas.
 m № j
Historical a n d Social B a c k g r o u n d 87

William Penn (1644-1718), the

founder of the state of Pennsylvania,
negotiates the sale of land with a
group of native Indians.

Expansion was b o t h towards the east and west. Migrations to the New World Westward expansion
continued throughout the century. By 1640, the Puritans had started over twelve
towns, home to 15,000 people, mainly along the eastern coasts.
To the east lay the exotic riches of India. The East India Company, which had Eastward expansion
been established at the very start of the century, set in motion a highly profitable
trade in tea, spices and other goods through the ports of Madras in the west and
Bombay in the east. Although very few English people actually settled in India in
the seventeenth century, the foundation was laid for colonial expansion in the
following centuries.
As the eighteenth century dawned, two of England's historic conflicts seemed to Summing up
have been resolved:
• The Church of England, following the failure of the Puritan C o m m o n w e a l t h
and the victory of Protestant William over C a t h o l i c James, had established
itself firmly as the dominant Church in the land.
• Parliament had gained power at the expense of the monarchy. William's Bill of
Rights, which recognised the central role of Parliament in government, was a
f u n d a m e n t a l step in t h e p r o c e s s t h a t e v e n t u a l l y led t o t h e c r e a t i o n of a
parliamentary democracy.
All in all, the seventeenth century in England, although it was a time of constant
religious a n d p o l i t i c a l f i g h t i n g a n d feuding, was an age t h a t stabilised t h e
relationships between Church and state, and between Parliament and monarchy,
in a way that guaranteed a solid base for future economic and colonial expansion.

TASKS
1 Write sentences about seventeenth-century England. 2 Prepare a brief talk on the historical background to
This was the century when ... seventeenth-century English literature. Choose one of
This was a time when ... the topics below.
From an economic point of view ... a. Religion in seventeenth-century Britain
From a religious point of view ... b. King v. Parliament
From a political point of view ... c. The Restoration
Despite wars, conflicts, disease and even a Great Fire, ... d. Everyday life in the seventeenth century
e. England and the rest of the world.
s s h i jf
88 THE PURITAN, RESTORATION AND AUGUSTAN AGES - The Context

Britain 1702-1776
r r- c When Queen Anne, the last of the Stuart dynasty, acceded to the throne
FROM CONFLICT TO STABILITY . „ . , ,. , . 7 '' , ,
in 1702, Britain was leaving behind a century that had seen it torn apart
by religious and political divisions. These divisions having been resolved to a
satisfactory degree if not totally, the country could look forward to a new century
of relative peace, stability and prosperity.

For centuries, agriculture had provided e m p l o y m e n t for most of the

AGRICULTURE
population. Over the years very little had changed, and in 1700 farmers
and peasants still grew crops on small disorganised holdings or raised sheep on
common land, open fields that nobody owned but anybody could use.
Land enclosures In order to meet t h e ever-increasing demand for wool, the system of land
enclosure was intensified. What had previously been common land was split up
and fenced off into large farms that were bought by wealthy farmers.These farms,
which could rely on new varieties of grass that enabled sheep and cattle to
survive the winter, soon became highly efficient and provided the necessary raw
material for the booming clothing industry.

With wool now being produced in greater quantities than ever, new
THE START OF THE INDUSTRIAL
REVOLUTION technologies and efficient labour organisation were needed to transform it
quickly into the finished products that an expanding market demanded.
To satisfy this demarid small factories were built.
Mechanisation The production process was split up so that every worker did only one specific
job. This division of labour increased production dramatically and became
accepted procedure in all factories. Along with innovative work practices,
mechanisation was the key to success for the newly-born British industrial sector.
Automatic looms that could make cloth far more quickly and in far greater
quantities than ever before were first invented in the 1760s and marked a giant
step forward in the Industrial Revolution.
If wool and cloth were the prime sources of wealth during the early years of the
Industrial Revolution, coal and iron were the foundation stones on which the
revolution was built. Both were in plentiful supply and would provide
respectively the energy and the tools for industrial expansion.
Both industry and agriculture had met the challenges of a changing world by
innovating and modernising. These changes improved the quality of life for
many, but others found their lives turned upside-down and struggled to come to
terms with a new world.

As more and more land was enclosed and c o m m o n land became more
THE DOWNSIDE OF PROGRESS
scarce, thousands of peasants were forced to find other ways of making a
living. Many went to work in the cities, while those who remained in the country
often fell into poverty. In order to deal with the increasing number of poor
peasants, workhouses were built all over the country. These were grim and often
cruel institutions where the destitute were given just enough to eat in return for
their labour. The workhouse was to remain a feature of British life right up to and
during the nineteenth century.
Working conditions Those who went to the cities did find paid employment, but they had to endure
subhuman living and working conditions. Factories had an insatiable need for
workers, so children were employed along with men and women. No allowance
was given for their age and they had to work the same long hours and endure the
same unhealthy environment their parents had to.
 Historical and Social Background 8 9 uUffl

Cities found it difficult to cope with the new arrivals. Many families lived in Living conditions
overcrowded slums without any form of sanitation. Some people did not even
have beds and slept on sawdust on the floor. It is of little surprise then that, on
average, one in four babies died at birth.

Despite the constant struggle to make a living in both city and country,
EVERYDAY LIFE
the quality of people's lives improved in various ways.
Hospitals b e c a m e a feature of most new towns, with the result that life Quality of life
expectancy increased for those who managed to survive birth. Many towns also
collected a new tax called 'rates'. This m o n e y was used to improve living
conditions and, where it was put to good use, a sense of civic pride developed
among the inhabitants. In the country, farmers who had benefited from the
agricultural revolution built fine brick houses that made their lives more
comfortable and lessened the hardships of winter. Travelling also became easier
as more roads were built, while a network of canals was used mainly to transport
goods.
Two drinks played a big part in everyday life in eighteenth-century Britain: gin
and coffee. Drinking alcohol was a way to escape from the drudgery of the
working day, so the gin palaces that sprang up in many towns became the
favourite haunts of people in search of company and cheap liquor. The social
effects of heavy drinking were devastating, however, as families were ruined and
town centres were transformed into battlefields for drunken mobs.
Coffee, brought in from the colonies, was a more genteel drink than gin. The first Coffee houses
coffee house was opened in London in 1652, to be followed by many more in the
eighteenth century. They were the favourite meeting places for the middle and
upper classes, who exchanged information about politics, literature, business and
the affairs of the day.

The voice of the middle classes was to be heard not only in the coffee THE RLSE OF
houses but in society at large. They were the people who had become rich THE MIDDLE CLASSES
thanks to the agricultural and industrial revolutions, and on whom the
economic well-being of Britain increasingly depended. They were the farmers • Visual Link D8
/90 THE PURITAN, RESTORATION AND AUGUSTAN AGES - The Context

who had modernised their enclosed lands, the factory owners whose
entrepreneurial spirit would transform Britain into the first industrialised
country in the world, and the merchants who traded around the world.
For centuries, power had rested with the aristocracy and had been handed down
from father to son, but in eighteenth-century Britain power became increasingly
associated with money, and those who had it became more and more influential
in the fields of politics and the arts.
Initiative, self-reliance, faith and patriotism were the qualities that helped the
middle classes to become the driving force in Britain in the eighteenth and later
centuries.

Economic progress, powered by the middle classes, was greatly helped by

GOVERNMENT
the stable political climate of the time.
The Glorious Revolution ( • p. D85) had limited the power of the monarch in
favour of Parliament.
This process was consolidated during the eighteenth century and led to the
creation of a constitutional monarchy. Under this system the king or queen
formally appointed ministers, but they were then answerable to Parliament. The
monarch depended on Parliament for his income and could not suspend laws
passed by it.
Prime Minister The ministers formed a Cabinet that made major policy decisions. Gradually it
was felt that one member of the Cabinet should act as leader to coordinate
government strategy, and so the post of Prime Minister was created. Sir Robert
Walpole, who was a member of the cabinet between 1721 and 1742, is regarded
as being the first Prime Minister in British history.
Tories and Whigs Another major development was the establishment of a two-party political
system in parliament. The old aristocracy and the Church of England tended to
support the Tory party, while the emerging middle classes generally supported
the Whigs, who held a majority in parliament for sixty years from the reign of
George I. The term 'Tories' is still used to refer to the Conservative party today.
The House of Hanover While Parliament ran the country, the monarchy remained a powerful symbol of
British identity and a link with the past. After the reign of Queen Anne
(1702-1714), George I came to the throne and started the dynasty of the House
of Hanover, which lasted until 1837. A curious indication of how little the king
counted in ruling the country was the fact that George I could not even speak
English.

Although the first three quarters of the eighteenth century were generally
AT HOME AND ABROAD
peaceful, parliament had to call out the army periodically to stifle
rebellion at home and protect strategic interests abroad.
Scotland The unification of England and Scotland in 1707 was not universally accepted
north of the border. A rebel m o v e m e n t grew and fought for Scottish
independence, but it was finally defeated at the battle of Culloden in 1745.
Colonial expansion Following wars with France and Spain, Canada and Florida in North America,
Senegal in Africa and Grenada in the West Indies became British possessions,
while the East India Company ( • p. D87) consolidated its monopoly over trade
in the East. Although France and Spain did their utmost to thwart British
ambitions, the number of colonies continued to grow. They supplied cheap and
plentiful supplies of fur, sugar, tea, coffee, tobacco and silk, while Captain James
Cook opened new horizons when he became the first white man to set foot in
Australia in 1770.
 Historical and Social Background256uUffl

The first blow to British colonial expansion occurred in 1776, when the
THE MAKING OF A WORLD
American colonies declared their independence from the mother country POWER
( • p. El 12). The loss of America was indeed a big shock, but it was to
prove a minor setback in the economic and social development of the country.
The e c o n o m i c growth and relative political stability that characterised the
eighteenth century were to have lasting effects. America may have been lost, but
the Industrial Revolution, the Agricultural Revolution and the strength of British
trade made a solid foundation from which Britain could set its sights on being a
major world power.

Ziive, the British

nder, is greeted by the
eader, Mia /affier;
g the British victory at
le of Plassey (1757).

TASK
Answer these questions.
a. What agricultural revolution took place in the eighteenth century?
b . How was industrial productivity increased?
c. How did the quality of life gradually improve?
d. What social class emerged in the eighteenth century?
 /257 THE PURITAN, RESTORATION AND AUGUSTAN AGES - The Context

MECHANISATION

This extract is from a petition written by workers in Leeds (a major wool manufacturing centre in the North of
England). It appeared in a local newspaper in 1786.

... the Scribbling-Machines 1 have thrown thousands of our petitioners out of employ 2 , whereby 3 they ... are
not able to procure a maintenance for their families, and deprived them of the opportunity of bringing up
their children to labour. ... The number of Scribbling-Machines ... being no less than one hundred and
seventy ... as each machine will do as much work in twelve hours, as ten men can in that time do by hand ...
one machine will do as much work in one day as would otherwise employ twenty men. ... We therefore
hope, that the feelings of humanity will lead those who have it in their power to prevent the use of those
machines, to give every discouragement they can to what has a tendency so prejudicial to their fellow-
creatures.
... But what are our children to do; are they to be brought up in idleness 4 ? Indeed as things are, it is no
wonder to hear of so many executions 5 ; for our parts, though we may be thought illiterate men, our
conceptions are, that bringing children up to industry, and keeping them employed, is the way to keep them
from falling into those crimes, which an idle habit naturally leads to.
(...)
Signed, on behalf of THOUSANDS, by Joseph Hepworth Thomas Lobley, Robert Wood Thos. Blackburn

GLOSSARY
1. Scribbling-
Machines: automatic
wool-making
machines
2. employ: work
3. whereby: because of
which
4. idleness: lack of
activity
5. executions: death
penalties

An employer keeps a
close eye on his worke
in this seventeenth-
century textile mill.

TASK
In our automated world we take it for granted that machines and gadgets work for us.
Think of one machine, gadget, home appliance or electronic device that is commonly used today. Describe what
it does. Then say how long it took and how much work was needed to do the same job in the past.
 Historical and Social Background 93 uUffl

MAIN EVENTS: The Puritan, Restoration and Augustan Ages

1625-1649 Reign of Charles 1
1629 Charles 1 dissolves Parliament and rules for eleven years without one
1640 Charles reopens Parliament
1642-1649 Civil War
June 30th 1649 Charles 1 executed
1649-1660 The Commonwealth
1652-1654 War with Holland
1660-1685 Reign of Charles II
1666 The Great Fire of London
1685-1688 Reign of James II
1689-1702 Reign of William III
1689 The First Bill of Rights
1690 The Glorious Revolution
1702-1714 Reign of Queen Anne (last of the Stuart dynasty)
1707 Unification of Scotland and England
1714-1727 Reign of George 1 (first king of the House of Hanover)
1727-1760 Reign of George II
1721-1742 Sir Robert Walpole becomes first de facto Prime Minister
1745 Scottish rebels defeated at the battle of Culloden
1756-1763 The Seven Years' War between England and France
1760-1820 Reign of George III
1770 Captain Cook discovers Australia
1776 American Declaration of Independence
y , , 94 THE PURITAN, RESTORATION AND AUGUSTAN AGES - The Context

The Literary Background

Puritan and Restoration Literature

For a period after the Renaissance, poetry lost its originality and power
POETRY
and generally consisted of poor copies of Elizabethan models. There were,
however, some poets who broke with the Elizabethan tradition. They are commonly
divided into two groups: the Cavalier poets and the Metaphysical poets.
The Cavalier poets The Cavalier poets defended the monarchy against the Puritans during the reign of
Charles I. They included Robert Herrick, Thomas Carew, Robert Lovelace and Sir
J o h n Suckling. They did not believe in an overly studious approach to the writing
of poetry. They saw the ideal gentleman as being a lover, a soldier, a wit, a musician
and a poet, and their poetry reflects their rather light-hearted approach to life. Their
poems embodied the spirit of the upper classes before the Puritan Commonwealth.
They wrote poetry for occasions such as births, marriages or great parties. They are
remembered primarily as the first poets to celebrate the events of everyday life,
and as such are the forerunners of an important tradition in English literature.
The Metaphysical poets The Metaphysical poets, who included George Herbert, Richard Crashaw and
H e n r y V a u g h a n , followed in the tradition of J o h n D o n n e . The features of
Metaphysical poetry are:
• the use of conceits*: comparisons between objects which at first glance seem to
have nothing in common;
• the argumentative quality of the love poems, in which the poet tries to persuade
his lover to share his point of view;
• the dramatic quality of the language, which often seems to be one side of a
dialogue between the poet and his lover, or God, or himself;
• the wide range of subjects from which the poet draws his imagery. Metaphysical
poets used, for example, the areas of the sciences, travel, medicine, alchemy
and philosophy to create original imagery. This is in stark contrast with much
of Elizabethan poetry which used the stock imagery of the period (birds,
flowers, sun, moon, stars);
• the use of wit*: wit in the seventeenth century referred to the ability to relate
dissimilar ideas, and implied intellectual genius. The Metaphysical poets
displayed this form of genius in the use of paradoxes*, conceits* and puns*.
The term 'metaphysical', which was used by the literary critic Samuel Johnson
( • p. D104) in the eighteenth century, may be misleading because the poetry did
not deal with philosophical speculation but with the themes of religion and love.
J o h n s o n , who was not an admirer of this form of poetry, used the word
'metaphysical' to criticise what he considered to be the poets' desire to be original at
any cost. He was not alone in his criticism and, in fact, the Metaphysical poets were
unpopular throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. It was not until
the beginning of the twentieth century that the admiration of the great modern
poet T.S. Eliot helped generate new appreciation for Donne and his followers.

John Donne The father of metaphysical poetry was J o h n Donne ( • pp. D2-9). Although he
(1572-1631) lived in the Elizabethan era, his poems were published posthumously and belong
both thematically and stylistically to this period.
Songs and Sonnets In Songs and Sonnets Donne deals with the theme of love in a way that strongly
contrasts with the Elizabethan tradition. Love is presented as an intensely
 The Literary Background 95

intimate and physical experience. The poems are addressed to a very real lover,
often the poet's wife. The rhythm of the poems is the rhythm of natural speech
and the language is dramatic. Striking and original images called conceits*
associate dissimilar ideas, while paradoxes*, epigrams* and puns* are common
features. The poet often tries to persuade his lover to share his point of view
through poetry which appeals both to the intellect and the emotions.
John Donne deals with religious themes in the Holy Sonnets in an equally original Holy Sonnets
way. The poet addresses God in a tone that often borders on the irreverent, and
uses the language of physical suffering and love to describe his spiritual crises
and devotion.
While some poets fall clearly into the categories of Metaphysical or Cavalier, one of Andrew Marvell
the greatest poets of the era, Andrew Marvell ( • pp. D10-13), combined features (1621-1678)
of both schools. Marvell's style has the elegant sophistication of the Cavaliers while
his use of intense imagery, paradox and wit* is reminiscent of the metaphysicals.
Marvell was a prolific prose writer and essayist, but it is for his poems, which were
first printed three years after his death, that he is best remembered.

The greatest seventeenth century poet J o h n Milton ( • pp. D 1 4 - 2 2 ) also defies John Milton
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . Although some of his greatest works were p u b l i s h e d in t h e (1608-1674)
Restoration period, Milton belongs in spirit to the Puritan age of Cromwell's
Commonwealth, which he supported fervently. He was educated as a Humanist
( • p. C54) and had a thorough knowledge of classical Greek and Latin literature.
His masterpiece Paradise Lost (1667) is written in the style of the Aeneid or the • Visual Link D4
Iliad and contains the classic conventions of the epic: elevated subject matter, an
invocation to God, a beginning in medias res, and detailed lists of characters.
Milton's passion for Greek and Latin made him very fond of long sentences - the
very first in Paradise Lost runs to sixteen lines - and both his sentence structure
and rich vocabulary are largely Latin-derived. His style and diction greatly
influenced later English poetry.
Classical influences can also be seen in the work of J o h n Dryden. The son of a John Dryden
wealthy Puritan family, he received a classical education and had a thorough (1631-1700)
knowledge of Greek and Latin literature. He was inspired by the Latin poets
Virgil, Horace, Ovid and Tibullus and tried to reproduce the balance and clarity
of their work in his poetry. He became a master of the heroic couplet* - two
r h y m i n g lines of i a m b i c p e n t a m e t e r s - and r h e t o r i c a l devices such as
parallelism*, antithesis* and repetition*. His best work is political: Absalom and
Achitophel (1681-1682), generally considered to be his greatest poem, was written
in support of the court in a period of political crisis.
Although he is best remembered for his poetry, Dryden also wrote prose and
drama and is widely regarded as the father of literary criticism. He wrote several
essays on poetry and theatre, and tried to establish guidelines for good taste in
literature. He exercised a major influence on the poets of the early eighteenth
century, in particular Alexander Pope ( • pp. D 2 3 - 2 7 ) .

TASK
Write a name on each line Wrote poems combining features of both the Cavalier
Father of literary criticism . and the Metaphysical poets
Father of Metaphysical poetry Was mainly inspired by Latin poets
Wrote Paradise Lost Wrote Absalom and Achitophel
Wrote Songs and Sonnets Wrote the Holy Sonnets
ill
/96 THE PURITAN, RESTORATION AND AUGUSTAN AGES - The Context

No great dramatists emerged in the immediate post-Shakespearean period.

DRAMA
Playwrights continued to write in the Shakespearean style but did not
reach the same great literary heights or introduce innovations of any note.
Theatres closed In 1642 the Puritans closed the theatres, declaring them improper places for
decent people. Theatres remained closed for eighteen years and were not
reopened until C h a r l e s II was restored to the t h r o n e in 1 6 6 0 . After the
Restoration the frugal, sober and sombre society created by the Puritans was
replaced by a more pleasure-seeking and licentious attitude to life. The immoral
behaviour of the Court set an example that was readily followed by the upper
classes.
New theatres The king, Charles II, nicknamed 'the
Merry Monarch', was a patron of the
theatre and during his reign he com-
missioned the building of two new
theatres: Drury Lane (1674) and the
Theatre Royal, Covent Garden (1732).
Restoration theatres Restoration theatres were very dif-
ferent from Elizabethan playhouses
( • pp. C 5 8 - 6 0 ) . They were smaller
and indoor. The audience no longer
• Visual Link D4 surrounded the stage but sat facing the
actors, who did not enter the stage
through doors at the back as they had
in Elizabethan times, but from the
sides. Painted scenery was used to
reproduce settings. Performances took
place at night: the audience sat in the
dark while the stage was illuminated
Christopher Wren built St Paul's Cathedral
by candles and torches. Female roles, (1675-1710) on the site of the building
which in the past had been played by that had been destroyed by the Creat Fire
young boys, were now played by of 1666.

women.
The middle and lower classes, who still lived by a strict Puritan moral code,
considered theatre-going to be immoral, so drama became a form of
entertainment for the upper classes, and theatres became meeting places where
socialites displayed their fashionable clothes and discussed the latest gossip.
Heroic tragedy Restoration audiences favoured spectacular productions. Shakespeare's works
continued to be performed but changes were often made to the original texts to
make the productions more lavish and sensational. The Court had spent almost
twenty years in France, and the French influence can be seen in a new type of
drama called heroic tragedy, which became popular for a while. Heroic tragedies:
• tried to emulate epic poetry;
• were mainly about love and valour; the main character was generally a hero whose
passionate love conflicted with the demands of honour and his patriotic duty;
• were written in rhyming couplets and in an elevated style, both of which made
the language extremely artificial.
Dryden's All for Love is a good example of this type of drama.
The Comedy of Manners It was, however, in a type of play called the C o m e d y o f M a n n e r s that the
Restoration found its peculiar excellence.
Its main features were:
• it reflected the life of the Court, which was portrayed as being immoral, corrupt
and licentious but also elegant, witty and intelligent;
 H
The Literary Background 262 97 OP

• its main targets of criticism were middle-class values and ideals, conventions,
hypocrisy and above all the institution of marriage. True love was rarely a theme
as sex was favoured over feelings;
• the dialogues were prose rather than verse. The comic effect was achieved
primarily through the wit and sparkle of the dialogue, which was often in the
form of 'repartee', a kind of verbal fencing match of witty comments and replies;
• in Elizabethan drama comic characters were usually low and humble in origin.
In the Comedy of Manners they were aristocratic ladies and gentlemen who
were easily recognised by the audience as fashionable members of society;
• two new male character types were created: the gallant and the fop. The
gallant was usually the hero of the play. He was a witty, elegant, sophisticated
yet cynical lover. The fop was a figure of fun, ridiculed for his stupidity and
pompous pretentiousness;
• the leading female characters generally had no feelings or morals. Their only
interests were fashion and breaking their marital vows;
• the characters usually had names that captured some aspects of their
personality: Scandal, Lady Fidget, Petulant, Mrs Squeamish, Sir Fopling Flutter
and Tattle. Although this form of character naming dates back to the Morality
plays ( • p. B47), it is important to note that the Comedy of Manners had no
moral didactic purpose. These plays were written purely to entertain theatre
audiences.

While the Comedy of Manners was a distinctly English form of drama, it was • Meanwhile, Elsewhere,
clearly influenced by Continental writers and trends. Restoration dramatists p. D98
learned how to develop characters from the French playwright Moliere ( 1 6 2 2 -
1673), whose elegant style also became a model to be imitated. The Spanish
writer C a l d e r o n de la Barca ( 1 6 0 0 - 1 6 8 1 ) showed them how to organise a
complex plot that often involved multiple subplots. The Italian C o m m e d i a
dell'Arte provided inspiration for the more farcical elements of the plays.
The most outstanding writer of the Comedy of Manners was William Congreve William Congreve
( • pp. D 3 3 - 3 7 ) . In his masterpiece The Way of the World he eliminated the (1670-1720)
coarser elements of the genre and pushed its literary limits to new heights of
sophistication and refinement.
The Comedy of Manners has continued to be a popular form of theatre. In the • Visual Link D5
eighteenth century, playwrights eliminated the indecency but maintained the
wit and gaiety. In the early nineteenth century under Queen Victoria it declined,
to be revived, however, by Oscar Wilde ( • Module G) at the turn of the century.
Since then it has become popular again through the works of both British and
American writers.

TASK
/98 THE PURITAN, RESTORATION AND AUGUSTAN AGES - The Context

MEANWHILE, ELSEWHERE

LINK TO FRENCH LITERATURE: Moliere

English Restoration comedy was greatly influenced

by the works of the French playwright and actor
Jean-Baptiste Poquelin, better known as Moliere.
Like Congreve, he satirised the shortcomings and
hypocrisy of his society, but went even further than
his English counterpart in pointing out the
idiosyncrasies of humanity at large.
His comedies, which are still widely produced
today, ridicule human vices as exemplified in his
characters: Le Tartiiffe (1664) is a religious hypocrite,
Le Misanthrope (1666) is antisocial, Le Malade
Imaginaire (1673) is a self-centred hypochondriac
and the main character in L'Avare (1669), Harpagon,
is so greedy that he forces his children into
unwanted but lucrative marriages.
As well as pointing out the defects of individuals,
Moliere also examined the relationships between
people. In L'Ecole des Maris (1661), for example, an
older husband tries, with disastrous results, to
come to terms with his younger wife ( • Milton,
p. D21).
While Moliere's place is assured in the history of
European theatre, he is also remembered every
day in the French language because the names of
his characters are used to describe a person who
has a particular vice, e.g. a hypocrite is a Tartuffe
and a miser is a Harpagon.

Le Malade Imagine
(1673).

TASKS
1 Link each person to a quote.
Harpagon 'Why did I ever get married?'
Tartuffe 'I must have some rare disease.'
Le Malade Imaginaire 'Money makes the world go round.'
Le Misanthrope 'If only everyone was perfect like me.
The husband in L'Ecole des Maris 'Who needs friends anyway?'

2 What modern vices would you ridicule in a play? What name would you give the characters that represent
them? For example: A drunkard - Mr Beerall. Choose one of your characters and prepare a fifty-word plot for a play.
 The Literary Background 264

The great political and social turmoil of the first half of the seventeenth
PROSE
century was reflected in the prose writing of the time. The burning issues
of religion, education, politics and philosophy were the subjects of pamphlets,
essays and treatises. The language used in these prose works was heavily
influenced by Latin, which was still the principal language of international
culture. Sentences were long and complex in structure, vocabulary was Latinate
and concepts were frequently repeated.
Robert Burton and Sir Thomas Browne are perhaps the two most representative
prose writers of the period.
Robert Burton wrote The Anatomy of Melancholy (1621), a huge treatise of over Robert Burton
half a million words. It is an analysis of the causes, symptoms and cures for (1577-1640)
melancholy, which was considered an illness at the time.
Sir T h o m a s Browne wrote Religio Medici (1642), a spiritual autobiography in Sir Thomas Browne
which he shows that religion and science can coexist. (1605-1682)
Although he preferred poetry (he described writing prose as writing with his left
hand), J o h n M i l t o n also produced some excellent pamphlets including John Milton
Areopagitica (1644), a defence of free speech and writing, and Of Education (1664) (1608-1674)
in which he expresses his opinions on how young people should be educated.
All three of these writers were extremely familiar with Latin, and its influence is
clear in their works: the sentences are long and c o m p l e x with numerous
subordinate clauses which often lead to confusion.
The writer who most successfully captured the Puritan spirit is undoubtedly J o h n John Bunyan
Bunyan. A firm believer in Parliament, he joined Cromwell's army at the age of (1628-1688)
sixteen to fight against
Charles I. W h e n the army
disbanded in 1649 Bunyan
returned h o m e to Bedford
near London and started
preaching. He was self-taught
and based most of his
learning on the Authorised
Version of the Bible, which
had been published in 1611.
During the Restoration he
was imprisoned for twelve
years for preaching without a
licence. He subsequently
spent several spells in prison
but finally obtained a licence
and c o n t i n u e d preaching
until his death in 1688.
He started writing his great
masterpiece The Pilgrim's The Pilgrim's Progress
Progress, which was published
in 1678, during one of his
periods in prison. It is a pow-

he first picture in John Bunyan's

he Pilgrim's Progress, which he
egan to write in 1675.
 /265 THE PURITAN, RESTORATION AND AUGUSTAN AGES - The Context

erful allegory of man's quest for salvation that is widely considered to be one of
the greatest works of religious literature of all time and a forerunner to the eigh-
teenth-century novel.
It tells the story of the main character, Christian, who travels from the City of
Destruction to the City of God, has many adventures and faces many perils on
his way. The language is simple and concise and accurately represents the speech
of rural people at the time when Bunyan wrote. T h e book's engaging plot,
humorous episodes and often ironic tone made it hugely successful in Britain
and abroad.
The scientific revolution The scientific revolution, which took place after the Restoration, also played an
important part in creating a new and clear, concise prose style. Charles II was
fascinated by science and carried out his own e x p e r i m e n t s in a n a t o m y .
Empiricism - the idea that scientific assertions had to be tested by experiment -
was becoming increasingly important. From 1697 weekly lectures were held in
• Visual Link D6 London on astronomy, geometry, medicine, law, divinity and music. These
lectures - which strangely for the time were given in English and not Latin -
attracted some of the great thinkers of the time and prompted the foundation of
The Royal Society the Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge. Interest in
experimental science led to the discoveries of such great scientists as Isaac
Newton, who demonstrated the laws of gravitation, and Edmund Halley, who
published the first star catalogue based on the telescope, and calculated the orbit
of many comets, including the comet of 1682 called 'Halley's comet'.
A new prose style The new studies in experimental science needed clear, concise language. English
gradually abandoned the long and complex sentence structures which led to
ambiguities and obscurities and replaced them with a simpler, more accurate style.
The new prose style can be seen in the works of the two great philosophers of the
period, Thomas Hobbes and J o h n Locke.
Thomas Hobbes Thomas Hobbes, in his work Leviathan (1651), expressed his support for absolute
(1588-1679) m o n a r c h y as the only form of government that can protect society from the
destructive greed of the individual.
John Locke J o h n Locke supported the opposite viewpoint in his Two Treatises of Government
(1632-1704) (1690), which greatly influenced the leaders of the American Revolution, and in
which he suggested that a parliament elected by the people is the best form of
government. Locke's Essay Concerning Human Understanding ( 1 6 9 0 ) made an
important contribution to the development of English empiricism. Both Hobbes
and Locke wrote with clarity and economy.
The diary The second half of the seventeenth century saw the emergence of a new literary
form: the diary. As science started to explore the workings of the human mind,
people became more interested in themselves, and started to keep records of their
private thoughts and actions in diaries.
Samuel Pepys The most famous diarist of the period was Samuel Pepys. He was an extraordinary
(1633-1703) man: he founded the Royal Navy, was an outstanding Civil Servant and became
President of the Royal Society. It is not, however, the public side of the man that
his diary reveals but the intimate details of his private life. He wrote the diary in
• Pieces of the Past, p. D102 eleven volumes between 1660 and 1669. He wrote for himself, in a secret code of
shorthand, contractions and foreign words, and the texts were only deciphered in
1825. He spoke of the great events of the day such as the Great Plague (1665), the
Great Fire (1666), the Dutch Wars (1664) and political intrigues. But it is his frank
accounts of everyday life in a wealthy family, written in a simple style and rich in
detail and humour, that make his work unique.
John Evelyn Pepys's friend J o h n Evelyn, a country gentleman and one of the founders of the
(1620-1706) Royal Society, also kept a diary. He started writing it when he was only twenty-one
 | Pppjl|j^ 9

The Literary Background 101 Q [ M

The Great Fire of

.ondon (1666).

years old and continued for most of his life. He was interested in gardens, travel
and life at court. He wrote mostly about places and events and his diary is full of
information and scientific observation. Unlike Pepys, he did not include intimate
details about his personal life. Indeed, the more detached, impersonal tone suggests
that he may have written the diary not purely for personal pleasure but for a
possible future audience. Like Pepys', his diary is a valuable historical document.

Seventeenth-century English literature will be remembered for the contribution Summing up

of the Cavalier and Metaphysical poets and, in particular, for the work of J o h n
Donne, Andrew Marvell and J o h n Milton. The great theatrical innovation was
The Comedy of Manners, which has since become a standard of the English
stage. The century's greatest achievement was, however, in prose writing, where
the development of a straightforward, concise and accurate prose style provided
the foundation on which the great novel writing of the eighteenth century could
be built.

TASK
Choose the correct option.
a. Most prose works in the seventeenth century were
la] religious pamphlets, philosophical essays and
scientific texts.
~b] collections of short stories and didactic novels.
c. John Bunyan wrote The Pilgrim's Progress,
[a] a humorous novel about the travels of an
allegorical character.
j~b~l a deeply religious pamphlet written in highly
complex Latinised English.

b. Prose writers wrote in d. Samuel Pepys's diary deals with

a simplified form of Latin. fa] great events and everyday life.
~b~| a Latinate form of English. fb] the history of The Royal Navy.
/102 THE PURITAN, RESTORATION AND AUGUSTAN AGES - The Context

SAMUEL PEPYS'S DIARY

Samuel Pepys's diary includes interesting comments on the London theatrical scene.
'(I went) To the Theatre, where was acted Beggars Bush; it was very well done;
and here the first time that ever I saw woman come upon the stage.' (3rd
January 1661)
'And here [at the King's Theatre] I sitting behind in a dark place, a lady
spit1 backward upon me by a mistake, not seeing me, but after seeing her
to be a very pretty lady, I was not troubled at it at all.' (28th January 1661)
'Saw The Scornful2 Lady now done by a woman which makes the play
appear much better than ever it did to me.' (12th February 1661)
'To the King's Theatre, where we saw Midsummers Nights Dreame, which I
have never seen before, nor shall ever I see in my life. I saw, I confess,
some good dancing and some h a n d s o m e women, which was all my
pleasure.' (29th September 1662)
'Here [at the King's Theatre] I saw ... Lady Cromwell, when the House began to fill she put on her vizard3, and
so kept it on all the play; which of late is become a great fashion among the ladies, which hides their whole
face. So to the Exchange, to buy things with my wife; among others, a vizard for herself.' (12th June 1663)
'To the King's House to The Mayd's Tragedy; but vexed 4 all the while with two talking ladies and Sir Charles
Sedley, yet pleased to hear their discourse ... And one of the ladies... did sit with her mask on, all the play,
and being exceedingly witty as ever I heard woman, did talk most pleasantly with him; but was, I believe, a
virtuous woman, and of quality. He would fain 5 know who she was, but she would not tell; yet did give him
many pleasant hints 6 of her knowledge of him, by that means setting his brains at work to find out who she
was, and did give him leave to use all means to find out who she was but pulling off her mask. He was
mighty witty, and she also making sport of him very inoffensively, that a more pleasant rencontre 7 1 never
heard. By that means lost the pleasure of the play wholly ...' (18th February 1666)
'After dinner with my wife to the King's House, to see The Mayden Queene, a new play of Dryden's mightily
commended 8 for the regularity of it and ... wit; and the truth is, there is a comical part done by Nell... that I
never can hope ever to see the like done again by a man or woman ... but so great performance of a comical
part was never, I believe, in the world before as Nell doth this, both as a mad girlie and then, most and best
of all, when she comes like a young gallant 9 ... It makes me, I confess, admire her.' (2nd March 1667)
'To the King's House, and there, going in, met with [actress] Knepp, and she took us up [to the backstage and
room where] Nell was dressing herself... she gave us fruit... But, Lord! to see how they were both painted
would make a man mad, and did make me loath 1 0 them; and what base company of men comes among
them, and how lewdly11 they talk! ... But to see how Nell cursed 12 , for having so few people in the pit 13 , was
pretty; the other house [theatre] carrying away all the people at the new play.' (5th October 1667)

GLOSSARY 5. fain: willingly 9. gallant: a fashionable gentleman

1. spit: expelled saliva 6. hints: suggestions 10. loath: loathe, feel disgust for
2. Scornful: showing contempt 7. rencontre: unexpected meeting 11. lewdly: obscenely
3. vizard: mask 8. commended: recommended, 12. cursed: said obscenities
4. vexed: annoyed praised 13. pit: the area in front of the stage

TASK
Use a red pen to underline comments which apply only to the age when the diary was written (for example: 'the
first time that ever I saw woman come upon the stage'). Use a blue pen to underline comments which could
equally be used to describe the situation today. Look at the text now: Is there more red or blue?
 The Literary Background 103

Augustan Literature
The seventeenth century was a period of tumultuous change, witnessing
INTRODUCTION
as it did a revolution, a civil war, major parliamentary reform and the
emergence of a powerful new middle class. The extravagance of the Renaissance
was replaced by Puritan pragmatism and although the Commonwealth failed,
Puritan morality became an integral part of the English character.
The scientific revolution and rationalist philosophers such as Thomas Hobbes,
Rene Descartes and J o h n Locke ( • p. D100) spread the idea that reason rather
than religion was the key to the understanding of man and the world that
surrounds him. It is not surprising, therefore, that the eighteenth century 'The Augustan Age'
brought with it a general desire for order, clarity and stability. Writers of the
period drew inspiration from the Latin poets Virgil, Horace and Ovid who, under
the patronage of Emperor Augustus (27 BC-AD 14), created the golden age of
classical literature. English writers tried to emulate the Latin poets, and indeed
the early and mid-eighteenth century became known as 'the Augustan Age'. The
influence of the classical writers is most clearly seen in the poetry of the first half
of the century.

The poets of the Augustan Age admired the harmony, concision, elegance
POETRY
and technical perfection of classical literature. They tried to adhere to the
guidelines for good taste set out in Horace's Ars Poetica, which was widely studied Horace's Ars Poetica
at the time. In it the Roman poet established the basic principles for the writing
of poetry.
Evidence of the Augustan poets' self-control can be seen in their quest for perfect
form. They imitated classical literary genres such as the epic, pastoral, satire* and
Pindaric ode*. They paid great a t t e n t i o n to rhyme and metre: iambic
pentameters* rhymed in pairs (heroic couplets*) became the standard poetic
measure. They sought technical perfection rather than originality.
The early eighteenth-century poets believed that the language of poetry should
be far removed from everyday speech. They wrote for a cultured upper-class
reading public in high poetic diction and Latinate sentence structures.
The neo-classical poets, as they came to be called, did not write poetry to express
their own feelings. They believed that the poet had a social role: to explore the
universal human experience and expose society's evils. Not surprisingly, much of
their greatest work came in the form of satire.
The greatest poet of the Augustan age was Alexander Pope. When he was just Alexander Pope
sixteen he wrote his Pastorals, in which he displayed great skill in poetic metre. (1688-1744)
In 1714 he published his masterpiece, the mock-heroic poem The Rape of the
Lock. In this satire of Augustan society he shows his unrivalled skill in the use of • Visual Link D5
the heroic couplet. Most of the work that followed was moral and satirical. The
Dunciad (1728) is a satirical attack on the debased moral values of eighteenth-
century society; the Essay on Man and Moral Essays are philosophical verse essays
on the human condition.
Pope was unquestionably the most popular poet of his day. In the nineteenth
century his work was widely criticised as lacking poetic value and depending too
heavily on imitation. The great twentieth-century poet and critic T.S. Eliot,
however, re-appraised the work of Pope, stating that he preferred the conscious
craftsmanship and attention to poetic form of the neo-classicals to the poetry of
personal e m o t i o n s , which characterised the R o m a n t i c period of the late
eighteenth and early nineteenth century ( • Module E).
/104 THE PURITAN, RESTORATION AND AUGUSTAN AGES - The Context

Although the neo-classical poetry of the Augustan Age is still widely

PROSE
admired, the eighteenth century is best remembered for the development
of prose-writing. The early part of the century witnessed a dramatic rise in prose
output in the form of journalism, essay writing, political satire and pamphleteering.
This proliferation of prose-writing can be attributed to a number of factors:
• the advancement of printing technology, which made publishing more
efficient and cheaper;
• the expansion of the school system and the subsequent growth in the number
of people who could read and write;
• the opening of circulating libraries, which gave people access to newspapers,
journals and books;
• the growth in the number of middle-class readers. In previous centuries reading
had largely been confined to the aristocracy and the upper classes. By the
beginning of the eighteenth century the middle classes were better educated
and wished to understand the world in which they had become a potent
economic and political force;
• the increase in the number of women readers. The Puritans considered their
wives to be equal partners in marriage, business and spiritual affairs, and
encouraged them to read. Time-consuming household tasks such as making
bread, candles and clothes were n o longer necessary since most of these
commodities could now be bought in shops, and consequently women had
more time to dedicate to reading.
Journalism The new middle-class reader-
ship was largely Puritan and
showed a distinct preference
for factual writing over I
fiction (which they regarded
to some extent as lying). In
response to this taste there
T H E
was a remarkable prolifera-
tion of journalistic writing.
Two great figures stand out S P E C T A T O R ,
in this field in the early part
of the century: R i c h a r d
№ I. T H U R S D A Y , MARCH I, 1 7 1 0 - 1 1 .
Steele and Joseph Addison.
The Tatler When Richard Steele started
publishing his newspaper Non fumum ex fulgore, fed exfumo ilare lucem
Cogitat, ut fpeciofa dehinc miracula promat.
The Tatler in 1709, there HOR. Ars Poet. ver. 143.
were already several newspa-
One with a flafh begins, and endsinfmoke ;
pers in circulation contain- The other out of fmoke brings glorious light,
ing information about home And (without railing expettation high)
Surprifes u s with dazzling miracles. R O s co M M O N .
and foreign affairs. Steele
understood that the new H A V E obferved, that a Reader feldom perufes
middle-class reader needed
to be entertained as well as
Ia book with pleafure, until he knows whether
the writer of it be a black or a fair man, of a
mild or choleric difpofition, married or a bache-
lor, with other particulars of the like nature, that
informed, and so he includ-
conduce very much to the right underftanding of
ed in his newspaper articles an author. T o gratify this curiofity, which is fo
on fashion, taste, gossip, natural to a reader, I defign this paper and my next
as prefatory difcourfesto my following writings, and
duelling and gambling as -hall give fome account in them of the feveral per-
well as serious pieces on the fons that are engaged in this work. As the chief
VOL. I, f A trouble
political issues of the day.
Later Steele joined forces The first issue ofThe Spectator (1710).
 The Literary Background 270

with his old school friend Joseph Addison and together they published a new
periodical called The Spectator (1711-1714).
Like its predecessor, The Spectator was aimed at a middle-class reading public. The Spectator
However, it contained more essays on literary and moral issues and was less
c o n c e r n e d with political news. It was written in clear, simple, almost
conversational prose which could be understood by any reasonably educated
person. Its appeal was increased by the introduction of a group of fictitious
characters representing all walks of life in eighteenth-century England including
commerce, the army, the country gentry, the Church and the town. It appeared
daily and was immensely popular. Its articles were often the subject of debate in
the fashionable coffee houses which had become centres of business transactions
and social life.
Samuel Johnson also started his literary career as a journalist, making contributions Samuel Johnson
to various publications and eventually publishing his own periodical, The Rambler. (1709-1784)
A great classicist, J o h n s o n wrote poetry, drama, essays on political and moral
matters, biographies and literary criticism of the highest order. However, he is
perhaps best remembered for his Dictionary of the English Language (1755), the
first attempt to standardise the pronunciation, definitions and meaning of over
40,000 English words.

The eighteenth-century novel was, to a large degree, an evolution of the

THE NOVEL
non-fictional prose-writing of the period. Prose fictional works of the
previous centuries, based on old legends, ancient battles and chivalrous medieval
adventures, had little appeal for the new middle-class readers who wished to read
about themselves and the world they lived in. Five towering literary figures -
Daniel Defoe, Samuel R i c h a r d s o n , H e n r y Fielding, J o n a t h a n Swift and
Laurence Sterne - moulded fictional prose into a literary form that appealed to
the eighteenth-century reader. In doing so they created the dominant literary
genre of the next three centuries: the modern novel.
Not surprisingly, many of the early novelists started their literary careers in Daniel Defoe
journalism. Daniel Defoe wrote for several periodicals and started his own (1660-1731)
newspaper, The Review, before turning to novel-writing at the age of sixty.
His first novel, Robinson Crusoe (1719), was loosely based on the real-life experience Robinson Crusoe
of a shipwrecked sailor, Alexander Selkirk, and was presented as a true story in
diary form told by the hero himself. The fact that it was published as a true story
made it more acceptable to middle-class readers, who regarded fiction with
suspicion. The hero of the story, Robinson, also had a strong appeal for the new
readership as he was a perfect example of the Puritan ideal of a self-made man: an
ordinary man who, through hard work and faith in God, overcomes adversity.
Robinson Crusoe is generally regarded as the first novel in the English language.
Defoe went on to write five more novels, Captain Singleton, Moll Flanders, Colonel
Jack, Roxana, Memoirs of a Cavalier and a pseudo-factual account of London
during the great plague entitled A Journal of the Plague Year.
While Daniel Defoe showed little interest in the feelings and thoughts of his Samuel Richardson
characters, Samuel Richardson's contribution to the development of the novel (1689-1761)
lies in the attention he paid to his characters' psychological profiles.
His most successful novel, Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded (1740), tells the story of a Pamela, or Virtue
young servant girl who, having resisted the amorous advances of her master, Rewarded
wins his heart and eventually marries him. The novel is composed of letters,
mostly written by Pamela, and her personal diary of events. The epistolary form
was already popular in France but Richardson raised it to new heights. It is,
however, in the creation of characters with psychological depth that Richardson
U) il 0 6 THE PURITAN, RESTORATION AND AUGUSTAN AGES - The Context

shows his greatest skill. His characters are not simply men of action involved in
perilous adventures: they have inner worlds of feeling and emotions which
Richardson explores with insight and sensitivity. Pamela also shows Richardson's
mastery of dialogue, which is presented in the form of long transcriptions of
conversations in the letters.
Pamela was greatly appreciated by the middle-class readership for its morality
and realism, and by eighteenth-century standards it was a runaway best-seller.
Richardson published two more novels, both in the epistolary form: Clarissa
(1747-1748) and Sir Charles Grandison (1753-1754).
Henry Fielding Henry Fielding, the son of an aristocratic family, found the moralising in Pamela
(1707-1754) so offensive that he wrote An Apology for the Life of Mrs Shamela Andrews (1741),
an irreverent parody of Richardson's work. Fielding was the first writer to
• Visual Link D5 consciously explore and define the new literary genre. Unlike his predecessors,
he made no attempt to disguise his work as fact in the form of memoirs or letters.
He considered the novel to be a 'comic epic in prose', dealing not with the heroic
actions of the classic epic poems but with the unimportant and preferably
humorous events of daily life.
Tom Jones In 1749, he published what many consider to be his masterpiece, The History of
Tom Jones, A Foundling. The novel tells the story of an orphan, Tom Jones, who
after many adventures discovers his true identity and marries the lady he loves.
Fielding was the first English novelist to create a well-structured complex plot
involving many characters drawn from different social classes. His work is
innovative and original and he is generally considered to be the father of the
English comic novel.
Jonathan Swift While Henry Fielding employed humour to criticise the failings of eighteenth-
(1667-1745) century society, Jonathan Swift used hard-hitting and at times bitter satire. Swift,
like Defoe, started his career as a journalist. He quickly gained a reputation as a
satirist targeting, among other subjects, political corruption and English misrule
in Ireland.

1
A scene from Gulliver's
Travels (1996).
 The Literary Background 107

LINK TO FRENCH LITERATURE: Voltaire

Jonathan Swift stands out among English writers of the eighteenth century as the one who attacked most fiercely the
shortcomings of his society and of man in general. Satire was his most powerful weapon, a weapon that was also used
to great effect in France by Voltaire.
Francois-Marie Arouet (1694-1778), better known as Voltaire, was one of the leading intellectual figures behind the
French Enlightenment. He was a great admirer of England and having been exiled there from 1726 to 1729, he wrote
the Lettres Philosophiques (1773) which attacked the French monarchy.
He was a tireless campaigner against evil, injustice and hypocrisy. In his most popular work, Candide (1759), the
hero, a young man called Candide, travels around the world and tries to understand the evils of life.
In the following text from Chapter 3 he is caught up in a war between the Bulgarians and the Arabs. Read it and
answer the questions.

Chapter 3
Never was anything so gallant, so well accoutred 1 , so brilliant, and so finely disposed as the two armies. The
trumpets, fifes 2 , hautboys 3 , drums, and cannon made such harmony as never was heard in Hell itself. The
entertainment began by a'discharge 4 of cannon, which, in the twinkling of an eye 5 , laid flat about 6,000 men
on each side. The musket 6 bullets swept away, out of the best of all possible worlds, nine or ten thousand
scoundrels 7 that infested its surface. The bayonet was next the sufficient reason of the deaths of several
thousands. The whole might amount to thirty thousand souls. Candide trembled like a philosopher, and
concealed himself as well as he could during this heroic butchery.
At length, while the two kings were causing Te Deums 8 to be sung in their camps, Candide took a resolution
to go and reason somewhere else upon causes and effects. After passing over heaps of dead or dying men, the
first place he came to was a neighbouring village, in the Arabian territories, which had been burned to the
ground by the Bulgarians, agreeably to the laws of war. Here lay a number of old men covered with wounds,
who beheld 9 their wives dying with their throats cut, and hugging their children to their breasts, all stained 10
with blood. There several young virgins, whose bodies had been ripped 11 open, after they had satisfied the
natural necessities of the Bulgarian heroes, breathed their last; while others, half-burned in the flames,
begged to be dispatched 12 out of the world. The ground about them was covered with the brains, arms, and
legs of dead men.

GLOSSARY
1. accoutred: equipped 5. twinkling of an eye: one second 9. beheld: saw
2. fifes: small flutes 6. musket: rifle 10. stained: discoloured
3. hautboys: oboes 7. scoundrels: bad and dishonest men tl.ripped: torn
4. discharge: firing 8. Te Deums: religious songs 12. dispatched: sent

TASK
W h o is Voltaire attacking in this p a s s a g e ?
Underline t h e words t h a t are ironic.
/108 THE PURITAN, RESTORATION AND AUGUSTAN AGES - The Context

Gulliver's Travels His great satirical novel, Gulliver's Travels, was published in 1726 and was an
immediate success. It has been interpreted at many different levels: as a travel
• Visual Link D5 book for children, a biting political satire and an indictment of a society that
accepts war and corruption and rejects altruism and reason as a way of life.
Laurence Sterne Perhaps the most innovative work in the new field of novel-writing was done by
(1713-1768) Laurence Sterne, an Anglican priest who seemed to adhere to none of the rules
that had been established for the new genre.
Tristram Shandy His Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman (1761), ostensibly an
autobiography, includes so many digressions that by conventional standards the
plot is preposterous. Add to this unfinished sentences, blank pages, pages
containing just one word, and idiosyncratic syntax and it is clear that this novel is
the work of a very original mind. Sterne seems to suggest that the orderly
chronological narration of events which could be found in other novels of the
period did not reflect the perception of time and space which exists in the human
mind. In his attempt to capture human consciousness, Sterne foreshadows the
work of twentieth-century novelists such as James Joyce, Virginia Woolf and
William Faulkner ( • Module G).

The eighteenth century was not a particularly interesting period for drama.
DRAMA
The Licensing Act of 1737 allowed the Lord Chamberlain to censor
Licensing Act: 1737 theatrical performances, and many talented writers including Henry Fielding
turned their attention from drama to the new literary genre of novel-writing. While
theatre-goers in the seventeenth century were largely aristocratic, the eighteenth-
century theatre audience was predominantly middle class and dictated new trends:
• the seventeenth-century Comedy of Manners ( • pp. D96-97) was rejected for
its licentiousness and amorality;
• Shakespeare c o n t i n u e d to be performed, but his plays were often cut or
transformed to suit the public's taste;
• melodramas - unimaginative sentimental pieces with strong didactic elements
- became very popular but were of little literary value;
• pantomime, a mixture of singing, dancing and knockabout comedy, which was
clearly inspired by the Italian Commedia dell'Arte, was also very fashionable.
John Gay Perhaps the most notable theatrical work of the early part of the century is J o h n
(1685-1732) Gay's The Beggar's Opera (1727). The play is a combination of prose and sixty-nine
songs set to traditional or fashionable melodies of the day. In it Gay makes fun of
the fashion for Italian opera and satirises contemporary politics. T/ie Beggar's Opera
is generally considered to be the forerunner of the modern musical.
Towards the end of the century a more refined version of the Comedy of Manners
Oliver Goldsmith again became popular. Playwrights such as Oliver Goldsmith in She Stoops to
(1730-1774) Conquer ( • Text D9) and Richard Brinsley Sheridan in The School for Scandal
maintained the witty dialogue of Restoration comedies and excluded the indecent
and amoral elements.

In the second half of the eighteenth century, the admiration for the
A PERIOD OF TRANSITION
classical ideals which had characterised the Augustan Age began to wane:
• the grandeur, rationalism and elevated sentiments of the early part of the
century gave way to a simpler, more genuine form of expression;
• there was a renewed interest in nature and the simple rural life;
• in France the influential philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau questioned the
importance of reason and exalted man's emotional capacities and imaginative
powers.
In English literature the earliest evidence of this cultural shift can be seen in the
poetry of Thomas Gray and the Graveyard Poets, and in Horace Walpole's Gothic
novel, The Castle ofOtranto.
 The Literary Background 109

A flier printed to attract people to

one of the earliest productions of
John Cay's Beggar's Opera.

a/jusid v t j u v (/<m /i'arrnvriwiMtJ'fof/o;

fis-fxri to- tAa/ej noted n>/ifcA c/ta.rrri e/uL, agtc
y entsr tastt/ tn, cfotinoJ t f c / e n t t ) & Monnv,
eqqa<rh w€r tfc i/czm~ onTV .
T h o m a s Gray's literary reputation rests on a handful of poems written in the Thomas Gray
middle years of the century. One of these poems, Elegy Written in a Country (1716-1771)
Churchyard ( • Text D7), is generally considered to be his masterpiece. In it the
poet walks around a graveyard reflecting on the mortality of the villagers who are
buried there. In the final lines the poet considers his own death and composes
his epitaph. The sentimental, melancholic introspection of the poem was a clear
shift from the neo-classical style, and foreshadowed what was to come during the
Romantic period.
Thomas Gray's work inspired a group of poets known as the 'Graveyard Poets'. Like The Graveyard Poets
Gray, they found inspiration in graveyards and wrote on the theme of mortality.
In 1764, Horace Walpole, a close friend of Gray's, published a novel entitled The Horace Walpole
Castle of Otranto. This tale tells the story of a family curse and is full of ghosts, (1717-1797)
demons, torment, images of ruin and decay and violent emotions. Walpole was so
unsure of how the public would react to his work that he published it anonymously,
claiming that it was a translation of a work by a medieval Italian writer.
The novel was, in fact, a great success and gave rise to a new literary genre: the The Gothic Novel
Gothic novel (the word Gothic at the time was synonymous with the wild and
barbarous). This genre was further developed by Ann Radcliffe and Mary Shelley
in the Romantic period ( • p. E88-95).

TASK
Answer these questions.
a. Why is the first half of the eighteenth century called c. What trends dominated theatrical tastes in the
'The Augustan Age'? eighteenth century?
b . What factors encouraged authors to turn to prose d. What changes took place on the literary scene in
writing? the second half of the century?
 /275 THE PURITAN, RESTORATION AND AUGUSTAN AGES - The Context

CROSS-CURRICULAR LINK
-[to Art/Science/Mathematics
T h e S e v e n t e e n t h C e n t u r y - An Age o f Discovery
The seventeenth century in Europe was an age of research, discovery
and i n n o v a t i o n in a wide range of fields. The m a t h e m a t i c i a n
Leibnitz ( 1 6 4 6 - 1 7 1 6 ) devised calculus, Galileo ( 1 5 6 4 - 1 6 4 2 )
perfected the telescope, and the philosophers Hobbes ( 1 5 8 8 - 1 6 7 9 )
and Locke (1632-1704) examined how best to organise the state.
Britain produced, in particular, a group of scientists, a mathematician
and an architect whose work has had a lasting effect on their fields of
study. They were:
John Napier (1550-1617) mathematician - he invented logarithms.
J o h n Ray ( 1 6 2 7 - 1 7 0 5 ) naturalist - he invented a new system of
classification for plants.
Robert Boyle (1627-1691)
physicist, general scientist,
philosopher. Not only did he Ian Vermeer, The Geographer
(c. 1668).
formulate Boyle's Law on gas
pressure, but he also helped to
separate the science of chemistry from alchemy.
Robert Hooke ( 1 6 3 5 - 1 7 0 2 ) mathematician, physicist, astronomer
and naturalist. Among his many inventions was the first pneumatic
pump.
Isaac N e w t o n ( 1 6 4 2 - 1 7 2 7 ) m a t h e m a t i c i a n and physicist - he
formulated the Law of Gravity and developed calculus independently
of Leibnitz.
Christopher Wren ( 1 6 3 2 - 1 7 2 3 ) mathematician, astronomer and
architect. A leading scientist of his day and president of the Royal
Society. He is best remembered for his reconstruction of St Paul's
Cathedral after the Great Fire of London (1666).

PROJECT
a . Find o u t a s m u c h a s y o u c a n a b o u t t h e w o r k o f o n e of t h e a b o v e m e n . Y o u r r e s e a r c h will b e d o n e in Italian,
b u t try t o g e t u s e d t o t a k i n g n o t e s in English. U s e a d i c t i o n a r y t o f i n d t h e t r a n s l a t i o n f o r key w o r d s .

b . P r e p a r e a talk in English o n w h a t y o u h a v e r e s e a r c h e d .

c . If y o u h a v e t i m e , d o s o m e m o r e r e s e a r c h o n d i s c o v e r i e s a n d d e v e l o p m e n t s t h a t h a v e b e e n m a d e s i n c e t h e
s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y in t h e field y o u h a v e e x a m i n e d .
 The Literary Background 111

CROSS-CURRICULAR LINK [ t 0 philosophy/History

The Age o f Reason
Robinson Crusoe was a huge best-seller in the eighteenth century because it told the story of a man who,
even though he believed in God, used his powers of logic and reasoning to resolve practical problems. He
was an heroic figure for an age that wanted to free itself from the superstitions of the past and build a future
based on man's ability to understand the world around him and change it.
Philosophers in England and France, in particular, developed theories that were to change the political and
social histories of their countries. Choose one of the following and do a research project as indicated below
( • Visual Link D6).

J o h n Locke (1632-1704)
In many ways he was the father of the Age of Reason. Among his many writings were Thoughts concerning
Education (1693) on how to bring up young boys and his Letters on Toleration (1689-1704), which defend
the right to freedom of religious belief and expression.
David Hume (1711-1766)
Hume wrote on a wide range of topics, including politics in Political Discourses (1752) and religion in
Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion (1779).
Montesquieu (1689-1755)
In his most influential work, De TEsprit des Lois, he argues against despotism.

A potrait of John Locke by A potrait of David Hume by Montesquieu.

Herman Vereist (16417-1690?). lames Tassie (1735-1799).

PROJECT
Find o u t w h a t t h e m a i n i d e a s a r e in t h e w o r k / w o r k s m e n t i o n e d . Explain w h y t h e s e i d e a s w e r e n e w a n d a b r e a k
w i t h t h e p a s t . Explain h o w t h e s e i d e a s i n f l u e n c e d t h e s o c i a l a n d / o r political h i s t o r y o f t h e c o u n t r y .
THE ROMANTIC
AGE
1776-1837
7 wandered lonely as a cloud,
that floats on high o'er vales and hills.'
From I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud b y William Wordsworth
 Robert Burns
I N T R O D U C T I O N • Robert Burns is Scotland's national poet. He wrote b o t h in standard English and
Scottish dialect. His prolific output includes thousands of songs and poems, the best known of which
Auld Lang Syne w h i c h is sung all over t h e English-speaking world on New Year's Eve. T h e two
that follow deal with love, a favourite t h e m e of Burns, who was famed for his amorous adventures.

In this p o e m Burns is trying to say in t h e m o s t c o n v i n c i n g way possible, 'I will always love you'. Read it a n d say i
you think t h a t t h e w o m a n he is writing t o will be c o n v i n c e d .

Text E l A Red, Red Rose

O My Luve ! 's like a red, red rose,
That's newly sprung 2 in June
O my Luve's like the melodie
That's sweetly play'd in tune.

As fair 3 art thou 4 , my bonie lass5,

So deep in luve am I;
And I will love thee 6 still, my dear,
Till a' 7 the seas gang 8 dry.

Till a' the seas gang dry, my dear,

And the rocks melt wi' 9 the sun: 10
I will love thee still, my Dear,
While the sands o' life shall run.

And fare thee weel 10 , my only Luve!

And fare thee weel, a while 11
And I will come again, my Luve,
Tho' 1 2 it were ten thousand mile!
— • GLOSSARY

1. Luve: love
2. newly sprung: just
blossomed
3. fair: beautiful
4. art thou: you are
5. bonie lass: pretty girl
6. thee: you
7. a': all
8. gang: go
9. melt wi': liquefy with
10. fare thee weel:
goodbye
11. a while: for the Alfred Chalon,
moment Girl reading a letter.
12.Tho': even if
•
 Robert Burns 3

COMPREHENSION
1 W h o is t h e p o e t a d d r e s s i n g in t h e p o e m ? 3 W h a t is h e telling his love?

2 W h a t is h e a b o u t t o d o ?

ANALYSIS
1 T h e first q u a t r a i n c o n t a i n s t w o similes*. Analyse
tenor common ground vehicle
t h e m by filling in this t a b l e .
M y Luve (line 1 )
m y Luve (line 3 )

2 In t h e s e c o n d a n d third q u a t r a i n s t h e p o e t says t h a t his love is everlasting. Underline t h e striking visual i m a g e s

h e uses t o underline t h e s t r e n g t h of his feelings.

3 T h e t a b l e b e l o w lists s o m e of t h e f e a t u r e s of medieval ballads*. Tick t h e f e a t u r e s of t h e medieval ballad t h a t y o u

find in this p o e m a n d give e x a m p l e s .

The medieval ballad A Red, Red Rose

- narrates a story w h i c h b e g i n s in medias res tells t h e story of a m a n w h o m u s t leave his lover
- leaves t h e m o t i v e s b e h i n d t h e c h a r a c t e r ' s a c t i o n s
unexplained
- c o n t a i n s f e w descriptive details
- is c o m p o s e d in s i m p l e t w o o r f o u r line stanzas
- consists o f a l t e r n a t e f o u r a n d t h r e e stress lines
- r h y m e s o n t h e s e c o n d a n d t h e fourth line
- m a k e s e x t e n s i v e use of repetition
- uses s t o c k descriptive p h r a s e s
- includes a refrain

4 Find examples of alliteration* and assonance*.

5 H o w w o u l d y o u d e f i n e t h e l a n g u a g e of t h e p o e m ?
Simple • Conversational • Direct • Sophisticated • Artificial • Other:

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P
Hyperbole Hyperbole (Greek for 'overshooter') is the use of exaggeration to draw attention to or
u n d e r l i n e t h e i m p o r t a n c e of a particular s t a t e m e n t . It is o f t e n used to p r o v o k e a
reaction, or for serious or comic effect. Perhaps the most famous example of hyperbole
in English literature is when Christopher Marlowe's hero Doctor Faustus ( • pp. C 2 - 7 )
asks of Helen of Troy, 'Is this the face that launched a thousand ships ...?'
Hyperbole is c o m m o n l y used in everyday speech:
I'd give my right arm for a slice of pizza.
A type of hyperbole in which the exaggeration is magnified so greatly that it refers to an
impossibility is called an a d y n a t o n (from Greek a, 'without' and dynasthai, 'to be able').

TASK Find t w o e x a m p l e s of a d y n a t o n in t h e p o e m A Red, Red Rose.

OVER T O Y O U C r e a t e y o u r o w n s e n t e n c e s using h y p e r b o l e o r a d y n a t o n .

Think of a love p o e m in English or into y o u r o w n l a n g u a g e y o u like a n d read it aloud t o t h e rest of t h e class.

4 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Poetry

A kiss c a n m e a n d i f f e r e n t t h i n g s in d i f f e r e n t c o n t e x t s a n d c u l t u r e s . It c a n b e a sign of a f f e c t i o n or a s i m p l e
g r e e t i n g . Read t h e following p o e m and say if you can associate with t h e feelings t h a t this particular kiss expresses.

o E Humid Seal of Soft Affections

Humid seal1 of soft affections,
Tenderest pledge2 of future bliss3,
Dearest tie of young connections,
Love's first snowdrop, virgin kiss!

Speaking silence, dumb 4 confession, 5

Passion's birth, and infant's play,
Dove-like fondness 5 , chaste concession,
Glowing 6 dawn of future day!
- • GLOSSARY
X. seal: mark Sorrowing joy 7 , Adieu's last action,
2. pledge: promise (Lingering8 lips must now disjoin), 10
3. bliss: happiness
4. dumb: mute
What words can ever speak affection
5. Dove-like fondness: So thrilling and sincere as thine 9 !
pure affection
6. Glowing: bright
7. Sorrowing joy: joy
that gives pain
8. Lingering: not
wanting to separate
9. thine: yours The Kiss by Francesco
Hayez (1867).
•

COMPREHENSION:
1 Circle t h e words in t h e first quatrain t h a t s u g g e s t 3 W h i c h phrases in t h e t e x t would y o u associate with
t h a t a kiss f o r m s a b o n d b e t w e e n t w o p e o p l e . a relationship t h a t is in its early s t a g e s ?

2 Underline t h e phrases in t h e s e c o n d a n d third 4 W h i c h phrase(s) s u g g e s t ( s ) :

quatrains t h a t c o n v e y t h e idea t h a t kissing is a form of a) h o p e b) innocence c ) affection/tenderness
communication. d) sadness e) playfulness?

ANALYSIS
1 T h e p o e m is very musical. Work out t h e rhyming b. Find e x a m p l e s of alliteration*.
scheme*. Is it regular? c. W h a t is t h e d o m i n a n t c o n s o n a n t sound in t h e
a . Listen t o t h e p o e m . Is t h e rhythm iambic* (an p o e m ? D o you find it appropriate for a p o e m
unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable) a b o u t kissing?
or trochaic* (a stressed syllable followed by an
unstressed syllable)? 2 Find e x a m p l e s of oxymorons* in t h e p o e m .

Think of names of songs or lines from songs where 'kiss' is used, and make a list on the board.
 Writers' Gallery - Robert Burns

5g
illiSiSllli WRITERS' GALLER

Robert Burns was b o r n in

Scotland in 1759, the eldest
of seven c h i l d r e n . Although t h e family often had f i n a n c i a l
difficulties, Burns received a good education and was well-read.
A renowned lady's man from a young age, he wrote his first
poems in praise of women when he was just fifteen years old. His
m a n y casual r e l a t i o n s h i p s resulted in t h e birth of several
illegitimate children and a series of legal actions. To avoid these
legal difficulties he decided to leave Scotland and emigrate to the
West Indies. However, just as he was about to leave, his first
book, Poems, Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect, was accepted for
publication and was an immediate best-seller. Burns decided to
ROBERT BURNS
stay in Scotland and moved to Edinburgh, where he became a
(1759-1796)
national celebrity. The second edition of his poems sold 3 , 0 0 0
copies, an enormous number by the standards of the day.
The following year he married the woman with whom he had already had four children (and would
have five more) and started to work on a c o l l e c t i o n of traditional Scottish folk songs w h i c h
eventually ran to six volumes, The Scots Musical Museum. The collection included 160 songs by Burns
himself, including the world-famous Auld Lang Syne (Old Times Past) and the poem A Red, Red Rose.
Fame did not, however, bring a reliable income and Burns was obliged to take a job as a tax collector.
Nevertheless, he continued transcribing traditional folk songs and writing songs. He had written 114
songs for his new book when he died, aged thirty-seven. Such was his popularity that over 10,000
people lined the streets on the day of his burial and Scots all over the world still celebrate the birth
of their national poet on 25th January.

For many people, Burns's work epitomises the romance and beauty
WORKS
of Scotland. In his poems he sings with great sincerity of the simple
joys of ordinary people, and the virtues of friendship, compassion and domestic life. He is at his best in
the poems which celebrate the things he loved, especially women and drink, or those which express
his love for the beauty of his native countryside. His passionate love for its country and its traditions
have made him a symbol of national identity.
Of his 368 songs the most famous are Scots, Wha Hae (1793), the rallying cry of Bruce to his men at
Bannockburn and Auld Lang Syne, a sweet melancholic song about friendship.
Some of Burns's songs have been set to music by great composers such as Mendelssohn, Schumann,
Haydn, Shostakovich and Beethoven.

TASK
Write a s u m m a r y of Burns's life a n d works in t h e f o l l o w i n g o r d e r :
- family b a c k g r o u n d
- difficulties in private life
- s u c c e s s as a p o e t
- m a i n t h e m e s in his p o e m s
- Scottish nationalism a n d tradition
 m

4 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Poetry

A kiss c a n m e a n d i f f e r e n t t h i n g s in d i f f e r e n t c o n t e x t s a n d c u l t u r e s . It c a n b e a sign of a f f e c t i o n o r a s i m p l e
g r e e t i n g . Read t h e following p o e m a n d say if y o u can associate with t h e feelings t h a t this particular kiss expresses.

— • GLOSSARY

1. seal: mark
2. pledge: promise
3. bliss: happiness
4. dumb: mute
5. Dove-like fondness:
pure affection
6. Glowing: bright
7. Sorrowing joy: joy
that gives pain
8. Lingering: not
wanting to separate
9. thine: yours
•

COMPREHENSION
1 Circle t h e words in t h e first quatrain t h a t s u g g e s t 3 W h i c h phrases in t h e t e x t would you associate with
t h a t a kiss f o r m s a b o n d b e t w e e n t w o p e o p l e . a relationship t h a t is in its early s t a g e s ?

2 Underline t h e phrases in t h e s e c o n d a n d third 4 W h i c h phrase(s) s u g g e s t ( s ) :

quatrains t h a t c o n v e y t h e idea t h a t kissing is a form of a) h o p e b) innocence c ) affection/tenderness
communication. d) sadness e ) playfulness?

ANALYSIS
1 T h e p o e m is very musical. Work o u t t h e rhyming b. Find e x a m p l e s of alliteration*.
scheme*. Is it regular? c. W h a t is t h e d o m i n a n t c o n s o n a n t s o u n d in t h e
a. Listen t o t h e p o e m . Is t h e rhythm iambic* (an p o e m ? Do you find it appropriate for a p o e m
unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable) a b o u t kissing?
or trochaic* (a stressed syllable followed by an
unstressed syllable)? 2 Find e x a m p l e s of oxymorons* in t h e p o e m .

Think of names of songs or lines from songs where 'kiss' is used, and make a list on the board.
 Writers' Gallery - Robert Burns

P H H I
WRITERS' GALLERY

Robert Burns was born in

Scotland in 1759, the eldest
of seven children. Although the family often had financial
difficulties, Burns received a good education and was well-read.
A renowned lady's man from a young age, he wrote his first
poems in praise of women when he was just fifteen years old. His
m a n y casual relationships resulted in the birth of several
illegitimate children and a series of legal actions. To avoid these
legal difficulties he decided to leave Scotland and emigrate to the
West Indies. However, just as he was about to leave, his first
book, Poems, Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect, was accepted for
publication and was an immediate best-seller. Burns decided to
ROBERT BURNS
stay in Scotland and moved to Edinburgh, where he became a
(1759-1796)
national celebrity. The second edition of his poems sold 3 , 0 0 0
copies, an enormous number by the standards of the day.
The following year he married the woman with whom he had already had four children (and would
have five more) and started to work on a collection of traditional Scottish folk songs which
eventually ran to six volumes, The Scots Musical Museum. The collection included 160 songs by Burns
himself, including the world-famous Auld Lang Syne (Old Times Past) and the poem A Red, Red Rose.
Fame did not, however, bring a reliable income and Burns was obliged to take a job as a tax collector.
Nevertheless, he continued transcribing traditional folk songs and writing songs. He had written 114
songs for his new book when he died, aged thirty-seven. Such was his popularity that over 10,000
people lined the streets on the day of his burial and Scots all over the world still celebrate the birth
of their national poet on 25 th January.

For many people, Burns's work epitomises the romance and beauty
WORKS
of Scotland. In his poems he sings with great sincerity of the simple
joys of ordinary people, and the virtues of friendship, compassion and domestic life. He is at his best in
the poems which celebrate the things he loved, especially women and drink, or those which express
his love for the beauty of his native countryside. His passionate love for its country and its traditions
have made him a symbol of national identity.
Of his 368 songs the most famous are Scots, Wha Hae (1793), the rallying cry of Bruce to his men at
Bannockburn and Auld Lang Syne, a sweet melancholic song about friendship.
Some of Burns's songs have been set to music by great composers such as Mendelssohn, Schumann,
Haydn, Shostakovich and Beethoven.

TASK
Write a s u m m a r y of Burns's life a n d works in t h e following o r d e r :
- family b a c k g r o u n d
- difficulties in private life
- s u c c e s s as a p o e t
- main t h e m e s in his p o e m s
- Scottish nationalism a n d tradition
,£ 6 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Poetry

William Blake
I N T R O D U C T I O N • William Blake was a visionary. He did not like the rational, materialistic world arou
him, but dreamed of a wprld where imagination and feelings would be central to people's lives. In the th
poems that follow he envisages a world where the colour of a person's skin will be irrelevant, and presents
with two very contrasting images of God ( • Visual Link E5).

Living in a society w h e r e t h e colour of your skin is different from t h a t of nearly e v e r y b o d y else's a r o u n d you c a n
c a u s e p r o b l e m s for a person in today's world. W h e n Blake w a s writing - t w o hundred years a g o - t h e s e p r o b l e m s
w e r e a c c e n t u a t e d b e c a u s e societies w e r e less multicultural t h a n t h e y are today.
In t h e p o e m you are g o i n g t o read, a black boy, with t h e help of his m o t h e r , tries t o find a way t o t e a r d o w n t h e
barriers t h a t have b e e n built b e t w e e n him a n d white children.
W h a t solution d o e s he c o m e up with?

Songs of Innocence
Q m s m The Little Black Boy
My mother bore 1 me in the southern 2 wild
And I am black, but O! my soul is white;
White as an angel is the English child:
But I am black as if bereav'd 3 of light.

My mother taught me underneath a tree 5

And sitting down before the heat of day,
She took me on her lap 4 and kissed me,
And pointing to the east began to say.
GLOSSARY

1. bore: gave birth

2. southern: a country Look on the rising sun: there God does live
in the southern And gives his light, and gives his heat away. 10
hemisphere
3. bereav'd: deprived,
And flowers and trees and beasts and men receive
without Comfort in morning joy in the noon day.
4. lap: the upper part of
your legs when you
are sitting down And we are put on earth a little space 5 ,
5. a little space: for a That we may learn to bear 6 the beams 7 of love
short time
6. to bear: to stand, to
And these black bodies and this sun-burnt face 15
put up with Is but a cloud, and like a shady 8 grove9.
7. beams: shining lines
of light from the sun
8. shady: not in the sun For when our souls have learn'd the heat to bear
9. grove: small wood The cloud will vanish we shall hear his voice.
10. love and care: the
Saying: come out from the grove, my love and care 10 ,
person I love and
look after And round my golden tent like lambs rejoice. 20
 f William Blake 7

T h u s 1 1 did m y m o t h e r say a n d kissed m e ,

A n d t h u s I s a y t o 'little E n g l i s h b o y ;
IX.Thus: in this way
W h e n I f r o m black and he f r o m white cloud free12,
X2.When I ... free: when
A n d r o u n d t h e t e n t o f G o d like L a m b s w e j o y 1 3 : he no longer has a
white cloud and 1 no
longer have a black
I'll s h a d e 1 4 h i m f r o m t h e h e a t till h e c a n b e a r , 25 one
To lean in j o y u p o n our father's knee. X3.joy: rejoice
X4. shade: protect him
A n d t h e n I'll s t a n d a n d s t r o k e 1 5 h i s s i l v e r hair, by blocking the sun
And b e like h i m a n d h e will t h e n love m e . X5.stroke: caress

COMPREHENSION
1 W h a t c o l o u r d o e s t h e black b o y believe his soul is? 6 W h a t d o e s s h e c o m p a r e their 'black b o d i e s ' a n d
'sun-burnt f a c e ' t o in t h e fourth stanza?
2 W h a t d o e s he c o m p a r e t h e English child t o in line 3 ?

3 W h e r e , a c c o r d i n g to t h e black boy's m o t h e r , d o e s 7 W h a t h a p p e n s w h e n p e o p l e die, a c c o r d i n g t o t h e

C o d live? black boy's m o t h e r ?

4 W h a t d o e s C o d give to t h e natural world and m a n ? 8 W h a t will t h e black b o y d o w h e n he and t h e

English b o y leave their ' c l o u d s ' ?
5 W h y are w e put on earth, a c c o r d i n g to t h e black
boy's m o t h e r ? 9 W h e n will t h e English boy love t h e black b o y ?

ANALYSIS
1 T h e p o e m is built a r o u n d a series of contrasts, 3 How would you define t h e relationship b e t w e e n
a. Put t h e following t e r m s from t h e p o e m into t h e t h e black b o y and his m o t h e r ? justify your answer by
appropriate c o l u m n , referring t o t h e text.
black white • Loving • Detached
black b o d i e s sun-burnt f a c e • Formal • Simple
white a n g e l shady grove • Uncivilised • Other:
black cloud w h i t e cloud 4 In t h e third stanza t h e boy's m o t h e r associates G o d
shade silver hair with t h e sun.
brightness darkness a. W h a t kind of G o d d o e s she d e p i c t ? Refer t o t h e
t e x t in your answer.
• A loving C o d
• A G o d of mercy
• A G o d of p u n i s h m e n t
• A G o d of justice
b. Which c o l u m n refers t o t h e English b o y a n d which • Other:
c o l u m n refers t o t h e black b o y ? b . W h i c h line s u g g e s t s t h a t G o d views m a n as part of
nature?
2 T h e black b o y is clearly aware t h a t t h e c o l o u r of his
skin makes him different. 5 In t h e fourth stanza t h e boy's m o t h e r explains t h e
a. Which line in t h e first stanza conveys t h e idea t h a t m e a n i n g of life t o her son. Does she view life as a
he is envious of t h e English child? joyous e x p e r i e n c e , or as a learning e x p e r i e n c e , or as
b. Which lines s u g g e s t t h a t t h e black b o y is u n h a p p y an e x p e r i e n c e of hardship a n d suffering? Refer t o t h e
with t h e colour of his skin? t e x t in y o u r answer.
 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Poetry

6 W h i c h i m a g e in t h e fifth stanza conveys t h e idea of 9 T h e speaker in t h e p o e m is a little child. In part of

G o d as a s h e p h e r d ?
7 Although h e is a victim of discrimination, t h e little
black b o y s e e m s t o hold n o hatred for t h e English
boy. Find e v i d e n c e in t h e last stanza of his willingness
t h e p o e m he speaks directly t o t h e reader, and in t h e
rest he reports w h a t his m o t h e r says. In his poetry
Blake often represents t h e s p e e c h of children by
linking ideas with t h e simple c o n j u n c t i o n ' a n d ' .

t o help t h e English boy. a. Find e v i d e n c e of t h e use of this t e c h n i q u e in t h e

poem.
8 Focus on t h e f i n a l j i n e of t h e p o e m . T h e little black
b . Focus on lines 21 a n d 2 2 . Can you identify n o n -
boy is already resigned t o t h e fact t h a t he will n o t
standard usage of g r a m m a r a n d syntax? W h a t d o e s
receive t h e love of t h e English b o y in this life. He
this s u g g e s t a b o u t t h e person w h o is s p e a k i n g ?
h o p e s t h a t w h e n he dies he will b e like t h e English
boy, w h o will t h e n love him. 10 Listen again to t h e recording of t h e p o e m .
Identify t h e rhyming s c h e m e . How would you define
a. Which adjectives would you c h o o s e to describe t h e
t h e rhythm of t h e p o e m ?
little black b o y ?
• Loving • Naive • Soft a n d relaxing • Harsh and aggressive

• Self-loathing • Prejudiced Does it suit t h e c o n t e n t of t h e p o e m ?

• Victimised • Innocent
• Other:
b . In t h e title of t h e p o e m Blake underlines t h e f a c t
t h a t t h e b o y is 'little'. How d o e s this affect your
response t o t h e p o e m ?

LINK [ to the world of music

Afro-American folksongs o r worksongs w e r e s o n g s t h a t w e r e sung by slaves in t h e British colonies b e f o r e slavery
w a s abolished. At t h e t i m e he w r o t e The Little Black Boy, William Blake was deeply involved in t h e abolitionist
m o v e m e n t . Read t h e folksong. Can you s e e any similarities b e t w e e n h o w t h e little black b o y in Blake's p o e m
views t h e present a n d t h e future, a n d h o w t h e y are represented in t h e s o n g ?

I want to go h o m e
"Dere'V no rain to wet you,
O, yes, I want to go home.
Dere's no sun to burn you,
O, yes, I want to go home;
O, push along, believers,
O, yes, &c.2
Dere's no hard trials,
0, yes, &c.
Dere's no whips a-crackin',
O, yes, &c.
My brudder on de wayside,
O, yes, &c.
O, push along, my brudder,
O, yes, &c.
Where dere's no stormy weather,
O, yes, &c.
Dere's no tribulation,
0 . yes, &c."

GLOSSARY

1. Dere: there
2. Sc.: etc.
 William Blake 9
f

Today w e a c c e p t it as natural t h a t t h e r e are m a n y theories, b o t h scientific and religious, t o explain h o w t h e world

w a s m a d e . William Blake, like m o s t of his c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , believed t h a t G o d m a d e t h e world. But w h a t is G o d
really like? Here is t h e first of Blake's two, very different, depictions of G o d .

The Lamb H g U Q
Little Lamb who made thee 1 ?
Dost thou 2 know who made thee?
Gave thee life & bid thee feed 3 .
By the stream & o'er the mead 4 ;
Gave thee clothing of delight, 5
Softest clothing wooly 5 bright;
Gave thee such a tender voice,
Making all the vales 6 rejoice!
Little Lamb who made thee?
Dost thou know who made thee? 10

Little Lamb I'll tell thee,

Little Lamb I'll tell thee!
He is called by thy 7 name,
For he calls himself a Lamb:
He is meek 8 & he is mild, 15
He became a little child:
I a child and thou a lamb,
We are called by his name.
Little Lamb God bless thee.
Little Lamb God bless thee. 20

GLOSSARY
1. thee: you 5. wooly: woolly
2. Dost thou: do you 6. vales: valleys
3. bid thee feed: told you to eat 7. thy: your
4. o'er the mead: over the 8. meek: very quiet and William Blake, The Lamb
meadow, field gentle (1789).

COMPREHENSION
1 W h o is t h e p o e t addressing? W h a t question d o e s
he ask t h e a d d r e s s e e ?
2 W h a t gifts has t h e Creator given t h e l a m b ?
4 W h o is t h e p o e t referring t o as 'He' in line 1 3 ?
5 In line 1 4 t h e p o e t says t h a t t h e Creator calls himself
a ' L a m b ' . Can you explain this biblical reference?

3 Underline t h e words in t h e first stanza t h a t refer to 6 W h a t d o e s t h e p o e t m e a n w h e n he says in line 1 6

where t h e l a m b lives. t h a t t h e Creator ' b e c a m e a little child'?
0 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Poetry

ANALYSIS
1 T h e p o e m is f o r m e d b y a q u e s t i o n a n d an answer. 6 How w o u l d y o u d e s c r i b e t h e l a n g u a g e of t h e
In w h i c h lines is t h e q u e s t i o n p o s e d a n d in w h i c h lines poem?
is it a n s w e r e d ? • Sophisticated • Refined
• Childlike • Simple
2 Find descriptive details in t h e first s t a n z a t h a t
• Poetic • Scientific
a p p e a l t o t h e reader's:
In w h a t w a y d o e s t h e diction of t h e p o e m reinforce
- sight: By the stream & o'er the mead
the theme?
- touch:
- hearing: 7 E x a m i n e t h e musical f e a t u r e s of t h e p o e m .
a . Is t h e r h y m i n g s c h e m e regular?
3 A m o o d of g e n t l e h a p p i n e s s is c r e a t e d in t h e first
b . Find e x a m p l e s of alliteration* in t h e p o e m .
s t a n z a . Underline t h e w o r d s t h a t c o n v e y this
E x a m p l e : Little Lamb
a t m o s p h e r e . W h a t kind of w o r l d is d e p i c t e d in t h e
c. Find e x a m p l e s of assonance* in t h e p o e m .
poem?
Example: By the stream & o'er the mead.
d . W h a t are t h e prevailing c o n s o n a n t a n d vowel
4 In t h e s e c o n d stanza t h e p o e t establishes a link
s o u n d s ? W o u l d y o u c o n s i d e r t h e m t o b e harsh o r
b e t w e e n t h e Creator, t h e l a m b a n d t h e p o e t as a child.
gentle?
a . In w h i c h lines are t h e s e links m a d e ?
b . W h a t qualities d o t h e Creator, l a m b a n d child Listen t o t h e r e c o r d i n g a g a i n . W h i c h of t h e

(poet) share? following is t h e p r e d o m i n a n t m e t r e ?

c. W h a t d o e s t h e Creator, w h o b e c a m e t h e child • Iambic*

Jesus, h a v e in c o m m o n with l a m b s ? • Trochaic*
• Anapestic*
5 W h i c h of t h e following w o u l d y o u c o n s i d e r t o b e
Is t h e r h y t h m of t h e p o e m s t r o n g a n d regular or
t h e m a i n theme* of t h e p o e m ?
w e a k a n d irregular?
• T h e i n n o c e n c e a n d j o y of t h e l a m b a n d c h i l d h o o d f. Underline e x a m p l e s of repetition* in t h e p o e m .
reflect t h e true n a t u r e of G o d . Repetition a n d a s t r o n g t r o c h a i c r h y t h m p a t t e r n
• G o d has c r e a t e d m a n y w o n d e r f u l t h i n g s , including are typical o f nursery r h y m e s a n d prayers.
l a m b s a n d children. In w h a t w a y is it a p p r o p r i a t e t h a t Blake's p o e m
• If m a n lives in c l o s e c o n t a c t with n a t u r e , h e should r e m i n d t h e r e a d e r b o t h of a nursery r h y m e
b e c o m e s m o r e godlike.
a n d a prayer?
• M a n c a n only truly e x p e r i e n c e G o d t h r o u g h nature.
• G o d is n o t r e s p o n s i b l e for all t h e evil t h a t exists in
t h e world. Evil is t h e result of m a n ' s c o r r u p t i o n .
 f William Blake 11

Is G o d always kind and g e n t l e a n d helpful? Read this p o e m and find o u t w h a t Blake thinks.

Songs of Experience
The Tyger EH Q
Tyger1 Tyger, burning bright,
In the forests of the night;
What immortal hand or eye,
Could frame 2 thy fearful 3 symmetry 4 ?
GLOSSARY

In what distant deeps 5 or skies 1. Tyger: tiger

Burnt the fire of thine 6 eyes! 2. frame: make
3. fearful: frightening
On what wings dare 7 he aspire 8 ? 4. symmetry:
What the hand dare seize9 the fire? symmetrical form or
shape
5. deeps: low,
And what shoulder, & what art 10 , underground places
Could twist the sinews 11 of thy 1 2 heart? 10 6. thine: your
7. dare: to be brave
And when thy heart began to beat, enough to do
What dread 13 hand? & what dread feet? something
8. aspire: rise up, fly
high like Icarus
What the hammer? What the chain, 9. seize: to take hold of
In what furnace was thy brain? something suddenly
and violently; here it
What the anvil 14 ? What dread grasp 15 , 15 means 'steal the fire'
Dare its deadly terrors clasp 16 ? like Prometheus
10. art: skill, ability
11. sinews: muscles
When the stars threw down their spears 17 12. thy: your
And water'd heaven with their tears: 13. dread: frightening
14. anvil: heavy iron
Did he smile his work to see?
block on which pieces
Did he who made the Lamb make thee? 20 of metal are shaped
using a hammer
15.grasp: the way you
Tyger, Tyger burning bright, hold something
In the forests of the night: 16. clasp: hold tightly
17. spears: poles with
What immortal hand or eye,
sharp ends, used as a
Dare frame thy fearful symmetry? weapon in the past

COMPREHENSION
1 W h o is t h e speaker addressing in t h e p o e m ? 4 According t o t h e fourth stanza, w h e r e was t h e
tiger's brain c r e a t e d ?
2 W h a t question d o e s he ask in t h e first stanza?
5 How did t h e stars react to t h e creation of t h e tiger?
3 W h e r e d o e s t h e speaker think t h e creator m a y have
found t h e fire of t h e tiger's eyes? (Line 5 ) 6 W h a t question d o e s t h e speaker ask in line 2 0 ?
12 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Poetry

ANALYSIS
1 T h e p o e m o p e n s with a striking visual i m a g e of t h e 7 W h y d o e s t h e p o e t ask if t h e s a m e C r e a t o r m a d e
t i g e r ' b u r n i n g b r i g h t in t h e forests of t h e n i g h t ' (lines b o t h t h e l a m b a n d t h e t i g e r ? (Line 2 0 )
1 - 2 ) . Explain t h e c o n t r a s t c o n t a i n e d in this i m a g e .
8 Apart f r o m o n e w o r d , t h e final s t a n z a is identical t o
2 In line 4 t h e p o e t uses t h e w o r d ' s y m m e t r y ' . t h e first stanza. W h i c h w o r d has b e e n c h a n g e d ? Have
a . W h a t d o y o u think h e is referring t o ? t h e p o e t ' s q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e n a t u r e of t h e C r e a t o r
• T h e g e o m e t r i c a l d e s i g n of t h e tiger's face/body. b e e n a n s w e r e d in t h e c o u r s e of t h e p o e m o r has his
• T h e b a l a n c e of b e a u t y a n d d a n g e r in t h e tiger. perplexity b e e n intensified?
• T h e g o o d a n d evil t h a t t h e t i g e r m a y r e p r e s e n t .
9 W h i c h of t h e f o l l o w i n g e m o t i o n s d o e s t h e t i g e r
b . Why, in y o u r o p i n i o n , d o e s t h e p o e t d e s c r i b e t h e
inspire in t h e p o e t ? You c a n c h o o s e m o r e t h a n o n e .
s y m m e t r y as 'fearful'?
• Fear • Horror
3 In t h e s e c o n d stanza t h e p o e t refers t o ' t h e fire' in • Awe • Disbelief
t h e tiger's eyes. • Admiration • Confusion
a . W h a t a s s o c i a t i o n s d o y o u m a k e with fire? Are t h e y • Panic
positive or n e g a t i v e o r a m i x t u r e of b o t h ?
1 0 E x a m i n e t h e musical f e a t u r e s o f t h e p o e m .
b . Lines 7 a n d 8 m a k e r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e l e g e n d s of
a . Work o u t t h e r h y m i n g s c h e m e . Is it regular?
Icarus a n d P r o m e t h e u s . W h a t links t h e t i g e r t o t h e
two legends? W h a t characteristics d o e s the Creator b. Find examples of alliteration* and assonance*.
of t h e t i g e r s h a r e with t h e t w o G r e e k h e r o e s ? Listen t o t h e r e c o r d i n g a g a i n . W h i c h of t h e
f o l l o w i n g is t h e p r e d o m i n a n t m e t r e ?
4 Does t h e third stanza f o c u s o n t h e C r e a t o r ' s
• Iambic*
p s y c h o l o g i c a l profile or o n his physical a t t r i b u t e s ?
• Trochaic*
W h i c h w o r d in line 1 2 underlines t h e potential d a n g e r
• Anapestic*
of t h e t i g e r ?
Is t h e r h y t h m of t h e p o e m g e n t l e a n d s o o t h i n g or
5 T h e fourth s t a n z a s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e t i g e r w a s s t r o n g a n d striking? Is it a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e t h e m e
c r e a t e d in a f o r g e . W h i c h of t h e following c o n c e p t s of the p o e m ?
d o y o u a s s o c i a t e with a f o r g e ? d . U n d e r l i n e e x a m p l e s of repetition* in t h e p o e m .
• Light • Dark
e . W h a t is t h e m a i n syntactical s t r u c t u r e ?
• Heat • Cold
• Danger • Security 1 1 Compare and contrast The Lamb and The Tyger in
• Fire • Power t e r m s of:
Have t h e c o n c e p t s y o u h a v e c h o s e n already b e e n
The Lamb The Tyger
used in t h e p o e m ?
musical f e a t u r e s
6 Identify t h e use of personification* in lines 1 7 - 1 8 . syntax
H o w w o u l d y o u explain t h e reaction of t h e stars w h e n diction
t h e y w i t n e s s e d , t h e c r e a t i o n of t h e t i g e r ? the animal
• They wished to defend themselves against t h e the Creator
d a n g e r s p o s e d by t h e tiger. the poet's response
• T h e y felt insignificant a n d helpless b e f o r e t h e
m a g n i f i c e n c e of G o d ' s n e w c r e a t i o n .
• T h e y w e r e s a d d e n e d b y t h e d e s t r u c t i v e n a t u r e of
t h e tiger.
 f William Blake 13

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P
Symbols A symbol is an example of what is called the transference of meaning: a writer takes a
concrete item - an object, a colour, a person, a place, an animal - and attributes to it a
deeper meaning. Sometimes writers use symbols which are part of their culture, water
representing life, for example. Writers can also use non-conventional, private symbols. We
usually understand their meaning from the context in which they occur.

Blake relied heavily o n s y m b o l i s m in his p o e t r y . E x a m i n e t h e s y m b o l s of t h e l a m b a n d t h e

t i g e r u s e d in t h e p o e m s y o u h a v e j u s t r e a d . D r a w a s p i d e r g r a m o f t h e a s s o c i a t i o n s y o u m a k e
for e a c h animal. W h a t d o you think t h e y represent?

» a 3 a t H Y « H J In o u r daily lives w e a r e s u r r o u n d e d b y s y m b o l s . C h o o s e a s y m b o l t h a t r e p r e s e n t s a c o u n t r y ,
a n i d e o l o g y , a c o m p a n y , a b r a n d of p r o d u c t s , e t c . , a n d p r e p a r e a s h o r t talk o n its o r i g i n s a n d
meaning.

T h e link b e t w e e n m u s i c a n d Blake's p o e t r y is e s t a b l i s h e d
in t h e title o f t h e c o l l e c t i o n s in w h i c h The Lamb and The
Tyger appear: Songs of Innocence and Songs of Experience.
The poems have, as y o u have seen through your
analysis, m a n y musical qualities. C h o o s e t w o p i e c e s of
m u s i c w h i c h y o u t h i n k in s o m e w a y w o u l d r e p r e s e n t t h e
p o e m s a n d b e p r e p a r e d t o justify y o u r c h o i c e s .

Title page for The Songs of

Innocence (1794), by William Blake.
THE ROMANTIC AGE - Poetry

WRITERS' GALLERY

Early years in London

William Blake was b o r n in
London in 1757, where he was raised in a state of e c o n o m i c
hardship and received very little formal education. He showed
early signs of artistic talent and, at the age of fourteen, became
an a p p r e n t i c e in an engraver's shop, where he worked and
learned the craft for seven years.

A period of great creativity T h e year 1 7 8 3 marked the

b e g i n n i n g of a period of great creativity in Blake's life. He
published his first v o l u m e of poetry, Poetical Sketches, and
invented a new method of printing, which he called 'illuminated
printing', a mixture of engraving and painting which he claimed
his dead brother Robert had revealed to him in a dream. In 1789
he engraved and published his first great literary work, Songs of
Innocence, followed in 1794 by The Maniage of Heaven and Hell and Songs of Experience. His output was
outstanding: he made hand-coloured engravings for b o t h his own poems and other authors'.
However, his books were not printed and circulated in sufficient numbers to make his work profitable.

Depression and mysticism His disappointment at this lack of recognition led Blake to depression
which verged on insanity. This gloomy period lasted seven years, from 1810 to 1817. He lived in a
dirty studio, completely alienated from the material world and claiming that visions of angels, spirits,
prophets and devils were inspiring his work.

The last years After 1 8 1 8 he stopped writing poetry but c o n t i n u e d to produce engravings,
including the illustrations for Dante's Divine Comedy, which he left uncompleted at his death in
1827. He was buried in a common grave in relative obscurity.

Songs of I n n o c e n c e and Songs of Experience Blake's greatness

as o n e of the leading poets of English R o m a n t i c i s m is best
expressed in his 'illuminated books' - Songs of Innocence (1789) and Songs of Experience (1794) - which
h e re-printed several times. They are visual and p o e t i c masterpieces where art and t e x t are
inextricably linked and mutually enrich each other.
The lyrics in the Songs of Innocence are fresh, direct observations and show life as perceived by children;
they read like simple, tender poetry written in a natural, unaffected style. However, these simple
poems and illustrations often hide deeper meanings and more intricate patterns than first appear.
The poems in the Songs of Experience reflect a gloomier vision of the world, where Evil has the upper
hand over Good. Innocence and Experience, 'the two contrary states of the human soul', are shown
in direct contrast in such poems as The Lamb ( • Text E4) and The Tyger ( • Text E5).

Prophetic Books In the so-called Prophetic Books, a series of long symbolic poems which he started
writing in 1789, Blake expresses his c o n d e m n a t i o n of eighteenth-century political and social
tyranny. The inspiration for these poems, which reflect Blake's view that the poet/artist is a prophet
inspired by visionary messages, is Milton ( • pp. D14-22), of whose spirit Blake himself believed to
be the living embodiment. The Prophetic Books, which contain some of his most powerful images,
denounce authority in often abstruse language through a cast of imaginary mythological characters.
 Writers' Gallery - William Blake

^ - M m m m m • m m m * m m

The Marriage of Heaven and Hell In the same years a prose work, The Marriage of Heaven and Hell,
develops Blake's idea that 'without Contraries is no progression'. The work includes aphorisms, anec-
dotes and the 'Proverbs of Hell', such as 'The tygers of wrath are wiser than the horses of instruction'.

The Profecies A radical all of his life, Blake sympathised with the forces of revolution and he praised
the American War of Independence in America: A Prophecy (1793), and the French Revolution in Europe:
A Prophecy (1794). Tyranny and freedom are also the themes of the Book ofUrizen (1794).

Milton and J e r u s a l e m Blake's mature work includes visionary epics written and illustrated
between 1804 and 1818. The most outstanding works are Milton and Jerusalem. In both works Blake
chose to have no conventional theme, characters, rhyme, or metre. He based his works on a series of
highly personal symbols which are often difficult to interpret.

A romantic poet and a philosopher Appreciated only by his close circle of friends and admirers
such as Coleridge ( • pp. E24-31) and Keats ( • pp. E52-63), Blake went largely unnoticed in his own
time and in the Victorian period. Critics only discovered his work a full century after his death, and
gave due recognition to its originality. Today Blake is acclaimed as one of the most inspired and
original poets and painters of his time. His belief in the absolute predominance of Imagination over
Reason subverted all the rules that governed eighteenth-century art and poetic forms ( • Visual Link
E5). He rejected the basic principles of the Age of Reason and the classic models that restricted free
artistic and poetic expession.

A revolutionary spirit Blake lived in a period of great

social c h a n g e s : the American, F r e n c h and Industrial
Revolutions all took place during his lifetime. Embracing
these revolutionary ideas, he became a bitter critic of his
own t i m e . He asserted t h a t religion, politics and
industrialism were 'dark Satanic Mills' and 'Prisons are built
with stones of Law, Brothels with bricks of Religion'. He
called the new industrial England a 'land of poverty' and
expressed his bleak vision in many poems. Unlike other
British radicals of his time (Wordsworth, • pp. E l 6 - 2 3 ) he
never disowned his views. He was not daunted by the Reign
of Terror in France and continued until his death to believe
that 'Active Evil is better than Passive Good'.

William Blake, The Ancient of Days

(God as an Architect), 1794.

TASK
U s e t h e f o l l o w i n g key c o n c e p t s t o p r e p a r e a r e p o r t a b o u t t h e life a n d w o r k s of William Blake.

- Born into e c o n o m i c hardship - Songs of Innocence a n d Songs - Largely u n n o t i c e d d u r i n g his

- Early artistic t a l e n t of Experience time
- Engraver's a p p r e n t i c e - Lack o f r e c o g n i t i o n - Literary a n d artistic i n n o v a t o r
- Illuminated printing - Radical politics
(IE) 16 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Poetry

William Wordsworth
I N T R O D U C T I O N • William Wordsworth is best known as a nature poet w h o found beauty, comfort
and moral strength in the natural world. If he were alive today he would probably be a member of an
organisation that campaigns to protect the e n v i r o n m e n t . For him the world of nature is free from
corruption and stress, and offers man a means of escape from industrialised society ( • Visual Links E2
and E3).

Have you ever felt you study t o o m u c h o r t h a t t h e r e is t o o m u c h to study? Well, read t h e following p o e m b e c a u s e
William Wordsworth has s o m e advice for you!

Text E 6 The Tables Turned

(...)
Up! up! my Friend, and quit 1 your books;
Or surely you'll grow double 2 :
Up! up! my Friend, and clear your looks 3 ;
Why all this toil 4 and trouble?
- • GLOSSARY

1. quit: leave The sun above the mountain's head,

2. you'll grow double:
you will not be able
to stand up straight
3. clear your looks: give
your eyes a rest
4. toil: hard work
5. lustre: light
6. mellow: soft
7. dull: boring
8. strife: struggle
9. linnet: small brown
singing bird
10.my life ... in it: there
is more to be learned
from the linnet than
from books
11. hark: listen
12. blithe: cheerful
13. throstle: singing bird
14.no mean preacher: a
good teacher
15. forth: out
16. ready wealth: riches
ready to be enjoyed
17. breathed: expressed
18. vernal: connected
with spring
19. sages: wise people
20. lore: knowledge
21. meddling: interfering
22. Mis-shapes: changes
the natural form
23. dissect: analyse in
detail
A freshening lustre5 mellow 6
Through all the long green fields has spread,
His first sweet evening mellow.
Books! 'tis a dull7 and endless strife 8 :
Come, hear the woodland linnet 9 , 10
How sweet his music! on my life,
There's more of wisdom in it 10 .
And hark 11 ! how blithe 12 the throstle 13 sings!
He, too, is no mean preacher 14 :
Come forth 15 into the light of things, is
Let Nature be your Teacher.
She has a world of ready wealth 16 ,
Our minds and hearts to bless -
Spontaneous wisdom breathed 17 by health, A detail from Wivenhoe Park,
Essex, by John Constable
Truth breathed by cheerfulness. 20 (1816).
One impulse from a vernal 18 wood
May teach you more of man,
Of moral evil and of good
Than all the sages19 can.
Sweet is the lore 20 which Nature brings; 25
Our meddling 21 intellect
Mis-shapes22 the beauteous forms of things: -
We murder to dissect 23 .
 William Wordsworth

Enough of Science and of Art;

Close up those barren 24 leaves 25 ; 30
24.barren: not fertile
Come forth, and bring with you a heart 25. leaves: pages of a
That watches and receives. book
•
COMPREHENSION
1 In t h e first stanza t h e p o e t describes t h e negative 6 W h o or w h a t d o e s ' S h e ' refer to in line 1 7 ? W h a t
effects of studying t o o hard. W h a t negative physical ' w e a l t h ' can nature give us, a c c o r d i n g t o t h e p o e t in
effect a n d psychological effects d o e s he m e n t i o n ? t h e fifth stanza?

2 W h a t t i m e of t h e day is it? How has t h e poet's 7 W h a t can a 'vernal w o o d ' t e a c h , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e

friend s p e n t t h e day? sixth stanza?

3 Which adjectives d o e s t h e p o e t use t o describe t h e 8 W h i c h is t h e effect of t h e h u m a n intellect on o n e ' s

evening sun? In w h a t way can t h e light b e perception of t h e b e a u t y a n d k n o w l e d g e of n a t u r e ?
f r e s h e n i n g ? W h o d o e s 'His' refer t o in line 8 ? (Seventh stanza)

4 W h a t adjective d o e s he use t o describe life s p e n t 9 W h i c h line in t h e first stanza d o e s line 3 0 e c h o ?

studying b o o k s in t h e third stanza?
1 0 W h a t d o e s m a n n e e d t o bring with him in order
5 W h o d o e s 'He' refer t o in line 1 4 ? W h a t d o e s t h e t o a p p r e c i a t e nature? (Eighth stanza)
p o e t hear in t h e linnet's s o n g ?

ANALYSIS
1 T h e p o e m explores t h e t h e m e of man's 5 Explain t h e pun* in line 3 0 .
c o m m u n i o n with Nature. W h i c h p o e t i c device d o e s
6 Find examples of exclamations and imperatives in t h e
t h e p o e t use t o draw m a n a n d nature closer t o g e t h e r ?
p o e m . Identify t h e rhyming s c h e m e . W h i c h adjective(s)
• Rhetorical questions • Irony K Personification*
would you use to define t h e m o o d of t h e p o e m ?
2 T h e relationship b e t w e e n m a n a n d nature as
7 Read t h e following e x t r a c t from T h e Preface to The
described in t h e p o e m is almost religious in its intensity.
Lyrical Ballads ( • p. El 18), the collection of poems in
Find e x a m p l e s of religious t e r m s used in t h e t e x t .
which The Tables Turned first a p p e a r e d . In it
3 In t h e p o e m t h e dull, colourless world of b o o k s is Wordsworth c o m m e n t s on t h e l a n g u a g e of his poetry.
c o n t r a s t e d with t h e bright, colourful world of Nature.
There will also be found in these volumes little of what
Find r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e light a n d colour of nature in is usually called poetic diction; I have taken as much
t h e text. pains to avoid it as others ordinarily take to produce it;
4 Examine t h e table below. this I have done (...) to bring my language near to the
language of men (...)
abstract concepts people
O n e of Wordsworth's o b j e c t i v e s was t o write poetry in
wisdom preacher t h e l a n g u a g e used by c o m m o n m e n . How would you
truth teacher define the language of The Tables Turned? Do you
moral evil a n d g o o d sage think he r e a c h e d his goal of writing in t h e l a n g u a g e
of m e n ?
Do w e normally a s s o c i a t e t h e s e c o n c e p t s a n d p e o p l e
with t h e world of b o o k s or t h e world of n a t u r e ? 8 T h e expression ' t o turn t h e t a b l e s ' m e a n s ' t o invert'
C h e c k t h e r e f e r e n c e s in t h e p o e m . Is t h e usual or ' t o c h a n g e a r o u n d ' . How would y o u relate t h e title
association u p h e l d ? of the poem The Tables Turned to its contents?

Wordsworth says t h a t t h e world of nature is a source of k n o w l e d g e a n d learning.

Look at t h e following list of sources of learning in today's world a n d rank t h e m in order of i m p o r t a n c e . C o m p a r e
and discuss your order of i m p o r t a n c e with your classmates.
The h o m e • T h e mass media • T h e school • T h e Internet
 4
mill
. 18 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Poetry

While out walking in t h e c o u n t r y on a bright, windy day, Wordsworth saw fields of daffodils stretching o u t b e f o r e
h i m . His s i s t e r D o r o t h y w a s w i t h h i m a n d s a y s in h e r Journals, 'I n e v e r s a w d a f f o d i l s s o b e a u t i f u l ' . D o e s
Wordsworth m a n a g e t o c o n v e y t h e b e a u t y of t h e flowers t o y o u ?

Q BEES I Wandered Lonely As A Cloud

I wandered 1 lonely as a cloud
That floats 2 on high o'er vales 3 and hills,
When all at once I saw a crowd,
A host 4 , of golden daffodils 5 ;
Beside the lake, beneath 6 the trees, 5
Fluttering 7 and dancing in the breeze.

Continuous as the stars that shine

And twinkle 8 on the milky way 9 ,
They stretched in never-ending line
Along the margin of the bay: 10
Ten thousand saw I at a glance 10 ,
Tossing 11 their heads in sprightly 12 dance.

The waves beside them danced; but they

Outdid 13 the sparkling 14 waves in glee 15 ;
A poet could but not be gay 16 , 15
In such a jocund company;
1 gazed 17 - and gazed - but little thought
What wealth the show to me had brought:

For oft 18 , when on my couch 1 9 I lie

In vacant or in pensive mood 2 0 , 20
They flash upon that inward 21 eye
Which is the bliss 22 of solitude;
And then my heart with pleasure fills,
And dances with the daffodils.

GLOSSARY

1. wandered: moved 6. beneath: under 11. Tossing: moving in an for a long time
slowly 7. Fluttering: moving quickly uncontrolled way 18. oft: often
2. floats: moves slowly like a bird's wings 12. sprightly: energetic 19. couch: sofa
in the air 8. twinkle: shine 13. Outdid: did better 20.In vacant ... mood:
3. o'er vales: over the intermittently 14. sparkling: shining not thinking about
valleys 9. milky way: white band of brightly anything or thinking
4. host: large number stars that can be seen across 15. glee: happiness deeply about something
5. daffodils: yellow the sky at night 16. gay: happy 21. inward: inner, inside
spring flowers 10 . glance: quick look 17. gazed: looked attentively 22. bliss: perfect happiness

COMPREHENSION
1 W h e r e is t h e p o e t in t h e first stanza a n d w h a t is h e
d o i n g ? Is h e a l o n e o r in c o m p a n y ?
2 W h a t does he unexpectedly c o m e across?
3 Find r e f e r e n c e s in t h e t e x t t o t h e colour, t h e
l o c a t i o n , n u m b e r a n d m o v e m e n t of t h e daffodils.
ANALYSIS I
1 In t h e o p e n i n g t w o lines t h e p o e t says t h a t h e
' w a n d e r e d lonely' a n d c o m p a r e s himself t o a ' c l o u d
t h a t floats o n h i g h ' . W h a t s t a t e of m i n d is h e in?
2 T h e d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e daffodils c o n t r a s t s with t h e
p o e t ' s feelings. Find w o r d s in lines 3 - 6 t h a t c o n t r a s t
with ' l o n e l y ' a n d ' w a n d e r i n g a n d f l o a t i n g ' .
3 Identify t h e simile* t h a t o p e n s t h e s e c o n d s t a n z a .
Find t h e w o r d s in this s t a n z a t h a t c o n v e y t h e idea of
a) multitude, b ) b r i g h t n e s s a n d c ) m o v e m e n t .
4 Find e x a m p l e s of personification* in t h e s e c o n d
a n d third s t a n z a s . W h a t is t h e m o v e m e n t o f t h e
daffodils c o m p a r e d t o ?
5 Find t h r e e s y n o n y m s in t h e third s t a n z a f o r ' h a p p y '
a n d ' h a p p i n e s s ' . T h e s o u n d s of t h e w o r d s t h a t t h e
p o e t c h o o s e s t o d e s c r i b e t h e daffodils also c o n v e y t h e
s e n s e of j o y t h e y inspire. W h i c h w o r d s in t h e first
t h r e e stanzas w o u l d y o u c o n s i d e r j o y o u s - s o u n d i n g ?
6 Focus o n line 1 7 . T h e daffodils h a v e had an a l m o s t
h y p n o t i c e f f e c t o n t h e p o e t . How is this idea
conveyed?
W h e n W o r d s w o r t h calls u p t h e i m a g e of t h e daffodils in his m i n d , h e relives t h e s e n s a t i o n s of w o n d e r a n d j o y h e
felt w h e n h e first s a w t h e m . Think o f a natural setting w h i c h y o u particularly liked a n d write a s h o r t a c c o u n t of
t h e e m o t i o n s it stirs u p in y o u .
William Wordsworth
4 In w h i c h line d o e s t h e p o e t d e s c r i b e his r e s p o n s e
to the scene?
5 W h e r e is t h e p o e t in t h e fourth stanza, a n d w h a t is
he doing?
6 W h a t 'fills' t h e p o e t ' s ' h e a r t with p l e a s u r e ' a n d
m a k e s it ' d a n c e ' ?
7 In t h e f o u r t h stanza t h e setting* has c h a n g e d . Is
t h e t e n s e of t h e verbs in this s t a n z a t h e s a m e as t h e
o t h e r s ? T h e m o o d has also c h a n g e d . W h i c h w o r d s in
lines 1 9 - 2 0 s u g g e s t a m o o d t h a t is m o r e : a ) static,
b) melancholy, c) meditative?
8 W h a t metaphor* d o e s t h e p o e t use for h u m a n
i m a g i n a t i o n in line 21 ? W h i c h w o r d recalls t h e
sparkling b r i g h t n e s s o f t h e daffodils?
9 W h i c h w o r d s in lines 2 3 - 2 4 r e c a p t u r e t h e e m o t i o n
a n d m o v e m e n t of t h e first t h r e e s t a n z a s ?
T O Read W o r d s w o r t h ' s definition of a p o e t :
He is a man ... who rejoices more than other m e n in
the spirit of life that is in him. (...) he has (...) a
disposition to be affected more than other men by
absent things as if they were present; an ability of
conjuring up in himself passions, which are indeed far
from being the same as those produced by real events,
yet do (...) more nearly resemble the passions
produced by real events, than any thing which (...)
other men are accustomed to feel in themselves.
Explain how I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud supports
this definition of t h e p o e t .
!0 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Poetry

In English t h e r e is a saying, ' S t o p t h e world, I w a n t t o g e t off'. People use it w h e n t h e y are u n d e r g r e a t stress a n d

would literally like t h e world to stop m o v i n g , so t h a t t h e y can have a rest. Wordsworth feels like this in t h e
following p o e m and would like to see a radical c h a n g e in his life.

Q Text E 8 The World Is Too Much With Us

The world is too much with us; late and soon 1 ,
Getting and spending, we lay waste 2 our powers;
Little we see in Nature that is ours;
We have given our hearts away, a sordid boon 3 !

The Sea that bares her bosom 4 to the moon;

The winds that will be howling 5 at all hours,
And are up-gathered 6 now like sleeping flowers;
From this, for everything, we are out of tune 7 ;

It moves us not 8 . - Great God! I'd rather be

A Pagan suckled9 in creed outworn 10 ; 10
GLOSSARY So might I, standing on this pleasant lea 11 ,

1. late and soon: all the Have glimpses 12 that would make me less forlorn 13 ;
time, forever
2. lay waste: lose
Have sight of 14 Proteus 15 rising from the sea
3. sordid boon: squalid Or hear old Triton 16 blow his wreathed horn.
benefit
4. bares her bosom:
shows her breasts
5. howling: making a
lot of noise
6. up-gathered: quiet,
closed
7. out of tune: playing
or singing higher or
lower than the
correct musical note
8. It moves us not: it
(the world) has no
emotional effect on us
9. suckled: fed (with
milk from the breast)
10. creed outworn: an
old-fashioned religion
11. lea: area of grassy
land
12. glimpses: visions
13. forlorn: sad
14. Have sight of: see
15. Proteus: Greek sea
god
16. Triton: Greek sea god
who played a trumpet
(horn) made from a
shell which was
covered in flowers
and leaves
(wreathed)
 William Wordsworth

COMPREHENSION
1 In line 2 t h e p o e t says t h a t w e h a v e lost ' o u r
p o w e r s ' . W h a t p o w e r s is h e referring t o a n d w h y h a v e
w e lost t h e m ?
2 W h i c h line c o n f i r m s t h a t m a n h a s b e c o m e
alienated from nature?
3 W h o or w h a t witnesses t h e b e a u t y of t h e sea,
a c c o r d i n g t o t h e p o e t in line 5 ?
4 In lines 6 - 7 t h e p o e t gives t w o c o n t r a s t i n g
d e s c r i p t i o n s of t h e w i n d s : ' h o w l i n g a t all h o u r s ' a n d ' u p -
g a t h e r e d n o w like s l e e p i n g f l o w e r s ' . W h i c h i m a g e
d e s c r i b e s h o w t h e w i n d s w o u l d like t o b e ? W h i c h i m a g e
d e s c r i b e s h o w t h e w i n d s are d u e t o m a n ' s i n d i f f e r e n c e ?
5 W h i c h lines s u g g e s t t h a t t h e p o e t w o u l d like t o
r e t u r n t o a m o r e p r i m i t i v e a n d childlike s t a t e ? W h a t
would he h o p e to gain from returning to a simpler
w a y o f living?

ANALYSIS
1 T h e p o e m is w r i t t e n in t h e f o r m o f a sonnet*. Is it a
Petrarchan o r a S h a k e s p e a r e a n s o n n e t ? Identify t h e
r h y m i n g s c h e m e . Explain t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e p o e m in
terms of quatrains and sestets.
2 W h i c h figure of speech* d o e s t h e p o e t u s e in lines
5 - 6 to suggest that man and nature should b e o n e ?
3 Line 5 s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e s e a r e v e a l s h e r b e a u t y t o
m a n k i n d , w h o is i n d i f f e r e n t a n d p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h t h e
m a t e r i a l w o r l d . W h a t i m a g e in line 7 r e i n f o r c e s t h e
idea o f n a t u r e c o n c e a l i n g h e r b e a u t y ? W h a t d o t h e
still w i n d s a n d t h e s l e e p i n g f l o w e r s h a v e in c o m m o n ?
4 W h e r e is t h e t u r n i n g p o i n t in t h e p o e m ? H o w is t h e
reader's a t t e n t i o n d r a w n t o it? H o w d o e s t h e
e x p r e s s i o n 'it m o v e s us n o t ' c o n t r a s t w i t h w h a t f o l l o w s ?
5 T h e final six lines o f t h e p o e m c o n t a i n several
references t o g o d s and religion. Underline t h e m .
W h a t r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n religion a n d n a t u r e is
e s t a b l i s h e d in t h e s e l i n e s ?

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P
Oxymoron An o x y m o r o n is the combination of words which at first sight seems to be contradic-
tory or incongruous, but whose surprising juxtaposition emphasises a contrast, express-
es a truth or creates a dramatic effect. Oxymorons are paradoxical metaphors that are
reduced to two words, usually a d j e c t i v e - n o u n ( ' b u r n i n g ice') or a d v e r b - a d j e c t i v e
('painfully beautiful').

Identify a n o x y m o r o n in line 4 of The World Is Too Much With Us.

Is it a n a d j e c t i v e - n o u n c o m b i n a t i o n o r a n a d v e r b - a d j e c t i v e c o m b i n a t i o n ?
W h a t p u r p o s e d o e s it s e r v e ?
II To express a truth • To c r e a t e a d r a m a t i c e f f e c t
• To emphasise a contrast • All o f t h e a b o v e

OVER T O YOU C r e a t e t h r e e o x y m o r o n s of y o u r o w n .

•DD
Is W o r d s w o r t h ' s m e s s a g e in t h i s p o e m r e l e v a n t t o d a y ? D o w e l e a d s u c h s t r e s s f u l lives t h a t w e h a v e n o t i m e t o
a p p r e c i a t e t h e w o r l d a r o u n d us? W h a t c r e a t e s s t r e s s f o r us t o d a y ? D i s c u s s w i t h y o u r c l a s s m a t e s .
I, v

• A
22
M THE ROMANTIC AGE - Poetry

WRITERS' GALLERY

Early years William Wordsworth

was born in 1770 in a little town
in the Lake District in the north-west of England. When he was
M B
WLs % IFL^H just eight years old his mother died, and he also lost his father
five years later. T h e c h i l d r e n were separated and raised by
guardians.
In 1 7 8 7 Wordsworth entered Cambridge, b u t he was n o t
particularly interested in his studies. While still a university
student he went on a three-month walking tour of France, the
Swiss Alps and Italy, and was greatly impressed by the beauty of
t h e landscape. W h e n he f i n i s h e d his degree he returned to
France for a year and b e c a m e a passionate supporter of t h e
W I L L I A M WORDSWORTH
democratic ideals of the French Revolution. Financial problems,
(1770-1850)
however, forced him to return to England, where he went to live
with his sister Dorothy in a small village in Dorset. In 1793 he published his first two books of verse,
which received little notice from either the critics or the public.

The friendship with Coleridge Two events then changed his life forever: he inherited a sum of
money which covered his daily necessities and, in 1795, he met Samuel Taylor Coleridge ( • pp.
E24-31), a poet with similar radical political and literary views. This friendship had a lasting impact
on b o t h poets. William and Dorothy went to live close to Coleridge. Together they discussed
political issues, read, wrote, exchanged theories on poetry and commented on each other's work.
In this period of intense creativity they produced the Lyrical Ballads (1798), a landmark in English
Romanticism. Coleridge contributed four poems and Wordsworth nineteen to the collection. The
collection was not well-received by the literary critics of the day. Later that year Wordsworth, his
sister Dorothy and Coleridge travelled to Germany. Coleridge continued his studies in philosophy,
while Wordsworth wrote several of his finest lyrical poems and started work on The Prelude, an
autobiographical poem which he continued to revise throughout the rest of his life.
Two years later a second edition of the Lyrical Ballads appeared, with new poems by Wordsworth,
who also provided a prose Preface illustrating his and Coleridge's principles of poetry.

The Lake District, home and marriage William and Dorothy moved to Grasmere, one of the
loveliest villages in the Lake District, a region which Wordworth immortalised in his poetry. In
1802 Wordsworth married a childhood friend and together they had five children. During this
period he produced Poems, in Two Volumes (1807), a collection which includes some of his finest
verse and most famous sonnets. His reputation began to grow and his work became increasingly
popular. He did, however, suffer personal tragedy when two of his children died. His close friend
Coleridge was experiencing serious health problems and the two became estranged and never
fully reconciled.

Maturity and conservatism As his fame as a poet grew, Wordsworth became more conservative
politically. He was given a well-paid government job and openly campaigned for the conservative
Tory party. The younger generation of Romantic poets criticised him for abandoning the radical
politics and idealism of his y o u t h , while recognising t h e debt t h e y owed h i m for t h e great
innovations of his poetry.
 Writers' Gallery - William Wordsworth 23

' ' •

As he advanced in age, however, his poetic vision grew weaker and his output was largely uninspired
and written in the 'elevated' artificial style against which he had rebelled. In 1840 he was awarded a
government pension and the title of Poet Laureate, in recognition of his contribution to English
literature. He died in 1850, a few days after his eightieth birthday.

T h e Lyrical Ballads Wordsworth's contribution to English

WORKS
poetry cannot be overestimated. His work with Coleridge on the
Lyrical Ballads established Romanticism as a literary movement in England, and the prose Preface to
the second edition came to be considered as a Romantic manifesto ( • p. El 18).
Many critics consider the long poem The Prelude, published posthumously in 1850 in twenty-four
books to be his greatest achievement. The poem describes the crucial experiences and stages of the
poet's life and is an introspective account of his emotional and spiritual development. Further
evidence of Wordsworth's genius can be found in Poems, in Two Volumes (1807), which contains,
among other celebrated poems, 'I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud' ( • Text E7).

Nature Wordsworth was a great innovator. He found his

greatest inspiration in nature, which he believed could elevate
the human soul and exert a positive moral influence on
human thoughts and feelings. He identified Nature with God
and was more pantheistic in his vision than Christian. His
poetry celebrates the lives of simple rural people, whom he sees
as being more sincere than people living in cities. Children are
also regarded as pure and innocent, uncorrupted by education
and the evils of the world ( • Visual Links E2 and E3).

Poetry as intuition Wordsworth believed that intuition,

not reason, should guide the poet. Inspiration should come
from the direct experience of the senses. Poetry, he wrote in
the Preface, originates from 'the spontaneous overflow of
powerful feelings' which is filtered through ' e m o t i o n
recollected in tranquillity'.

Reputation Wordsworth renewed English poetry both in

content and style. He started writing at a time when poetry
was constrained by literary conventions, affected diction and
A drawing of Tintern Abbey, by the great romantic
emphasis on form. By rejecting these restraints, Wordsworth
painter I. W. Turner (c. 1794). After a visit to Tintern
permanently extended the range of English poetry. Abbey William Wordsworth wrote one of his best-
known poems.

TASK
W h i c h of t h e f o l l o w i n g d o y o u find in W o r d s w o r t h ' s b i o g r a p h y ?
• Political p a s s i o n a n d i n v o l v e m e n t • Personal t r a g e d y • Academic excellence
• Hostile criticism • I n t e r e s t in f o r e i g n c u l t u r e • Consistency of views
• Lack o f m o r a l s t a n d a r d s • Literary i n n o v a t i o n • L o v e of n a t u r e
• I n t e n s e C h r i s t i a n beliefs • Idealism f o l l o w e d b y c o n s e r v a t i s m • T a l e n t a s a satirist
 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Poetry

The Rime of the Ancient Mariner

by Samuel Taylor Coleridge

I N T R O D U C T I O N • While walking in the hills in the Lake District, William Wordsworth suggested to
close friend, Coleridge, that he write a story about an adventure at sea. Coleridge took up the suggestio
and the result was The Rime of the Ancient Mariner.
Of the Romantic poets, Coleridge was one of the most imaginative, and in the Rime he transports t'
reader into fantastical, unforgettable settings ( • Visual Link E4).

W e s o m e t i m e s a s s o c i a t e certain t h i n g s with g o o d luck a n d bad luck. For e x a m p l e , a rabbit's f o o t is t h o u g h t t o

bring g o o d luck while walking under a ladder m e a n s trouble in store. Such h u m a n superstitions play a big part in
t h e p o e m you are a b o u t t o read.

THE STORY
The Rime, or story, is told by the Ancient Mariner to a man who is on his way to a wed-
ding. The Mariner was working as a sailor on a ship that was blocked in by ice near the
South Pole. Suddenly an albatross appears out of the fog and is welcomed as a sign of
good luck by the crew. Not long after, the ice splits and the bird flies alongside the ship as
it continues its voyage. Then, one day, for no apparent reason, the Mariner shoots and
kills the albatross. The ship is blown north to the Equator into a honible sea where there
is no wind. The sailors say it is the Mariner's fault for bringing about their bad luck, and
hang the albatross around his neck so that he will never forget what a terrible thing he
has done ( • Text E9). All the sailors die and he sees no way out of a hopeless situation
until, one night, he is so struck by the beauty of the watersnakes that are swimming
around the ship, that he blesses them. The albatross falls from his neck ( • Text E10)
and the ship sails home. He is saved, but as a penance he has to travel around the world
and tell his story, which serves as a warning to everyone to love all God's creatures.
Note: The notes in a smaller font are a summary of what happens in the poem.
The killing of
the albatross as
illustrated by
Custave Dore
Text E9 Water, Water, Every Where
(1875).
The Ancient Mariner has just killed the albatross.

Part II
(...)
(The shipmates cry out against the ancient Mariner for killing the bird of good luck.)

- • GLOSSARY And I had done a hellish 1 thing.

1. hellish: evil And it would work 'em woe 2 :
2. work 'em woe: bring For all averred 3 1 had killed the bird
them bad luck
That made the breeze to blow.
3. averred: claimed
4. wretch: evil person Ah wretch 4 ! said they, the bird to slay5, 5
5. slay: kill That made the breeze to blow!
 The Rime of the Ancient Mariner - Samuel Taylor Coleridge 303

(But when the fog cleared off, they justify the same, and thus make themselves accomplices to 6. dim: dark
the crime.) 7. uprist: rose up
8. mist: light fog
Nor dim 6 nor red, like God's own head,
9. foam: white spray on
The glorious Sun uprist 7 : the top of waves
They all averred I had killed the bird 10. furrow: track that a
boat leaves behind it
That brought the fog and mist 8 . 10 in the sea
'Twas right, said they, such birds to slay, 11. burst: moved
suddenly
That bring the fog and mist.
12.dropped: fell
(The fair breeze continues; the ship enters the Pacific Ocean, and sails northward, even till it 13. copper: reddish-
reaches the Line.) brown metal
14. mast: tall pole on
The fair breeze blew, the white foam 9 flew, which the sails of the
The furrow 10 followed free; ship are hung
15. We stuck: we did not
We were the first that ever burst 11 15 move
Into that silent sea. 16. breath: wind
(The ship hath been suddenly becalmed.) 17.motion: movement
18. idle: not moving
Down dropped 12 the breeze, the sails dropped down, 19.boards: the wood
'Twas sad as sad could be; from which the ship
was made
And we did speak only to break 20. shrink: become
The silence of the sea! 20 smaller
21. drop: very small
All in a hot and copper 13 sky, amount of liquid
The bloody Sun, at noon, 22. deep: the bottom of
the sea
Right up above the mast 14 did stand, 23. rot: start
No bigger than the Moon. decomposing
24. slimy things:
Day after day, day after day, 25 slippery, unpleasant
creatures like snakes
We stuck 15 , nor breath 16 nor motion 17 ; 25. crawl: move very
As idle 18 as a painted ship slowly
26. in reel and rout: as if
Upon a painted ocean.
they were dancing
(And the Albatross begins to be avenged.) 27. death-fires: optical
illusions created by
Water, water, every where,
an electrical storm.
And all the boards 19 did shrink 20 ; 30 They were known as
St Eimo's fires and
Water, water, every where,
were believed by
Nor any drop 21 to drink. sailors to mean that
death was on the way
The very deep 22 did rot 23 : O Christ! 28. assured were: were
sure
That ever this should be!
29. plagued: caused
Yes, slimy things 24 did crawl 25 with legs 35 continual suffering
Upon the slimy sea. 30. fathom: one fathom
is 1.8 metres
About, about, in reel and rout 26
The death-fires 27 danced at night;
The water, like a witch's oils,
Burnt green and blue and white. 40

And some in dreams assured were 28

Of the Spirit that plagued 29 us so; We stuck, nor breath nor
motion; as idle as a painted
Nine fathom 3 0 deep he had followed us ship upon a painted ocean.'
From the land of mist and snow.
26 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Poetry

(A Spirit had followed them; one of the invisible inhabitants of this planet, neither departed
souls nor angels; concerning whom the learned Jew, Josephus, and the Platonic
31. utter: total Constantinopolitan, Michael Psellus, may be consulted. They are very numerous, and there is
32. drought: period when no climate or element without one or more.)
there is no rain And every tongue, through utter 31 drought 32 , 45
33. withered at the root:
their tongues were
Was withered at the root 33 ;
dying like a plant that We could not speak, no more than if
does not get any water
We had been choked 3 4 with soot 35 .
34. choked: suffocated
35. soot: black powder (The shipmates, in their sore distress, would fain throw the whole guilt on the ancient Mariner:
produced when
in sign whereof they hang the dead sea-bird round his neck.)
something is burnt
36. well a-day:
Ah! well a-day 36 ! what evil looks
exclamation Had I from old and young! 50
expressing displeasure
at what happened on
Instead of the cross, the Albatross
that day About my neck was hung.
•

COMPREHENSION
1 W h a t 'hellish t h i n g ' had t h e mariner d o n e ? How 4 W h a t type of animals did t h e mariner s e e ? W h a t
did t h e o t h e r c r e w m e m b e r s react t o t h e mariner's s p e c t a c l e did he witness at n i g h t ?
d e e d ? W h a t m a d e t h e m c h a n g e their reaction?
5 What was causing the sailors' misfortune? (Stanza 1 0 )
2 In w h a t w a y did t h e o t h e r sailors b e c o m e
6 W h y could t h e y no longer speak?
' a c c o m p l i c e s to t h e c r i m e ' ? S e e t h e s e c o n d n o t e .
7 W h a t did t h e o t h e r sailors d o to punish t h e mariner
3 W h a t path did t h e ship t a k e ? W h a t did t h e sailors
for his c r i m e ?
run out of?

ANALYSIS
1 Coleridge wrote The Rime of the Ancient Mariner in c. W h y d o you think Coleridge c h o s e t h e ballad form
t h e form of a ballad*. Here are s o m e of t h e features of for his w o r k ?
a medieval ballad.
2 Underline s e n t e n c e s in t h e t e x t w h e r e t h e sun or
a. Tick t h e features t h a t you identify in Coleridge's t h e sea are m e n t i o n e d . Are t h e y described in a
work a n d find e x a m p l e s . A ballad: realistic or s y m b o l i c w a y ?
• narrates a story.
3 Find religious references in t h e s e c o n d , eighth a n d
recounts the adventures of the ancient mariner
twelfth stanzas, and a r e f e r e n c e t o t h e supernatural in
• is c o m p o s e d in simple t w o or four line stanzas.
t h e t e n t h stanza. Do you think t h e sea-animals
• consists of alternate four and t h r e e stress line.
described in t h e eighth stanza are real o r supernatural,
• rhymes on t h e s e c o n d a n d fourth line.
or could t h e y b e either?
• c o n t a i n s f e w descriptive details.
• leaves t h e motives b e h i n d t h e c h a r a c t e r s ' actions 4 How would you define t h e a t m o s p h e r e created in
unexplained. the poem?
• makes extensive use of repetition*. W h a t e l e m e n t s c o n t r i b u t e to t h e creation of t h e
• uses stock descriptive phrases such as 'milk-white atmosphere?
s t e e d ' for a w h i t e horse, etc.
5 Consider t h e simile* in lines 27-28. W h a t d o e s it
• includes a refrain.
convey?
b. Medieval ballads are generally divided into five
• A s e n s e of paralysis • A s e n s e of b e a u t y
categories, a c c o r d i n g t o t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r of their
• T h e idea of colour • T h e idea of an unreal world
stories. W h i c h of t h e following c a t e g o r i e s d o you
• Other:
think The Rime of the Ancient Mariner could be
classified u n d e r ? 6 Explain t h e paradox* c o n t a i n e d in t h e i m a g e in t h e
• Love stories • Crime and p u n i s h m e n t seventh stanza.
• Historical ballads • Outlaws and bad m e n 7 Find e x a m p l e s of end-of-line rhymes*, regular
K Ballads of t h e supernatural rhythm patterns and alliteration*.
 mmmm

The Rime of the Ancient Mariner - Samuel Taylor Coleridge 27

WRITERS' WORKSHOP
Internal Internal rhymes are rhymes that occur within a line. Like the more frequently used
rhymes end rhymes (the rhyming of final words) they are used to add a musical quality to the
language.

T h e r e are several e x a m p l e s of internal rhyme in t h e t e x t you have just read. Example:

For all averred I had killed the bird
Find o t h e r e x a m p l e s in lines 5 and 1 5 .

OVER TO YOU E x p e r i m e n t with internal rhyme. Think of t w o or t h r e e words t h a t rhyme and try t o include
t h e m in t h e s a m e s e n t e n c e . Example:
same, name He told me his name, which was the same

Alone On A Wide Wide Sea! Text E10

The Ancient Mariner observes the awfid situation he finds

himself in.

Part IV
(•••)

Alone, alone, all, all alone,

Alone on a wide wide sea!
And never a saint took pity on
My soul in agony.

(He despiseth the creatures of the calm.)

The many men, so beautiful! 5
And they all dead did lie:
And a thousand thousand slimy1 things
Lived on, and so did I.

(And envieth that they should live, and so many be dead.)

many men, so
I looked upon the rotting 2 sea, beautiful! And they all
GLOSSARY •
And drew my eyes away; 10 dead did lie...'
1. slimy: slippery and
1 looked upon the rotting deck 3 , unpleasant like
snakes
And there the dead men lay. 2. rotting:
decomposing
3. deck: top level of a
I looked to heaven, and tried to pray;
ship
But or ever4 a prayer had gusht 5 , 4. or ever: before
A wicked6 whisper7 came, and made 15 5. gusht: (gushed)
come out
My heart as dry as dust. 6. wicked: evil
7. whisper: very quiet
voice
I closed my lids8 and kept them close 9 , 8. lids: eyes
And the balls 10 like pulses 11 beat; 9. close: closed
lO.balls: eyeballs
For the sky and the sea, and the sea and the sky
tl.pulses: pulsations
Lay like a load 12 on my weary 13 eye, 20 12.load: heavyweight
And the dead were at my feet. 13.weary: tired
28 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Poetry
'Oh happy living things!
no tongue their beauty,
might declare...'
14.sweat: liquid that
comes through your
skin when you are
hot or frightened
15.melted: disappeared
16.limbs: bodies
17.reek: have an
unpleasant smell
18.curse:
condemnation
19.drag: pull down
20.abide: stop
21.beams: shining lines
of light
(But the curse liveth for him in the eye of the dead men.)
The cold sweat 14 melted 15 from their limbs 16 ,
Nor rot nor reek 17 did they:
The look with which they looked on me
Had never passed away. 25
An orphan's curse 18 would drag19 to hell
A spirit from on high;
But oh! more horrible than that
Is the curse in a dead man's eye!
Seven days, seven nights, I saw that curse, 30
And yet I could not die.
(In his loneliness and fixedness he yearneth towards the
journeying Moon, and the stars that still sojourn, yet still move
onward; and every where the blue sky belongs to them, and is
their appointed rest, and their native country and their own
natural homes, which they enter unannounced, as lords that are
certainly expected and yet there is a silent joy at their arrival.)
The moving Moon went up the sky,
And no where did abide 20 :
Softly she was going up,
And a star or two beside - 35
Her beams 21 bemocked the sultry main 22 ,
Like April hoar-frost 23 spread;
But where the ship's huge 24 shadow lay,
The charmed 25 water burnt alway 26
A still and awful red.
(By the light of the Moon he beholdeth God's creatures of the great calm.)
Beyond the shadow of the ship,
I watched the water-snakes.
They moved in tracks of shining white,
And when they reared27, the elfish 28 light
Fell off in hoary flakes 29 .
Within 30 the shadow of the ship
I watched their rich attire 31 :
Blue, glossy green, and velvet black,
They coiled 32 and swam; and every track
Was a flash of golden fire.
22.bemocked the sultry 25.charmed: under a magic 29.hoary flakes: small ice-
main: made fun of the hot spell like pieces
and windless sea 26.alway: always 30.Within: inside
23.hoar-frost: white powdery 27.reared: came up out of the 31.attire: clothes
ice sea 32.coiled: twisted and
24.huge: very big 28.elfish: magical turned
 The Rime of the Ancient Mariner - Samuel Taylor Coleridge 307

(Their beauty and their happiness.)

(He blesseth them in his heart.)
O happy living things! no tongue 33.no tongue ...
declare: nobody
Their beauty might declare 33 : would be able to put
A spring of love gushed 34 from my heart, into words how
beautiful they were
And I blessed them unaware 35 : 34.gushed: came out
Sure my kind saint took pity on me, 55 quickly and in large
quantities (like water
And I blessed them unaware.
from a pipe)
35.unaware: without
(The spell begins to break.)
realising what I was
The self-same moment I could pray; doing
And from my neck so free 36.sank: went down
below the surface of
The Albatross fell off, and sank 36 the water
Like lead 37 into the sea. 60 37.lead: a heavy metal

COMPREHENSION
1 W h y was t h e mariner alone? W h a t h a p p e n e d w h e n
he tried to pray? Did he g e t relief from closing his eyes?
2 Had t h e bodies of t h e d e a d c r e w m e m b e r s b e g u n
to d e c o m p o s e ?
3 W h i c h w a s worse, a c c o r d i n g t o t h e mariner: t h e
curse of an orphan or t h e curse of a dead m a n ' s e y e ?
4 W h a t colour did t h e sea b e c o m e in t h e light of t h e
m o o n ? W h a t colour was t h e sea in t h e s h a d o w of t h e
boat?
5 W h a t did t h e mariner see in t h e w a t e r ? W h a t did
he unconsciously d o ?
6 W h e n did t h e albatross fall from t h e mariner's n e c k ?

ANALYSIS
1 This section of t h e p o e m m a y b e divided into t w o
parts. In t h e first part t h e mariner looks inwards, at his
o w n condition and l a m e n t s his misfortune. In t h e
s e c o n d part he looks outwards at his surroundings
and finds a sense of h a r m o n y with nature. Identify t h e
turning point in t h e t e x t .
2 T h e t h e m e s of religion a n d t h e supernatural are
strongly present in this section of t h e p o e m . Find
references t o religion in t h e first, fourth, seventh a n d
twelfth stanzas. Identify t h e supernatural e l e m e n t s in
t h e text.
3 Explain t h e use of personification* in t h e eighth
stanza. W h i c h words/expressions (also c o n s i d e r t h e
n o t e ) s u g g e s t t h a t t h e m o o n is a b e n i g n natural
element?
4 Focus o n t h e description of t h e watersnakes in t h e
tenth and eleventh stanzas. Underline t h e colours a n d
the verbs of m o v e m e n t t h e mariner uses. D o you
think t h a t t h e watersnakes are real or magical animals,
or could t h e y b e considered t o b e b o t h ?
5 T h e sun a n d t h e m o o n are t w o of t h e central
symbols* in t h e p o e m . Underline t h e lines in which
t h e y are m e n t i o n e d in t h e t w o texts you have read.
W h i c h is associated with pain and suffering a n d w h i c h
with g e n t l e n e s s and forgiveness?
6 T h e albatross is also an i m p o r t a n t symbol in t h e
p o e m . T h e killing of t h e albatross has b e e n
interpreted in several different ways:
- man's indifference towards nature;
- man's lack of Christian values;
- t h e crucifixion of Jesus Christ;
- t h e betrayal of basic h u m a n values and instincts;
- t h e suppression of t h e creative drive a n d
imagination in m a n .
Do you a g r e e with any of t h e s e interpretations or
d o you have your o w n personal view? Justify your
response.
As you read Text El 0 again, listen t o t h e
recording and identify musical features such as
alliteration*, repetition*, rhyme* and rhythm*.

Think of a c o m m o n superstition. Do s o m e research into its origin and explain your findings t o t h e rest of t h e class.
THE ROMANTIC AGE - P o e t r y

HJMHHHHH Early years Samuel Taylor

^^^^^^^HwHHHU^^^H Coleridge was b o r n in 1 7 7 2 ,
the youngest of ten children. W h e n his father died he was sent
away to a London charity school for children of the clergy. He
was an avid reader and a b r i g h t s t u d e n t . In 1 7 9 1 he w e n t to
Cambridge, but he suddenly interrupted his education to enlist
in a regiment of light dragoons. Later he was re-admitted i n t o
Cambridge, where he met the radical poet Robert Southey,
whose sympathetic views on the French Revolution he shared.
Together they planned the foundation of an egalitarian Utopian
community in New England. The project was abandoned but the
two friends collaborated on a verse drama, The Fall of Robespierre
(1794).

Marriage C o l e r i d g e left C a m b r i d g e w i t h o u t a degree a n d ,

almost on impulse, married Southey's fiancee's sister. The marriage, which produced four children,
was a failure: the couple lived apart for most of their lives.

Encounter with Wordsworth In 1795 Coleridge met William Wordsworth ( • pp. E 1 6 - 2 3 ) , a poet
w i t h s i m i l a r p o l i t i c a l a n d l i t e r a r y v i e w s . T h e e n c o u n t e r p r o d u c e d o n e of t h e m o s t c r e a t i v e
partnerships in English literature. The result of their collaboration was the Lyrical Ballads (1798),
which opened with one of the four poems that Coleridge had contributed: The Rime of the Ancient
Mariner ( • Texts E9 and E10). He also began, but never completed, three other ballads, the finest of
which is Christabel, and composed his celebrated opium-vision Kubla Khan. In 1 7 9 8 he travelled to
Germany with Wordsworth and his sister Dorothy. He had become disillusioned with the political
radicalism inspired by t h e French Revolution and t u r n e d his a t t e n t i o n to G e r m a n philosophy,
especially the ideas of the philosopher Immanuel Kant. He learned German, studied philosophy at
Gottingen University and translated some works by the r o m a n t i c poet Friedrich von Schiller into
English.

Drug addiction In 1800 he returned to England and went with the Wordworths to live in the Lake
District. By this time he had become addicted to opium, which was the only available relief for the
pain he suffered due to various health problems. In 1804 he left for Malta, hoping to overcome his
addiction and improve his health in a warmer climate. He worked as secretary to the governor of
Malta for two years and then returned to England.

The Lake District In 1 8 0 8 he m o v e d back to t h e Lake District, close to t h e Wordsworths and

Southey. Together they became known as the 'Lake Poets'. He fell in love with Wordsworth's sister-
in-law, a love that was to be a source of great suffering all through his life.

The end of a friendship In 1 8 1 0 his f r i e n d s h i p w i t h W o r d s w o r t h c a m e to a b i t t e r e n d . His

addiction to opium got worse, producing terrible m o o d swings and making h i m unable to work
productively. In t h e a t t e m p t t o free h i m s e l f of t h e h a b i t he w e n t to live in t h e h o u s e h o l d of a
physician in London.

London and fame In the following years he slowly regained his health, worked as a journalist and
gave lectures that established his reputation as a distinguished literary critic.
 Writers' Gallery - Samuel Taylor Coleridge

- 3 » * - f v y » » - ^mmm^mm^mm^

In 1 8 1 6 the publication of the poems Christabel and Kubla Khan consolidated his fame. The
following year he wrote his m a j o r prose work, Biographia Literaria ( • p. El 19), a series of
dissertations on subjects ranging from literary criticism and philosophy to sociology.
He died in 1834. His epitaph, which he wrote to sum up a life of suffering, reads:
Beneath this sod
A Poet lies; or that which once was he.
0 lift one thought in prayer for S.T.C.
That he, who many a year with toil of breath,
Found Death in Life, may here find Life in Death.

Lyrical Ballads Coleridge's reputation as a poet is based on a

small but magnificent corpus of work. The best expression of his
poetic vision can be found in his collaboration with Wordsworth in the Lyrical Ballads ( • p. El 18).
The contribution to the collection by the two poets was very different. While Wordsworth wrote
poetry inspired by the simple things of everyday life, Coleridge turned to the past for mystery and
wonder and took the readers into the fantastic world of the imagination. Wordsworth asked the
readers to enjoy his natural descriptions, Coleridge on the other hand asked them to 'suspend
disbelief' and let him lead them into mysterious and supernatural worlds.

The Rime of the Ancient Mariner This can be clearly seen in The Rime of the Ancient Mariner
( • Texts E9 and E10), where the juxtaposition of ordinary experience with supernatural events, and
the use of powerful symbols (the sun, the moon) and striking images create an eerie, otherworldly
atmosphere which stimulates the reader's imagination.

Kubla Khan Kubla Khan, started in 1798 and published unfinished in 1816, was apparently
inspired by a dream in an opium-induced sleep. Coleridge woke up with a clear image of the poem,
but lost the vision, except for a few lines, when a visitor disturbed him. The poem's theme is the
fabulous ancient Orient and its magic rites. Its most striking features are its suggestive imagery and
musical rhythm.

Christabel In the same year Coleridge published another unfinished poem, Christabel, which he
had written over a period of time. The poem is a medieval romance of the supernatural, which
includes many Gothic elements. Coleridge was very disappointed when Wordsworth refused to
include it in the second edition of the Lyrical Ballads.

Biographia Literaria Though he is best known today for his poetry, Coleridge wrote articles and
dissertations on philosophy, political analysis and theology. His treatises and lectures made him the
most influential English literary critic of the n i n e t e e n t h century. In his Biographia Literaria
( • p. El 19), considered his greatest critical work, Coleridge developed theories that were intended to
be the introduction to a great philosophical work, which he never produced.

TASK
Use t h e following h e a d i n g s t o t a k e n o t e s o n C o l e r i d g e ' s life a n d works a n d t h e n p r e p a r e a s h o r t r e p o r t .
- Early life a n d e d u c a t i o n - C o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e Lyrical Ballads - Germany
- Friendship with W o r d s w o r t h - Health p r o b l e m s - Rehabilitation a n d final years
MHMM
 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Poetry

George Gordon Byron

I N T R O D U C T I O N • Byron is remembered as much for his life as for his poetry. His amorous adventures
and wholehearted participation in political movements were just two aspects of a life that helped to
make him a legendary, heroic figure. The poems that follow reveal Byron's many-sided nature. He
praises a beautiful girl, he complains that he n o longer has the energy to e n j o y life as he used to and
he resolves to give his support to the Greek independence movement.

Painters m u s t always pay close a t t e n t i o n t o t h e quality of light in their paintings. A little m o r e light or s h a d e c a n
c h a n g e our impression of t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r greatly. In this p o e m Byron, like a painter, f o c u s e s his a t t e n t i o n o n
light and h o w it can e n h a n c e beauty.

Q Text E l l She Walks In Beauty

She walks in beauty, like the night
Of cloudless climes 1 and starry skies;
And all that's best of dark and bright
Meet in her aspect and her eyes:
Thus mellow'd to that tender light
Which heaven to gaudy day denies 2 .

One shade 3 the more, one ray4 the less,

Had half impair'd 5 the nameless grace
Which waves6 in every raven tress7,
Or softly lightens o'er her face; 10

Where thoughts serenely sweet express

• GLOSSARY How pure, how dear their dwelling-place 8
1 climes: regions or
climates And on that cheek, and o'er that brow 9 ,
2. Thus mellow'd ... So soft, so calm, yet eloquent,
denies: her beauty is
soft (mellow'd). It is The smiles that win 10 , the tints that glow 11 , is
a tender light, not the But tell of days in goodness spent,
harsh, bright light
(gaudy) of daytime A mind at peace with all below,
3. shade: piece of A heart whose love is innocent!
darkness
4. ray: piece of light
5. Had half impair'd:
would damage
6 . waves: undulates
7. raven tress: shiny
black hair
8. dwelling-place:
home
9. brow: forehead
10. win: conquer people's Maria Bicknell
heart (Mrs John Constable) by
lohn Constable (1816).
11. tints that glow: soft
colours that shine
4
 George Gordon Byron

COMPREHENSION
1 What does the poet compare the lady's beauty to, 3 Which phrase means 'beauty' in line 8 ?
in the opening two lines of the poem?
4 Make a list of the physical features that are
2 Which word in line 6 suggests that daylight is too mentioned in the poem.
strong?

ANALYSIS ;
1 Contrast the phrase 'She walks in beauty' with 'She
is beautiful'. What nuances of meaning does the
phrase used by Byron suggest?
• That the beauty he is describing is out of the
ordinary, complex, mysterious.
• That he is describing more than physical beauty.
• That the lady he is describing is not only beautiful
herself, but is also surrounded by beauty.
3 The lady's beauty is compared to the perfect
balance of opposites (line 3: 'best of dark and bright').
Find other examples of balancing opposites in the
second and third stanzas.
4 Find words or phrases in the poem that associate
the lady's beauty with softness, calmness and purity.
5 Find examples of personification* in the poem.

2 The opening simile* compares the lady's beauty to
the light of a starry, cloudless night. What is the poet
trying to capture in this simile?
• The undefinable quality of the lady's beauty.
• The fact that her beauty is composed of different
elements: darkness and light.
• The delicacy and gentleness of the lady's beauty
(contrast with the 'gaudy' light of day).
• The fact that the lady's beauty contains something
sinister, a dark quality.
6 Identify the rhyming scheme of the poem. Find
examples of alliteration*, assonance* and run-on
lines*.
7 ft Listen again to the recording of the poem.
How would you define the rhythm*? Is it in keeping
with the theme of beauty in the p o e m ?

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P
P a r a l l e l i s m is t h e repetition in t h e same line or in close p r o x i m i t y o f similar syntactical
structures. An e x a m p l e o f parallelism in She Walks in Beauty c a n b e f o u n d in line 7:
One shade the more, one ray the less
Parallelism is a s o p h i s t i c a t e d f o r m o f r e p e t i t i o n w h i c h is used t o e m p h a s i s e t h e m e a n -
ing o f t h e separate clauses. It also creates a h a r m o n i o u s syntactical b a l a n c e w h i c h adds
a musical quality t o t h e language.

Identify the repetition of conjunctions in the first verse of the poem. Find examples of
parallelisms within the same line and in successive lines in the final verse of the poem.

Parallelisms are often used in proverbs and sayings, for example: 'live and let live', 'all's well
that ends well'. Think of some examples in your own language.

Byron associates the beauty of the woman with night-time. Which time of day do you particularly like? Do you
look forward to a balmy summer's evening or do you thrill at a glorious sunrise on a frosty winter's morning?
Tell the rest of the class.
 34 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Poetry
rnMmmf:

Byron was only thirty-six w h e n he died, b u t in t h e following short p o e m he s e e m s t o n e e d a rest from t h e hectic
life he has led.

Text E 1 2 So We'll Go No More A-Roving

So we'll go n o m o r e a-roving1
So late i n t o the night,
T h o u g h t h e h e a r t b e still as l o v i n g ,
A n d t h e m o o n b e still as b r i g h t .

F o r t h e s w o r d o u t w e a r s 2 its s h e a t h 3 ,
And the soul wears t h e breast,
And the heart must pause to breathe,
A n d L o v e i t s e l f h a v e rest.

T h o u g h t h e n i g h t was m a d e for loving,

And the day returns t o o soon, 10

Yet w e ' l l g o n o m o r e a - r o v i n g
By the light of the m o o n .

A portrait of Byron by
Thomas Phillips (1835).

GLOSSARY
1. a-roving: verb form used in going out to enjoy ourselves) 3. sheath: the covering for a
poetry or songs (roving: 2. outwears: lasts longer than sword

COMPREHENSION
1 Divide t h e p o e m into: 2 W h e n did t h e p o e t g o 'a-roving'? W h a t kind of
a. S t a t e m e n t of intent: lines activities d o you think 'roving' included?
b . Explanation: lines 3 W h a t s e e m s t o have caused t h e p o e t to s t o p
c. Reformulation of intent: lines roving?

ANALYSIS
1 T h e p o e t uses t h e p r o n o u n ' w e ' and n o t 'I'. W h a t 3 How would you define t h e t o n e of t h e p o e m ?
effect d o e s this have on t h e p o e m ?
4 T h e p o e m is based on an old Scottish folk s o n g .
• It involves t h e reader m o r e directly.
I • It s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e 'roving' was d o n e in c o m p a n y .
W h i c h of t h e following features of folk s o n g s can you
identify in it?
• It distances t h e reader from t h e p o e m .
• Colloquial verb form
2 Focus o n t h e metaphor* in t h e o p e n i n g line of t h e • A refrain
s e c o n d stanza. T h e ' s w o r d ' represents t h e p o e t ' s • Strong and regular rhythm* and rhyming s c h e m e
spirit, while t h e ' s h e a t h ' represents his body. By • Extensive use of repetition*
c o m p a r i n g his spirit to a sword, w h a t d o e s t h e p o e t • A c h o r u s (a r e p e a t e d verse)
s u g g e s t a b o u t his attitude t o life?
 George Gordon Byron

In this p o e m Byron is saying t h a t he n o l o n g e r has t h e e n e r g y to live at t h e hectic p a c e h e has b e e n used to.

Do y o u think t h e r e is a t i m e in life w h e n w e should or m u s t slow d o w n a n d give up s o m e of t h e t h i n g s w e like
doing, or can w e keep g o i n g with t h e s a m e e n e r g y and enthusiasm of youth as w e g r o w older? Discuss with your
classmates a n d find e x a m p l e s of people w h o you think have m a n a g e d t o live life to t h e full even in their later years
(for e x a m p l e : Nelson M a n d e l a , Tina Turner).

Byron was never a m a n t o settle for a quiet h o m e life of easy c o m f o r t a n d was always looking for n e w adventures.
This p o e m w a s written just a f e w m o n t h s b e f o r e he died. Read it a n d find o u t w h a t n e w project w a s to take up all
his e n e r g i e s in his final days.

On This Day I Complete My Thirty-Sixth Year Text E 1 3

'Tis 1 t i m e t h i s h e a r t s h o u l d b e u n m o v e d 2 ,
S i n c e o t h e r s it h a t h c e a s e d t o m o v e 3 :
Yet, t h o u g h I c a n n o t b e b e l o v e d 4 ,
Still l e t m e l o v e !

M y days are in t h e yellow leaf5;

T h e f l o w e r s a n d fruits o f l o v e are g o n e ;
T h e w o r m 6 , t h e canker7, a n d t h e grief8
Are m i n e a l o n e !

T h e fire t h a t o n m y b o s o m p r e y s 9
Is l o n e 1 0 as s o m e v o l c a n i c isle; 10
N o t o r c h is k i n d l e d 1 1 at its b l a z e - 7. canker: destructive
infection
A funeral pile12.
8. grief: great sorrow
9. The fire ... preys: the
T h e h o p e , t h e fear, t h e j e a l o u s c a r e , fire of passion that is
T h e exalted portion13 of the pain eating away (preys) at
my heart (bosom)
And power o f love, I c a n n o t share, 15 10. lone: alone
But wear the chain. 11. kindled: lit
12. funeral pile: large
amount of wood on
But 'tis not thus14- and 'tis not here - which a dead body is
S u c h t h o u g h t s s h o u l d s h a k e m y soul, n o r now, burnt
13. exalted portion:
W h e r e g l o r y d e c k s t h e h e r o ' s bier,
large amount
Or binds his brow15. 20 14.'Tis not thus: it is not
in this way
15.Where glory ...
brow: where glory
can be seen on the
GLOSSARY heart (it) and emotions no 5. My days ... yellow leaf:
hero's face (binds his
1. 'Tis: it is longer cause passion in I am getting older brow) as he is carried
2. unmoved: not feel strong other people (hath ceased: 6. worm: long, thin insect away from the
emotions have stopped) that is usually associated battlefield on a piece
3. Since ... move: because my 4. beloved: loved by others with death of wood (bier)
%3 6f THE ROMANTIC AGE - Poetry

T h e sword, t h e b a n n e r 1 6 , a n d t h e field,
G l o r y a n d G r e e c e 1 7 , a r o u n d m e see!
The Spartan, borne u p o n his shield18,
W a s n o t m o r e free.

A w a k e ! ( n o t G r e e c e - s h e is a w a k e ! ) 25
A w a k e , m y spirit! T h i n k t h r o u g h whom
T h y l i f e - b l o o d t r a c k s its p a r e n t l a k e 1 9 ,
A n d t h e n strike h o m e 2 0 !

Tread t h o s e reviving passions d o w n 2 1 ,

Unworthy manhood22! - unto thee23 30
Indifferent s h o u l d t h e smile or frown24
O f beauty be.

16. banner: a big flag

used as a standard by If t h o u r e g r e t ' s t t h y y o u t h 2 5 , why live?
an army
The land of honourable death
17. Greece: Byron helped
the Greeks in their Is h e r e : - u p t o t h e f i e l d , a n d g i v e 35
struggle against
Away t h y breath!
Turkish domination
18.The Spartan ...
shield: when S e e k o u t 2 6 - less o f t e n s o u g h t t h a n f o u n d -
Spartans died in
battle they were A soldier's grave27, for t h e e t h e best;
carried (borne) from Then look around, and choose thy ground,
the field on their
shields (pieces of A n d t a k e t h y rest. 40
metal or wood that
soldiers used to
protect themselves
from attack)
19.Think ... lake: think
of your ancestors.
Byron was descended
from the kings of
Scotland
20. strike home: attack
the enemy, in this
case the Turks
21.Tread ... down:
repress (tread: walk
on) these reawakened
passions, i.e. thoughts
of love
22. Unworthy
manhood: you are
not acting as a man
should in these
circumstances
23. thee: you
24. frown: an angry or
unhappy facial
expression
25.thou ... thy youth:
you regret your youth
26. Seek out: look for
27. grave: a place in the
ground where a dead
body is buried

COMPREHENSION
1 Why, according to the poet, should his heart no
longer be moved? (First stanza)
2 What awaits the poet in the future? (Second stanza)
3 Does the poet still feel passion? Is it shared by others?
(Third stanza) Which aspects of love can t h e poet no
longer share? (Fourth stanza)
ANALYSIS
1 The poem deals with several themes: love,
loneliness, ageing, valour and death. Find at least o n e
line reference for each of t h e m .
2 Analyse t h e metaphor* used by the poet in line 5
using the table below.
tenor common ground vehicle
ageing
3 In lines 6 and 7 which words convey the joys of
love and the pain of being without love? W h a t
musical device is used in the phrase suggesting the
joys of love?
4 The idea of fire is used in an e x t e n d e d m e t a p h o r
in t h e third stanza. W h a t does t h e fire represent?
Which striking fire images represent t h e poet's
loneliness and despair?
5 Which aspects of love does the poet focus on in
the fourth stanza? Are they the features of love that
people generally wish to share?
6 In the sixth and seventh stanzas the poet refers t o
Greece's glorious past (lines 2 3 - 2 4 ) and to his own
noble ancestry (lines 2 7 - 2 8 ) . How do these thoughts
condition his attitude to death?
a They make him more cheerful.
• They make him see death as an honourable end.
Byron is regarded as a hero in G r e e c e for the part he played in t h e national liberation struggle against Turkish
domination. From your studies of history and literature, find another writer w h o was actively involved in a political
or social cause. Describe t h e cause which they supported and the part which they played in it ( • Visual Link E1).
George Gordon Byron
4 Why does the poet feel that this is not the time or
place for gloomy thoughts on lost love? Where is the
poet and what is he involved in?
5 What, according to the poet, should give him the
strength to fight?
6 W h a t 'honourable death' does he desire?
7 In t h e final part of the poem the poet sees death as
an honourable escape from the pain of living unloved.
Underline t h e euphemisms* he uses for death in the
last two stanzas.
8 The poem is written in the form of a soliloquy*.
In the first part of the p o e m he uses the pronoun 'I'.
Which pronoun does he use in the second part? What
does this c h a n g e signal?
• The poet's wish to cast off his g l o o m y thoughts.
• The poet's uncertainty a b o u t being involved in
battle.
• The poet's desire to c h a n g e .
9 How would you define the t o n e of t h e p o e m ?
1 0 Identify t h e rhyming scheme* of t h e p o e m .
Is it regular throughout?
Each stanza is c o m p o s e d of three iambic tetrameters*
(four feet) followed by a iambic dimeter* (two feet).
What effect does the short final line of each stanza
create?
• It interrupts the flow of the poem and adds tension.
• It makes t h e rhythm more dramatic.
• It makes t h e rhythm more regular.
• It adds variety.
 .i316THE ROMANTIC AGE - Poetry

WRITERS' GALLERY
Family background George
mm G o r d o n Lord B y r o n was b o r n
i n L o n d o n i n 1 7 8 8 . His p a r e n t s h a d b e e n l i v i n g in F r a n c e w h i l e
hiding from their creditors, but just before Byron's birth his
m o t h e r r e t u r n e d t o E n g l a n d . His f a t h e r s t a y e d o n i n F r a n c e ,
w h e r e h e died t h r e e years later, p o s s i b l y c o m m i t t i n g suicide.
B y r o n was b o r n l a m e a n d l i m p e d all o f his life.

Education He was e d u c a t e d at H a r r o w a n d t h e n at C a m b r i d g e .
An avid reader of t h e classics, especially poetry, h e wrote and
p u b l i s h e d i n 1 8 0 7 his first work, Hours of Idleness, a collection of
s e n t i m e n t a l poems. T h e critics were n o t impressed and Byron
GEORGE GORDON BYRON
r e p l i e d t o h i s d e t r a c t o r s w i t h a f a m o u s satire, English Bards and
(1788-1824)
Scotch Reviewers.
W h e n h i s great u n c l e d i e d t h e f o l l o w i n g year, B y r o n i n h e r i t e d t h e title ( B a r o n B y r o n o f R o c h d a l e ) ,
s o m e m o n e y a n d t h e B y r o n s ' a n c e s t r a l h o m e , N e w s t e a d Abbey.

The 'Grand Tour' In 1 8 0 9 h e set o u t o n h i s ' G r a n d Tour', t h e c u s t o m a r y trip a b r o a d t h a t a f f l u e n t

e d u c a t e d y o u n g m e n w e n t o n . O v e r t w o years, h e visited all t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n c o u n t r i e s a n d started
w o r k o n t h e p o e t i c a l a c c o u n t o f t h i s trip, Childe Harold's Pilgrimage, w h i c h t o o k h i m e i g h t years t o
c o m p l e t e ( • Visual L i n k E6).

Success and scandal Back in E n g l a n d h e p u b l i s h e d t h e first t w o c a n t o s o f Childe Harold. The poem

m e t w i t h i n s t a n t success a n d e s t a b l i s h e d B y r o n as o n e o f E n g l a n d ' s l e a d i n g R o m a n t i c p o e t s . He was
just t w e n t y - f o u r years o l d w h e n h e ' a w o k e o n e d a y t o f i n d h i m s e l f f a m o u s ' .
He was very o u t s p o k e n a b o u t h i s radical p o l i t i c a l views, a n d h i s private life was t h e source o f m u c h
s c a n d a l . A r u m o u r t h a t a r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h h i s h a l f - s i s t e r h a d led t o t h e b i r t h o f a c h i l d b e g a n t o
c i r c u l a t e a n d o u t r a g e d f a s h i o n a b l e society.

Marriage and self-exposed exile I n 1 8 1 5 B y r o n tried t o f i n d stability in marriage, b u t h i s wife left

h i m j u s t b e f o r e t h e b i r t h o f Ada, h i s o n l y l e g i t i m a t e c h i l d . At t h i s p o i n t h e h a d b e c o m e a s o c i a l
o u t c a s t . He left E n g l a n d n e v e r t o r e t u r n a n d w e n t t o G e n e v a , w h e r e h e w a s j o i n e d b y P e r c y a n d
Mary Shelley ( • pp. E 8 8 - 9 5 ) and Mary's stepsister Claire Clairmont, with w h o m Byron had a
d a u g h t e r , Allegra. T h i s was o n e o f t h e m o s t p r o d u c t i v e p e r i o d s o f h i s life. He b e g a n t h e p o e m The
Prisoner ofChillon, f i n i s h e d t h e t h i r d c a n t o o f Childe Harold a n d started t h e d r a m a Manfred.

Italy In 1 8 1 6 m o v e d t o Venice, w h e r e h e lived w i t h n i n e t e e n - y e a r - o l d C o u n t e s s Teresa Guiccioli a n d

her rich, aged h u s b a n d . T h r o u g h Teresa and her family he j o i n e d a b r a n c h of t h e Carbonari,
conspirators fighting against t h e Austrian oppressors. He t h e n j o i n e d o t h e r British radical exiles, s u c h as
S h e l l e y ( • p p . E 4 0 - 5 1 ) at Pisa, w h e r e t h e y p u b l i s h e d a p o l i t i c a l j o u r n a l , The Liberal. In 1822, shortly
before Shelley d r o w n e d in a b o a t i n g accident, t h e group o f English expatriates w e n t t h e i r separate ways.

Greece B y r o n ' s h e a l t h was n o t g o o d , b u t w h e n h e h e a r d t h a t t h e G r e e k s w e r e p r e p a r i n g a r e v o l t

a g a i n s t t h e Turks h e j o i n e d t h e i n s u r g e n t s a t M i s s o l o n g h i . H e c o n t r i b u t e d m o n e y a t h e c a u s e a n d
 Writers' Gallery - George Gordon Byron

•iMtiF um&H wm? • ^ s m »

was m a d e c o m m a n d e r in c h i e f , b u t did n o t live l o n g e n o u g h t o take part i n a n y m i l i t a r y a c t i o n . In

1 8 2 4 his h e a l t h failed h i m , a n d h e died o n April 1 9 t h . He was o n l y t h i r t y - s i x years o l d . His r e m a i n s
were s e n t b a c k t o E n g l a n d , w h i l e h i s h e a r t was b u r i e d at M i s s o l o n g h i .

Byron e x p e r i m e n t e d with different literary genres, including

poetry and drama.

Poems B y r o n w r o t e p o e m s in a great v a r i e t y o f m e t r e s , s u c h as She Walks in Beauty ( • Text E l l )

a n d Ode on Venice i n w h i c h t h e p o e t c e l e b r a t e s t h e city's b e a u t y a n d l a m e n t s its decay. Childe Harold's
Pilgrimage, a p o e m in four c a n t o s written b e t w e e n 1 8 1 2 and 1 8 1 9 , tells t h e story of a y o u n g
d i s i l l u s i o n e d n o b l e m a n w h o travels t o t h e places t h a t B y r o n h a d visited o n his G r a n d Tour. H a r o l d is
e n c h a n t e d b y t h e g l o r i o u s past o f t h e s e c o u n t r i e s as r e f l e c t e d i n t h e i r m o n u m e n t s a n d a d m i r e s t h e
w o n d e r s o f t h e n a t u r a l w o r l d . T h e u n f i n i s h e d p o e m Don Juan, w h i c h m a n y critics consider his
m a s t e r p i e c e , is a p i c a r e s q u e verse satire w i t h several a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l r e f e r e n c e s . T h e h e r o ' s travels,
a d v e n t u r e s , l o v e affairs, ideas, i m p r e s s i o n s a n d feelings are very close r e f l e c t i o n s o f w h a t B y r o n did,
felt a n d t h o u g h t . T h e p o e m is also a satire a g a i n s t c o n v e n t i o n a l restraint, s o c i e t y a n d t h e R o m a n t i c
p o e t s w h o h a d t u r n e d f r o m p o l i t i c a l r a d i c a l i s m t o c o n s e r v a t i s m ( • pp. E 2 2 - 2 3 ) .

Drama T h e d r a m a Manfred is inspired b y t h e f r u s t r a t i o n i n d u c e d b y t h e r e f l e c t i o n t h a t m a n is ' h a l f

dust, h a l f deity, alike u n f i t t o sink or soar'. T h e p r o t a g o n i s t is t h e s t e r e o t y p e o f t h e R o m a n t i c h e r o :
a m b i g u o u s l y h a n d s o m e , t o r m e n t e d , passionate, m e l a n c h o l i c , e m o t i o n a l , solitary. Torn b e t w e e n
n o b l e a s p i r a t i o n s a n d sin, a n d u n a b l e t o solve t h e d u a l i s m , h e c o m m i t s suicide.

Tragedy T h e t r a g e d y i n five acts Marino Faliero, Doge of Venice d r a m a t i s e s a n e p i s o d e i n V e n e t i a n

history, w h e n t h e d o g e f o r m e d a n a l l i a n c e w i t h t h e p e o p l e t o o v e r t h r o w t h e state. T h e m a i n i n t e r e s t
o f Marino Faliero, like in all his o t h e r t h e a t r i c a l works, lies i n its p o l i t i c a l c o n t e n t .

Reputation A l t h o u g h Byron's work was widely criticised o n m o r a l grounds and f r e q u e n t l y

a t t a c k e d b y critics, it was i m m e n s e l y p o p u l a r in E n g l a n d a n d t h e rest o f Europe; his sales were b e t t e r
in G e r m a n y a n d F r a n c e t h a n i n B r i t a i n . As a R o m a n t i c i c o n his i m p o r t a n c e was e n o r m o u s . T h e p o e t
T e n n y s o n ( • M o d u l e F) s u m m e d u p t h e g e n e r a l r e a c t i o n t o h i s d e a t h w h e n h e w r o t e o n h e a r i n g t h e
n e w s : ' t h e w h o l e w o r l d d a r k e n e d t o m e ' . B y r o n e m b o d i e d t h e R o m a n t i c spirit a n d g a v e it a
r e c o g n i s a b l e face. He left b e h i n d h i m t h e e n d u r i n g i m a g e o f t h e B y r o n i c h e r o : a g l o o m y , u n s a t i s f i e d
social o u t c a s t , a w a n d e r e r i n f o r e i g n lands, a fighter a g a i n s t social i n j u s t i c e , w h o in his q u e s t for self-
realisation, refuses t o a c c e p t social c o d e s a n d c o n v e n t i o n s .

TASK
Byron's life seems to reflect the essence of the typical Romantic hero'. Which elements do you find in his
biography that support this statement?
 .i318THE ROMANTIC AGE - Poetry

Percy Bysshe Shelley

INTRODUCTION • At t h e e n d o f h i s e s s a y , A Defence of Poetry ( 1 8 2 1 ) , Shelley w r o t e t h a t 'Poets are t h e
u n a c k n o w l e d g e d legislators of t h e world'. He believed t h a t poetry was a force for good, b o t h for t h e indivi-
d u a l a n d s o c i e t y . T h r o u g h h i s p o e t r y h e felt h e c o u l d c h a n g e h i s f e l l o w m a n a n d c h a n g e t h e w o r l d .

Natural s e t t i n g s or natural p h e n o m e n a c a n have a p r o f o u n d e f f e c t o n us. A glorious s u n s e t m i g h t fill us with a

sense of p e a c e , while a very loud clap of t h u n d e r m i g h t m a k e us shake in fear.
Shelley is sitting in a w o o d b e s i d e t h e river Arno n e a r F l o r e n c e at t h e e n d of s u m m e r . He is f a s c i n a t e d b y t h e
p o w e r and majesty of t h e w e s t wind a n d h o p e s it will help him pull o u t of his depression.

Q InSgMEi Ode To The West Wind

i

O wild West W i n d , t h o u 1 breath of Autumn's being,

T h o u , from w h o s e u n s e e n presence t h e leaves dead
Are d r i v e n 2 , l i k e g h o s t s f r o m a n e n c h a n t e r f l e e i n g 3 ,

Yellow, and black, and pale, and hectic 4 red,

Pestilence-stricken 5 multitudes: O thou, 5
W h o chariotest 6 to their dark wintry bed

T h e w i n g e d s e e d s 7 , w h e r e t h e y lie c o l d a n d low,
E a c h like a c o r p s e 8 w i t h i n its g r a v e 9 , u n t i l
T h i n e 1 0 azure sister o f t h e S p r i n g 1 1 shall b l o w

H e r c l a r i o n 1 2 o ' e r t h e d r e a m i n g e a r t h , a n d fill 10
( D r i v i n g s w e e t b u d s 1 3 l i k e f l o c k s 1 4 t o f e e d i n air)
W i t h living h u e s 1 5 and odours p l a i n 1 6 a n d hill:

W i l d Spirit, w h i c h a r t 1 7 m o v i n g e v e r y w h e r e ;
D e s t r o y e r a n d p r e s e r v e r ; hear, o h , h e a r !

• GLOSSARY 3. enchanter fleeing: running 8. corpse: dead body announcing the arrival of
away from a magician 9. grave: where dead spring)
I
4. hectic: bright bodies are buried in the 12.clarion: trumpet
1. thou: you
5. Pestilence-stricken: ground 13.buds: young flowers
2. Thou, from ...
diseased 10. Thine: your 14. flocks: groups of birds
driven: even though
they cannot see you, 6. chariotest: carries 11. azure sister of 15. hues: colours
the leaves are blown 7. winged seeds: seeds flying the Spring: zephyr 16. plain: flat land
away by you as if they had wings (gentle wind 17. art: are
 Percy Bysshe Shelley 41

II Shelley portrayed at
Caracalla Baths by
T h o u on whose stream18, mid19 t h e s t e e p sky's c o m m o t i o n,20
1
15 Joseph Severn.
L o o s e c l o u d s like earth's d e c a y i n g leaves are s h e d 2 1 ,
Shook from the tangled boughs22 of Heaven and Ocean23,

A n g e l s o f r a i n a n d l i g h t n i n g 2 4 : t h e r e are s p r e a d
O n t h e blue surface of t h i n e aery surge25,
Like t h e b r i g h t hair uplifted f r o m t h e h e a d 20

O f s o m e fierce M a e n a d 2 6 , even from t h e dim verge27

Of the horizon to the zenith's28 height,
The locks29 of the approaching storm. T h o u dirge30

O f t h e d y i n g year, t o w h i c h t h i s c l o s i n g 3 1 n i g h t
Will be the d o m e 3 2 of a vast sepulchre, 25
V a u l t e d 3 3 w i t h all t h y c o n g r e g a t e d m i g h t 3 4

Of vapours, from w h o s e solid a t m o s p h e r e

B l a c k r a i n , a n d fire, a n d h a i l w i l l b u r s t 3 5 : o h , h e a r !

Ill
T h o u w h o didst w a k e n f r o m his s u m m e r dreams
T h e b l u e M e d i t e r r a n e a n 3 6 , w h e r e h e lay, 30
Lulled b y t h e coil of his crystalline streams37,

Beside a p u m i c e isle38 in Baiae's bay39,

And saw in sleep old palaces a n d towers
Quivering within the wave's intenser day40,
All o v e r g r o w n w i t h a z u r e m o s s 4 1 a n d f l o w e r s
So s w e e t , t h e s e n s e f a i n t s 4 2 p i c t u r i n g 4 3 t h e m ! T h o u
For w h o s e p a t h t h e A t l a n t i c ' s l e v e l p o w e r s
II
18. stream: air-flow
19. mid: in the middle of
20. commotion: noisy confusion
21. Loose clouds ... shed: the
sky is like a tree from which
scattered (loose) clouds are
dropped down (shed) like
dying (decaying) leaves
22.Shook ... boughs: shaken
down from the intertwined
i tangled) branches (boughs)
23. Heaven and Ocean: they
are interconnected because
vapour from the Ocean
evaporates up to Heaven,
where it forms clouds
24. Angels of rain and
lightning: the clouds are
the first, innocent signs
that there will be a fierce
storm
25. aery surge: powerful sea of
air
26. Maenad: in Greek
mythology, a female
follower of the god of wine
(Dionysus). During
celebrations Maenads
danced in a wild (fierce)
way
2 7. dim verge: dark edge
28. zenith: the highest point
reached by the sun or moon
in the sky
29. locks: hair; here: the clouds
30. dirge: sad song (of the
wind)
35
31. closing: approaching
32. dome: circular roof
33. Vaulted: covered
34. congregated might:
assembled strength
35.Of vapours ... burst: from
the thick solid clouds that
the west wind has gathered
together, a violent storm
(fire: lightning, hail: frozen
rain) will erupt (burst)
III
36.Thou ... Mediterranean:
during the summer the
Mediterranean was calm
and seemed to be asleep but
then you woke (didst
waken) him up
37.Lulled ... streams:
the sea is made to feel
sleepy (lulled) by the
serpentine movement
(coil) of crystal clear
underwater currents
(crystalline streams I
38. pumice isle: island of
volcanic rock
39. Baiae's bay: bay near
Naples that was
popular with Roman
emperors
40.And saw ... day: you
could see the ruins of
the old town shaking
slightly (quivering)
below the surface of
the intensely blue sea
(wave's intenser day)
41. moss: flat plant that
grows on wet
surfaces. Under the
sea it looks blue
42. faints: loses
consciousness
overcome by emotion
43. picturing: looking at
 .i320THE ROMANTIC AGE - Poetry

44.Thou For whose ... Cleave themselves into chasms 44 , while far below
chasms: when you
blow, the Atlantic The sea-blooms 45 and the oozy woods 46 which wear
(Atlantic's level
The sapless 47 foliage 48 of the ocean, know 40
powers: the Atlantic
when it is calm)
makes a path for you Thy voice, and suddenly grow grey with fear,
between its giant And tremble and despoil 49 themselves: oh hear!
waves (chasms: deep
space between two
IV
rocks. In this case it is
between two waves) If I were a dead leaf thou mightest bear 50 ;
45. sea-blooms: sea If I were a swift 51 cloud to fly with thee;
flowers
A wave to pant 5 2 beneath 5 3 thy power, and share 45
46. oozy woods: the
slimy, slippery plants
that grow on the sea The impulse 54 of thy strength, only less free
bed Than thou, O uncontrollable! If even
4 7. sapless: sap is a liquid
I were as in my boyhood, and could be
substance that carries
food through a plant.
Underwater plants do The comrade 55 of thy wanderings 56 over Heaven,
not have any sap As then, when to outstrip thy skiey speed 50
48. foliage: leaves of a
plant Scarce seemed a vision 57 ; I would ne'er have striven 58
49. despoil: destroy
As thus 5 9 with thee in prayer in my sore need 60 .
IV
Oh, lift me as a wave, a leaf, a cloud!
50. mightest bear: might
carry I fall upon the thorns 61 of life! I bleed 62 !
51. swift: fast
52. pant: breathe quickly A heavy weight of hours has chained and bowed 63 55
53. beneath: under One too like thee: tameless 64 , and swift, and proud.
54. impulse: power
55.comrade: companion V
56. wanderings: travels Make me thy lyre 65 , even as the forest is:
57. As then ... vision:
when I was a boy
What if my leaves are falling like its own!
I did not think (Scarce The tumult of thy mighty 6 6 harmonies
seemed) it was
impossible (a vision) Will take from both a deep, autumnal tone, 60
to run faster than
(outstrip) the wind Sweet though in sadness. Be thou, Spirit fierce,
58.1 would ... striven: My spirit! Be thou me, impetuous one!
I would never have
tried Drive my dead thoughts over the universe
59. As thus: like I am
Like withered 67 leaves to quicken 6 8 a new birth!
doing now
60. prayer in my sore And, by the incantation of this verse, 65
need: I am praying to
you because I am in Scatter 69 , as from an unextinguished hearth 7 0
deep despair
Ashes and sparks, my words among mankind!
61. thorns: sharp points
(on a plant such as a Be through my lips to unawakened 71 earth
rose)
62.1 bleed: I am losing The trumpet 7 2 of a prophecy! O Wind,
blood
If Winter comes, can Spring be far behind? 70
63. chained and bowed:
imprisoned and bent
over in a sign of
submission 67. withered: dead 71. unawakened: still
65. lyre: the Aeolian harp 68. quicken: stimulate sleeping
64. tameless: someone
who will always be that produces music 69. Scatter: throw around a 72. trumpet: messenger. A
wild and free and when the wind blows wide area trumpet is, literally, a
cannot be brought through it 70. hearth: place where a fire is musical instrument that
under control 66. mighty: powerful burning you blow into

COMPREHENSION
1 The p o e m is divided into five stanzas. C h o o s e a
heading for each one.
• The effect of the wind on the sea.
• The relationship between the poet and t h e wind.
• The effect of t h e wind on t h e land.
• The effect of t h e wind on the sky.
• The relationship between the poet and t h e rest of
mankind.
2 Focus on the first stanza.
a. The p o e m is written in the form of an ode*. W h o or
what is the poem addressed to?
b . What does the poet c o m p a r e to 'ghosts' (line 3)
and 'pestilence-stricken multitudes' (line 5 ) ?
c. In what sense is t h e wind both and a 'destroyer'
and a 'preserver'?
3 Focus on t h e second stanza.
a. What, according to the poet, are like leaves shaken
from 'Heaven and O c e a n ' ?
b . In what sense are t h e clouds 'angels'/messengers?
c. The stormy sky forms a sepulchral d o m e over t h e
land. W h o or what has died?
ANALYSIS
1 From a structural point of view the p o e m is a
combination of the sonnet* form and terza rima*.
Work out t h e rhyming s c h e m e of the p o e m and note
down the n u m b e r of lines in each stanza.
2 The language used throughout the p o e m is highly
figurative. The poet piles metaphor* upon metaphor
to create dense, elaborate imagery*. Find t h e vehicles
for the following tenors in t h e first stanza: wind,
leaves, earth.
3 Many of t h e images Shelley creates appeal to the
senses. Find the images that appeal to the various
senses:
smell line 1 2
hearing lines 2 3 - 2 4
sight line 41
touch line 5 4
4 The imagery in the p o e m is drawn from t h e
scientific, mythical and biblical spheres. Find an
example for each.
Percy Bysshe Shelley 43
4 Focus on the third stanza.
a. Where was the Mediterranean sleeping before the
west wind awakened it?
b . What can t h e wind see below the waves? (Line 3 3 )
c. How does the Atlantic form a 'path' for the wind?
d . How does the underwater foliage react to the
'voice' of t h e wind?
5 Focus on t h e fourth stanza.
a. What wishes does t h e poet express in lines 4 3 ^ 4 6 ?
b . What does he wish to share with the wind?
c. In what way was the poet's life different when he
was a boy?
d . If t h e poet were a leaf, a cloud, a wave or a boy
again, what would he not have to do?
e. W h a t qualities does t h e poet share with t h e wind?
(line 5 6 )
6 Focus on the fifth stanza.
In the final stanza the poet makes a series of requests.
Identify t h e line in which he asks the wind:
- to transform him into a musical instrument: line
- to b e c o m e his spirit: line
- to carry his thoughts around the universe: line
- to spread his words a m o n g men: lines
5 Underline words and expressions in the p o e m that
are associated with death and destruction, and life
and regeneration.
Does the poet view destruction as:
• a futile end to a life cycle?
• a necessary step towards renewal and regeneration?
6 In t h e fourth stanza the pronoun T appears for
the first time. Underline the expressions that suggest
that t h e poet:
- is in a state of suffering.
- has qualities which will allow him to o v e r c o m e his
suffering.
7 In his essay A Defence of Poetry Shelley wrote:
'For the mind in creation is as a fading coal, which
some invisible influence, like an inconstant wind,
awakens to transitory brightness.'
'Man is an instrument over which a series of external
and internal impressions are driven, like the alterations
of an ever-changing wind over an Aeolian lyre.'
In which lines of the fifth stanza are similar ideas
expressed?
44 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Poetry

8 The central symbol* of t h e p o e m is the wind: 9 Focus on the musical features of t h e p o e m .

a natural force which causes destruction and rebirth. Find examples of:
It can b e interpreted in t h e c o n t e x t of t h e p o e m : - alliteration*
- as the political force of revolution which destroys - assonance*
the old order and builds a new and better future; - end rhyme*
- as the creative force of t h e imagination, which - run-on lines*
transforms the old and familiar into the new and
beautiful; Listen again to the recording. How would you

- as freedom, which rises up and overthrows any form define the musicality of the p o e m ?
of tyranny.
Do you find any of these interpretations particularly
convincing?

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P
Personification P e r s o n i f i c a t i o n is a type o f m e t a p h o r in w h i c h h u m a n characteristics s u c h as e m o t i o n s ,
personality, b e h a v i o u r a n d so o n are a t t r i b u t e d t o an a n i m a l , o b j e c t or idea:
The proud lion surveyed his kingdom.
T h e p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n o f p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n is t o m a k e a b s t r a c t ideas clearer t o t h e reader
by comparing t h e m to everyday h u m a n experience. Humanising cold and c o m p l e x
a b s t r a c t i o n s c a n b r i n g t h e m t o life, r e n d e r t h e m m o r e i n t e r e s t i n g a n d m a k e t h e m easier
to understand.

TASK Find o n e example of personification for each of the following in Ode to the West Wind and
write the line references:
wind seeds the Mediterranean
t h e Atlantic sea foliage wave
W h a t purpose does personification serve in Shelley's p o e m ?

OVER T O Y O U Personify in o n e or more sentences o n e of the following abstract ideas:

Boredom Hatred Pride Kindness Victory Revenge

Poetry can be inspirational and affect the reader deeply. In Shelley's opinion, it can bring about 'a new birth' and
be 'the trumpet of a prophecy'.
Think of a p o e m in any language that you really like. Write down briefly why you like it and how it makes you feel.
 Percy Bysshe Shelley 45

T h r o u g h o u t history, kings and e m p e r o r s have built m o n u m e n t s to c o m m e m o r a t e their victories and

a c h i e v e m e n t s a n d to leave a reminder of their g r e a t n e s s t o later g e n e r a t i o n s . Shelley asks t h e q u e s t i o n , 'Is all t h e
effort t h a t is put into making t h e s e m o n u m e n t s t o posterity really w o r t h w h i l e ? '

Ozymandias1 Text E 1 5

I m e t a traveller from an a n t i q u e land

W h o said: T w o v a s t a n d t r u n k l e s s 2 legs o f s t o n e
Stand in the desert... Near t h e m , o n t h e sand, GLOSSARY •
Half sunk3, a shattered4 v i s a g e lies, w h o s e frown5, 1. Ozymandias: Ramses
II of Egypt (thirteenth
A n d w r i n k l e d 6 lip, a n d s n e e r 7 o f c o l d c o m m a n d , century BC), who had
huge monuments
Tell t h a t its s c u l p t o r w e l l t h o s e p a s s i o n s r e a d
built during his reign
W h i c h y e t s u r v i v e , s t a m p e d o n t h e s e lifeless t h i n g s , and whose colossal
tomb was shaped like
T h e h a n d that m o c k e d t h e m a n d t h e heart that fed8:
a Sphinx
2. trunkless: without
And on the pedestal these words appear:
the upper part of the
' M y n a m e is O z y m a n d i a s , k i n g o f k i n g s : body
Look o n m y works, ye9 Mighty10, a n d despair!' 3. sunk: buried in the
sand
Nothing beside remains. Round the decay 4. shattered: broken
into little pieces
Of that colossal wreck11, boundless12 and bare 5. frown: facial
T h e l o n e a n d l e v e l s a n d s s t r e t c h far a w a y . expression of
displeasure
6. wrinkled: twisted or
curled
7. sneer: facial
expression showing
contempt, as if you
are superior to others
8. Which yet survive ...
heart that fed: have
outlived the sculptor
who imitated/made
fun of (mocked)
them and the king
who felt them
9. ye: you
10. Mighty: powerful
11. wreck: something
A lithograph showing that has been
Ramses II temple. destroyed
12. boundless: limitless
•

COMPREHENSION
1 W h o did t h e p o e t m e e t ? 4 W h a t words a p p e a r e d on t h e pedestal?

2 W h a t did t h e traveller s e e in t h e desert? 5 W h a t surrounded t h e m o n u m e n t ?

3 W h a t details did he n o t i c e on t h e f a c e ?
 .i324THE ROMANTIC AGE - Poetry

ANALYSIS
1 Underline t h e words and expressions which
describe Ozymandias as represented by t h e statue.
W h a t picture of the pharaoh e m e r g e s ? Do the
c o n t e n t and t o n e of the inscription (lines 1 0 - 1 1 )
confirm this view of the king?
6 Note down the n u m b e r of lines in t h e p o e m . W h a t
poetic form did Shelley use?
The p o e m can be divided into three parts. Which lines
are dedicated to the description of the m o n u m e n t ,
the inscription and the surroundings?

2 Circle the words and expressions which describe 7 Focus on the musical features of t h e p o e m .
t h e landscape surrounding the statue. Which aspects a. Work out t h e rhyming scheme*. Is it regular
of t h e setting e m e r g e most forcefully? Does the throughout?
setting in which the m o n u m e n t stands make it seem b. Find examples of alliteration* and run-on lines*.
ridiculous? c. The following words are taken from the final three
lines of the p o e m . Read them aloud:
3 The p o e m is built on an ironic situation which is
highlighted in line 1 1 . remains round boundless bare
lone level far away
a. Why did Ozymandias originally believe t h e mighty
should despair when they looked on his works? What effect is created?

b. Why should the mighty despair when they look on • An echoing effect which suggests the vast
his works today? bareness of the desert.
• A playful rhyming effect which suggests that t h e
4 How would you describe the tone of t h e
inscription? poet is making fun of Ozymandias.
• A slow, mournful, clanging effect which suggests
5 What is t h e tone of the line that follows 'Nothing that the poet is mourning t h e destruction of a
beside remains'?
magnificent work of art.
What is t h e effect of the stark contrast in t o n e ?
8 On the basis of your analysis, define the theme* of
• To highlight Ozymandias's magnificence.
the p o e m .
• To underline the central irony of the p o e m .
• To emphasise the destructive nature of time.

r H

Would t h e world b e a poorer place if there were no forms of c o m m e m o r a t i o n ? W h a t do you think are t h e best
ways to ensure that people will be r e m e m b e r e d ? Is t o o much time and m o n e y spent on remembering t h e past?
Discuss with your classmates.
 Percy Bysshe Shelley 47

Shelley, like Byron, h a d a r e b e l l i o u s spirit a n d a t t a c k e d i n j u s t i c e a n d c o r r u p t i o n in early n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y

England. In t h e following p o e m he paints a very n e g a t i v e picture of political a n d social life in t h e year 1 8 1 9 .
Does he believe t h a t this situation can ever c h a n g e ?

England In 1819 Text E16

An old, m a d , blind, despised1, a n d d y i n g king2, -

Princes, t h e dregs3 o f their dull race, w h o flow
T h r o u g h public scorn4, - m u d from a m u d d y spring5, -
R u l e r s w h o n e i t h e r see, n o r feel, n o r k n o w ,
But leech6-like to their fainting country cling7,
Till t h e y d r o p , b l i n d i n b l o o d , w i t h o u t a b l o w , -
A people starved a n d stabbed8 in the unfilled9 field10, -
An army, w h i c h liberticide a n d prey
M a k e s as a t w o - e d g ' d s w o r d t o all w h o w i e l d 1 1 , -
G o l d e n a n d s a n g u i n e 1 2 laws w h i c h t e m p t 1 3 a n d slay14;
Religion Christless, Godless - a b o o k sealed15;
A Senate - Time's worst statute unrepealed16, -
Are g r a v e s 1 7 , f r o m w h i c h a g l o r i o u s P h a n t o m m a y
Burst, t o i l l u m i n e o u r t e m p e s t u o u s day.

A scene fr^,,,
Madness of King
George (1994).

GLOSSARY
1. despised: hated
2. An old ... king: George III,
who was blind and
mentally ill. He died in
1820
3. dregs: the lowest forms of
human life who deserve no
respect
4. scorn: the feeling that
someone is stupid or
useless
5. mud ... spring: these
people are corrupt (mud:
wet, dirty earth) like their
ancestors were (spring: a Massacre in August 1819, 15.Religion ... sealed:
place where water comes when troops attacked the state Protestant
up naturally from the peaceful protesters religion is all-powerful
ground). Lines 2 and 3 are ( • p. E107) and intolerant
also a reference to George 11. An army ... wield: the 16.Time's ...
Ill's disreputable son, who army is like a sword with unrepealed: the
was Prince Regent from two edges. With one it kills statute is the law
1811 to 1820 freedom (liberticide), while which prevented
6. leech: small soft creature with the other it hunts Catholics and
that sucks blood from down and kills (prey) Dissenters from
animals people (wield: hold the holding office
( • p. E108)
7. cling: hold very tightly sword)
(unrepealed: not
8. stabbed: killed with a knife 12. sanguine: stained with abolished)
9. unfilled: not cultivated blood
17. graves: where people
10. A people ... field: this is a 13. tempt: lead into temptation are buried when they
reference to the Peterloo 14. slay: kill die
.i48 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Poetry

COMPREHENSION
1 Here is a list of the targets of Shelley's attack in the 2 What are the subjects of the verb 'are' in line 1 3 ?
p o e m . Find the c o m m e n t s he makes a b o u t t h e m :
3 W h a t might the ' P h a n t o m ' (line 1 3) do?
King, Princes, Rulers, Army, Laws, Religion, Senate.

ANALYSIS
1 Note down the n u m b e r of lines in t h e p o e m .
W h a t poetic form does it take? Where does the
turning point occur?
2 Focus on the sound and rhythm* of the p o e m .
a. Work out the rhyming s c h e m e . Is it regular?
b . Find examples of alliteration* and run-on lines*.
c. Consider the punctuation. How many full stops are
there? Circle c o m m a s and dashes. Does the p o e m
flow smoothly or is the rhythm irregular?
d . What does the rhythm of the poem convey?
• The poet's sad, reflective m o o d .
• The poet's anger and frustration.
• The tumultuous state of English affairs.
W The poet's passive resignation to what is
happening in England.
3 Focus on the language used in the p o e m .
a. Does t h e poet favour:
• short, sharp words?
• complex, sophisticated words?
Give examples.
b . What does t h e choice of words suggest?
• That in his anger and frustration the poet uses
words as blows to strike against his targets.
• That the poet wished to use simple terms that
could be understood by the c o m m o n man.
4 T h e images that Shelley uses to attack the political
and religious leaders of his country are extremely
powerful. Which o n e do you find most effective and
why?
5 The language throughout the poem is highly
figurative. Focus on the following key images and try
to interpret t h e m .
a. In what sense is the field in which t h e people starve
and are stabbed 'untitled'? (Line 7)
b. In what way is the state religion 'a book sealed'?
(Line 1 1 )
c. Why are the religious and political leaders
considered 'graves'? (Line 1 3)
d. How do you interpret the 'glorious Phantom' (line
1 3) and in what sense might it 'illumine' the
'tempestuous day'?
6 Which adjectives would you c h o o s e to define the
tone* of the p o e m ? Is it the same throughout?

In this p o e m Shelley c o n d e m n s t h e m a s s a c r e of u n a r m e d civilians by t h e army (The Peterloo Massacre 1 8 1 9 ,

• p. E107). Think of o n e other incident in history where innocent civilians were killed by troops.
Explain the context in which the massacre happened.
 Percy Bysshe Shelley 49

LINK
{ to the world of music
OHIO
Tin soldiers1 and Nixon 2 coming,
We're finally on our own.
This summer I hear the drumming 3 ,
Four dead in Ohio.

Gotta get down to it 4

Soldiers are gunning 5 us down
Should have been done long ago.
What if you knew her
And found her dead on the ground
How can you run when you know? (twice)
by Neil Young (from the album Deja Vu)

GLOSSARY

1. Tin soldiers: armed soldiers used to control marches

2. Nixon: US president during the protests against the
Vietnam war
3. drumming: the sound of battle drums, i.e. conflict
4. Gotta get down to it: wake up to reality
5. gunning: firing, shooting

The four students who were killed at Ohio State University

were protesting against the war.

TASKS
1 W h o is t h e t a r g e t of Neil Young's attack in t h e s o n g a n d w h y ?

2 At t h e t i m e this s o n g w a s written, US society was b o m b a r d e d by n e w s and i m a g e s of violence. How d o e s Neil

Young try t o personalise t h e events t h a t t o o k place in O h i o and t h e r e b y increase their i m p a c t o n t h e listener?

3 How would you d e s c r i b e t h e t o n e of t h e s o n g ? Is it similar to t h e t o n e of Shelley's p o e m ?

E
iA s jM

fc0 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Poetry

WRITERS' GALLERY
Early years Percy Bysshe
S h e l l e y was b o r n i n 1 7 9 2 i n t o
a p r o s p e r o u s a r i s t o c r a t i c f a m i l y . He was e d u c a t e d at O x f o r d
where his political and p h i l o s o p h i c a l readings led h i m to co-
w r i t e a d i s s e r t a t i o n , The Necessity of Atheism, t h e first o p e n
profession of a t h e i s m to be printed in England, for w h i c h t h e
Oxford authorities expelled h i m . Shelley's father d e m a n d e d a
public retraction of the pamphlet, but Shelley refused and
instead eloped to Scotland with the sixteen-year-old daughter of
a coffee house proprietor. This caused a p e r m a n e n t break with
his family.

P E R C Y BYSSHE SHELLEY
Political writings T h e c o u p l e s p e n t s o m e t i m e i n Ireland, w h e r e
(1792-1822)
S h e l l e y g o t i n v o l v e d i n p r o m o t i n g p o l i t i c a l r i g h t s for C a t h o l i c s .
He r e t u r n e d t o Wales, w h e r e h e tried t o set u p a c o m m u n e o f Tike spirits'. D u r i n g t h i s period h e w r o t e
p a m p h l e t s p r o m o t i n g 'free love' a n d c o n d e m n i n g , a m o n g o t h e r things, royalty, m e a t - e a t i n g a n d
r e l i g i o n . In 1 8 1 3 h e p u b l i s h e d h i s first m a j o r p o e m , Queen Mab, w h i c h c o n t a i n e d m a n y o f h i s early
p o l i t i c a l a n d p h i l o s o p h i c a l ideas.

A tempestous life In 1 8 1 4 h e m o v e d t o L o n d o n , w h e r e h e c a m e u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e
p h i l o s o p h e r W i l l i a m G o d w i n a n d fell in l o v e w i t h h i s s i x t e e n - y e a r - o l d d a u g h t e r , Mary. He left h i s
wife, Harriet, w h o h a d just h a d t h e i r first c h i l d a n d was e x p e c t i n g a s e c o n d . T h e d e a t h of his
grandfather temporarily solved Shelley's financial problems and allowed h i m and Mary to elope
a b r o a d a c c o m p a n i e d b y Mary's f i f t e e n - y e a r - o l d stepsister, J a n e ' C l a i r e ' C l a i r m o n t .
Having travelled a r o u n d Europe, t h e three settled in G e n e v a where, in t h e s u m m e r of 1 8 1 6 , t h e y
w e r e j o i n e d b y L o r d B y r o n ( • p p . 3 2 - 3 9 ) , w h o b e c a m e C l a i r e ' s lover. It w a s d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d o f
relative tranquillity that Shelley c o m p o s e d s o m e of his best p o e m s . M a r y gave birth t o their son,
W i l l i a m , a n d b e g a n w o r k o n h e r n o v e l , Frankenstein ( • pp. E 8 8 - 9 5 ) .
In t h e a u t u m n o f 1 8 1 6 Harriet d r o w n e d h e r s e l f i n Hyde Park in L o n d o n , so S h e l l e y was free t o m a r r y
Mary. He r e t u r n e d t o E n g l a n d a n d tried t o w i n c u s t o d y o f h i s t w o c h i l d r e n b y his first marriage, b u t
h i s r e p u t a t i o n as a n a t h e i s t w o r k e d a g a i n s t h i m . D u r i n g h i s t i m e in E n g l a n d h e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h Keats
a n d o t h e r literary figures, a n d w o r k e d o n p o l i t i c a l p a m p h l e t s a n d essays.
«SPSS

Self-exile in Italy D i s i l l u s i o n e d w i t h Britain, in d e b t a n d suffering f r o m i l l - h e a l t h , S h e l l e y m o v e d

w i t h h i s f a m i l y t o Italy, w h e r e h e w r o t e t h e d e e p l y m e l a n c h o l i c Stanzas Written in Dejection and
Prometheus Unbound, a lyrical d r a m a in f o u r acts.
T h e d e a t h o f h i s a d o r e d s o n ' W i l l - m o u s e ' was a p e r s o n a l tragedy a n d c a u s e d h i s wife M a r y t o h a v e a
n e r v o u s b r e a k d o w n . T h e f a m i l y settled i n Tuscany. T h e s u m m e r o f 1 8 1 9 w i t n e s s e d an e x t r a o r d i n a r y
b u r s t o f c r e a t i v e e n e r g y . S h e l l e y w r o t e s o m e b e a u t i f u l l y r i c s i n c l u d i n g To a Skylark, The Cloud and
p f ^ p l p e r h a p s his b e s t - l o v e d p o e m , Ode to the West Wind ( • T e x t E 1 4 ) . His political writing was inspired b y
t h e news f r o m E n g l a n d a n d i n c l u d e d t h e s o n n e t England 1819 ( • Text E l 6 ) . T h e period at Pisa saw t h e
b i r t h o f his y o u n g e s t son, Percy Florence, a n d t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f his f a m o u s A Defence of Poetry (1821).
I n 1 8 2 2 S h e l l e y m o v e d his f a m i l y t o Lerici. In August 1 8 2 2 h e was d r o w n e d i n t h e b a y o f La Spezia.
iSgi His b o d y was c r e m a t e d o n t h e b e a c h at V i a r e g g i o in t h e p r e s e n c e o f B y r o n a n d o t h e r close friends.
 Writers' Gallery - Percy Bysshe Shelley

•• •• • mm> . u m m w m - •mmm^^s&mm

H f T I M i S H ^ H I B Q u e e n M a b and T h e R e v o l t o f I s l a m S h e l l e y ' s early w o r k s are

^^^MIMBAiiliii^^^^^^H characterised by i n t e n s e political passion. In t h e p o e m Queen
Mab, for e x a m p l e , S h e l l e y attacks s u c h 'evils' as c o m m e r c e , t h e m o n a r c h y , m a r r i a g e , religion a n d t h e
e a t i n g of m e a t . In place of these vices he p r o p o s e s r e p u b l i c a n i s m , free love, a t h e i s m and
v e g e t a r i a n i s m . The Revolt of Islam is a l o n g a l l e g o r i c p o e m w h i c h t r a n s p o s e s a h i g h l y p e r s o n a l i s e d
v e r s i o n o f t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n i n t o an O r i e n t a l setting. T h e p o e m c o n t a i n s m a n y a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l
r e f e r e n c e s , a n d i n t r o d u c e s t h e t h e m e o f struggle a n d r e n e w a l w h i c h is p r e s e n t i n m u c h o f h i s later
work.

Italian period (1818-1822) Shelley's w r i t i n g s d u r i n g h i s p e r i o d in Italy i n c l u d e s o m e o f h i s f i n e s t

work:
The Cenci ( 1 8 1 9 ) , a verse tragedy based o n the true story of Beatrice Cenci, w h o was e x e c u t e d for
m u r d e r i n g h e r f a t h e r in R o m e at t h e e n d o f t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y . T h e story, w h i c h i n v o l v e d i n c e s t
a n d a t h e i s m , f a s c i n a t e d S h e l l e y a n d so h e m a d e it t h e b a s i s o f a p l a y w h i c h s h o w s strong
Shakespearean influences.
Prometheus Unbound ( 1 8 2 0 ) : a lyrical d r a m a in four acts. P r o m e t h e u s , t h e giant w h o in Greek
m y t h o l o g y s t o l e fire f r o m h e a v e n a n d g a v e it t o m a n , b e c o m e s a h e r o w h o e m b o d i e s t h e m o r a l
salvation of M a n from tyranny.

Odes T h e y e a r 1 8 1 9 also saw t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f s o m e o f Shelley's f i n e s t lyrics: Ode to Liberty, The

Cloud, To a Skylark a n d Ode to the West Wind. T h e latter is c o n s i d e r e d b y m a n y critics t o b e Shelley's
greatest s h o r t p o e m . In it t h e p o e t asks t h e spirit o f t h e W e s t W i n d t o b e b o t h destroyer a n d preserver,
a n d t o r e g e n e r a t e h o p e a n d e n e r g y i n N a t u r e , i n t h e p o e t h i m s e l f a n d i n m a n k i n d i n g e n e r a l . It is
w r i t t e n i n five m a j e s t i c s t a n z a s , e a c h t a k i n g t h e f o r m o f a s o n n e t . T h e m u s i c a l p a t t e r n s , w h i c h are
built o n internal rhyme*, assonance* a n d run-on lines*, clearly s h o w t h e poet's m a s t e r y o f h i s art.
A Defence of Poetry ( 1 8 2 1 ) is an essay i n w h i c h S h e l l e y argues t h a t p o e t r y c a n r e f o r m t h e w o r l d . In it
h e c l a i m s t h a t t h e p o e t is a m i s s i o n a r y , a p r o p h e t a n d a leader w h o , t h r o u g h h i s q u e s t for t h e e t e r n a l
t r u t h s o f beauty, c a n s h o w t h e w a y t o a b e t t e r society.

Reputation As a w r i t e r , S h e l l e y h a s b e e n c r i t i c i s e d f o r h i s o b s c u r e s y m b o l i s m , intellectual
a r r o g a n c e a n d i n t e n s e self-pity. However, in h i s g r e a t e s t w o r k s h e t r a n s c e n d s t h e s e l i m i t a t i o n s a n d
c o n v e y s a m e s s a g e o f h o p e a n d a s p i r a t i o n t h r o u g h strikingly b e a u t i f u l prose a n d poetry.

TASK
The many personal tragedies he experienced did not deter Shelley from spreading his message of hope
for a better world. Discuss this statement, making reference to the information you have read about his
life and works.
52 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Poetry

John Keats

T h e world of virtual reality is an artificial world w h i c h s o m e t i m e s s e e m s m o r e real a n d satisfying t h a n o u r o w n

everyday world. W h e n John Keats looks at t h e paintings on an a n c i e n t Grecian urn, he s e e m s t o lose himself in a
p e r f e c t , u n c h a n g i n g reality of t r e e s t h a t n e v e r lose their leaves a n d love t h a t n e v e r e n d s . W h a t lesson d o e s he
learn from his trip into this virtually perfect world?

Text E l 7 Ode On A Grecian Urn

I
T h o u 1 still u n r a v i s h e d 2 b r i d e o f q u i e t n e s s ,
T h o u foster-child3 of silence and slow time,
Sylvan4 historian, w h o canst thus express
GLOSSARY
A flowery tale m o r e sweetly t h a n our r h y m e 5 :
W h a t leaf-fringed6 legend haunts7 about thy shape 5
Thou: you
unravished: virgin, O f deities or mortals, or of b o t h 8 ,
pure In T e m p e 9 or t h e dales of Arcady10?
foster-child: adopted
W h a t m e n o r g o d s are t h e s e ? W h a t m a i d e n s 1 1 l o t h 1 2 ?
child
Sylvan: rural W h a t m a d pursuit13? W h a t struggle t o escape?
who canst... rhyme: W h a t pipes a n d timbrels14? W h a t wild ecstasy? 10
in this way (thus)
your paintings can
(canst) tell a story II
better than a poem
Heard m e l o d i e s are sweet, b u t t h o s e u n h e a r d
6. leaf-fringed: with
leaves around the Are s w e e t e r ; t h e r e f o r e , y e 15 soft pipes, play o n 1 6 ;
edges
N o t t o t h e s e n s u a l ear, b u t , m o r e e n d e a r e d ,
7. haunts: moves like a
spirit P i p e t o t h e spirit d i t t i e s o f n o t o n e 1 7 :
8 What leaf-fringed ... Fair y o u t h 1 8 , b e n e a t h 1 9 t h e trees, t h o u c a n s t n o t l e a v e is
both: what story
(legend) about gods T h y song, n o r ever c a n t h o s e trees b e bare20;
or men is told in your B o l d 2 1 Lover, n e v e r , n e v e r c a n s t t h o u kiss,
pictures
T h o u g h w i n n i n g near t h e goal22 yet, d o n o t grieve23;
9. Tempe: valley in
ancient Greece She c a n n o t fade24, t h o u g h t h o u h a s t 2 5 n o t t h y bliss26,
10.Arcady: region in Forever wilt27 t h o u love, a n d she b e fair28! 20
ancient Greece that is
synonymous with
beautiful countryside
11. maidens: young
women
12. loth: reluctant, not II spirit, which we like even even though you are very
wanting to do 15.ye: you more (more endeared) near the girl
something 16. play on: continue playing 18. Fair youth: good-looking 23. grieve: be sad
13.pursuit: chase, 17.Not to the ... no tone: do young man 24. fade: disappear
running after not play real music for our 19.beneath: under 25.hast: have
someone or ears (sensual ear: the real
something 20. bare: without leaves 26. thy bliss: your happiness
ear that can hear musical
14. pipes and timbrels: notes) but silent music 21. Bold: confident, not shy 27. wilt: will
musical instruments (ditties of no tone) for our 22.Though winning ... goal: 28. fair: beautiful
 John Keats 53

III
Ah, happy, h a p p y b o u g h s 2 9 t h a t c a n n o t s h e d 3 0
Your leaves, n o r ever bid t h e Spring adieu31;
And, h a p p y melodist32, unwearied33,
Forever piping34 songs forever new;
M o r e h a p p y love! m o r e happy, h a p p y love! 25
F o r e v e r w a r m a n d still t o b e e n j o y e d ,
Forever panting35, a n d forever young;
All b r e a t h i n g h u m a n p a s s i o n far a b o v e ,
T h a t leaves a heart high-sorrowful36 a n d cloyed37,
A burning forehead, and a parching38 tongue39. 30

IV
W h o are t h e s e c o m i n g t o t h e sacrifice?
T o w h a t g r e e n altar, O m y s t e r i o u s p r i e s t ,
L e a d e s t t h o u 4 0 t h a t h e i f e r 4 1 l o w i n g 4 2 a t t h e skies,
A n d all h e r s i l k e n f l a n k s 4 3 w i t h g a r l a n d s d r e s s e d ?
W h a t l i t t l e t o w n b y river o r s e a s h o r e , 35
Or m o u n t a i n - b u i l t with peaceful citadel,
lohn Keats's
Is e m p t i e d o f t h i s f o l k , t h i s p i o u s 4 4 m o r n ?
drawing of a
And, little t o w n , t h y 4 5 streets for e v e r m o r e grecian urn.
W i l l s i l e n t b e ; a n d n o t a s o u l t o tell
W h y t h o u art46 desolate, can e'er47 return. 40

46. art: are

47. e'er: ever

O A t t i c 4 8 s h a p e ! Fair a t t i t u d e 4 9 ! w i t h b r e d e 5 0
Of marble m e n and maidens overwrought51, 48. Attic: from Athens
W i t h forest b r a n c h e s a n d t h e t r o d d e n 5 2 w e e d 5 3 ; 49. attitude: disposition
of figures in a
T h o u , s i l e n t f o r m , d o s t t e a s e us o u t o f t h o u g h t 5 4
painting
As d o t h 5 5 e t e r n i t y : C o l d P a s t o r a l 5 6 ! 45 50. brede: intricate
W h e n old age shall this generation waste57, design
51. overwrought:
T h o u shalt58 remain, in midst of59 other woe60 elaborately decorated
T h a n ours, a friend t o m a n , t o w h o m t h o u say'st61, 52. trodden: stepped on
53. weed: wild plants
' B e a u t y is t r u t h , t r u t h b e a u t y , - t h a t is all
54.dost tease ...
Ye k n o w o n e a r t h , a n d all y e n e e d t o k n o w . ' 50 thought: takes us
away (tease out:
separate) from our
serious thoughts
55. As doth: as does
56. Pastoral: work of art
Ill 37. cloyed: we are tired of it IV or literature about
rural life
29.boughs: branches because we no longer get 40. Leadest thou: are you
pleasure from it 57. When ... waste:
30. shed: let fall leading
when this generation
31. bid the Spring adieu: say 38. parching: thirsty 41. heifer: young cow shall die
goodbye to the spring
39.More happy ... a 42. lowing: the deep sound 58. shalt: shall
32. melodist: musician
parching tongue: the that cattle make, mooing 59. in midst of: in the
33. unwearied: not tired eternal love on the urn is middle of
43. silken flanks: shiny sides
34. piping: playing happier than our more 60.woe-, sorrow and
35.panting-, desiring passionate \ove that ends 44.pious: holy sadness
36. high-sorrowful: very sad and leaves us sad 45.thy: your 61. thou say'st: you say
54 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Poetry
COMPREHENSION
1 W h o does 'Thou' refer to in line 1 ?
2 In the opening three lines the poet addresses the
urn in three different ways. Identify them.
3 Through a series of questions the poet describes a
Bacchanalian scene that is depicted on the urn. What
is it?
4 In line 13 the poet says we cannot use the 'sensual
ear' to hear 'unheard melodies'. What should we use to
hear them, according to line 1 4 ?
5 In the second stanza the poet describes the scene on
the urn in more detail. What is the 'Fair youth' beneath
the trees doing? What can the 'Bold Lover' never do?
ANALYSIS
1 Which words suggest the silence of the urn in the
opening two lines? The silence of the urn is underlined
by the use of the sibilant's' sound . Underline all the
words in the opening two lines that contain a n ' s '
sound. Explain the paradox* in the silent urn expressing
a tale 'more sweetly than our rhyme'.
2 Find an example of metonymy* in line 4.
3 As he looks at the scene depicted on the urn, the
poet feels uncertainty and excitement. How is his
heightened emotional state conveyed in lines 7 - 1 0 ?
4 The second stanza introduces the paradox of
'unheard' melodies. Which expression in line 1 4 repeats
this idea? The poet says that unheard melodies are
sweeter because they 'Pipe to the spirit'. How do you
interpret this concept?
5 In the second stanza the poet suggests that the
immobility of art has both positive and negative
consequences. Say whether the following are positive
(P) or negative (N) aspects.
thou canst not leave/Thy song
nor ever can those trees be bare _E_
Bold Lover, never, never canst thou kiss
She cannot fade thou hast not thy bliss
Forever wilt thou love she be fair
6 Find examples of the personification* in lines 2 2 and
2 7 . The contrast between the world of art and reality is
continued in this stanza. Which adjectives describe love
as it is depicted in the scene on the urn? From which
semantic field are the images describing human love
drawn (line 30)?
Keats seems to fall in love with the perfect, never-changing world he sees on the urn. Think of a scene in a work of
art or a photograph which makes you feel like Keats does. Consider the setting, the characters and the actions.
6 In the third stanza why are the songs 'forever new'
(line 2 4 ) and the love 'Forever warm' (line 2 6 ) ? Which
lines describe the effect of human love?
7 In the fourth stanza the poet describes a second
scene that is depicted on the urn. What is it?
8 In the final stanza the poet addresses the urn in four
different ways. Identify them.
9 Underline the sentences that contain the message
conveyed by the urn.
7 Extensive use is made of repetition* in the third
stanza. Which words are repeated? What does the
repetition of these words highlight?
• The joy and permanence of the scene on the urn.
• The poet's dissatisfaction with the transience of real
life and love.
8 A sense of mystery surrounds the pastoral scene
described in the fourth stanza. How does the sentence
structure help to create this enigmatic atmosphere?
9 Find an example of synecdoche* in line 39.
1 0 The poet uses four different expressions to address
the urn in the fifth stanza. Which expression:
- indicates where the urn is from?
- underlines its beauty?
- highlights its silence?
- suggests that it is lacking in human warmth?
1 1 The poet's attitude toward the urn is ambivalent
throughout the poem. He is fascinated by the timeless,
youthful world represented on the urn which,
however, he sees as lacking in human passion and the
possibility of change. Which expressions describing the
urn in lines 4 5 and 4 8 reiterate these conflicting views?
1 2 The final two lines of the poem have been the
subject of much debate. Which of the interpretations
below do you feel is closest to your own?
• The world of art is superior to the real world of mankind.
• An artist, by revealing beauty through his work,
reaches man's highest achievement, i.e. truth.
• Art can console man through its beauty. It cannot
offer solutions to man's worldly problems.
• Man should live his life truthfully and in the constant
search for beauty.
 John Keats 333

W h e n s o m e o n e is in a state of ecstasy he or s h e s o m e t i m e s falls into a trance, a state in which a person s e e m s t o

b e hypnotised. A t r a n c e can b e b r o u g h t on, for e x a m p l e , by an intense spiritual e x p e r i e n c e or by narcotic drugs.
W h e n John Keats heard a nightingale sing o n e night, he was so e n c h a n t e d t h a t he fell into a trance. As you read t h e
p o e m , notice h o w he gradually loses consciousness of t h e world around him only t o suddenly wake up at t h e e n d .

Ode To A Nightingale1 Text E18 o

M y heart aches, and a drowsy2 numbness3 pains

M y s e n s e 4 , as t h o u g h o f h e m l o c k 5 1 h a d d r u n k ,
Or e m p t i e d s o m e dull o p i a t e 6 to t h e drains7
O n e m i n u t e past8, a n d Lethe-wards h a d sunk9:
15. Singest: sings
'Tis n o t t h r o u g h e n v y o f t h y h a p p y l o t , 16. full-throated: at full
But b e i n g t o o h a p p y in t h i n e happiness10, - voice

T h a t t h o u , l i g h t - w i n g e d D r y a d 1 1 o f t h e trees,
In s o m e melodious plot12 17. draught of vintage:
Of beechen green13, and shadows numberless14, drink of wine
18. hath been Cooled:
Singest15 of s u m m e r in full-throated16 ease. 10 has been kept cold
19. deep-delved earth:
II deep down under the
ground
O, for a draught of vintage17! that h a t h b e e n 20. Flora: Roman goddess
C o o l e d 1 8 a long age in t h e deep-delved earth19, of flowers
21. Provencal: from
Tasting of Flora20 a n d the c o u n t r y green,
Provence, in southern
Dance, and Provencal21 song, and sunburnt mirth22! France, home in the
Middle Ages to the
O f o r a b e a k e r 2 3 full o f t h e w a r m S o u t h , is
troubadours, who
Full o f t h e t r u e , t h e blushful24 Hippocrene25, composed and sang
love lyrics
W i t h b e a d e d b u b b l e s w i n k i n g at t h e b r i m 2 6 ,
22. mirth: happiness and
And purple-stained27 mouth; laughter
T h a t I m i g h t drink, and leave t h e world unseen, 23. beaker: drinking cup
24. blushful: red
And w i t h t h e e 2 8 fade a w a y 2 9 i n t o t h e forest d i m 3 0 : 20
25. Hippocrene:
fountain on Mount
Helicon that was
sacred to the Muses
and a source of poetic
GLOSSARY 6. dull opiate: narcotic drug jealous of you, but because inspiration
containing opium which you have made me very
1. Nightingale: small brownish 26. With beaded...
makes you want to sleep happy brim: the wine makes
bird that sings beautifully,
drains: drink to the very 11. light-winged Dryad: wood bubbles like beads
especially at night
last drop nymph who flies easily (beaded) around the
past: ago through the air. A nymph is top of the cup (brim),
drowsy: sleepy a spirit of nature who, in which seem to be
Lethe-wards had sunk: In
Greek and Roman legend, winking (to close and
numbness: sensation of Greek mythology, Lethe was
appeared as a young girl open one eye quickly,
being unable to think, feel a river that caused
12. plot: piece of land to send a message to
or react in a normal way forgetfulness. The poet is
someone).
sense: all my senses, my saying that the opiate has 13.beechen green: green like
being made him forget everything beech trees 27. stained: coloured
hemlock: a poisonous plant 10.'Tis not... happiness: 14. numberless: there are so 28. thee: you
that causes death through I have not become sleepy many you cannot count 29. fade away: disappear
paralysis and forgetful because I am them 30. dim: dark
,
mt5 6 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Poetry

III
F a d e far away, d i s s o l v e , a n d q u i t e f o r g e t
W h a t t h o u a m o n g t h e leaves h a s t 3 1 n e v e r k n o w n ,
T h e w e a r i n e s s , t h e fever, a n d t h e f r e t 3 2
H e r e , w h e r e m e n sit a n d h e a r e a c h o t h e r g r o a n 3 3 ;
W h e r e p a l s y 3 4 s h a k e s a few, sad, last g r e y h a i r s , 25
W h e r e y o u t h grows pale, a n d spectre-thin35, a n d dies;
W h e r e b u t t o t h i n k is t o b e f u l l o f s o r r o w
And l e a d e n - e y e d 3 6 despairs,
W h e r e Beauty c a n n o t keep her lustrous3 eyes j
38
Or n e w Love p i n e at t h e m b e y o n d t o - m o r r o w 30
III
31. hast: has
32.weariness ... fret: IV
tiredness, illness, and Away! a w a y ! f o r I will fly t o t h e e ,
worry
Not charioted by Bacchus and his pards39,
33. groan: long, deep
sound that you make But o n the viewless40 wings of Poesy41,
when you are in pain
T h o u g h t h e dull b r a i n perplexes a n d retards42:
34. palsy: an illness that
makes your arms and A l r e a d y w i t h t h e e ! t e n d e r is t h e n i g h t , 35
legs shake because
And haply43 t h e Q u e e n - M o o n is o n h e r t h r o n e ,
you cannot control
your muscles C l u s t e r e d a r o u n d 4 4 b y all h e r s t a r r y F a y s 4 5 ;
35. spectre-thin: as thin B u t h e r e t h e r e is n o l i g h t ,
as a ghost
S a v e w h a t f r o m h e a v e n is w i t h t h e b r e e z e s b l o w n
36. leaden-eyed: with
eyes that show a T h r o u g h verdurous glooms46 and winding mossy ways47. 40
person is sad
37. lustrous: shining
38.Or new Love ... to-
morrow: Love cannot
desire (pine) the eyes I c a n n o t see w h a t f l o w e r s a r e at m y f e e t ,
of Beauty for more Nor w h a t soft i n c e n s e h a n g s u p o n t h e b o u g h s 4 8 ,
than one day
But, in e m b a l m e d 4 9 darkness, guess e a c h s w e e t 5 0

IV Wherewith the seasonable m o n t h endows51

39. Bacchus and his T h e grass, t h e t h i c k e t 5 2 , a n d t h e f r u i t - t r e e w i l d ; 45
pards: wine (Bacchus
W h i t e h a w t h o r n 5 3 , and t h e pastoral eglantine54;
is the Greek and
Roman god of wine Fast f a d i n g 5 5 v i o l e t s c o v e r e d u p i n l e a v e s ;
and the pards are
leopards who pulled And mid-May's eldest child,
Bacchus' chariot) T h e c o m i n g m u s k - r o s e 5 6 , full of d e w y 5 7 w i n e ,
40. viewless: invisible 50
T h e m u r m u r o u s 5 8 h a u n t 5 9 o f flies o n s u m m e r e v e s 6 0 .
41.Poesy: poetry
42.Though ... retards:
even though I am
depressed and
worried
43. haply: by chance
44. Clustered around: 52. thicket: group of bushes 56. musk-rose: a fragrant wti
surrounded 48. boughs: branches of trees and small trees rose
45. Fays: fairies 49. embalmed: perfumed 53. hawthorn: small white tree 57. dewy: dew is the drops <
46. verdurous glooms: 50.guess ... sweet: I try to that has small white leaves water that form during t
green darkness make out what fragrances and red berries night on plants and other
come from the various 54. pastoral eglantine: fragrant objects
47. winding mossy
ways: twisting roads plants pink rose which is often 58. murmurous: noisy
that are covered in 51. Wherewith ... endows: referred to in pastoral 59. haunt: place people like t
moss (a flat, green which May (seasonable poetry goto
plant) month) gives 55. Fast fading: dying quickly 60. eves: evenings
 John Keats 57

III
Darkling 61 1 listen; and, for many a time
I have been half in love with easeful Death,
Called him soft names in many a mused rhyme 62 ,
To take into the air my quiet breath;
Now more than ever seems it rich to die, 55
To cease 63 upon the midnight with no pain,
While thou art pouring forth thy soul 64 abroad 65
In such an ecstasy!
Still wouldst thou 6 6 sing, and I have ears in vain 67 -
To thy high requiem become a sod 68 . 60

VII
Thou wast 69 not born for death, immortal Bird!
No hungry generations tread thee down 70 ;
The voice I hear this passing night was heard
In ancient days by emperor and clown:
Perhaps the self-same song that found a path 7 1 65
Through the sad heart of Ruth, when, sick for home,
She stood in tears amid the alien corn 7 2
The same that oft-times hath 7 3
An illustration for a
Charmed 7 4 magic casements 75 , opening on the foam 7 6
nineteenth-century edition
Of perilous 77 seas, in faery 78 lands forlorn 79 . 70 of Ode to a Nightingale.

VIII
Forlorn! the very word is like a bell
To toll 8 0 me back from thee to my sole self!
Adieu! the fancy cannot cheat so well 81
As she is famed to do, deceiving 82 elf 83 .
Adieu! adieu! thy plaintive anthem fades 84 75
VIII
Past the near meadows 85 , over the still stream 86 ,
80. toll: call
Up the hill-side; and now 'tis buried deep 81. the fancy ... well:
In the next valley-glades 87 : my imagination
(fancy) cannot trick
Was it a vision, or a waking dream? (cheat) me anymore
Fled 88 is that music: - Do I wake or sleep? 80 and I must return to
the real world
82. deceiving: to deceive
is to make someone
believe something
that is not true
VI continue to sing while her native home, Israel
83. elf: imaginary
61. Darkling: in the darkness I would be dead (sod: a (alien corn: foreign land)
creature like a small
62. mused rhyme: poem piece of earth) 73. oft-times hath: often has person with pointed
63. cease: die 74. Charmed: entranced ears
VII
64.pouring ... soul: singing so 69. wast: were 75. casements: windows 84. plaintive anthem
beautifully at the top of 76. foam: white spray fades: your high, sad
70. tread thee down: oppress
your voice 77. perilous: dangerous song dies away
you
65.abroad: over a wide area 71. path: way 78. faery: fairy 85. meadows: fields
66. wouldst thou: you would 79.in faery ... forlorn: the 86. still stream: calm,
72.Perhaps ... corn: in the
67.1 have ears in vain: I would nightingale's song is often a small river
Bible, Ruth heard the song
not be able to hear any more of the nightingale while she feature of romantic fairy 87. valley-glades: valleys
68. To thy ... sod: you would was crying nostalgically for tales (forlorn: sad) 88. Fled: disappeared
•
58 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Poetry
COMPREHENSION
1 How does t h e poet feel, according to t h e opening
four lines of t h e p o e m ? Are these feelings caused by
happiness or pain? Refer to line 6 in your answer.
2 W h a t does t h e poet long for in the second stanza?
What would drinking 'a draught of vintage' help him
to do, according to lines 1 9 - 2 0 ?
3 In the third stanza the poet describes t h e world
from which he wishes to escape. Find images for the
following and q u o t e the line references:
suffering ageing sorrow and despair
illness ephemeral love and beauty
4 What, according to t h e poet in the fourth stanza,
will carry him t o t h e nightingale?
ANALYSIS
1 T h e languid feelings of the poet are mirrored by
t h e slow, flowing m o v e m e n t of the opening four lines.
Find examples in these lines of caesura*, run-on lines*
and broad vowel sounds.
Which of these features:
- creates a flowing m o v e m e n t ?
- slows the rhythm down?
- creates pauses?
2 The poet attributes his dulled and drowsy m o o d to
happiness. Is there any suggestion, however, in this
first stanza, that the poet is experiencing sorrow and
suffering? Consider his apparent need to forget ('and
Lethe-wards had sunk', line 4 ) .
3 The description of the poet's state of mind is in
stark contrast to the description of the bird. Which
words and expressions in lines 6 - 1 0 suggest t h e
carefree happiness of the nightingale?
4 In the second stanza the poet creates an
atmosphere of warmth and merriment. By suggesting
that the wine he wishes to drink should be 'cooled',
he conveys the idea of a warm climate.
a. Find other words and expressions that you would
associate with the c o n c e p t s of warmth and
merriment.
b . The joyful playfulness of lines 1 1 - 1 8 is enhanced
by the use of alliteration*, assonance*,
onomatopoeia* and images which appeal to the
senses. Find examples of each of the above.
c. The mood in the final two lines of the stanza has
c h a n g e d . Which words create a darker, more
sinister atmosphere?
5 In the fifth stanza the poet describes t h e luxuriant
undergrowth in the w o o d . Circle the names of the
plants and flowers that are at his feet. Can he see
t h e m ? How does he know they are there?
6 Consider the sixth stanza. What has t h e poet often |
considered as a possible escape from the suffering of
human life? Why does this particular m o m e n t seem
suitable for dying? What t h o u g h t stops the poet from
choosing the option of death?
7 W h o else has heard t h e nightingale's s o n g ?
What has t h e nightingale's song inspired?
8 What is imagination unable to do, according to
line 7 3 ?
5 In the third stanza t h e poet presents a graphic
portrayal of human misery. He uses metonymy* ('hear
each other groan', line 2 4 ) and personification*
('Where palsy shakes', line 2 5 ) t o create striking
images. Find another example of m e t o n y m y (for
ageing) in line 2 5 and personification in line 2 9 .
6 Examine the poet's choice of words in lines 2 3 - 2 8 .
Are they mostly monosyllabic or polysyllabic?
Consider t h e rhythm* created by these words. How
would you define it? Does the rhythm mirror the
c o n t e n t of the stanza?
7 In the fourth stanza t h e poet says that he will
escape from human suffering through poetry.
a. Which images in this stanza suggest joyfulness?
b. Which line introduces a note of sorrow?
c. What word in the final line of the stanza reiterates
the sense of sadness?
8 The beauty of the world of nature as described in
the fifth stanza contrasts sharply with t h e suffering of
the human world in the third stanza. The poet piles
image upon image appealing to all five senses. Say to
which sense(s) t h e following images refer to.
- flowers are at my feet
- e m b a l m e d darkness
- white hawthorn
- fading violets
- musk-rose full of dewy wine
- the murmurous haunt of flies
9 Note the onomatopoeia* of line 5 0 . Which sounds
are repeated to suggest the buzzing of t h e flies?
 John Keats 59

1 0 In the sixth stanza t h e poet considers death as a
possible e s c a p e from h u m a n suffering.
a. What euphemism* for death is used in line 5 4 ?
b . The climax* of t h e stanza c o m e s in lines 5 5 - 5 6 ,
when the poet seems ready to e m b r a c e death.
How would you describe t h e language he uses at
this m o m e n t of heightened e m o t i o n ?
c. T h e poet refuses to c h o o s e death because he
wishes to continue listening to the nightingale's
song, which he calls 'high requiem' in t h e final line
of the stanza. Which word contrasts sonically with
'high requiem' and suggests the inappropriateness
of death?
1 2 What is t h e tone of t h e final stanza and how is it
created? Has t h e nightingale's song provided a
solution to human suffering or has it only provided
temporary relief?
In the light of your answer to question 11, how do
you interpret t h e final stanza of the p o e m ?
1 3 Focus on the structure of the p o e m .
a. Note down t h e n u m b e r of lines in each stanza. T h e
lines are written in iambic pentameter*, with the
exception of o n e line in each stanza. Which o n e ?
b. Work out the rhyming s c h e m e of t h e first two
stanzas. Is it regular?

11 In the seventh stanza t h e nightingale's song

b e c o m e s a symbol*. What does it symbolise?
18 Beauty • The immortality of art
• Creative inspiration • Imagination
Could it represent all of these concepts?

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P
Assonance A s s o n a n c e is t h e u s e o f s i m i l a r v o w e l s o u n d s r e p e a t e d i n s u c c e s s i v e o r p r o x i m a t e
Wmm w o r d s c o n t a i n i n g d i f f e r e n t c o n s o n a n t s . It creates v o w e l r h y m e as in t h e w o r d s ' n a m e ' ,
' h a t e ' , 'favour'.
Like a l l i t e r a t i o n , a s s o n a n c e gives p o e t r y a m u s i c a l quality. It also d e t e r m i n e s r h y t h m :
• h e a v y , b r o a d s o u n d s 'o', ' u ' , ' a ' ( t h o u g h , t u r n , h e a r t , p a i n ) t e n d t o s l o w t h e r h y t h m
down;
• s l e n d e r 'i' a n d 'e' (this, let) s o u n d s c r e a t e a q u i c k e r p a c e .

Examine lines 1 - 3 and lines 4 5 ^ 4 8 of Ode to a Nightingale.

a. Find examples of assonance. W h a t vowel sounds dominate?
• Long and broad • Short and slender
b. W h a t kind of rhythm do they create?
c. In lines 1 - 3 the poet is describing the suffering of human mortality, while in lines 4 5 - 4 8
he is describing t h e joys of nature. Explain why the rhythm of each section is appropriate
to the contents.

OVER T O Y O U Use broad vowel assonance to write a slow-paced sentence.

Use slender vowel assonance to write a quick-paced sentence. Example:
All the tall flowers surrounded the house. She will miss him in spring.

Imagine you are standing near Keats when he says, 'I have been half in love with easeful Death'. He seems to be
toying with the idea of suicide. What would you say to convince him not to do it.
. i 60 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Poetry

Have you ever felt t h a t there are just n o t e n o u g h hours in a day, or days in a week, t o d o all t h e things you would
like t o d o ? John Keats had g o o d reason t o worry a b o u t h o w short life is b e c a u s e he knew that, b e c a u s e of ill health,
he would die y o u n g . This p o e m was written in 1 8 1 8 , just three years before he died at t h e a g e of twenty-five.

Text El9 When I Have Fears

W h e n I h a v e fears t h a t I m a y c e a s e t o b e 1
Before m y pen has gleaned2 m y t e e m i n g 3 brain,
Before high-piled4 books, in charactery5,
H o l d l i k e r i c h g a r n e r s 6 t h e full r i p e n e d 7 g r a i n ;

W h e n I b e h o l d 8 , u p o n t h e n i g h t ' s s t a r r e d face,
Huge cloudy symbols of a high romance9,
A n d t h i n k t h a t I m a y n e v e r live t o t r a c e
Their shadows, with the magic h a n d of chance10;

A n d w h e n I feel, f a i r 1 1 c r e a t u r e o f a n h o u r ,
T h a t I shall never look u p o n t h e e 1 2 more, 10
Never have relish13 in t h e faery14 power
15
O f unreflecting love; - t h e n o n the shore

Of the wide world I stand alone, and think

Till l o v e a n d f a m e t o n o t h i n g n e s s d o s i n k 1 6 .

GLOSSARY 6. garners: buildings where (Their shadows), inspired

grain is stored
1. cease to be: die 7. full ripened: fully grown
2. gleaned: collected or and ready to be gathered,
gathered mature
3. teeming: full, prolific 8. behold: see
4. high-piled: a large amount, 9. high romance: great poem
one on top of the other 10. And think ... chance:
5. charactery: (archaic) 1 think 1 may never be able
writing to write (trace) about them
by my imagination (the
magic hand of chance)
11. fair: beautiful
12. thee: you
13. relish: great enjoyment
14. faery: fairy (archaic speUin
15.shore: coast
16. sink: go down

COMPREHENSION
T h e p o e m is written in t h e form of a sonnet*, which can b e divided into t h r e e quatrains and a c o u p l e t . Link e a c h
division of t h e p o e m t o its s u b j e c t matter.

first quatrain T h e p o e t expresses his fear t h a t d e a t h will deprive him of his love.
s e c o n d quatrain T h e t h o u g h t of d e a t h isolates t h e p o e t a n d paralyses his ability t o think.
third quatrain T h e p o e t expresses his fear t h a t d e a t h will cut short his work as a p o e t . Writing poetry is
c o m p a r e d to harvesting.
couplet T h e p o e t fears t h a t death will n o t allow him to c o m p l e t e his work as a p o e t . Writing p o e t r y
is c o m p a r e d t o drawing night skies.
 John Keats 61

ANALYSIS
1 The poet is fearful that death will deprive him of 6 The p o e m is constructed on a series of subordinate
artistic fulfilment. Which words in the opening clauses, based on the words 'When I . . . ' . In which line
quatrain suggest abundance, and therefore make t h e of the p o e m is the condition introduced by the
sense of deprivation stronger? opening phrase c o m p l e t e d ? What punctuation marks
signal the turning point?
2 The poet chooses t h e night sky as a symbol* of
What effect does this postponing syntax have on the
artistic inspiration. Link the words taken from the
poem?
second quatrain with the aspect of artistic inspiration
they convey. • It creates tension and expectation.
• It underlines the poet's despair.
high (line 6 ) Vastness
• It adds mystery to the p o e m .
magic (line 8 ) Superiority
huge (line 6) Mystery 7 Consider the syntax of lines 1 2 - 1 3 . W h a t device
makes the expression 'I stand alone' stand out?
3 Underline the expression in the third quatrain
which suggests the transience of beauty. 8 Work out the rhyming scheme* of t h e p o e m . Is it
regular throughout? Find examples of alliteration*
4 The poet attributes magical powers to 'unreflecting
and assonance* in the first two lines.
love'. What kind of love is 'unreflecting', in your
opinion? 9 Find the expressions in the poem that capture the
following typically Romantic concepts:
5 Which words/expressions in the final couplet
suggest: - the spontaneous, almost magical process of artistic
creation:
- the relative insignificance of the individual in the
- the isolation of the poet:
general s c h e m e of t h e universe?
- the alienation of the poet?
- despair?
How do you interpret the final two lines of t h e p o e m ?

Keats accomplished a great deal in his very short life. Think of a n o t h e r famous person w h o accomplished a lot
even though he died young.
.i340THE ROMANTIC AGE - Poetry

HfH^^^H^^H Early years J o h n K e a t s was

^ • • • • H I H I I ^ H b o r n in L o n d o n , w h e r e his
f a t h e r was t h e m a n a g e r o f a large livery stable. His early life was
m a r k e d b y a series o f p e r s o n a l tragedies: h i s f a t h e r was killed in
a n a c c i d e n t w h e n h e was e i g h t years old, h i s m o t h e r d i e d w h e n
h e was f o u r t e e n a n d o n e o f h i s y o u n g e r b r o t h e r s d i e d i n i n f a n c y .
He r e c e i v e d r e l a t i v e l y little f o r m a l e d u c a t i o n a n d at age s i x t e e n
h e b e c a m e a n a p p r e n t i c e t o an a p o t h e c a r y - s u r g e o n . His first
attempts at writing poetry date from the years of his
a p p r e n t i c e s h i p a n d i n c l u d e Imitation of Spenser, a homage to the
E l i z a b e t h a n p o e t h e greatly a d m i r e d .

JOHN KEATS First poems In 1 8 1 6 Keats o b t a i n e d a l i c e n c e to practise

(1795-1821) a p o t h e c a r y , b u t a b a n d o n e d t h e p r o f e s s i o n for poetry. He b e c a m e
f r i e n d s w i t h S h e l l e y ( • p p . E 4 0 - 5 1 ) a n d i n M a r c h 1 8 1 7 h i s first
b o o k o f p o e m s was p u b l i s h e d . A l t h o u g h it sold poorly, t h i s first v o l u m e o f w o r k i n t r o d u c e d h i m i n t o
i m p o r t a n t l i t e r a r y c i r c l e s . He m e t several of t h e g r e a t l i t e r a r y figures o f t h e d a y i n c l u d i n g
W o r d s w o r t h , w h o e x e r c i s e d a n i m p o r t a n t i n f l u e n c e o n h i s a p p r o a c h t o w r i t i n g poetry. In 1 8 1 7 Keats
left L o n d o n a n d t r a v e l l e d a r o u n d t h e Lake D i s t r i c t , S c o t l a n d a n d N o r t h e r n I r e l a n d , w h e r e h e was
impressed by t h e beautiful rugged landscape. W h e n h e returned from his travels h e nursed his
b r o t h e r T o m t h r o u g h t h e f i n a l stages o f t u b e r c u l o s i s . After h i s b r o t h e r ' s d e a t h h e m e t a n d fell in l o v e
w i t h F a n n y B r a w n e , b u t h i s o w n h e a l t h was b e g i n n i n g t o fail.

The great year Despite f r e q u e n t and persistent periods of illness, Keats dedicated h i m s e l f t o
w r i t i n g , a n d i n w h a t is o f t e n r e f e r r e d t o as t h e G r e a t Year ( 1 8 1 9 ) h e p r o d u c e d s o m e o f h i s f i n e s t
works, i n c l u d i n g h i s five great o d e s .

Death in Italy Keats's h e a l t h was n o w i n a critical state a n d S h e l l e y asked h i m t o j o i n h i m i n Pisa.

He did n o t a c c e p t S h e l l e y ' s i n v i t a t i o n b u t did d e c i d e t o m o v e t o Italy, w h e r e h e h o p e d t h e w a r m e r
climate would improve his c o n d i t i o n . Before leaving, he m a n a g e d to publish a third v o l u m e of
p o e m s , Lamia, Isabella, The Eve of St. Agnes and Other Poems. In 1 8 2 0 h e settled in R o m e , where h e
died in February 1 8 2 1 at t h e age o f t w e n t y - f i v e .

In his s h o r t literary career J o h n Keats w r o t e s o m e o f t h e m o s t

WORKS
outstanding and best-loved p o e m s in the English language.
His e a r l y p o e m s i n c l u d e d t h e s o n n e t On First Looking into Chapman's Homer (1816), w h i c h describes
t h e p o e t ' s d e l i g h t at first reading C h a p m a n ' s s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e G r e e k epic p o e m .
Endymion ( 1 8 1 7 ) tells t h e s t o r y o f a y o u n g s h e p h e r d w h o m t h e m o o n - g o d d e s s S e l e n e p u t s t o s l e e p
e t e r n a l l y s o t h a t s h e c a n e n j o y h i s b e a u t y . A l t h o u g h t h e p o e m is s t r u c t u r a l l y w e a k a n d o f t e n
o b s c u r e , it s h o w s f l a s h e s o f i m m a t u r e g e n i u s .
The Eve of St. Agnes is a r o m a n t i c l o v e story w h i c h b l e n d s e l e m e n t s o f Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet,
C h a u c e r a n d B o c c a c c i o . T h e r i c h s e n s u o u s n e s s o f t h e i m a g e r y in t h e p o e m is a n i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e
greatness to c o m e .

The Odes I n t h e f i v e o d e s o f 1 8 1 9 , Ode to Psyche, Ode on a Grecian Urn ( • T e x t E 1 7 ) , Ode to a

Nightingale ( • T e x t E 1 8 ) , Ode on Melancholy a n d To Autumn, Keats r e a c h e d t h e p i n n a c l e of his
 Writers' Gallery - John Keats

; yw- vmm • wmmt* sm. mm

c r e a t i v e p o w e r s . T h e y are l y r i c a l m e d i t a t i o n s
on art and real life, experience and
aspirations, life a n d d r e a m s . T h e s e odes,
w h i c h are s o r i c h i n e x q u i s i t e a n d s e n s u o u s
detail, represent for t h e m a n y the c r o w n i n g
a c h i e v e m e n t o f English R o m a n t i c i s m .

L a Belle D a m e S a n s M e r c i W r i t t e n at a b o u t
t h e s a m e t i m e as t h e Odes, t h e b a l l a d La Belle
Dame Sans Merci, which was published
p o s t h u m o u s l y , in l i n e w i t h t h e R o m a n t i c taste
for Medieval setting and describes the
d e s t r u c t i v e side o f a n idyllic love.

Letters Apart f r o m poetry, Keats also w r o t e a

series o f letters, p u b l i s h e d p o s t h u m o u s l y , in
w h i c h he recorded his t h o u g h t s on poetry,
love, p h i l o s o p h y a n d p e o p l e a n d e v e n t s o f h i s
day. M a n y o f t h e letters i n c l u d e valuable
c o m m e n t a r i e s o n his work a n d give a p r o f o u n d
insight into his artistic development. The
t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y l i t e r a r y c r i t i c T.S. E l i o t
( • M o d u l e G) described t h e letters as ' t h e m o s t
i m p o r t a n t ever written b y an English p o e t ' .

Reputation After a p a r t i c u l a r l y savage a t t a c k o n o n e o f h i s early works, Keats w r o t e t o h i s b r o t h e r

'I t h i n k I s h a l l b e a m o n g t h e E n g l i s h P o e t s a f t e r m y d e a t h ' . His p r o p h e c y h a s i n d e e d c o m e t r u e .
Keats's r e p u t a t i o n c o n t i n u e d t o g r o w d u r i n g t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , a n d s i n c e t h e n h e has, t o g e t h e r
w i t h W o r d s w o r t h , b e e n t h e m o s t w i d e l y r e a d o f t h e E n g l i s h R o m a n t i c p o e t s . His Ode on a Grecian
Urn, Ode to a Nightingale a n d To Autiimn are as w e l l - k n o w n a n d l o v e d as a n y t h i n g b y S h a k e s p e a r e .

TASK
Explain how the events of John Keats's life help us to understand the major t h e m e s of his poetry:
- the passing of time;
- the immortality of art;
- death as an escape from human suffering;
- beauty and art as a means of overcoming despair.
 Emma
by fane Austen

T h e t h e m e s of love a n d r o m a n c e have b e e n dealt with in every art form in every era. Today r o m a n t i c films, fiction
and music are as popular as ever.
Try t o r e m e m b e r a love story you have seen or read a n d c o m p l e t e t h e following notes:
N a m e s of t h e main characters: Setting:
An i m p o r t a n t e v e n t in t h e story: Ending:

THE STORY
CHARACTERS
Emma is a love story in which young men and women who live in the same area meet at
• Emma Woodhouse
• Harriet Smith, dances, in each other's homes or while walking in the village.
Emma's friend Emma, the main character, is a clever, pretty, twenty-one-year old, who lives alone with her
• Mr Elton, the local
father, Mr Woodhouse, near the village of Highbury. She becomes friends with seventeen-
vicar
• Mr Cole, a vicar's year-old Harriet, who has been abandoned by her parents. Emma decides that she will find a
friend suitable husband for Harriet, but stops her marrying Robert Martin, a local farmer, because
she thinks he is not good enough for her. She believes that Mr Elton, the local vicar, would be
a much better match. ( • Text E20)
Her attempt to make a match between Harriet and Mr Elton fails miserably but, undeterred,
she tries to pair Harriet off with Frank Churchill. However, Frank announces a surprise
• Visual Link E7 engagement to Jane Fairfax, while Harriet herself believes that Mr Knightley, a close friend of
Emma's, is in love with her. As it turns out, Mr Knightly is really in love with Emma and
asks her to marry him. ( • Text E21) She accepts and decides to stop interfering in other peo-
ple's lives. So, when she hears that Harriet has accepted Robert Martin's second proposal o
marriage, she wishes the couple all the best.

Text E20 This Would Not Do!

GLOSSARY
Emma and Harriet bump into Mr Elton on the road.
1. lane: narrow street
2. slight bend: small T h e y walked o n . T h e lane1 m a d e a slight b e n d 2 ; a n d w h e n t h a t b e n d was
curve passed, Mr. Elton was i m m e d i a t e l y in sight.
3. took ... footpath: left
the main road and
walked down a side
(...) Emma wants Harriet and Mr. Elton to be alone.
path A n x i o u s t o s e p a r a t e h e r s e l f f r o m t h e m as far as s h e c o u l d , s h e s o o n
4. This would not do:
afterwards took possession of a n a r r o w f o o t p a t h 3 , a little raised o n o n e
this would not suit
her plans side o f t h e l a n e , l e a v i n g t h e m t o g e t h e r i n t h e m a i n r o a d . B u t s h e h a d n o t
5. under pretence of been there two minutes when she found that Harriet's habits of
having: pretending
that she had d e p e n d e n c e and imitation were bringing her up too, and that, in short,
6. stooping down ... t h e y w o u l d b o t h b e s o o n after her. T h i s w o u l d n o t do4; s h e i m m e d i a t e l y
occupation of:
bending over and stopped, under pretence of having5 s o m e alteration to make in the lacing
completely blocking of her half-boot, and s t o o p i n g d o w n in c o m p l e t e o c c u p a t i o n of6 the 10
7. begged ... walk on:
footpath, begged t h e m to have the goodness to walk on7, and she would
asked them to keep
walking f o l l o w in h a l f a m i n u t e . T h e y d i d as t h e y w e r e d e s i r e d ; a n d b y t h e t i m e s h e
 Emma - Jane Austen 65

j u d g e d it r e a s o n a b l e t o h a v e d o n e w i t h h e r b o o t , s h e h a d
the comfort of further delay in her power8, being
overtaken 9 by a child from the cottage, setting out10, 15
according to orders, with her pitcher11, to fetch b r o t h 1 2
f r o m Hartfield. To walk b y t h e side of this child, a n d talk
to a n d q u e s t i o n her, was t h e m o s t n a t u r a l t h i n g in t h e
world, or would have been t h e m o s t natural, had she b e e n
acting t h e n without design13; and b y this m e a n s the others 20
w e r e still a b l e t o k e e p a h e a d , w i t h o u t a n y o b l i g a t i o n of
waiting for her. She gained on them, however,
involuntarily; the child's pace was quick, and theirs was
s l o w ; a n d s h e w a s t h e m o r e c o n c e r n e d a t it, f r o m t h e i r
b e i n g evidently in a c o n v e r s a t i o n w h i c h interested t h e m . 25
Mr. E l t o n was speaking w i t h a n i m a t i o n , Harriet l i s t e n i n g
with a very pleased attention; and E m m a having sent the
child on, was b e g i n n i n g to t h i n k h o w she m i g h t draw back
a little more, w h e n t h e y b o t h looked around, a n d she was
obliged to join them. 30
Mr. E l t o n was still talking, still e n g a g e d in some '... She soon afterwards
interesting detail; a n d E m m a e x p e r i e n c e d s o m e d i s a p p o i n t m e n t w h e n she took possession of a narrow
footpath... leaving them
f o u n d that he was o n l y giving his fair c o m p a n i o n an account of together in the main road.'
yesterday's party at his friend Cole's, a n d t h a t she was c o m e in herself for14
t h e Stilton cheese, t h e n o r t h Wiltshire, t h e butter, t h e cellery, t h e beet- 35
r o o t , a n d all t h e d e s s e r t .
'This w o u l d s o o n have led to s o m e t h i n g better of course', was her
c o n s o l i n g reflection, ' a n y t h i n g interests b e t w e e n t h o s e w h o love; and a n y
t h i n g w i l l s e r v e as i n t r o d u c t i o n t o w h a t is n e a r t h e h e a r t 1 5 . If I c o u l d b u t
h a v e kept longer away.' 40
T h e y n o w w a l k e d o n t o g e t h e r quietly, till w i t h i n v i e w o f t h e v i c a r a g e
p a l e s , w h e n a s u d d e n r e s o l u t i o n , o f at l e a s t g e t t i n g H a r r i e t i n t o t h e h o u s e ,
made her again find something very m u c h amiss16 about her boot, and
fall b e h i n d t o a r r a n g e it o n c e m o r e . S h e t h e n b r o k e t h e l a c e o f f s h o r t , a n d
d e x t e r o u s l y 1 7 t h r o w i n g it i n t o a d i t c h 1 8 , w a s p r e s e n t l y o b l i g e d t o e n t r e a t 1 9 45
t h e m t o s t o p , a n d a c k n o w l e d g e d h e r i n a b i l i t y t o p u t h e r s e l f t o r i g h t s 2 0 so
as t o b e a b l e t o w a l k h o m e i n t o l e r a b l e c o m f o r t .
' P a r t o f m y l a c e is g o n e , ' s a i d s h e , ' a n d I d o n o t k n o w h o w I a m t o
contrive21. I really a m a m o s t troublesome c o m p a n i o n to you b o t h , but I
h o p e I a m n o t so o f t e n i l l - e q u i p p e d . Mr. E l t o n , I m u s t b e g l e a v e t o s t o p at 50 16. very much amiss:
completely wrong
y o u r h o u s e , a n d ask y o u r h o u s e k e e p e r for a bit of r i b b a n d or string, or a n y
17. dexterously: with
t h i n g just t o keep m y b o o t o n . ' great ability
18. ditch: long narrow
hole dug alongside a
8. she had ... power: she 11. pitcher: a kind of container for: she herself had joined road
found another chance of 12. fetch broth: go and get in the conversation only to 19. entreat: ask
distancing herself from the broth (hot soup) hear about 20.acknowledged ...
couple 13.acting ... design: talking to 15.any thing ... heart: any rights: had to admit
9. overtaken: passed the child not because it was topic of conversation may she was not able to
10. setting out: starting a part of a plan help two people to get fix the lace
journey 14. she was come in herself closer 21. contrive: put it right
 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Fiction

COMPREHENSION
1 How did Emma first try to separate herself from 5 Why did she feel obliged to join the couple?
Harriet and Mr Elton?
6 What were Harriet and Mr Elton talking about
2 Why did her first attempt to distance herself fail? when she joined t h e m ?

3 W h a t did she then do to g e t t h e couple to 7 What did she do so that Mr Elton would invite
overtake her? Harriet and her to his house?

4 Why did she talk to t h e child w h o overtook her?

ANALYSIS
1 In this passage both the exterior world of Emma's 2 Emma feels a range of emotions in this passage. Find
actions and the interior world of Emma's thoughts and a line reference for each emotion and explain its origin.
feelings are described. Make a list of the actions Emma
line emotion origin
takes to distance herself from Harriet and Mr Elton,
line 3 anxiety She wants Harriet
quoting from the text and giving line references.
and Mr Elton to b e
ACTIONS alone.
frustration
- she soon afterwards lines 3^1
concern
took possession of a
disappointment
narrow footpath
consolation

3 Can you find any evidence in the text that the social
setting* of t h e novel is t h e upper or middle class?

4 Which adjectives would you use to describe Emma?

justify your choices.
••mmm

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P
Third-person E x c h a n g i n g letters, a diary or j o u r n a l , n a r r a t i o n b y o n e o f t h e c h a r a c t e r s or b y s o m e o n e
narrator: o u t s i d e t h e e v e n t s - a u t h o r s c a n c h o o s e f r o m m a n y d i f f e r e n t w a y s o f t e l l i n g a story.
omniscient W h e n a s t o r y is t o l d b y s o m e o n e o u t s i d e t h e a c t i o n , h e is c a l l e d a ' t h i r d - p e r s o n
narrator and n a r r a t o r ' ( b e c a u s e h e refers t o e v e r y b o d y i n t h e story in t h e t h i r d p e r s o n : ' h e ' , ' s h e ' or
free indirect
' t h e y ' ) . I n this f o r m o f n a r r a t i o n t h e p e r s o n w h o is t e l l i n g t h e s t o r y is like a n o b s e r v e r
speech
w h o is w i t n e s s i n g or h a s w i t n e s s e d w h a t h a s h a p p e n e d , b u t plays n o part i n t h e e v e n t s .
I n a c e r t a i n s e n s e t h e t h i r d - p e r s o n n a r r a t o r is a k i n d o f g o d ( t h e t e r m ' o m n i s c i e n t
Wm n a r r a t o r ' is a l s o u s e d ) . W e h a v e t h e s e n s a t i o n t h a t h e k n o w s e x a c t l y w h a t is g o i n g t o
h a p p e n a n d h o w e a c h c h a r a c t e r will b e h a v e . T h i s kind o f narrator was particularly

- m p o p u l a r in t h e e i g h t e e n t h a n d n i n e t e e n t h centuries. T h e narrative t e c h n i q u e J a n e
A u s t e n u s e s i n Emma is a d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e t h i r d - p e r s o n n a r r a t i v e . S o m e t i m e s t h e
n a r r a t o r is o m n i s c i e n t , at o t h e r t i m e s h e sees t h i n g s f r o m t h e m a i n c h a r a c t e r ' s p o i n t o f
view. I n s e t t i n g t h e s c e n e , for e x a m p l e , t h e n a r r a t o r is i n d e p e n d e n t , l o o k i n g d o w n o n
t h e c h a r a c t e r s f r o m a p o i n t o u t s i d e t h e a c t i o n . At o t h e r t i m e s it is clearly E m m a ' s p o i n t
o f v i e w t h a t is e x p r e s s e d :
 Emma - Jane Austen 67

But she had not been there two minutes when she found that Harriet's habits of dependence
and imitation were bringing her up too, and that, in short, they would both be soon after her.
This would not do; she immediately stopped, under the pretence of having some alteration to
make in the lacing of her half-boot. (...)

A l t h o u g h t h e n a r r a t i n g v o i c e r e m a i n s o u t s i d e t h e story, t h e p h r a s e ' T h i s w o u l d n o t d o '

is o b v i o u s l y a n e x p r e s s i o n o f E m m a ' s p o i n t o f v i e w , c o n v e y i n g h e r f r u s t r a t i o n a t
Harriet's behaviour. The t e c h n i q u e of shifting the narrative v i e w p o i n t b e t w e e n an
o b j e c t i v e a c c o u n t a n d s u b j e c t i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is called f r e e i n d i r e c t s p e e c h .
T h i s t e c h n i q u e m a k e s t h e reader feel less d e t a c h e d f r o m t h e story. Also, b e c a u s e m u c h
o f t h e s t o r y is t o l d f r o m t h e partial v i e w p o i n t o f o n e o f t h e c h a r a c t e r s , t h e reader gets
t h e idea t h a t a n y t h i n g c a n h a p p e n in t h e c o u r s e o f t h e n o v e l , j u s t as it c a n i n real life.
I n t h e c a s e o f E m m a it a d d s a n e l e m e n t o f h u m o u r , as t h e r e a d e r c o n t r a s t s t h e w a y
E m m a sees t h e w o r l d a r o u n d h e r a n d h o w it r e a l l y is. Free i n d i r e c t s p e e c h is w i d e l y
used i n m o d e r n n o v e l w r i t i n g .

Read again lines 2 2 - 3 6 and examine how t h e point of view shifts from the omniscient
narrator to Emma by identifying the following statements as objective view of events ( O ) or
as Emma's view of events (E).

I I Mr Elton and Harriet are having a conversation.

L J The conversation between Mr Elton and Harriet is interesting.
I I Mr Elton is speaking with animation and Harriet is pleased by what she hears.
I I Emma is gaining ground on Mr Elton and Harriet.
Mr Elton is talking about his friend's party.
I I Emma interrupts them at an interesting point in their conversation.

Read the paragraph below, which is based on the events of Text E20. Which character's
point of view is woven into the text? Justify your answer by referring to the text.
Mr Elton continued to talk to the rather dull Harriet about the party he had attended at Cole's
home. Meanwhile, the charming Emma had fallen behind and was talking to a child.
Thankfully, the child was walking quickly and so Emma would soon rejoin the company. As
the child overtook them, Mr Elton noticed that Emma was no longer with her. He turned to
see where she was and, to his disappointment, noticed that she was still some distance away.
He slowed his pace down and eventually she caught up with them. He could see that she was
happy to be in his company again.

Has Emma any right to organise Harriet's life for her? Should she not mind her own business? Is she acting in her
young friend's best interests? Discuss.
,68 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Fiction
Text E 2 1
CHARACTERS
• Emma Woodhouse
• Mr Knightley, a
close friend of
Emma's
- • GLOSSARY
1. have in
contemplation: be
planning
2. that I fear is a word:
that is the word I do
not want to hear
from you
3. look the question:
see how she would
react
4. overpowered:
shocked
5. dread: terror
6. as was ...
convincing: as he
was able to use in
order to persuade her
7. Bear with: try to
accept
8. The manner...
recommend them:
the way I behaved
with you did not
really show what my
feelings were
9. groundless: without
substance, unreal
More Than Just Friends
Having mistakenly believed that Mr Knightley is in
love with Harriet, Emma is relieved to discover that he
is, in fact, in love with somebody else.
'But if you have any wish to speak
o p e n l y to me as a friend, or to ask my
opinion of any thing that you may have in
contemplation 1 - as a friend, indeed, you
may c o m m a n d me. - I will hear whatever 5
you like. I will tell you exactly what I think.
'As a friend!' - repeated Mr. Knightley. -
'Emma, that I fear is a word 2 - No, I have no
wish. - Stay, yes, why should I hesitate? - I
have gone too far already for concealment. 10
- Emma, I accept your offer - extraordinary
as it may seem, I accept it, and refer myself
to you as a friend. - Tell me, then, have I no
chance of ever succeeding?'
He stopped in his earnestness to look the question 3 , and the expression is
of his eyes overpowered 4 her.
'My dearest Emma,' said he, 'for dearest you will always be, whatever
the event of this hour's conversation, my dearest, most beloved Emma -
tell me at once. Say "No", if it is to be said.' She could really say nothing. -
'You are silent,' he cried, with great a n i m a t i o n ; 'absolutely silent! at 20
present I ask no more.'
Emma was almost ready to sink under the agitation of this m o m e n t .
The dread 5 of being awakened from the happiest dream, was perhaps the
most prominent feeling.
'I cannot make speeches, Emma:' - he soon resumed; - and in a tone of 25
such sincere, decided, intelligible tenderness as was tolerably convincing 6 .
- 'If I loved you less I might be able to talk about it more. But you know
what I am. - You hear nothing but truth from me.'
(...)
'Bear with 7 the truths I would tell you now, dearest Emma.'
(...)
'The manner, perhaps, may have as little to r e c o m m e n d t h e m 8 . God 30
knows, I have been a very indifferent lover. - But you understand me. -
Yes, you see, you understand my feelings - and will return them if you
can. At present, I ask only to hear, once to hear your voice.'
W h i l e he spoke, Emma's m i n d was most busy, and, with all the
wonderful velocity of thought, had been able - and yet without losing a 351
word - to catch and comprehend the exact truth of the whole; to see that
Harriet's hopes had been entirely groundless 9 , a mistake, a delusion, as
complete a delusion as any of her own - that Harriet was nothing; that she
was everything herself.
 Emma - Jane

COMPREHENSION
1 At the beginning of the passage, what kind of 4 Why does Emma say nothing in answer to Mr
relationship does Emma believe exists between herself Knightley's question?
and Mr Knightley?
5 What ' e x a c t truth' has Emma understood by the
2 Why does Mr Knightley fear the word 'friend'? end of the passage?

3 What is Mr Knightley referring to when he asks if

he would have 'no c h a n c e of ever succeeding'?

ANALYSIS — —
1 Focus on Mr Knightley's speech pattern. Find 4 Attribute the adjectives in the list below to Mr
examples of: Knightley or Emma on t h e basis of the passage you
- hesitations: lines have just read. S o m e adjectives may be included in
- interrupted, unfinished sentences: lines both columns.
- repetition: lines Shy Emotional Insecure Mature
What does the unstructured, chaotic way in which Mr Sincere Perceptive Speechless
Knightley speaks reveal a b o u t his state of mind?
Mr Knightley Emma
2 Find t h e line in which Mr Knightley refers to his
inability to express himself appropriately.

3 Does Mr Knightley ever directly state that he loves

Emma? Make a list of the sentences that help Emma
to understand how Mr Knightley feels for her.
Throughout the novel Mr Knightley is portrayed as
calm, mature and eloquent, while Emma is seen as
immature, interfering and s o m e w h a t superficial. Is this
how they are portrayed in this key passage?

Have attitudes to marriage c h a n g e d much since j a n e Austen's day? Are young people as anxious to g e t married
today as Jane Austen's characters were? Discuss.
 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Fiction

Pride and Prejudice

by fane Austen

W h a t role s h o u l d p a r e n t s play in t h e i r c h i l d r e n ' s c h o i c e of a p a r t n e r ? S a y w h e t h e r y o u a g r e e o r n o t with t h e

following s t a t e m e n t s and explain why.

I I Parents should help their children find a partner.

I | Parents have n o right w h a t s o e v e r to interfere in their children's relationships.

1 T h e a g r e e m e n t of parents t o a marriage is i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e t h e y will be m o r e willing to help t h e y o u n g

c o u p l e financially.

[ 1 ] Arranged marriages, in which parents c h o o s e w h o their son o r d a u g h t e r is g o i n g t o marry, are t h e o n e s

m o s t likely to s u c c e e d .

THE STORY
The Bennets have five daughters and Mrs Bennet's driving ambition is to see all of them
married ( • Text E22). Charles Bingley has come to live nearby with his friend Darcy. When
• Visual Link E7 Darcy realises that Charles likes Jane Bennet, he does his best to separate them on the
grounds that her family are socially inferior. He himself likes Elizabeth Bennet, but when he
says so to her, she says she can have nothing to do with someone who looks down on her
family ( • Text E23). She changes her mind about him, however, when she learns that he
has helped another sister, Lydia, who had eloped with a military officer, and the story ends
happily with a double wedding between Charles and Jane, and Elizabeth and Darcy.

Text E22 What A Fine Thing for Our Girls!

CHARACTERS In the opening chapter Mrs Bennet tells her husband of the arrival in the neighbourhood
» Mr and Mrs Bennet of Mr Bingley, an excellent prospective husband for one of their daughters.
• Elizabeth, Jane and
Lydia Bennet, three
of the Bennets' five IT is a truth universally acknowledged 1 , that a single man in possession of
daughters a good fortune must be in want of 2 a wife.
• Charles Bingley, a
neighbour to the However little known the feelings or views of such a man may be on his
Bennets first entering a neighbourhood, this truth is so well fixed in the minds of
• Darcy, Charles's
the surrounding families, that he is considered as the rightful 3 property of
friend
• Lady Catherine de some one or other of their daughters.
Bourgh, Darcy's aunt 'My dear Mr Bennet,' said his lady to him one day, 'have you heard that
and one of the richest
people in the area Netherfield Park is let at last 4 ?'
Mr Bennet replied that he had not.

• GLOSSARY
'But it is', returned she; 'for Mrs Long has just been here, and she told me
all about it.'
1. acknowledged:
recognised, admitted Mr Bennet made no answer.
2. be in want of: need 'Do not you want to know who has taken it?' cried his wife impatiently.
3. rightful: legal
'You want to tell me, and I have no objection to hearing it.'
4. is let at last: has
finally been rented This was invitation enough.
 Pride and Prejudice - Jane Austen 71

' W h y , m y dear, y o u m u s t know, Mrs L o n g says

t h a t N e t h e r f i e l d is t a k e n b y a y o u n g m a n o f l a r g e
fortune from the north of England; that he came
d o w n o n M o n d a y i n a c h a i s e a n d f o u r 5 t o see t h e
p l a c e , a n d w a s so m u c h d e l i g h t e d w i t h it t h a t h e 20
a g r e e d w i t h M r M o r r i s i m m e d i a t e l y ; t h a t h e is t o
take possession before M i c h a e l m a s 6 , a n d s o m e of
his servants are t o b e in t h e h o u s e b y t h e e n d o f
next week.'

' W h a t is h i s n a m e ? ' 25
'Bingley.'
'Is h e m a r r i e d o r s i n g l e ? '
' O h ! s i n g l e , m y dear, t o b e sure! A s i n g l e m a n o f
large f o r t u n e ; four or five t h o u s a n d a year. W h a t
a f i n e t h i n g f o r o u r girls!' 30
' H o w s o ? H o w c a n it affect7 them?'
' M y dear M r B e n n e t , ' replied his wife, ' h o w can

m
y o u b e so t i r e s o m e 8 ! You m u s t k n o w t h a t I a m
The Bennet family from the
thinking of his marrying o n e of t h e m . ' film Pride and Prejudice
(1995).
'Is t h a t h i s d e s i g n 9 i n s e t t l i n g h e r e ? ' 35
' D e s i g n ! N o n s e n s e , h o w c a n y o u t a l k so! B u t it is v e r y l i k e l y 1 0 t h a t h e may
fall i n l o v e w i t h o n e o f t h e m , a n d t h e r e f o r e y o u m u s t v i s i t h i m as s o o n as
he comes.'
'I s e e n o o c c a s i o n f o r t h a t . Y o u a n d t h e g i r l s m a y g o , o r y o u m a y s e n d
t h e m b y t h e m s e l v e s , w h i c h p e r h a p s w i l l b e still b e t t e r , for, as y o u a r e as 40
h a n d s o m e as a n y o f t h e m , M r B i n g l e y m i g h t like y o u t h e b e s t o f t h e
party.'
' M y dear, y o u f l a t t e r 1 1 m e . I c e r t a i n l y have h a d m y share of beauty, but I do
n o t p r e t e n d to be a n y t h i n g e x t r a o r d i n a r y now. W h e n a w o m a n has five
g r o w n u p daughters, she o u g h t to give o v e r 1 2 t h i n k i n g o f her o w n beauty.' 45
'In such cases, a w o m a n h a s n o t o f t e n m u c h b e a u t y t o t h i n k of.' 5. chaise and four: type
of carriage pulled by a
' B u t , m y dear, y o u m u s t i n d e e d g o a n d s e e M r B i n g l e y w h e n h e c o m e s i n t o
horse
the neighbourhood.' 6. Michaelmas: 29th
September, St
i t is m o r e t h a n I e n g a g e f o r 1 3 , 1 a s s u r e y o u . '
Michael's holy day
' B u t c o n s i d e r y o u r d a u g h t e r s . O n l y t h i n k w h a t a n e s t a b l i s h m e n t it w o u l d 50 7. affect: be of interest
b e for o n e o f t h e m . Sir W i l l i a m a n d L a d y L u c a s are d e t e r m i n e d t o go, for
8. tiresome: annoying
m e r e l y on t h a t a c c o u n t 1 4 , for in general, y o u k n o w t h e y visit n o n e w
9. design: plan
c o m e r s . I n d e e d 1 5 y o u m u s t g o , f o r it w i l l b e i m p o s s i b l e f o r us t o v i s i t h i m , 10. likely: probable
if y o u d o n o t . ' 11. flatter: say adulatory
words
' Y o u are o v e r s c r u p u l o u s , surely. I d a r e s a y 1 6 M r B i n g l e y w i l l b e v e r y g l a d t o 55 12. give over: renounce
see y o u ; a n d I will s e n d a few l i n e s b y y o u t o assure h i m o f m y h e a r t y 13.1 engage for: I wish
to promise
c o n s e n t t o h i s m a r r y i n g w h i c h e v e r h e c h u s e s 1 7 o f t h e girls; t h o u g h I m u s t
14. merely on that
t h r o w i n a g o o d w o r d f o r m y l i t t l e Lizzy.' account: solely for
that purpose
i d e s i r e y o u w i l l d o n o s u c h t h i n g . Lizzy is n o t a b i t b e t t e r t h a n t h e o t h e r s ;
15. Indeed: surely
a n d I a m s u r e s h e is n o t h a l f so h a n d s o m e as J a n e , n o r h a l f so g o o d 60 16.1 dare say: I think
h u m o u r e d a s L y d i a . B u t y o u are a l w a y s g i v i n g her t h e p r e f e r e n c e . ' 17. chuses: chooses
,72 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Fiction

'They have none of them much 1 8 to recommend them,' replied he; 'they
are all silly and ignorant like other girls; but Lizzy has something more of
quickness than her sisters.'
'Mr Bennet, how can you abuse 19 your own children in such a way? You 65
take delight in vexing 2 0 me. You have no compassion on my poor nerves.'
'You mistake me, my dear. I have a high respect for your nerves. They are
my old friends. I have heard you mention them with consideration these
twenty years at least.'
'Ah! you do not know what I suffer.' 70
'But I hope you will get over it, and live to see many young men of four
thousand a year come into the neighbourhood.'
'It will be no use to us, if twenty such should come, since you will not visit
18. They have none of them.'
them much: they
have nothing special 'Depend upon it, my dear, that when there are twenty I will visit them all.' 75
19.abuse: insult Mr Bennet was so odd a mixture 2 1 of quick parts 2 2 , sarcastic humour,
20. vexing: provoking reserve, and caprice, that the experience of three and twenty years had
21. so odd a mixture:
such a strange mix been insufficient to make his wife understand his character. Her mind was
22. quick parts: clever less difficult to develope. She was a woman of mean 2 1 understanding, little
mind
information, and uncertain temper. W h e n she was discontented, she 80
23. mean: little
24. fancied: considered fancied 24 herself nervous. The business of her life was to get her daughters
25.solace: fun married; its solace 25 was visiting and news.
•

COMPREHENSION
1 W h a t , a c c o r d i n g to t h e o p e n i n g s e n t e n c e , are
wealthy y o u n g m e n in search of?
2 W h a t news d o e s Mrs B e n n e t give her h u s b a n d ?
W h a t information d o e s s h e have a b o u t Mr Bingley?
3 How d o e s Mr B e n n e t react to his wife's s u g g e s t i o n
t h a t he should visit Mr Bingley?
4 Which of his d a u g h t e r s s e e m s t o b e Mr Bennet's
favourite?
5 Why, a c c o r d i n g t o Mrs Bennet, d o e s her h u s b a n d
' a b u s e ' his o w n children?
6 W h y d o e s Mr B e n n e t call his wife's nerves his 'old
friends'? (Line 6 6 )
7 M a k e a list of t h e words and expressions t h e
narrator uses in t h e final paragraph to describe:
- Mr B e n n e t :
- Mrs B e n n e t :

ANALYSIS
1 T h e narrative t e c h n i q u e used in this p a s s a g e is free - t h e central d i a l o g u e ?
indirect speech*. W h i c h character's viewpoint is • To introduce Mr a n d Mrs B e n n e t and reveal
r e p r e s e n t e d in t h e o p e n i n g line? s o m e t h i n g of their characters.

2 The passage contains third-person narration* and • To allow t h e a u t h o r t o c o m m e n t on t h e

dialogue. action.
• To develop t h e storyline.
a . Which of t h e t w o narrative t e c h n i q u e s is used
• To introduce o p p o s i n g viewpoints on an issue
predominantly in:
which t h e a u t h o r believes to b e w o r t h y of
- lines 1 - 6 : ?
serious consideration.
- lines 7 - 7 5 : ?
- lines 7 6 - 8 2 : ? - t h e final section of t h e narration?
b . W h a t is t h e function of: • To confirm w h a t has e m e r g e d a b o u t t h e
- t h e o p e n i n g section of narration? characters in t h e preceding dialogue.
• To describe t h e characters. • To draw conclusions a b o u t t h e topic under
• To describe t h e setting. discussion.
• To outline t h e main t h e m e of t h e novel. • To develop t h e storyline.
 Pride and Prejudice - Jane Austen 351

3 Focus on t h e c h a r a c t e r of Mr B e n n e t . 4 Focus on t h e c h a r a c t e r of Mrs B e n n e t .

a . Find e x a m p l e s in t h e dialogue of his 'quick parts' a. Find e v i d e n c e in t h e dialogue:
a n d 'sarcastic h u m o u r ' . - of her interest in material possessions:

b . Mr B e n n e t asks his wife a series of questions.

Underline t h e m in t h e text. - of her b e i n g 'of m e a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g ' :

Does he ask t h e questions b e c a u s e :

• he is genuinely interested in w h a t his wife is b . W h y d o you think Mrs B e n n e t is so p r e o c c u p i e d

talking a b o u t ? with finding h u s b a n d s for her d a u g h t e r s ?

• he wishes to s h o w his wife t h e absurdity of w h a t Consider t h e historical period in which t h e novel

she is saying? w a s written w h e n giving your answer.

c . Mr B e n n e t s e e m s t o e n j o y teasing his wife by 5 Focus on t h e relationship b e t w e e n Mr B e n n e t a n d

deliberately misunderstanding her. Find e x a m p l e s his wife. Would you consider it to b e a:
in t h e t e x t . • flattering • realistic

d . Mr B e n n e t describes his d a u g h t e r s as 'silly a n d • depressing • romanticised

ignorant like o t h e r girls'. How d o you interpret this view of life as a c o u p l e after t w e n t y - t h r e e years of
comment? marriage? Justify your answer.

At t h e t i m e w h e n t h e novel was written, w o m e n w e r e a l m o s t totally d e p e n d e n t o n m e n financially, a n d t h e r e f o r e

it w a s very i m p o r t a n t for a w o m a n to find a h u s b a n d . Jane Austen herself never g o t married a n d would have f a c e d
considerable financial hardship if, after her father's d e a t h , she, her m o t h e r a n d her sister had n o t b e e n s u p p o r t e d
by her brothers. Is it equally i m p o r t a n t for w o m e n t o g e t married t o d a y from a financial point of view?

You Are Mistaken, Mr Darcy Text E23

Darcy has just told Elizabeth that, despite her inferior social background, he wants to
marry her. She has said no.

' A n d t h i s , ' c r i e d D a r c y , as h e w a l k e d w i t h q u i c k s t e p s a c r o s s t h e r o o m , 'is

GLOSSARY •-
y o u r o p i n i o n o f m e ! T h i s is t h e e s t i m a t i o n i n w h i c h y o u h o l d m e ! I t h a n k
1. overlooked: not
y o u f o r e x p l a i n i n g it s o f u l l y . M y f a u l t s , a c c o r d i n g t o t h i s c a l c u l a t i o n , are
considered
h e a v y i n d e e d ! But p e r h a p s , ' added he, s t o p p i n g in his walk, a n d t u r n i n g 2. had not your pride:
towards her, 'these o f f e n c e s m i g h t h a v e b e e n o v e r l o o k e d 1 , h a d n o t y o u r if your pride had not
3. long prevented my:
pride2 b e e n hurt b y m y h o n e s t confession of t h e scruples that had long for a long time
prevented m y 3 f o r m i n g a n y serious design. T h e s e bitter accusations m i g h t stopped me from
4. concealed: hidden
h a v e b e e n s u p p r e s s e d , h a d I, w i t h g r e a t e r p o l i c y , c o n c e a l e d 4 m y struggles,
5. flattered...
and flattered you into the belief of m y being impelled by unqualified, inclination:
unalloyed inclination5; by reason, by reflection, by every thing. But 10 convinced you that I
was driven towards
d i s g u i s e 6 o f e v e r y s o r t is m y a b h o r r e n c e . N o r a m I a s h a m e d o f t h e f e e l i n g s you without any
reservations
I related7. T h e y were natural a n d just. C o u l d y o u e x p e c t m e t o rejoice in
6. disguise:
the inferiority of your connections? To congratulate myself o n the h o p e of dissimulation
r e l a t i o n s , w h o s e c o n d i t i o n i n life is s o d e c i d e d l y b e n e a t h m y o w n ? ' 7. related: told you
about
Elizabeth felt herself g r o w i n g m o r e a n g r y every m o m e n t ; yet she tried t o 15
8. to the utmost: with
t h e u t m o s t 8 t o s p e a k w i t h c o m p o s u r e w h e n s h e said, maximum effort
u g

74 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Fiction

Elizabeth Bennet (Jennifer Ehle) and

Mr Darcy (Colin Firth) in the film Y o u are m i s t a k e n , M r D a r c y , if y o u s u p p o s e t h a t
Pride and Prejudice (1995). the m o d e of your declaration affected m e in any
o t h e r w a y , t h a n as it s p a r e d m e t h e concern
w h i c h I m i g h t h a v e felt in refusing y o u 9 , h a d
y o u b e h a v e d in a m o r e g e n t l e m a n - l i k e m a n n e r . '
S h e saw h i m start at t h i s , b u t h e said n o t h i n g ,
and she continued.
'You could n o t have m a d e m e the offer of your
h a n d in a n y possible w a y t h a t w o u l d have
t e m p t e d m e to a c c e p t it.'
Again his a s t o n i s h m e n t was obvious; and he
l o o k e d at h e r w i t h an e x p r e s s i o n of m i n g l e d 1 0
incredulity and mortification. She went on:
'From the very beginning, from the first
m o m e n t , I m a y a l m o s t say, o f m y a c q u a i n t a n c e
with you, your manners, impressing m e with the
fullest belief of your arrogance, your conceit11,
a n d y o u r selfish disdain of t h e feelings of others,
w e r e s u c h as t o f o r m t h a t g r o u n d - w o r k of12
disapprobation, on which succeeding events
h a v e built so i m m o v e a b l e a dislike; a n d I h a d
n o t k n o w n y o u a m o n t h b e f o r e I felt t h a t y o u
were the last m a n in t h e world w h o m I c o u l d
ever be prevailed o n 1 3 to marry.'
'You have said quite e n o u g h , m a d a m . I perfectly c o m p r e h e n d your
9. than as ... refusing
you: other than it feelings, and have n o w o n l y to be a s h a m e d of w h a t m y o w n have been.
saved me from the
F o r g i v e m e f o r h a v i n g t a k e n u p so m u c h o f y o u r t i m e , a n d a c c e p t m y b e s t
preoccupation that
I would have felt on wishes for y o u r h e a l t h a n d happiness.'
rejecting you
A n d w i t h t h e s e words h e h a s t i l y 1 4 left t h e r o o m , a n d Elizabeth h e a r d h i m 45
10. mingled: mixed
11. conceit: feeling of the next m o m e n t open the front door and quit the house. T h e tumult of
superiority her m i n d was n o w painfully great. She k n e w n o t h o w t o support herself,
12. ground-work of:
basis for a n d f r o m a c t u a l w e a k n e s s sat d o w n a n d c r i e d for h a l f a n h o u r . Her
13. whom I could ever a s t o n i s h m e n t , as s h e r e f l e c t e d o n w h a t h a d p a s s e d , w a s i n c r e a s e d b y e v e r y
be prevailed on: that
I would ever be review of it15. T h a t she should receive an offer of marriage from M r Darcy!
persuaded to T h a t h e s h o u l d have b e e n in love with her for so m a n y m o n t h s ! So m u c h
14. hastily: in a hurry
15.by every review of i n l o v e as t o w i s h t o m a r r y h e r i n s p i t e o f a l l t h e o b j e c t i o n s w h i c h h a d
it: each time she was m a d e h i m p r e v e n t h i s f r i e n d ' s m a r r y i n g h e r sister, a n d w h i c h m u s t a p p e a r
going over what had
happened at l e a s t w i t h e q u a l f o r c e i n h i s o w n c a s e , w a s a l m o s t i n c r e d i b l e !
•

COMPREHENSION
1 W h a t , a c c o r d i n g t o Darcy in t h e o p e n i n g 3 W h a t w e r e t h e first traits Elizabeth n o t i c e d w h e n
paragraph, should he have d o n e in order t o win she first m e t Darcy?
Elizabeth's affections?
4 W h a t m a d e Darcy's proposal of marriage t o
2 Was it t h e way Darcy m a d e his declaration t h a t Elizabeth ' a l m o s t incredible'?
m a d e Elizabeth refuse? (Lines 1 7 - 2 6 )
 Pride and Prejudice - Jane Austen 75

ANALYSIS
1 Focus on the character of Darcy. be flattered by his attention? Does t h e final
a. Is there any evidence in t h e text of what Elizabeth paragraph confirm or contradict what she has said
describes as his 'arrogance', 'conceit' and 'disdain' previously in the passage?
of the feelings of others?
3 Consider the style of the passage. How would you
b. What does Darcy pride himself on?
describe it?
Which c o m m e n t m a d e by Elizabeth seems to
offend him most profoundly? • Elegant • Sophisticated • Balanced
c. As a single, wealthy, socially superior young man, • Conversational • Artificial • Polite
Darcy automatically assumes that Elizabeth will • Dramatic • Other:
a c c e p t his proposal of marriage. Find evidence in
4 Elizabeth and Darcy are involved in a passionate
t h e text of his disbelief at her refusal. W h a t does
row. T h e language they use does not, however, seem
Darcy's reaction suggest a b o u t the social values
to reflect the emotionally-charged situation: there are
and conventions of the time?
no repetitions, incomplete sentences, short
2 Focus on t h e character of Elizabeth. exclamations or incoherencies. What effect does t h e
a. Which of t h e following adjectives d o you think best polished dialogue create?
describe her? • It reminds the reader that both Darcy and Elizabeth
• Self-composed • Intelligent • Passive belong to the refined upper and middle classes.
• Vindictive • Hysterical • Independent • It helps maintain the light-hearted, ironic t o n e of
b. Is there any evidence in the text that she may have the novel.
been impetuous in forming her opinion of Darcy? • It makes the characters seem more realistic.
Which expression suggests that she is exaggerating • It adds an e l e m e n t of humour to the novel.
her dislike of Darcy? • It exposes the author's inability to write convincing
c. Consider t h e final paragraph. Is there any dialogues.
suggestion that Elizabeth may admire Darcy and • Other:

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P
Showing and T h e r e are t w o b a s i c t e c h n i q u e s for r e v e a l i n g a c h a r a c t e r : ' s h o w i n g ' a n d ' t e l l i n g ' .
telling A writer shows characters t h r o u g h dialogue, m o n o l o g u e or interior m o n o l o g u e . T h e
reader is left t o i n t e r p r e t a n d draw c o n c l u s i o n s f r o m w h a t is said w i t h little or n o h e l p
f r o m t h e narrator.
A writer tells t h e reader a b o u t characters w h e n h e describes t h e i r personality, appearance,
feelings a n d m o t i v e s for t h e i r behaviour. T h e reader does n o t h a v e m u c h f r e e d o m t o f o r m
a n o p i n i o n a n d m u s t d e p e n d o n w h a t t h e n a r r a t o r says a b o u t t h e c h a r a c t e r .

In Text E23 Jane Austen uses a mixture of showing and telling.

Identify the lines where she:
- shows character through dialogue: lines
- tells the reader a b o u t t h e characters' feelings: lines

In the final paragraph Jane Austen uses the technique of telling to describe Elizabeth's
physical and emotional response to what has happened. Imagine you are re-writing this
scene for the stage or cinema. Write a m o n o l o g u e for Elizabeth through which you show the
contents of this paragraph. Include stage directions for physical actions.

What do the following types of pride mean to you?

National pride Civic pride Family pride Personal pride
Is pride a positive or negative emotion or b o t h ? Give examples.
THE ROMANTIC AGE - Fiction

Family background Jane

Austen was born on 16th
D e c e m b e r , 1 7 7 5 , i n t h e village o f S t e v e n t o n , n e a r B a s i n g s t o k e , in
Hampshire. The seventh of eight children of the Reverend
G e o r g e A u s t e n a n d h i s wife, C a s s a n d r a , s h e w a s e d u c a t e d m a i n l y j
at h o m e a n d n e v e r lived apart f r o m h e r family.

Social background As a y o u n g w o m a n , s h e e n j o y e d d a n c i n g at
local balls, walking in t h e H a m p s h i r e c o u n t r y s i d e a n d visiting
friends. S h e was a n avid reader. S h e read b o t h t h e serious a n d t h e |
popular literature of t h e day (her father had a library of 5 0 0 j
b o o k s b y 1 8 0 1 , a n d s h e w r o t e t h a t s h e a n d h e r f a m i l y were 'great
n o v e l readers, and n o t a s h a m e d of being so'). She was very j
JANE AUSTEN
familiar with eighteenth-century novels, including the works of
(1775-1817)
Richardson ( • pp. D 6 5 - 6 9 ) and Fielding ( • pp. D 7 0 - 7 6 ) . 1
T h r o u g h h e r a c t i v e social life, s h e m e t m a n y m e n w h o w a n t e d t o m a r r y her, b u t s h e r e m a i n e d single ;
all h e r life. O n o n e o c c a s i o n , s h e did a c c e p t a p r o p o s a l o f m a r r i a g e f r o m t h e b r o t h e r o f o n e o f h e r
c l o s e s t friends, b u t s h e c h a n g e d h e r m i n d t h e f o l l o w i n g day.

Writing career S h e s t a r t e d w r i t i n g i n h e r e a r l y t e e n s . Her earliest w o r k s i n c l u d e d p a r o d i e s o f t h e

literature o f t h e d a y a n d were o r i g i n a l l y w r i t t e n for t h e a m u s e m e n t o f h e r family. M o s t o f t h e p i e c e s j
are d e d i c a t e d t o h e r relatives or f a m i l y friends. In t h e p e r i o d b e t w e e n 1 8 1 1 a n d 1 8 1 7 s h e w r o t e h e r j
six m a j o r n o v e l s . S u c c e s s was n o t i m m e d i a t e . I n d e e d p u b l i s h e r s d e c l i n e d t o e v e n l o o k at t h e
m a n u s c r i p t o f Pride and Prejudice ( 1 8 1 3 ) . However, w h e n h e r n o v e l s were e v e n t u a l l y p u b l i s h e d t h e y
w e r e g e n e r a l l y well-received.
I n 1 8 1 6 h e r h e a l t h b e g a n t o fail a n d i n 1 8 1 7 s h e w e n t t o W i n c h e s t e r i n search o f m e d i c a l a t t e n t i o n ,
b u t s h e died t h e r e after t w o m o n t h s . Her b o d y was b u r i e d in W i n c h e s t e r c a t h e d r a l .

• • • • • • • • • I Background In the period w h e n J a n e Austen wrote, great

c h a n g e s were o c c u r r i n g i n Europe. T h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n a n d t h e
collapse o f t h e ' a n c i e n r e g i m e ' i n F r a n c e were f o l l o w e d b y t h e N a p o l e o n i c wars. I n E n g l a n d , t o o , t h i s
was a period o f political a n d social u n r e s t . M u s i c , literature a n d p a i n t i n g were also u n d e r g o i n g c h a n g e
i n t h e f o r m o f t h e great R o m a n t i c R e v o l u t i o n ( • pp. E 1 1 5 - 1 1 6 ) . T h e r e is h a r d l y a n y m e n t i o n o f t h e s e
e v e n t s in J a n e Austen's n o v e l s . Her n o v e l s deal w i t h t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n f a m i l i e s a n d
individuals i n a rural setting. S h e herself said ' T h r e e or four families i n a C o u n t r y Village is t h e t h i n g
t o w o r k o n ' . S h e c o n f i n e d h e r writing t o t h e w o r l d s h e k n e w f r o m f i r s t - h a n d e x p e r i e n c e .

Novels Her m a j o r n o v e l s are Sense and Sensibility ( 1 8 1 1 ) , Pride and Prejudice ( 1 8 1 3 ) , Mansfield Park
( 1 8 1 4 ) , Emma ( 1 8 1 6 ) , Persuasion ( 1 8 1 8 ) a n d Northanger Abbey (1818).
Setting E m m a perfectly exemplifies t h e limited canvas o n w h i c h Austen chose to work. W i t h t h e
e x c e p t i o n o f t h e p i c n i c e x c u r s i o n t o B o x Hill, all t h e a c t i o n is c o n f i n e d t o t h e m i d d l e a n d u p p e r class
h o m e s o f t h e village o f H i g h b u r y . T h e c h a r a c t e r s i n h e r n o v e l s are also d r a w n f r o m t h e social m i l i e u
s h e k n e w b e s t . T h e y b e l o n g t o t h e aristocracy, g e n t r y a n d m i d d l e classes. Her greater u n d e r s t a n d i n g
o f t h e f e m a l e m i n d is also r e f l e c t e d in h e r w o r k ( • Visual L i n k E7).

Themes F u r t h e r e v i d e n c e o f J a n e Austen's p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h h e r i m m e d i a t e w o r l d m a y b e f o u n d
i n t h e t h e m e s o f h e r n o v e l s . T h e t r a d i t i o n a l values o f t h e m i d d l e a n d u p p e r classes s u c h as p r o p e r t y .
 Writers' Gallery - Jane Austen 77

decorum, m o n e y and marriage

are h e r m a j o r c o n c e r n s . I n b o t h
Emma and Pride and Prejudice
marriage provides the basis
o f t h e p l o t . It is n o t s u r p r i s i n g
that marriage was a major
preoccupation. At t h a t time,
w o m e n of the middle and upper
classes were, o f necessity, t o t a l l y
d e p e n d e n t o n t h e i r h u s b a n d s or
fathers. Jane Austen herself
e x p e r i e n c e d t h e risk o f b e i n g left
unsupported. W h e n her father
died, h e left h i s w i d o w a n d t w o
daughters a very small a n n u a l
i n c o m e . Life w o u l d h a v e b e e n
difficult for the three w o m e n
had not the surviving sons
contributed to their income.

Characters J a n e A u s t e n is p r o b a b l y b e s t r e m e m b e r e d f o r h e r a n a l y s i s o f c h a r a c t e r a n d c o n d u c t .
Her c h a r a c t e r s h a v e s t r e n g t h s a n d w e a k n e s s e s , t h e y g o t h r o u g h t i m e s o f trials a n d t h e y learn l e s s o n s .
T h e y are n o t d r i v e n b y w i l d p a s s i o n s . T h e s t r o n g i m p u l s e s a n d i n t e n s e l y e m o t i o n a l s t a t e s t h e y
e x p e r i e n c e are regulated, c o n t r o l l e d a n d b r o u g h t t o order b y p r i v a t e r e f l e c t i o n .
J a n e Austen's c o m m i t m e n t t o r e a s o n a n d c o m m o n sense r a t h e r t h a n great p a s s i o n s links h e r w o r k t o
t h e e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y t r a d i t i o n o f c l a s s i c i s m . T h e r e is little e v i d e n c e i n h e r w o r k o f t h e p a s s i o n a t e
R o m a n t i c t h e m e s of the turn of the century.

Style J a n e A u s t e n ' s n o v e l s g i v e t h e i m p r e s s i o n o f ease, b u t t h e y are in f a c t t h e r e s u l t o f c a r e f u l

t h i n k i n g b y t h e a u t h o r w h o was c o n s t a n t l y revising t h e m . Irony, wit a n d clear, b a l a n c e d , a p p a r e n t l y
s i m p l e l a n g u a g e are all e s s e n t i a l e l e m e n t s o f h e r style. T h e v i v i d n e s s o f t h e c h a r a c t e r s a n d t h e lively
dialogue h a v e m a d e t h e n o v e l s e x c e l l e n t m a t e r i a l for t h e a t r e a n d c i n e m a a d a p t a t i o n . In fact, in
recent years J a n e Austen has e n j o y e d renewed popularity, t h a n k s to hugely successful films and
t e l e v i s i o n series b a s e d o n h e r n o v e l s .

TASKS
1 What kind of social background did Jane Austen 6 As a writer, was she influenced by
have? contemporary social, political and cultural events?

2 What kind of literature influenced her as a 7 W h a t is t h e setting of her novels?

writer?
8 What are t h e major t h e m e s of her novels?
3 Did she lead a secluded life?
9 W h a t are t h e characteristics of her style?
4 When did she start writing?
1 0 Does her work belong more to t h e eighteenth-
5 Were her novels accepted for publication century neo-classical tradition or to the turn-of-
immediately? the-century romantic tradition?
 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Fiction

Ivanhoe
by Sir Walter Scott

Stories b a s e d on heroic action have always b e e n very popular.

a. Think of an a d v e n t u r e story o r action movie you have seen recently. W h i c h of t h e following characteristics
would you attribute t o t h e hero of t h e story?
• Brave
• Intelligent
• Strong
• Good-looking
• Honest
• Modest
• Others:
b . Prepare a ten-line s u m m a r y of t h e plot.

THE STORY
CHARACTERS
Ivanhoe is set in England during the Middle Ages, towards the end of the twelfth cen
• Richard the
Lion heart, king of when England's popidation was both of Saxon and Norman descent.
England
While King Richard the Lionheart is fighting an unsuccessful crusade in the Holy La
• Prince John,
Richard's brother Prince John has usurped the throne of England. The Saxon leader, Cedric, still hopes
• Cedric, Saxon leader restore a Saxon to the throne by arranging a marriage between Lady Rowena a
• Lady Rowena,
Athelstane, both of whom are of royal Saxon descent. So, when Cedric's son, Ivanhoe, fc
Saxon lady
• Athelstane, Saxon in love with Lady Rowena and threatens to ruin his plans, he sends him away on t
knight crusades. King Richard and Ivanhoe return to England together. They take part, incogni
• Ivanhoe, Cedric's
son in a tournament at Ashby and defeat the Norman heroes, Sir Brian de Bois-Guilbert and
• Brian de Bois- Reginald Front-de-Boeuf ( • Texts E24 and E26). Ivanhoe reveals his identity while Rich
Guilbert, Norman
keeps his.
knight
• Reginald Front-de- The following day, Ivanhoe, Cedric, Rowena, Athelstane and the two Jewish characters, Is
Boeuf, Norman and his daughter, Rebecca ( • Text E25), are taken prisoner by Bois-Guilbert and held
knight
• Isaac, a Jew Front-de-Boeuf's castle. The castle is placed under siege by a force led by Richard and Rob
• Rebecca, Isaac's Hood. After an epic battle, all the prisoners are freed, except Rebecca, who is kidnapped
daughter
Bois-Guilbert. She is accused of being a witch but Ivanhoe, in true chivalric spirit, offers
defend her name in battle against the Norman knight. Ivanhoe defeats Bois-Guilbert a
Rebecca is freed.
Richard reveals his identity at last and reclaims the throne, while Ivanhoe, who has b
reconciled with his father, marries Rowena. Rebecca leaves England with her father for ever.

• GLOSSARY
Text E24 Fight On, Brave Knights
1. utmost: greatest T h e c h a m p i o n s t h u s e n c o u n t e r i n g e a c h o t h e r w i t h t h e u t m o s t 1 fury, a n d
2. tide: winning trend
w i t h alternate success, t h e tide2 of battle s e e m e d to flow n o w towards t h e
3. lists: sections of the
arena s o u t h e r n , n o w t o w a r d s t h e n o r t h e r n e x t r e m i t y o f t h e lists 3 , as t h e o n e o r
 Ivanhoe - Sir Walter Scott 79

the other party prevailed. Meantime the

clang 4 of the blows and the shouts of the 5
combatants mixed fearfully with the sound
of the trumpets, and drowned the groans 5
of those who fell, and lay rolling defenceless
beneath the feet of the horses. The splendid
armour of t h e combatants was now 10
(Maced 6 with dust and Wood, and %ave -way
at every stroke of the sword and battle-axe.
The gay plumage, shorn from the crests 7 ,
drifted upon the breeze like snowfYakes. AW
that was beautiful and graceful in the 15
martial array 8 had disappeared, and what
was now visible was only calculated to
awake terror or compassion.
Yet such is the force of habit, that not only
the vulgar spectators, who are naturally 20
attracted by sights of horror, but even the
ladies of distinction, who crowded the
galleries, saw the conflict with a thrilling
interest certainly, but without a wish to
withdraw their eyes from a sight so terrible. 25
Here and there, indeed, a fair cheek might
turn pale, or a faint scream 9 might be heard,
as a lover, a brother or a husband was struck
from 1 0 his horse. But in general, the ladies
around encouraged the combatants, not 30 nineteenth-century
only by clapping their hands and waving their veils and kerchiefs 11 , but edition of Ivanhoe.

even by exclaiming, 'Brave lance! Good sword!' when any successful

thrust or blow took place under their observation.
Such being the interest taken by the fair sex 12 in this bloody game, that of
the men is more easily understood. It showed itself in loud acclamations
upon every change of fortune, while all eyes were so riveted 13 on the lists
that the spectators seemed as if they themselves had dealt and received
the blows which were so freely bestowed 14 . And between every pause was
heard the voice of the heralds, exclaiming, 'Fight on, brave knights! Man
dies, but glory lives! Fight on. Death is better than defeat! Fight on, brave
knights! For bright eyes behold your deeds 15 .'

The battle commences and the crowd roars on its heroes.

4. clang: metallic noise
5. groans: expressions of pain
6. defaced: dirtied
7. shorn from the crests: cut
from the top of the helmets
8. martial array: armour worn
in battle
9. faint scream: weak cry of
horror
10. struck from: forced to fall off
11. kerchiefs: handkerchiefs
12.Such being ... sex: if
women showed such great
interest
13.riveted: firmly fixed
14. bestowed: given
15.For bright... deeds:
because beautiful
women are watching
your glorious actions
 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Fiction

COMPREHENSION — —
1 Why is the battle referred to metaphorically as a
'tide'? (Line 2)
2 What sounds could the spectators hear?
3 What defaced the armour of the combatants?
4 What happened to the coloured feathers that the
combatants wore on their crests?
5 What reactions did the battle evoke from the
spectators?
6 How did the ladies in the crowd react to the
spectacle?
7 How did the ladies encourage the combatants?
8 How did the men show their appreciation for the
spectacle?
9 Why, according to the spectators, should the
knights fight on?

ANALYSIS
1 Say whether the following descriptive details appeal
to your sense of sight (S) or your sense of hearing (H):
[~~~1 the tide of battle seemed to flow now towards the
southern, now towards the northern extremity of
the lists
[ 1 the clang of the blows
j I the shouts of the combatants
I | the groans of those who fell
I | the splendid armour of the combatants was now
defaced with dust and blood
1 | the gay plumage, shorn from the crests, drifted
upon the breeze like snowflakes
2 This extract is typical of Walter Scott's elegant style
which is often based on symmetrical patterns of syntax.
Focus on the first sentence. The expressions in column
A are balanced by the expressions in column B.
A B
utmost fury alternate success
now towards the now towards the
southern northern
the one the other party
a. Find the elements which provide balance in the
first sentence of the second paragraph and
complete the table.
A B
the vulgar spectators,
who are naturally
attracted by sights of
horror,
saw the conflict with a
thrilling interest
certainly
b. Can you find other examples of symmetrical
patterns in the syntax of the passage?
3 When the narrator says, 'the vulgar spectators,
who are naturally attracted by sights of horror', he is
commenting on what he sees and becomes an
obtrusive narrator*. Where else does the narrator
comment on what he sees? Give line references.

WRITERS W O R K S H O P
Descriptive passages try to recreate both the visual and emotive elements of a scene,
situation or character. Through the careful choice of words and images, the writer tries
to bring the scene to life for the reader. In descriptive passages, writers often try to
communicate physical sensations. They choose words which recreate in the readers'
imagination, sounds, smells, tastes, sight or tactile experiences.

1 In text E24 which senses does Walter Scott appeal to? Give examples from the text.
2 Which of the following does Scott try to convey to the reader in his description of the
tournament scene?
• Noise • Movement • Grace • Beauty
• Horror • Confusion • Fighting technique
 Ivanhoe - Sir Walter Scott 359

Writers often use figures of s p e e c h to m a k e their descriptions m o r e vivid. A figure of

s p e e c h is a n e x a m p l e o f l a n g u a g e b e i n g u s e d i n a n u n u s u a l w a y . S i m i l e s and
m e t a p h o r s are v e r y c o m m o n f i g u r e s o f s p e e c h .
A s i m i l e is a n e x p l i c i t c o m p a r i s o n w h i c h u s e s ' l i k e ' , ' a s ' o r 'as if' t o c o m p a r e t w o
e l e m e n t s w h i c h are unalike.
A m e t a p h o r is a n i m p l i e d c o m p a r i s o n w h e r e t h e l i n k i n g w o r d is o m i t t e d .

Find in Text E 2 4 :
a ) a m e t a p h o r for a battle;
b ) a simile for t h e shorn p l u m a g e .

OVER T O Y O U Write a brief description ( m a x . 1 0 0 w o r d s ) of o n e of t h e following:

a car crash a m a j o r sporting e v e n t a busy city street
a rock c o n c e r t a political d e m o n s t r a t i o n
Your description should include details which appeal to t h e senses of sight and hearing. You
m a y also include details w h i c h appeal to t h e o t h e r senses, if you wish.

Find a r e p o r t of a sports e v e n t . D o e s t h e writer include any descriptive e l e m e n t s ? Are t h e r e a n y a s p e c t s of t h e

d e s c r i p t i o n t h a t a p p e a l t o t h e s e n s e s ? D o e s t h e j o u r n a l i s t use a n y similes o r m e t a p h o r s ? H o w e f f e c t i v e is t h e
journalist in recreating t h e s c e n e he is describing? Prepare a short evaluation of t h e report.

e. a*'Ö

Unhappy Israelites Text E25

One of the main characters in Ivanhoe is Rebecca, a Jewish girl who is accused of being
a witch. In Text E25 Walter Scott explains the role of the Jewish community in Medieval
England.
GLOSSARY •-

1. pretences: false
( . . . ) for, e x c e p t p e r h a p s t h e f l y i n g f i s h , t h e r e w a s n o r a c e e x i s t i n g o n t h e
reason, pretexts
earth, i n t h e air, or t h e w a t e r s , w h o were the object of such an 2. groundless: without
u n i n t e r m i t t i n g , g e n e r a l , a n d r e l e n t l e s s p e r s e c u t i o n as t h e J e w s o f t h i s reason
3. every turn: every
p e r i o d . U p o n t h e s l i g h t e s t a n d m o s t u n r e a s o n a b l e p r e t e n c e s 1 , as well as
manifestation
upon accusations the most absurd and groundless2, their persons and 4. however adverse: no
matter how hostile
property were e x p o s e d t o every t u r n 3 o f p o p u l a r fury; for N o r m a n , S a x o n ,
5. whom it was
Dane, and Briton, h o w e v e r adverse4 these races were to each other, accounted ... hate:
c o n t e n d e d w h i c h should look with greatest detestation u p o n a people that religion itself
taught to hate
w h o m it w a s a c c o u n t e d a p o i n t o f r e l i g i o n t o h a t e 5 , t o r e v i l e 6 , t o d e s p i s e 7 ,
6. revile: hate
to p l u n d e r 8 a n d to persecute. T h e kings of t h e N o r m a n race, a n d the 10 7. despise: look down
upon
i n d e p e n d e n t n o b l e s , w h o f o l l o w e d t h e i r e x a m p l e i n all a c t s o f t y r a n n y ,
8. plunder: steal their
m a i n t a i n e d against this d e v o t e d p e o p l e a p e r s e c u t i o n of a m o r e regular, property
c a l c u l a t e d , a n d s e l f - i n t e r e s t e d k i n d . It is a w e l l - k n o w n s t o r y o f K i n g J o h n , 9. caused ... torn out:
had one of the man's
that he c o n f i n e d a w e a l t h y J e w in o n e of t h e royal castles, a n d daily teeth extracted
caused o n e of his teeth to be torn out9, until, w h e n the jaw of the 15 10.the jaw ...
disfurnished: the
u n h a p p y Israelite was h a l f d i s f u r n i s h e d 1 0 , h e c o n s e n t e d t o pay a large
mouth was missing
s u m , w h i c h it w a s t h e t y r a n t ' s o b j e c t t o e x t o r t f r o m h i m . T h e l i t t l e r e a d y half of the teeth
 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Fiction

m o n e y w h i c h was in the c o u n t r y was chiefly in possession of this

persecuted people, and the nobility hesitated not to follow the example of
t h e i r s o v e r e i g n i n w r i n g i n g 1 1 it f r o m t h e m b y e v e r y s p e c i e s o f o p p r e s s i o n , 20

a n d e v e n p e r s o n a l t o r t u r e . Yet t h e p a s s i v e c o u r a g e i n s p i r e d b y t h e l o v e o f
gain induced the Jews to dare t h e various evils to w h i c h t h e y were
subjected, in consideration of the i m m e n s e profits w h i c h t h e y were
e n a b l e d t o r e a l i s e i n a c o u n t r y n a t u r a l l y s o w e a l t h y as E n g l a n d . I n s p i t e o f
every kind of discouragement, a n d even of the special court of taxations 25
11. wringing: extorting
already m e n t i o n e d , called the Jew's E x c h e q u e r 1 2 , erected for the very
12. Exchequer: tax-
collecting office purpose of dispoiling and distressing13 them, the Jews increased,
13. dispoiling and multiplied, and accumulated huge sums, w h i c h t h e y transferred from o n e
distressing: extorting
money and causing h a n d to a n o t h e r by m e a n s of bills of e x c h a n g e 1 4 - a n i n v e n t i o n for w h i c h
suffering c o m m e r c e is s a i d t o b e i n d e b t e d t o t h e m 1 5 , a n d w h i c h e n a b l e d t h e m t o 30
14. bills of exchange:
written promises to transfer their wealth from land to land, that, when threatened with
pay oppression in o n e country, their treasure m i g h t be secured15 in another.
15.for which ...
T h e obstinacy and avarice of the Jews b e i n g thus in a measure placed in
indebted to them:
commerce owes to o p p o s i t i o n t o 1 7 t h e f a n a t i c i s m a n d t y r a n n y o f t h o s e u n d e r w h o m t h e y lived,
the Jews
seemed to increase in proportion to the persecution with w h i c h t h e y were 35
16. secured: made safe
17.in a measure ... visited; a n d t h e i m m e n s e w e a l t h t h e y u s u a l l y a c q u i r e d i n c o m m e r c e , w h i l e
opposition to: partly it f r e q u e n t l y p l a c e d t h e m in d a n g e r , w a s a t o t h e r t i m e s u s e d t o e x t e n d t h e i r
working against
influence, a n d to secure to t h e m a certain degree of protection. O n these
18. watchful: careful to
notice what is terms t h e y lived; a n d their character, influenced accordingly, was
happening
w a t c h f u l 1 8 , s u s p i c i o u s a n d t i m i d - y e t o b s t i n a t e , u n c o m p l y i n g 1 9 a n d skilful 40
19. uncomplying:
inflexible in evading t h e dangers to w h i c h they were exposed.
•

COMPREHENSION
1 D o e s t h e narrator feel t h a t t h e persecution of t h e 5 W h a t g a v e t h e Jews c o u r a g e ? W h y did t h e y remain
Jews w a s justifiable? Refer t o t h e text. in England?

2 W h i c h four ' r a c e s ' w e r e united in their persecution 6 W h a t was t h e Jew's E x c h e q u e r ?

of t h e Jews? How was t h e persecution of t h e Jews by
7 W h a t i m p o r t a n t c o m m e r c i a l invention was m a d e
t h e N o r m a n king a n d nobles different from
by t h e Jews?
persecution carried out by o t h e r g r o u p s ?
8 Although t h e y w e r e often t h e victims of
3 W h a t torture was inflicted on a wealthy Jew held
discrimination a n d persecution, t h e Jews w e r e also
captive by King John, according to a well-known story?
influential and, t o s o m e e x t e n t , p r o t e c t e d . Explain this
4 W h y w e r e t h e Jews often s u b j e c t e d t o e x t o r t i o n ? s t a t e m e n t , referring t o t h e t e x t .

ANALYSIS —
1 T h e t a b l e divides t h e t e x t into t h r e e m a j o r points. Find material in t h e t e x t which exemplifies e a c h point.

1 Examples of persecution of t h e Jews Their persons and property were exposed to every turn of popular fury...

2 Reasons w h y Jews r e m a i n e d in Britain

3 A positive a n d a n e g a t i v e c o n s e q u e n c e
of Jewish wealth
 Ivanhoe - Sir Walter Scott 83

2 Do the following words, which are used to describe 4 Consider Scott's style. Find examples of multiple
t h e jews, have positive (P), negative (N), or neutral verbs or adjectives.
(NT) connotations? Write t h e appropriate What effect does the technique of making lists of
abbreviation beside each word. adjectives or verbs have on Scott's writing?
I | Devoted O Obstinacy f H Avarice • It is easier to understand what he is trying to say.
I | Suspicious O Timid [ J Obstinate • If he used only one or two words, t h e writing
would not b e as effective.
i I Uncomplying Q Skilful

3 What effect does telling t h e story of King John and

t h e wealthy Jew have on the text?
• The gory details make the passage more interesting.
• T h e story helps t h e reader to understand t h e
general point Scott is making.
• T h e generalisations of the t e x t are supported by t h e
specific detail of this story.
• T h e t o n e of t h e passage is lightened by the
storytelling.

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P
Comment on Fiction is often used to comment on political and social issues. By addressing a subject
political and in a fictional text, the writer can enhance its interest and force. Because he chooses a
sociaHssues non-journalistic approach, the writer is not obliged to base his writing exclusively on
facts. He can add elements such as anecdotes or personal experiences and may
generally distort reality to serve his purpose.

In the passage you have read Walter Scott explains how the Jewish community lived in
Medieval England.
- Is his writing based purely on fact or does it also include other elements?
- Is Scott fully sympathetic to the plight of the Jews?
- Are there elements of humour in t h e text?
- Is Scott's style pedantic or does he use a lighter t o u c h ? Would you consider his approach to
b e subjective or objective? justify your answer.
- Is Scott's main aim t o inform the reader, to entertain the reader, or a mixture of b o t h ?

Can you think of any work of fiction you have read or film that you have seen that had a
social or political message? Why do you think a writer would c h o o s e fiction and not
straightforward journalism to make a political or social statement? Are there any ways in
which it might be more effective? Would the two forms of writing reach the same kind of
public?

In groups, make a list of ethnic, national or social groups which are discriminated against in today's world. Choose
o n e of t h e groups and make a list of adjectives t h a t are c o m m o n l y associated with t h o s e people. Write a brief
account of why you think they are t h e victims of discrimination.
84 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Fiction

The Tournament
I
Ivanhoe, incognito, challenges the Norma
knight Sir Brian de Bois-Guilbert at the
tournament at Ashby. The Norman knigh
enters battle with mixed emotions because he
knows that if he wins, Rebecca, the woman he
loves, will die, but if he loses, he will no longer
be regarded as the greatest Knight Templar.

But I v a n h o e was a l r e a d y at his

post, a n d had closed his visor1, a n d
assumed his lance. Bois-Guilbert did
the same; and his esquire remarked,
as h e c l a s p e d h i s v i s o r , t h a t h i s f a c e ,
which had, notwithstanding the
variety of e m o t i o n s b y w h i c h he had
been agitated, c o n t i n u e d during the
w h o l e m o r n i n g of an ashy2 paleness,
was now becoming very much
flushed3.
The herald then, seeing each
c h a m p i o n in his place, uplifted his
v o i c e , r e p e a t i n g t h r i c e 4 - Faites vos
devoirs, preux chevaliers5/ After the is
t h i r d cry, h e w i t h d r e w t o o n e s i d e o f
t h e lists, a n d a g a i n p r o c l a i m e d t h a t
none, on peril of i n s t a n t death,
s h o u l d dare b y word, cry or a c t i o n t o
i n t e r f e r e w i t h o r d i s t u r b t h e fair f i e l d
horse, was soon on of c o m b a t . T h e Grand Master, w h o
foot, hastening to
h e l d i n h i s h a n d t h e g a g e o f b a t t l e 6 , R e b e c c a ' s g l o v e , n o w t h r e w it i n t o t h e
mend his fortune with
his sword...' lists, a n d p r o n o u n c e d t h e f a t a l w o r d s , Laisser aller7.
T h e t r u m p e t s s o u n d e d , a n d t h e k n i g h t s c h a r g e d e a c h o t h e r in full
c a r e e r 8 . T h e w e a r i e d h o r s e o f I v a n h o e , a n d its n o less e x h a u s t e d rider,
w e n t d o w n , as all h a d e x p e c t e d , b e f o r e t h e w e l l - a i m e d l a n c e a n d v i g o r o u s
steed o f t h e T e m p l a r . T h i s issue o f t h e c o m b a t all h a d f o r e s e e n 9 ; b u t
a l t h o u g h t h e spear of I v a n h o e did but, in c o m p a r i s o n , t o u c h t h e shield of
B o i s - G u i l b e r t , t h a t c h a m p i o n , t o t h e a s t o n i s h m e n t o f a l l w h o b e h e l d it,
r e e l e d 1 0 i n h i s s a d d l e , l o s t h i s s t i r r u p s 1 1 , a n d fell i n t h e lists.
- • GLOSSARY
Ivanhoe, extricating himself from his fallen horse, was soon o n foot,
1. .Visor: protection for
the eyes h a s t e n i n g to m e n d his fortune with his sword; b u t his antagonist arose
2. ashy: like ashes
3. flushed: coloured
4. thrice: three times 6. gage of battle: battle 9. This issue ... foreseen: 11. stirrups: metal loops
5. Faites ... chevaliers: prize everybody knew this was attached to a saddle where a
Do your duty, 7. Laisser aller: Let go going to happen rider puts his foot for
knights! 8. in full career: at full speed 10. reeled: turned violently support
 Ivanhoe - Sir Walter Scott 85

n o t . Wilfred12, p l a c i n g his foot o n his breast, a n d t h e sword's p o i n t t o his 12. Wilfred: Ivanhoe.
Ivanhoe's full name is
throat, c o m m a n d e d h i m to yield13 h i m , or die o n t h e spot. Bois-Guilbert Wilfred of Ivanhoe
returned n o answer. 35 13. yield: surrender
14. Slay: kill
' S l a y 1 4 h i m n o t , Sir K n i g h t , ' c r i e d t h e G r a n d M a s t e r , 'unshriven15,
15. unshriven: before
u n a b s o l v e d ; kill n o t b o d y a n d s o u l ! We allow him vanquished16.' he has confessed his
He d e s c e n d e d i n t o t h e lists, a n d c o m m a n d e d t h e m to u n h e l m the sins
16. We allow him
c o n q u e r e d c h a m p i o n . His e y e s w e r e c l o s e d ; t h e d a r k r e d f l u s h w a s still o n vanquished: we claim
h i s b r o w 1 7 . As t h e y l o o k e d o n h i m i n a s t o n i s h m e n t , t h e e y e s o p e n e d ; b u t 40 victory over him
17. brow: forehead
t h e y were fixed a n d glazed. T h e flush passed f r o m his brow, a n d gave way
18. hue: colour
to t h e pallid h u e 1 8 of death. U n s c a t h e d 1 9 by the lance of his enemy, he 19. Unscathed:
h a d died a victim to the violence of his o w n c o n t e n d i n g passions. untouched, not
injured
' T h i s i n d e e d is t h e j u d g e m e n t o f G o d , ' s a i d t h e G r a n d M a s t e r , l o o k i n g
20. Fiat voluntas tua: let
u p w a r d s - 'Fiat voluntas tua20'. 45 your will be done

COMPREHENSION
1 Put t h e following series of events in t h e c o r r e c t 3 W h a t would h a p p e n to a n y o n e w h o disturbed t h e
order: combat?
I | Ivanhoe pointed his sword at Bois-Guilbert's throat. 4 W h a t did t h e Grand Master t h r o w into t h e lists?
I I T h e Grand Master said, 'Fiat voluntas t u a ' .
5 Which of t h e t w o c o m b a t a n t s was e x h a u s t e d ?
J Bois-Guilbert died.
Which of t h e t w o knights struck t h e b e t t e r b l o w ?
1 I T h e knights closed their visors.
6 W h y w e r e t h e spectators astonished w h e n Bois-
• Both knights fell to t h e g r o u n d .
Guilbert fell f r o m his h o r s e ? W h i c h of t h e t w o knights
• T h e Grand Master t h r e w R e b e c c a ' s glove into t h e recovered m o r e quickly from their fall?
lists.
7 W h o asked Ivanhoe n o t t o kill Bois-Guilbert?
2 W h a t colour had Bois-Guilbert's f a c e b e e n all
morning? 8 W h a t w a s t h e c a u s e of Bois-Guilbert's d e a t h ?

ANALYSIS
1 Ivanhoe is set in t h e Middle Ages. In this p a s s a g e b. W h a t effect d o e s t h e inclusion of t h e s e figures have
Walter S c o t t refers to a n u m b e r of representative on Scott's work?
figures from t h a t historical period. • It makes it m o r e a u t h e n t i c .
a. Find t h e line reference t o e a c h of t h e m a n d try t o • It makes it difficult for t h e readers t o understand.

explain w h a t t h e y did in y o u r o w n words. • It helps to recreate t h e a t m o s p h e r e of t h e period.

• It gives t h e reader an interesting insight into
- t h e esquire: line
medieval life.
- t h e herald: line
- t h e Grand Master: line 2 Underline t h e words a n d expressions t h a t refer t o
t h e colour of Bois-Guilbert's face. W h a t d o you think
t h e c h a n g e s in colour represent?

S c o t t ' s d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e b a t t l e b e t w e e n t h e t w o h e r o e s is a l m o s t c i n e m a t o g r a p h i c in its a t t e n t i o n t o detail.

Can you think of any g r e a t 'fight s c e n e s ' from films t h a t you have s e e n ?
,86 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Fiction

HVMHHH|H|| Family background Sir

Walter Scott was born in
E d i n b u r g h o n 1 5 t h August, 1 7 7 1 . W h e n h e was o n l y t w o years old
h e got polio, w h i c h left h i m l a m e for t h e rest of his life. To
convalesce, h e stayed w i t h his g r a n d p a r e n t s in t h e Scottish Border
country, w h e r e h e read widely a b o u t Scottish history a n d tradition.

Ballads and poems W h e n he returned to Edinburgh, he

b e c a m e a lawyer, b u t his real l o v e was w r i t i n g . He c o l l e c t e d
S c o t t i s h s t o r i e s a n d b a l l a d s in Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border
( 1 8 0 2 - 1 8 0 3 ) b e f o r e d e d i c a t i n g h i m s e l f t o p o e t r y . The Lay of the
Last Minstrel ( 1 8 0 5 ) a n d The Lady of the Lake ( 1 8 1 0 ) are t w o o f h i s
most popular poems.

The W a v e r l e y N o v e l s He is b e s t r e m e m b e r e d , h o w e v e r , as t h e first great writer o f h i s t o r i c a l n o v e l s

i n t h e E n g l i s h l a n g u a g e . His first n o v e l Waverley, w h i c h deals with t h e Scottish rebellion o f 1 7 4 5 ,
a p p e a r e d a n o n y m o u s l y i n 1 8 1 4 a n d was i m m e d i a t e l y s u c c e s s f u l . T h e n o v e l s w h i c h f o l l o w e d w e r e
p u b l i s h e d b y ' t h e a u t h o r o f Waverley' a n d so were called t h e Waverley Novels.

Financial ruin S c o t t was v e r y p o p u l a r a m o n g his c o n t e m p o r a r i e s . His n o v e l s r e a c h e d w i d e

a u d i e n c e s i n B r i t a i n a n d a b r o a d , a n d h e was a c c l a i m e d as o n e o f t h e l e a d i n g E u r o p e a n writers o f h i s
day. I n r e c o g n i t i o n o f h i s w o r k , h e w a s m a d e a b a r o n e t i n 1 8 2 0 . At t h e h e i g h t o f h i s c a r e e r , t h e
b a n k r u p t c y o f h i s b u s i n e s s a s s o c i a t e s b r o u g h t h i s o w n f i n a n c i a l r u i n . S c o t t r e f u s e d all o f f e r s o f
a s s i s t a n c e a n d s p e n t t h e rest o f h i s life w r i t i n g t o p a y o f f a n e n o r m o u s d e b t . He d i e d o n S e p t e m b e r
21st, 1832.

•^••••••••H Features Scott was a b o r n storyteller. In his n o v e l s h e placed

M M M B a i i B i i i ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ B vivid characters in violent, dramatic historical settings. Ivanhoe
( 1 8 2 0 ) , for e x a m p l e , is set a g a i n s t t h e c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n N o r m a n s a n d S a x o n s in E n g l a n d . S c o t t is also
w i d e l y regarded as a m a s t e r o f d i a l o g u e . He c o u l d c a p t u r e t h e r e g i o n a l s p e e c h o f h i g h l a n d p e a s a n t s
w i t h t h e s a m e e a s e as h e c o u l d r e p r o d u c e t h e s o p h i s t i c a t e d , p o l i s h e d e l o q u e n c e o f k n i g h t s a n d
aristocrats.
S c o t t a r r a n g e d h i s plots a n d c h a r a c t e r s so t h e reader e n t e r s i n t o t h e lives o f b o t h great a n d o r d i n a r y
p e o p l e . He b e l i e v e d t h a t e v e r y h u m a n w a s b a s i c a l l y d e c e n t r e g a r d l e s s o f class, r e l i g i o n , p o l i t i c s or
a n c e s t r y , a n d w a s t h e first n o v e l i s t t o p o r t r a y p e a s a n t c h a r a c t e r s s y m p a t h e t i c a l l y a n d r e a l i s t i c a l l y
a n d t o r e c o g n i s e t h e i m p o r t a n t r o l e t h e y h a d i n h i s t o r y . I n Ivanhoe, f o r e x a m p l e , t h e r e are m a n y
f a m o u s h i s t o r i c a l f i g u r e s like R i c h a r d t h e L i o n h e a r t a n d R o b i n H o o d b u t t h e h e r o o f t h e n o v e l ,
I v a n h o e , is a n o r d i n a r y k n i g h t , n o d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h o u s a n d s o f o t h e r s .
T o l e r a n c e is a m a j o r t h e m e i n S c o t t ' s h i s t o r i c a l w o r k s . His h e r o e s r e p r e s e n t t h e ' m i d d l e c o u r s e '
b e t w e e n e x t r e m e s . I v a n h o e is a n e x a m p l e o f a h e r o w h o is b o t h t o l e r a n t a n d fearless i n h i s pursuit o f
j u s t i c e . He r e m a i n s loyal t o R i c h a r d , t h e l e g i t i m a t e k i n g o f E n g l a n d , h e respects R o b i n H o o d b e c a u s e
h e gives t o t h e poor, a n d h e risks h i s o w n life t o save R e b e c c a ' s . S c o t t was also v e r y o p e n - m i n d e d i n
relation to the recent history of Scotland. O n the o n e hand, he recognised that his country's u n i o n
with England would bring c o m m e r c i a l progress and m o d e r n i s a t i o n , but o n t h e o t h e r he m o u r n e d
 iüAML

Writers' Gallery - Sir Walter Scott 87

? vw - »mmm* a « mm

t h e loss of Scotland's I n d e p e n d e n c e
a n d t h e d e c l i n e o f its n a t i o n a l i d e n t i -
t y a n d t r a d i t i o n s . T h i s is o n e o f t h e
m a j o r t h e m e s o f t h e Waverley Novels
w h i c h i n c l u d e d Waverley (1814), Guy
Mannering, (1815), The Antiquary
( 1 8 1 6 ) , a n d Rob Roy (1817).

Reputation Scott created a new

literary form, the historical novel,
w h i c h is still p o p u l a r t o t h i s day. H e
t o l d t h e stories o f f i c t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r s
a n d real p e o p l e a g a i n s t authentic
h i s t o r i c a l b a c k g r o u n d s . His i n t e r e s t i n
t h e past, his c o n c e r n for t h e c o m m o n m a n , his use of regional s p e e c h a n d his d e s c r i p t i o n s of
b e a u t i f u l n a t u r a l s e t t i n g p l a c e d h i m f i r m l y i n t h e r o m a n t i c t r a d i t i o n . His i n f l u e n c e o n n o v e l i s t s s u c h
as G e o r g e Eliot, t h e B r o n t e s , J a m e s F e n i m o r e C o o p e r a n d A l e s s a n d r o M a n z o n i was p r o f o u n d .

TASK
Use these headings to prepare a short report on Walter Scott's life and works.
- childhood great and ordinary people
- a career in law, literature and business literary acclaim and financial ruin
- Waverley and the birth of t h e historical novel • Romantic elements in his work
- dialogue • influence on other writers
,88 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Fiction

Frankenstein
by Mary Shelley

Along with Dracula, Frankenstein has b e c o m e a figure of terror and horror for g e n e r a t i o n s of readers and c i n e m a
g o e r s . But w h a t is a m o n s t e r ? T h e dictionary defines a ' m o n s t e r ' as:
a. an imaginary beast, usually m a d e up of various animal or h u m a n parts;
b . a person, animal or plant with marked deformity;
c . a cruel, wicked or d e f o r m e d person.
Try t o c r e a t e your o w n pen picture of a m o n s t e r using t h e h e a d i n g s below, and t h e n s e e if t h e creature you have
imagined is in any way like t h e creature d e s c r i b e d in t h e texts.
My F r a n k e n s t e i n
Sex: Male Female Other
Physical a p p e a r a n c e
Way of talking
Way of walking
Diet
Reaction to t h e outside world ( t h e city, t h e countryside, e t c . )

Reaction t o p e o p l e

—— THE STORY
CHARACTERS
Victor Frankenstein is born and grows up in Geneva before going to university in Ingolstadt.
• Victor
Frankenstein, a A brilliant student, he soon dedicates all his efforts to finding the secret of life ( • Text E27).
scientist After many years of work in his laboratory, the creature he has been working on comes to life,
• The monster,
although he is not but Victor is horrified when he sees how grotesque it is ( • Text E28).
given a name in the The monster escapes and lives alone and isolated in a forest for many years. A small family
novel he has come
to be known as live in a cottage nearby. He watches them secretly as they go about their daily business and
Frankenstein gradually grows fond of them. From listening to them he eventually understands what they
are saying.
One day he finds a book written by Victor Frankenstein and realises how he has been created.
He loses any faith he has ever had in humanity and sets out to get revenge on his creator.
Meanwhile, Victor lives in constant fear that the monster will return. When he hears that
• Visual Link E4 his brother has been killed and a family friend is unjustly hanged for the murder, he
realises that the monster is responsible. While walking in the Alps near Chamonix, he
unexpectedly meets his creation, who asks him to make him a wife so that he will not be so
lonely. At first he agrees, but then he changes his mind when he thinks of the catastrophic
consequences of the couple having children. Consequently, the rampage of destruction
continues and the monster first kills Victor's wife, Elizabeth, on their wedding night, and
then his best friend.
The scientist follows the monster to the Arctic and vows to destroy him, but dies in the
attempt to find him, while his monstrous creation wanders off into the icy wastes, never to be
seen again.
 Frankenstein - Mary Shelley 89

A Sudden Light Broke In Upon Me Text E 2 7

Victor Frankenstein tells us how he carried out research into the structure of the human
body.

O n e of the p h e n o m e n a which had peculiarly attracted m y attention

was the structure of the h u m a n frame1, and, indeed, any animal endued
w i t h life. W h e n c e 2 , I o f t e n asked myself, did the principle of life
proceed3? It w a s a b o l d question, and one which has ever been
c o n s i d e r e d as a m y s t e r y ; y e t w i t h h o w m a n y t h i n g s are we u p o n the
b r i n k of b e c o m i n g a c q u a i n t e d , if c o w a r d i c e or c a r e l e s s n e s s did n o t
4

restrain our enquiries. I revolved these circumstances in m y mind, and

determined thenceforth5 to apply myself more particularly to those
b r a n c h e s of natural p h i l o s o p h y w h i c h relate to physiology. Unless I h a d
been animated by an almost supernatural enthusiasm, m y application to to
this study would have been irksome6, a n d almost intolerable. To e x a m i n e
t h e causes o f life, we m u s t first h a v e r e c o u r s e to d e a t h . I b e c a m e
acquainted with t h e science of a n a t o m y : but this was not sufficient; I
m u s t also observe t h e natural decay a n d corruption of the h u m a n body.
In m y e d u c a t i o n m y father h a d t a k e n t h e greatest p r e c a u t i o n s t h a t m y 15
m i n d should be impressed with n o supernatural horrors. I do n o t ever
r e m e m b e r t o h a v e t r e m b l e d at a tale o f superstition, or t o h a v e feared t h e
apparition of a spirit. Darkness had n o effect u p o n m y fancy; a n d a
c h u r c h y a r d w a s t o m e m e r e l y t h e r e c e p t a c l e of b o d i e s d e p r i v e d o f life,
w h i c h , f r o m b e i n g t h e seat of b e a u t y a n d strength, h a d b e c o m e f o o d for 20 GLOSSARY •-
t h e w o r m . N o w I was led t o e x a m i n e t h e cause a n d progress of this decay, 1. frame: body
and forced to spend days a n d nights in vaults a n d charnel houses7. M y 2. Whence: from where
3. proceed: come from
attention was fixed u p o n every object the most insupportable to the
4. upon the brink ...
delicacy of the h u m a n feelings. acquainted: very
I saw h o w t h e fine f o r m of m a n was degraded a n d wasted; I b e h e l d 8 25 close to getting to
know
t h e c o r r u p t i o n o f d e a t h s u c c e e d t o t h e b l o o m i n g c h e e k 9 o f life; I s a w h o w thenceforth: from
t h e w o r m inherited the wonders of eye and brain. I paused, e x a m i n i n g then on
irksome: unpleasant
a n d a n a l y s i n g all t h e m i n u t i a e o f c a u s a t i o n 1 0 , as e x e m p l i f i e d in t h e
charnel houses:
c h a n g e f r o m life t o d e a t h , a n d d e a t h t o life, u n t i l f r o m t h e m i d s t o f t h i s storage places for
darkness a s u d d e n light b r o k e in u p o n m e - a light so brilliant a n d 30 bodies of dead people
beheld: observed
wondrous11, yet so s i m p l e , that while I became dizzy12 with the
9. succeed ... cheek:
i m m e n s i t y o f t h e p r o s p e c t w h i c h it i l l u s t r a t e d , I w a s s u r p r i s e d , that destroy a flourishing
life
a m o n g so m a n y m e n o f g e n i u s w h o h a d d i r e c t e d t h e i r e n q u i r i e s t o w a r d s
10. minutiae of
the same science, that I alone should be reserved to discover so causation: details of a
astonishing a secret. 35 process of cause and
effect
Remember, I a m n o t recording t h e vision of a m a d m a n . T h e sun does 11. wondrous: wonderful
n o t m o r e c e r t a i n l y s h i n e i n t h e h e a v e n , t h a n t h a t w h i c h I n o w a f f i r m is 12. dizzy: feeling
confused
true . S o m e m i r a c l e m i g h t h a v e p r o d u c e d it, y e t t h e s t a g e s o f t h e
13.The sun ... true: my
discovery were distinct a n d probable. After days a n d n i g h t s of incredible words are as true as
the fact that the sun
labour and fatigue, I succeeded in discovering t h e cause of generation a n d 40
is shining in the sky
life; nay14, more, I became myself capable of bestowing15 animation upon 14. nay: no
lifeless m a t t e r . 15.bestowing: giving
,90 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Fiction

COMPREHENSION
1 What was Victor's attention attracted by?
2 What, according to Victor, had stopped people
from understanding the mystery of life?
5 What childhood experience m a d e Victor unafraid
of supernatural horrors?
6 Where did Victor carry out his research?

3 Which areas of study did Victor dedicate himself to?
4 What m a d e Victor persevere in studies which for
most people would have been 'irksome and almost
intolerable'?
7 What did Victor witness while carrying out his
research?
8 Did Victor make his discovery without much effort?
9 What did Victor discover?

ANALYSIS
1 In the first part of the passage Victor describes his a. Are the verbal phrases used by Victor strong or
great desire for knowledge and understanding. weak?
Underline words and expressions (lines 1 - 1 3) which b. Which of the following adjectives would you use to
relate to areas of study and Victor's curiosity and describe Victor?
desire to know more. • Cold • Ambitious
How would you describe t h e type of language used • Mad • Eccentric
by Victor? • Self-confident • Fanatical
• Conversational • Scientific
4 From line 2 9 to line 4 0 Victor creates expectations
• Formal • Essential
about his discovery. Underline the words and
• Ornate • Other:
expressions that suggest that he has m a d e an
2 From line 1 3 to line 2 9 Victor explains how he enormous breakthrough.
investigated the causes of death. Underline all t h e Do the impressions t h e reader has formed about
words in this section that deal with death and the Victor make his extraordinary achievement more
supernatural. credible?
a. Is Victor's description of his work sanitised or does
5 What image represents the discovery of t h e secret
it contain graphic and disturbing details?
of life in lines 2 9 - 3 0 ? Is it an original i m a g e ?
b. What does the fact that Victor was fearless and
Is it effective in this c o n t e x t ?
tireless in t h e pursuit of his work suggest a b o u t him
as a m a n ?
c. Does he c o m e across as average or extraordinary?

3 Consider t h e following phrases taken from the text:

revolved these circumstances in my mind, and
determined thenceforth...
Unless I had been animated by ...
Now I was led to examine ... and forced to spend
days and nights...
My attention was fixed ...
I was surprised...
 Frankenstein - Mary Shelley 91

WRITERS WORKSHOP
First-person
r T h e p a s s a g e y o u h a v e r e a d is a n e x a m p l e o f a f i r s t - p e r s o n n a r r a t i v e . T h e s t o r y is t o l d
narrative b y t h e m a i n c h a r a c t e r , Victor, w h o uses t h e first p e r s o n p r o n o u n T t o d e s c r i b e his

SSifp e x p e r i e n c e . R e a d i n g a f i r s t - p e r s o n n a r r a t i v e is l i k e l i s t e n i n g t o s o m e b o d y t a l k i n g a b o u t
t h e m s e l v e s . It is o f t e n m o r e i n v o l v i n g b e c a u s e t h e e x p e r i e n c e is p r e s e n t e d as f i r s t - h a n d .

l i f e
TASKS In Frankenstein it is i m p o r t a n t t h a t t h e reader finds t h e first-person narrator, Victor,
WL c o n v i n c i n g b e c a u s e he is g o i n g to tell a story which could easily b e dismissed as incredible.

1 Find references in t h e t e x t t o Victor's u n o r t h o d o x upbringing, his u n e n d i n g thirst for

k n o w l e d g e , his passionate nature a n d his tireless pursuit of t h e understanding of t h e mystery
of life.

2 Find e x a m p l e s of Victor's a t t e m p t s to reassure t h e reader t h a t w h a t he is saying really

happened.
Do you think t h a t Victor's passionate nature and unconventional e d u c a t i o n m a k e him m o r e
or less credible as a narrator? Justify your answer.

OVER T O Y O U Briefly re-write (seventy w o r d s ) t h e main points of t h e p a s s a g e in a third-person narrative.

Discuss h o w a different perspective can affect t h e reader's response.

Have you ever s p e n t 'days and nights of incredible labour a n d f a t i g u e ' pursuing a personal g o a l ?
W e r e you successful and was it worth t h e effort?

The Accomplishment Of My Toils iText £ 2 8 1

After years of work, Victor Frankestein finally sees his creation come to life. GLOSSARY •
1. dreary: dark and
depressing
It w a s o n a d r e a r y 1 n i g h t i n N o v e m b e r , t h a t I b e h e l d t h e a c c o m p l i s h m e n t 2. beheld ... toils: saw
of m y toils2. W i t h an a n x i e t y that almost a m o u n t e d t o agony, I collected the result of my hard
work
t h e i n s t r u m e n t s o f life a r o u n d m e , t h a t I m i g h t i n f u s e a spark o f b e i n g
3. pattered ... panes:
i n t o t h e l i f e l e s s t h i n g t h a t l a y a t m y f e e t . It w a s a l r e a d y o n e i n t h e struck against the
windows (panes: glass
morning; the rain pattered dismally against the panes3, and m y candle s sheets of a window)
was nearly b u r n t out, w h e n , b y the g l i m m e r 4 of the half-extinguished in an incessant and
gloomy way
l i g h t , I s a w t h e d u l l y e l l o w e y e o f t h e c r e a t u r e o p e n ; it b r e a t h e d h a r d , a n d
4. glimmer: very weak
a c o n v u l s i v e m o t i o n a g i t a t e d its l i m b s . light
H o w c a n I describe m y e m o t i o n s at this c a t a s t r o p h e , or h o w d e l i n e a t e 5. delineate the
wretch: describe the
the wretch5 w h o m with such infinite pains a n d care I h a d endeavoured to 10 unfortunate creature
form6? His l i m b s w e r e in p r o p o r t i o n , a n d I h a d s e l e c t e d h i s f e a t u r e s as 6. endeavoured to
form: created
b e a u t i f u l . B e a u t i f u l ! - G r e a t G o d ! His y e l l o w s k i n s c a r c e l y c o v e r e d t h e through great effort
work o f m u s c l e s a n d arteries b e n e a t h ; his hair was o f a lustrous black, a n d 7. dun-white sockets:
brownish-grey eye
flowing; his teeth o f pearly whiteness; but these luxuriances o n l y formed a
holes
m o r e horrid c o n t r a s t to his w a t e r y eyes, t h a t s e e m e d a l m o s t o f t h e s a m e 15 8. shrivelled
c o l o u r as t h e d u n - w h i t e s o c k e t s 7 in w h i c h t h e y w e r e set, h i s s h r i v e l l e d complexion:
withered, dried out
c o m p l e x i o n 8 a n d s t r a i g h t b l a c k lips. skin
92 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Fiction

T h e different a c c i d e n t s o f life are

n o t so c h a n g e a b l e as t h e f e e l i n g s o f
h u m a n nature. I h a d worked hard for 20
n e a r l y t w o years, for t h e sole p u r p o s e
of i n f u s i n g life i n t o an inanimate
body. For this I h a d deprived m y s e l f
o f r e s t a n d h e a l t h . I h a d d e s i r e d it
w i t h a n a r d o u r t h a t far exceeded 25
moderation: but now that I had
finished, the beauty of the dream
vanished, and breathless9 horror and
disgust filled m y heart. U n a b l e to
endure the aspect of the being I had 30
created, I rushed out of the room, and
c o n t i n u e d a long time traversing m y
bedchamber, unable to c o m p o s e m y
m i n d t o sleep. At l e n g t h l a s s i t u d e 1 0
succeeded to the tumult I had before 35
endured; and I threw myself on the
bed in m y clothes, endeavouring to
seek a few m o m e n t s of forgetfulness.
B u t it w a s i n v a i n : I slept, i n d e e d , b u t
was disturbed b y the wildest dreams. I
40
t h o u g h t I saw Elizabeth, in t h e b l o o m
of h e a l t h , walking in the streets of
Ingolstadt. D e l i g h t e d a n d surprised, I
e m b r a c e d h e r , b u t as I i m p r i n t e d t h e
first kiss o n h e r lips, t h e y became
45
livid with the hue of death; her
features appeared to change, and I
t h o u g h t that I held the corpse of m y dead m o t h e r in m y arms; a shroud11
e n v e l o p e d h e r form, a n d I saw t h e grave-worms crawling in t h e folds of
9. breathless: that
causes one to stop f l a n n e l 1 2 . I started f r o m m y sleep w i t h horror; a cold dew13 covered m y
breathing
forehead, m y teeth chattered14 and every limb b e c a m e convulsed: w h e n ,
10. lassitude: tiredness
11. shroud: sheet b y t h e d i m o f t h e y e l l o w l i g h t o f t h e m o o n , as it f o r c e d its w a y t h r o u g h
covering a dead body the w i n d o w shutters, I b e h e l d the wretch - the miserable m o n s t e r w h o m I
12. folds of flannel: lines
h a d created. He h e l d up t h e c u r t a i n o f t h e bed; a n d his eyes, if eyes t h e y
formed in the
material m a y b e c a l l e d , were f i x e d o n m e . His jaws o p e n e d , a n d h e m u t t e r e d 1 5
13. dew: drops of
s o m e inarticulate sounds, while a grin16 wrinkled17 his cheeks. He m i g h t
perspiration
14. chattered: made a h a v e spoken, b u t I did n o t hear; o n e h a n d was stretched out, s e e m i n g l y to
noise detain me18, but I escaped, and rushed downstairs. 1 took refuge in the
15.muttered: said in a
courtyard belonging to the house which I inhabited; where I remained
low voice
16. grin: smile during t h e rest of t h e n i g h t , walking up a n d d o w n in t h e greatest
17. wrinkled: formed a g i t a t i o n , l i s t e n i n g a t t e n t i v e l y , c a t c h i n g a n d f e a r i n g e a c h s o u n d as if it
lines on
were to a n n o u n c e the approach of t h e d e m o n i a c a l corpse to w h i c h I had
18. seemingly to detain
me: apparently as if so m i s e r a b l y g i v e n life.
to hold me back
 Frankenstein - Mary Shelley 93

COMPREHENSION —
1 How did Victor feel just before he gave life to the 4 What did Victor do, when he witnessed the horror
monster? he had created?

2 What were t h e first m o v e m e n t s the monster m a d e 5 What did Victor dream about?
when it was brought to life?
6 What did Victor see when he awoke from his
3 How did Victor feel about his creation? nightmare?

7 How did Victor spend the rest of t h e night?

ANALYSIS
1 Find t h e following in the opening paragraph of the 4 Consider the dream s e q u e n c e in the third
text. paragraph. Which expressions link the description of
- the time of year: Elizabeth's body to the description of t h e monster?
- the time of day: What image of death links Victor's description of his
work in Text E27 to the description of his mother's
- the weather conditions:
corpse in the dream s e q u e n c e ?
- the quality of the light:
a. What kind of atmosphere does the description of 5 In t h e course of this passage Victor experiences
the setting create? Choose from the following: various states of mind.

• Calm • Excitement • Expectation a. Underline all t h e words and expressions that

• Terror • Security • Fear
b . Would you consider this a typical setting for a
horror story?
2 Make a list of the aspects of t h e monster's
a p p e a r a n c e that Victor describes as 'beautiful'.
Make a list of the features he finds particularly repellent.
3 Consider the first two paragraphs. What is Victor's
m o o d in the first paragraph? How does it c h a n g e in
t h e second paragraph? Identify the line which signals
t h e c h a n g e in m o o d . Where else in the text does
Victor's m o o d c h a n g e suddenly?
describe how he felt.
b. C o m p a r e Victor's state of mind in this text with
how he felt in Text E27. What are the main
differences? Are there any similarities?
6 Victor attributes his fear and repulsion to the
hideous appearance of the monster. Does it seem
logical that at t h e m o m e n t of his greatest discovery
Victor should be preoccupied with the physical
aspects of his creation? Is there any evidence in the
text to suggest that Victor's anxiety may also be due
t o the fact that he feels he has e x c e e d e d s o m e natural
boundary in his work?
,94 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Fiction

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P
The setting of a novel refers to:
- the physical locale in which the action takes place;
- the time of day or year;
- the climatic conditions;
- the historical period.
The setting helps the reader, to visualise the action and adds credibility and authenticity
to the story. It may also be used to create atmosphere and to reflect the state of mind of
the characters.

In the text you have just read, the setting is Victor's h o m e on a dark rainy N o v e m b e r night.
It is o n e o'clock in t h e morning and Victor is working by t h e half-extinguished light of a
candle.
Does t h e setting help to create expectation in the reader?
W h a t kind of expectations does it create?
Is Victor's emotional turmoil more convincing in this setting? Do you generally experience
heightened anxiety and fear during daylight hours or at night? How would the impact of t h e
passage differ if the setting had been, for example, a warm, sunny day?

Choose o n e of the following situations and write a fifty-word description of the setting. Your
description should include references to the physical location, the time of year and day, t h e
atmospheric conditions and the quality of t h e light.
The perfect date The last day of t h e s u m m e r holidays
The funeral of a loved one The day your team won a major trophy
The night before an important examination

Victor Frankenstein tried t o discover t h e secrets of h u m a n life with disastrous c o n s e q u e n c e s . In t h e twentieth

century scientists discovered that most of t h e secrets of human life are to be found in our g e n e s . How mankind
should use g e n e t i c e n g i n e e r i n g and h o w far w e should g o in t a m p e r i n g with nature are s u b j e c t s of h e a t e d
debate.
Tick the chart below:

1 a g r e e with 1 disagree with 1 d o not know

1 Human cloning
2 Animal cloning
3 Genetically-modified plants
4 Genetic testing of foetuses to discover malformation
or disease
5 Choosing what your child is going to look like
6 Genetic fingerprinting by t h e police
7 Genetic testing of prospective employees by employers

Copy the chart o n t o the board and write in the results for the whole class.
Hold a class discussion on all the issues in t h e chart.
Check if anyone has c h a n g e d their minds on any issue after the discussion and c h a n g e t h e class results
accordingly.
 Writers' Gallery - Mary Shelley 95

WRITERS' GALLERY
Family background Mary
S h e l l e y was b o r n in L o n d o n
i n 1 7 9 7 t o w e l l - k n o w n p a r e n t s . Her father, W i l l i a m G o d w i n , was
a radical writer and philosopher, while her mother, Mary
Wollstonecraft, was a p i o n e e r o f w o m e n ' s liberation. F r o m i n f a n c y ,
M a r y was s u r r o u n d e d b y f a m o u s p h i l o s o p h e r s , writers a n d poets,
i n c l u d i n g W i l l i a m Blake a n d S a m u e l Coleridge.

Elopement with Shelley At t h e age o f s i x t e e n , M a r y r a n a w a y

w i t h t h e t w e n t y - o n e - y e a r - o l d p o e t Percy S h e l l e y ( • p p . E 4 0 - 5 1 ) .
Shelley personified the genius that she had admired her entire
life. However, the poet was already married and their
relationship s h o c k e d society. She b e c a m e a social outcast and
M A R Y SHELLEY even h e r o p e n - m i n d e d liberal father c o u l d n o t forgive her. She
(1797-1851) left E n g l a n d a n d w e n t w i t h S h e l l e y t o live o n t h e c o n t i n e n t .

Writing and personal misfortunes T h e i d e a o f w r i t i n g Frankenstein c a m e w h e n Mary was o n

h o l i d a y in S w i t z e r l a n d i n 1 8 1 6 w i t h S h e l l e y a n d Lord B y r o n ( • p. E 3 2 - 3 9 ) . T h e y w e r e t e l l i n g e a c h
m
o t h e r g h o s t stories a n d d e c i d e d t h a t e a c h of t h e m w o u l d write t h e i r o w n . In a h a l f - w a k i n g w l f e ä f
n i g h t m a r e , M a r y s t r u c k o n t h e i d e a o f a m a n - m a d e m o n s t e r , a n d i m m e d i a t e l y set a b o u t w r i t i n g
Frankenstein, w h i c h she t h e n finished in May 1 8 1 7 . She wrote the novel while being overwhelmed
b y a series o f c a l a m i t i e s i n h e r life. T h e worst o f t h e s e were t h e suicides o f h e r half-sister a n d Shelley's
•W'.' g -
wife. After t h e suicides, M a r y a n d S h e l l e y r e l u c t a n t l y m a r r i e d . P u b l i c h o s t i l i t y t o w a r d s t h e c o u p l e
was fierce. T h e y m o v e d t o Italy, b u t t h e i r stay t h e r e was n o t a h a p p y o n e . T h r e e of t h e i r four
c h i l d r e n d i e d . W h e n M a r y w a s o n l y t w e n t y - f o u r y e a r s old, h e r h u s b a n d d r o w n e d n e a r La Spezia,
leaving her penniless with a two-year-old son. She returned to England, where she devoted herself to a s f ®
h e r s o n ' s welfare a n d e d u c a t i o n a n d c o n t i n u e d h e r career as a p r o f e s s i o n a l writer. S h e died i n 1 8 5 1 .

M a r y S h e l l e y w r o t e several works - Valperga ( 1 8 2 3 ) , a r o m a n c e set

WORKS
in f o u r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y Italy a n d The Last Man (1826), a vision of
t h e e n d o f h u m a n c i v i l i s a t i o n , set in t h e y e a r 2 1 0 0 - b u t s h e is b e s t r e m e m b e r e d as t h e a u t h o r o f
Frankenstein, or the The Modern Prometheus ( 1 8 1 8 ) . In t h e n o v e l , e v e n t s s u c h as t h e loss o f h e r m o t h e r
at a n early age a n d t h e d e a t h o f t h r e e o f h e r four c h i l d r e n are reflected i n h e r interest i n t h e t h e m e s o f
birth a n d c r e a t i o n . S h e d e d i c a t e d t h e n o v e l t o h e r father, w h o s e views o n property, social justice a n d
e d u c a t i o n are r e p r e s e n t e d . S h e s h a r e d Percy S h e l l e y ' s i n t e r e s t in s c i e n c e a n d , in particular, in
c h e m i s t r y a n d e v o l u t i o n a r y theories. S h e was in close c o n t a c t w i t h o t h e r m a j o r p o e t s o f t h e d a y a n d
was i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e i r writing, in particular b y Coleridge's The Rime of the Ancient Mariner ( • Texts E9
a n d E10), w h i c h is also t h e tale o f a c r i m e against n a t u r e . M a n y critics see t h e m o n s t e r as r e p r e s e n t i n g
Rousseau's n o b l e savage ( • p. E 1 2 4 ) . T h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f F r a n k e n s t e i n f r o m a gentle, l o v i n g b e i n g
t o a m u r d e r o u s m o n s t e r reflects m a n y o f t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y beliefs regarding h o w social e n v i r o n m e n t
affects m a n ' s b e h a v i o u r . M a r y Shelley's w o r k e m b o d i e s t h e spirit o f t h e age in w h i c h it was w r i t t e n .
Her a m b i v a l e n t a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s t h e m o n s t e r , b o t h l o v i n g a n d fearful, m i r r o r s t h e m i x t u r e o f
mMmM
f a s c i n a t i o n a n d a p p r e h e n s i o n t h a t i n t e l l e c t u a l s o f t h e d a y felt t o w a r d s r e v o l u t i o n a n d c h a n g e after JSKKm
the events of the French Revolution. m 1
 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Fiction
Do y o u have any of t h e following irrational fears? Fear of:
• flying
• b e i n g alone
• cats
• dentists
Do p e o p l e ever b o t h e r you for illogical reasons? Have you ever m e t a n y o n e a n d taken an instant dislike t o t h e m
for n o obvious r e a s o n ?
Text E29
• Visual Link E4
• GLOSSARY
1. dreadfully: terribly
2. sharpened my
senses: made my
senses more intense
3. dulled: made less
intense
4. Hearken: Listen
5. haunted: persecuted
6. vulture: large bird
which feeds on dead
animals
7. rid: free
fancy me: think I am
9. foresight: ability to
imagine what will
happen
10. latch: short metal bar
used to block a door
11. thrust in: pushed in
12.cunningly: astutely
13. hinges: metal parts
that join a door to
the frame
14. creaked: made a
noise
The Tell-Tale Heart
by Edgar Allan Poe
• mice/rats • clowns • small spaces
• open spaces • darkness • dogs
• birds • mirrors • clocks
• crowds • spiders/insects
The Eye
T R U E ! - n e r v o u s - very, v e r y d r e a d f u l l y 1 n e r v o u s I h a d b e e n a n d a m ; b u t
w h y will y o u say t h a t I a m m a d ? T h e disease h a d s h a r p e n e d m y senses2 -
n o t d e s t r o y e d - n o t d u l l e d 3 t h e m . A b o v e all was t h e s e n s e of h e a r i n g
acute. I h e a r d all t h i n g s in t h e h e a v e n a n d in t h e e a r t h . I h e a r d m a n y
t h i n g s in hell. How, t h e n , a m I m a d ? H e a r k e n 4 ! a n d observe h o w h e a l t h i l y
- h o w c a l m l y I c a n tell y o u t h e w h o l e story.
It is i m p o s s i b l e t o s a y h o w f i r s t t h e i d e a e n t e r e d m y b r a i n ; b u t o n c e
c o n c e i v e d , it h a u n t e d 5 m e d a y a n d n i g h t . O b j e c t t h e r e w a s n o n e . P a s s i o n
t h e r e was n o n e . I loved t h e old m a n . He h a d n e v e r w r o n g e d m e . He h a d
n e v e r g i v e n m e i n s u l t . F o r h i s g o l d I h a d n o d e s i r e . I t h i n k it w a s h i s e y e ! io
yes, it w a s t h i s ! H e h a d t h e e y e o f a vulture6 - a pale blue eye, with a film
o v e r it. W h e n e v e r it fell u p o n m e , m y b l o o d r a n c o l d ; a n d s o b y d e g r e e s -
v e r y g r a d u a l l y - I m a d e u p m y m i n d t o t a k e t h e life o f t h e o l d m a n , a n d
t h u s rid7 m y s e l f of t h e eye forever.
N o w t h i s is t h e p o i n t . Y o u f a n c y m e 8 m a d . M a d m e n k n o w n o t h i n g . B u t 15
y o u s h o u l d h a v e seen m e . You s h o u l d h a v e seen h o w wisely I p r o c e e d e d -
with what caution - with what foresight9 - with what dissimulation I went
t o work! I was never kinder to t h e old m a n t h a n during t h e w h o l e week
before I killed h i m . A n d every n i g h t , a b o u t m i d n i g h t , I t u r n e d t h e l a t c h 1 0
o f h i s d o o r a n d o p e n e d it - o h so g e n t l y ! A n d t h e n , w h e n I h a d m a d e a n 20
o p e n i n g s u f f i c i e n t f o r m y h e a d , I p u t i n a d a r k l a n t e r n , all c l o s e d , c l o s e d ,
that n o light shone out, and t h e n I thrust in11 m y head. Oh, you would
h a v e l a u g h e d t o see h o w c u n n i n g l y 1 2 1 t h r u s t it i n ! I m o v e d it s l o w l y - very,
v e r y slowly, so t h a t I m i g h t n o t d i s t u r b t h e o l d m a n ' s s l e e p . It t o o k m e a n
h o u r t o p l a c e m y w h o l e h e a d w i t h i n t h e o p e n i n g s o far t h a t I c o u l d s e e 25
h i m as h e l a y u p o n h i s b e d . H a ! W o u l d a m a d m a n h a v e b e e n s o w i s e a s
this, A n d t h e n , w h e n m y h e a d was well in t h e r o o m , I u n d i d t h e l a n t e r n
c a u t i o u s l y - o h , so c a u t i o u s l y - c a u t i o u s l y (for t h e h i n g e s 1 3 c r e a k e d 1 4 ) - I
u n d i d it j u s t so m u c h t h a t a s i n g l e t h i n r a y fell u p o n t h e v u l t u r e e y e . A n d
t h i s I did f o r s e v e n l o n g n i g h t s - e v e r y n i g h t j u s t at m i d n i g h t - b u t I f o u n d 30
 The Tell-Tale Heart - Edgar Allan Poe 97 O H M

the eye always closed; and so it was impossible to do the work; for it was
not the old man who vexed 1 5 me, but his Evil Eye. And every morning,
when the day broke, I went boldly into the chamber, and spoke
courageously to him, calling him by name in a hearty 16 tone, and inquiring
how he has passed the night. So you see he would have been a very 35
profound old man, indeed, to suspect that every night, just at twelve, I
looked in upon him while he slept.
Upon the eighth night I was more than usually cautious in opening
the door. A watch's minute hand moves more quickly than did mine.
Never before that night had I felt the extent of my own powers - of my 40
sagacity. I could scarcely contain my feelings of triumph. To think that
there I was, opening the door, little by little, and he not even to dream of
my secret deeds 17 or thoughts. I fairly chuckled 18 at the idea; and perhaps
he heard me; for he moved on the bed suddenly, as if startled 19 . Now you
may think that I drew back - but no. His room was as black as pitch with 45
the thick darkness, (for the shutters were close fastened, through fear of
The Sleep of Reason
robbers), and so I knew that he could not see the opening of the door, and produces Monsters by
1 kept pushing it on steadily 20 , steadily. Francisco Goya (1797).

I had my head in, and was about to open the lantern, when my thumb
slipped upon the tin fastening 21 , and the old man sprang up in bed, crying so
out - 'Who's there?' I kept quite still and said nothing. For a whole hour I
did not move a muscle, and in the meantime I did not hear him lie down.
He was still sitting up in the bed listening; - just as I have done, night after
night, hearkening to the death watches in the wall.
Presently 2 2 I heard a slight groan 2 3 , and I knew it was the groan of 55
mortal terror. It was not a groan of pain or of grief - oh, no! - it was the
low stifled 2 4 s o u n d J h a t arises from the b o t t o m of the soul when
overcharged with awe 25 . I knew the sound well. Many a night, just at
15. vexed: disturbed
m i d n i g h t , when alt T h e world slept, it has welled up from my own
16. hearty: friendly and
bosom 2 6 , deepening, with its dreadful echo, the terrors that distracted 60 sincere
me. I say I knew it well. I knew what the old man felt, and pitied him, 17. deeds: actions
18. fairly chuckled:
although I chuckled at heart. I knew that he had been lying awake ever laughed to myself
since the first slight noise, when he had turned in the bed. His fears had 19.startled: frightened
been ever since growing upon him. He had been trying to fancy them 20. steadily: constantly
21. tin fastening: metal
causeless 27 , but could not. He had been saying to himself - 'It is nothing 65 bar
but the wind in the chimney - it is only a mouse crossing the floor, or 'It 22. Presently: then
is merely a cricket which has made a single chirp.' Yes, he had been trying 23. slight groan: soft cry
24. stifled: suffocated
to comfort himself with these suppositions: but he had found all in vain.
25. awe: terror
All in vain; because Death, in approaching him, had stalked 28 with his 26. welled up ... bosom:
black shadow before him, and enveloped the victim. And it was the 70 built up inside me
27. fancy them
mournful influence of the unperceived shadow that caused him to feel - causeless: think there
although he neither saw nor heard - to feel the presence of my head was no logical reason
for them
within the room.
28. stalked: walked
When I had waited a long time, very patiently, without hearing him lie slowly like a hunter
29. crevice: opening
down, I resolved to open a little - a very, very little crevice 2 9 in the 75
30. stealthily: slowly and
lantern. So I opened it - you cannot imagine how stealthily 30 , stealthily - secretly
i 9jJ THE ROMANTIC AGE - Fiction

until, at length 3 1 a simple dim 3 2 ray, like the thread of the spider, shot
from out the crevice and fell full upon the vulture eye.
It was open - wide, wide open - and I grew furious as I gazed upon 3 3 it.
I saw it with perfect distinctness - all a dull blue, with a hideous 34 veil over 80
it that chilled 3 5 the very marrow 3 6 in my bones; but I could see nothing
else of the old man's face or person: for I had directed the ray as if by
instinct, precisely upon the damned spot.
And have I not told you that what you mistake for madness is but over-
acuteness of the sense? - Now, I say, there came to my ears a low, dull, 85
quick sound, such as a watch makes when enveloped in cotton. I knew
that sound well, too. It was the beating of the old man's heart. It increased
my fury, as the beating of a drum stimulates the soldier into courage.
But even yet I refrained 37 and kept still. I scarcely breathed. I held the
lantern motionless. I tried how steadily 38 I could maintain the ray upon 90
the eye. Meantime the hellish tattoo39 of the heart increased. It grew
quicker and quicker, and louder and louder every instant. The old man's
terror must have been extreme! It grew louder, I say, louder every moment!
- Do you mark 4 0 me well I have told you that I am nervous: so I am. And
now at the dead hour of the night, amid the dreadful silence of that old 95
house, so strange a noise as this excited me to uncontrollable terror. Yet,
for some minutes longer I refrained and stood still. But the beating grew
louder, louder! I thought the heart must burst. And now a new anxiety
seized 41 me - the sound would be heard by a neighbour!

31.at length: finally
32. dim: not bright
33. gazed upon: looked at
34. hideous: hateful
35. chilled: froze
36. marrow: soft substance
inside bones
37. even yet I refrained:
even then I did not
act
38. steadily: fixedly
39. hellish tattoo: infernal
beating
40. mark: understand
41. seized: captured

COMPREHENSION
1 How had t h e disease affected t h e narrator's s e n s e 6 W h a t caused t h e old m a n t o wake up?
of h e a r i n g ?
7 W h e n , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e narrator, did he himself
2 W h i c h physical a s p e c t of t h e old m a n disturbed t h e g r o a n with terror?
narrator?
8 W h a t did t h e narrator s e e in t h e ray of light from
3 How did t h e narrator treat t h e old m a n during t h e t h e lantern?
w e e k b e f o r e he killed h i m ?
9 W h a t sound did t h e narrator fear would b e heard
4 W h a t did t h e narrator d o for seven nights in a row?
by t h e n e i g h b o u r s ?
5 W h y w a s he u n a b l e to d o his 'work'?
 The Tell Tale He

ANALYSIS
1 W h a t kind of narrator tells t h e story? 4 Underline s e n t e n c e s in which t h e narrator:
- addresses t h e reader directly;
2 How would you d e s c r i b e t h e way t h e story b e g i n s ?
- assumes t h a t he knows w h a t t h e reader is thinking.
• Dramatic • Conventional
How would you define t h e relationship t h a t is
• Startling • Confusing
• Unorthodox • Other: established b e t w e e n t h e reader and t h e narrator?
• Disconcerting • Tense
3 a . T h e narrator repeatedly rejects t h e s u g g e s t i o n t h a t
• Relaxed • Friendly
he is m a d . In lines 2 - 3 he says t h a t m a d n e s s dulls
• Overpowering • Other:
t h e senses, while his senses are sharp. Find o t h e r
s t a t e m e n t s in w h i c h t h e narrator dissociates 5 T h e narrator identifies t h e old m a n ' s eye as t h e
himself from m a d n e s s a n d m a d m e n . source of his discomfort.

b . He also makes several references to his s a g a c i t y j n a . Circle references t o t h e eye in t h e t e x t . Does he

line 1 6 h e says 'You should have seen h o w wisely ever refer t o both of t h e old man's eyes? How d o e s

I p r o c e e d e d ' . Find o t h e r s e n t e n c e s in which t h e referring t o a single eye reinforce t h e association

narrator refers to his w i s d o m . with a vulture's e y e ?
c. Is t h e narrator's claim t o b e s a n e a n d wise b. W h a t effect d o e s focussing on a single eye have?
c o n v i n c i n g ? Is it s u p p o r t e d by his behaviour? • It makes t h e old m a n s e e m ugly.
Justify y o u r answer by referring t o t h e text. • It makes t h e c r i m e m o r e justifiable.
• It d e h u m a n i s e s t h e old m a n .
• Other:

The Old Man's Hour Had Come Text E 3 0

T h e old m a n ' s h o u r h a d c o m e ! W i t h a loud yell1, I t h r e w o p e n t h e l a n t e r n

a n d l e a p e d 2 i n t o t h e r o o m . H e s h r i e k e d 3 o n c e - o n c e o n l y . In a n i n s t a n t I
dragged4 h i m to the floor, and pulled t h e h e a v y bed over h i m . I t h e n
s m i l e d gaily, t o f i n d t h e d e e d so far d o n e . B u t , f o r m a n y m i n u t e s , t h e h e a r t
b e a t o n w i t h a m u f f l e d 5 s o u n d . T h i s , h o w e v e r , d i d n o t v e x m e ; it w o u l d
n o t b e h e a r d t h r o u g h t h e w a l l . At l e n g t h it c e a s e d . T h e o l d m a n w a s d e a d .
I r e m o v e d t h e b e d a n d e x a m i n e d t h e c o r p s e . Yes, h e w a s s t o n e , s t o n e
d e a d . I p l a c e d m y h a n d u p o n t h e h e a r t a n d h e l d it t h e r e m a n y m i n u t e s .
T h e r e w a s n o p u l s a t i o n . H e w a s s t o n e d e a d . His e y e w o u l d t r o u b l e m e n o
GLOSSARY
more. 10
yell: cry
If still y o u t h i n k m e m a d , y o u w i l l t h i n k s o n o l o n g e r w h e n I d e s c r i b e leaped: jumped
t h e wise p r e c a u t i o n s I t o o k for t h e c o n c e a l m e n t o f 6 t h e body. T h e n i g h t shrieked: screamed
dragged: pulled
w a n e d 7 , a n d I w o r k e d h a s t i l y 8 , b u t i n s i l e n c e . F i r s t o f all I d i s m e m b e r e d
muffled: suffocated
t h e c o r p s e . I c u t o f f t h e h e a d a n d t h e a r m s a n d t h e legs. the concealment of:
I then took up three planks9 from the flooring of the chamber, and 15 hiding

d e p o s i t e d all b e t w e e n t h e s c a n t l i n g s 1 0 . I t h e n r e p l a c e d t h e b o a r d s so waned: gradually

disappeared
cleverly, so c u n n i n g l y , t h a t n o h u m a n eye - n o t e v e n his - could have
hastily: in a hurry
detected a n y t h i n g wrong. There was n o t h i n g to wash out - n o stain o f a n y planks: wooden
kind - n o blood-spot whatever. I had been too wary for11 that. A tub12 had boards
10. scantlings: small
c a u g h t all - h a ! h a ! 20 pieces of wood
W h e n I h a d m a d e a n e n d o f t h e s e l a b o r s , it w a s f o u r o ' c l o c k - still d a r k 11. wary for: careful
about
as m i d n i g h t . As t h e b e l l s o u n d e d t h e h o u r , t h e r e c a m e a k n o c k i n g a t t h e
12. tub: large round
s t r e e t d o o r . I w e n t d o w n t o o p e n it w i t h a l i g h t h e a r t , - f o r w h a t h a d I n o w container
Jjg0 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Fiction

to fear? There entered three men, w h o i n t r o d u c e d themselves, with

perfect suavity, as officers of the police. A shriek had been heard by a 25
neighbour during the night; suspicion of foul play had been aroused 1 3 ;
information had been lodged at 1 4 the police office, and they (the officers)
had been deputed to search the premises 15 .
I smiled, - for what had I to fear? 1 bade the gentlemen welcome 1 6 . The
shriek, I said, was my own in a dream. The old man, I mentioned, was 30
absent in the country. I took my visitors all over the house. I bade them
search - search well. I led them, at length, to his chamber. I showed them
his treasures, secure, undisturbed. In the enthusiasm of my confidence, I
brought chairs into the room, and desired them here to rest from their
fatigues, while I myself, in the wild audacity of my perfect triumph, placed 35
my own seat upon the very spot beneath which reposed the corpse of the
victim.
The officers were satisfied. My m a n n e r had c o n v i n c e d t h e m . I was
singularly at ease 1 7 . T h e y sat, and while I answered c h e e r i l y 1 8 , t h e y
chatted of familiar things. But, ere 1 9 long, I felt myself getting pale and 40
wished them gone. My head ached, and I fancied a ringing 2 0 in my ears:
but still they sat and still chatted. The ringing became more distinct: - It
continued and became more distinct: I talked more freely to get rid of 21
the feeling: but it continued and gained definiteness - until, at length, I
found that the noise was not within my ears. 45
No doubt I now grew very pale; - but I talked more fluently, and with a
heightened voice. Yet the sound increased - and what could I do? It was a
low, dull, quick sound - m u c h such a sound as a watch makes w h e n
enveloped in cotton. I gasped for breath 2 2 - and yet the officers heard it
not. I talked more quickly - more vehemently; but the noise steadily 50
increased. I arose and argued about trifles 23 , in a high key and with violent
gesticulations; but the noise steadily increased. W h y would they not be
gone? I paced the floor to and fro 2 4 with heavy strides 25 , as if excited to
fury by the observations of the men - but the noise steadily increased. Oh
God! What could I do? I foamed 2 6 - I raved 27 - I swore 2 8 ! I swung 2 9 the 55
chair upon which I had been sitting, and grated it upon the boards, but
the noise arose over all and continually increased. It grew louder - louder
- louder! And still the men chatted pleasantly, and smiled. Was it possible
they heard not? Almighty God! - No, no! They heard! - They suspected! -
T h e y knew! - T h e y were making a m o c k e r y 3 0 of my horror! - This I 60
t h o u g h t , and this I t h i n k . But a n y t h i n g was better t h a n this agony!

13.suspicion ... 16.bade ... welcome: asked 22.gasped for breath: 26.1 foamed: drops of
aroused: he had them to come in breathed with difficulty saliva fell from my
suspected a criminal 17. at ease: comfortable 23. argued about trifles: mouth
action was in progress 18. cheerily: happily talked about unimportant 27.1 raved: I talked wildly
14. lodged at: passed to 19. ere: before things 28.1 swore: I used bad
15.deputed ... premises: 20. fancied a ringing: felt a 24- P a c e d t h e floor t o a n d fro: language
sent to search the ringing sound walked up and down 29.1 swung: I turned around
house 21.get rid of: free myself of 25. strides: paces 30. mockery: fun
 The Tell-Tale Heart - Edgar Allan Poe379OHM

Anything was more tolerable than this derision! I could bear those
h y p o c r i t i c a l smiles n o longer! I felt t h a t I m u s t s c r e a m or die! a n d n o w -
again! - Hark31! Louder! Louder! Louder! Louder!
'Villains!' I shrieked, ' d i s s e m b l e 3 2 n o m o r e ! I a d m i t t h e deed! - Tear up 65
31. Hark: listen
t h e p l a n k s ! H e r e , h e r e ! - It is t h e b e a t i n g o f h i s hideous33 heart!'- 32. dissemble: pretend
The End 33. hideous: hateful

COMPREHENSION

1 How did t h e narrator kill t h e old m a n ? How did he 4 Did t h e narrator believe t h e police officers could
dispose of t h e b o d y ? hear t h e s o u n d as well? Why, in his opinion, did t h e y
2 W h y did t h e police officers c o m e t o t h e h o u s e ? n o t react t o t h e s o u n d ?

3 W h a t s o u n d did t h e narrator hear as he s p o k e t o

t h e police? How did he try t o block o u t t h e s o u n d ?

ANALYSIS

1 Underline words or phrases in t h e t e x t w h i c h c. Consider h o w tension is built up t h r o u g h a

s u g g e s t t h e narrator's lack of remorse for w h a t he has c r e s c e n d o e f f e c t . Focus on paragraph 7 a n d fill in
done. t h e t a b l e below.

2 How would you define t h e narrator's response t o the narrator's behaviour t h e disturbing s o u n d
t h e crime h e has c o m m i t t e d ? 1 talked more fluently, and Yet t h e s o u n d increased -
• Pride • Pleasure with a heightened voice and w h a t could 1 d o ?
• Confusion • Fear 1 talked m o r e quickly -
• Indifference • Other: more v e h e m e n t l y
1 arose and argued a b o u t
3 W h a t t o n e d o e s t h e narrator use w h e n describing trifles, in a high key a n d
t h e m u r d e r a n d t h e c o n c e a l m e n t of b o d y ? with violent gesticulations
is M a t t e r of f a c t • Clinical 1 p a c e d t h e floor to a n d
• Passionate • Apologetic fro with heavy strides, as
• Remorseful • Other: if excited t o fury
1 swung t h e chair upon
4 Is t h e narrator's primary c o n c e r n : which 1 had b e e n sitting,
• t o justify his actions and win t h e s y m p a t h y of t h e and grated it upon t h e
reader? boards
• t o explain to t h e reader t h a t he p r o c e e d e d in a
d. Which s e n t e n c e structures are used in t h e final part
logical m a n n e r a n d t h e r e f o r e should n o t b e
of t h e story t o increase t e n s i o n ?
considered a m a d m a n ?
6 W h i c h of t h e following b e s t describes Poe's main
5 Tension is c r e a t e d in t h e story t h r o u g h several
interest in writing The Tell-Tale Heart?
t e c h n i q u e s : repetition*, syntax and a crescendo*
• T h e in-depth analysis of t h e t h w a r t e d relationship
effect.
b e t w e e n t h e old m a n and t h e narrator.
a. Underline e x a m p l e s of repetition.
• T h e haunting and disturbing description of an eerie
b. Are t h e s e n t e n c e s in t h e t e x t primarily:
setting.
• long a n d flowing?
• T h e detailed a c c o u n t of w h a t w a s a l m o s t t h e
M short a n d a r h y t h m i c ? p e r f e c t murder.
№ T h e e x p o s u r e of t h e workings of an unstable m i n d .
,102 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Fiction

7 By his own definition, Poe's style is based on the 8 The term Gothic* is often used to refer to Poe's
choice of 'the curt, the condensed, the pointed', a style work. The principal aim of Gothic fiction is to evoke
in which every single word counts towards creating chilling terror by exploiting mystery, cruelty and
that 'certain unique or single effect' around which the nightmarish horrors. Can you identify any Gothic
tale revolves. In The Tell-Tale Heart, does Poe dedicate elements in The Tell-Tale Heart?
his attention t o traditional elements of storytelling, i.e.
setting, physical descriptions, characterisation? Does he
succeed in eliminating all that is superfluous to his main
objective in writing this story?

WRITERS' W O R K S H O P
First-person In a first-person narrative the reader sees events unfold through the eyes of a single
narrator character who refers to himself as T'. The reader's vision of the story, or point of view,
is limited to what the first-person narrator himself knows, experiences, infers or can
find out by talking to other characters. The reader cannot see events as they actually
are, but only as they appear to be to the mediating consciousness of the 'I' narrator.
An author may choose the first-person narrative for very different artistic purposes:
• first-person narration may lend authenticity to a fictional work, creating the illusion
that the narrator is relating events that he has personally witnessed or experienced.
The narrator may be presented as likable, perceptive, intelligent and reliable, and
therefore the reader may be encouraged to accept what he relates and sympathise
with his views;
• the reader may be encouraged to question the reliability of the narrator. This occurs
when the narrator's vision of the world or interpretation of events is clearly different
from the reader's. The unreliable narrator may be used to add humour or a satirical
edge to a text ( • Swift, p. D58), or the psychological make up of the narrator himself
may be the focus of the writer's attention.

TASK Analyse the narrative technique in The Tell-Tale Heart.

a. Is t h e protagonist of the story referred to as:
• T (first person) or • 'He' (third person)?
b. Does he relate events that he has personally experienced?
c. Is he presented as likable?
d. Is t h e reader encouraged t o sympathise with his views?
e. Are there unbelievable or unlikely elements in his storytelling? Is he a reliable narrator?
f. Why did Poe c h o o s e the first person narrative technique?
• To lend authenticity to his work.
• To add humour and satirical bite.
• To examine the psychological make-up of the narrator.

OVER T O Y O U In The Tell-Tale Heart, Edgar Allan Poe explores t h e mind of a psychopathic murderer.
Although there is no direct reference to the narrator's state of mind in t h e text, numerous
clues warn t h e perceptive reader of t h e storyteller's mental instability. Discuss with your
classmates t h e elements in t h e story that help the reader realise that the narrator is insane.
 r'vstrr; %

103
The Tell-Tale Heart - Edgar Allan Poe381OHM

LINK
-[ to the world of music
In 1 9 7 7 N e w York-based rock b a n d Talking Heads w r o t e t h e s o n g Psycho Killer, in response t o a series of murders
carried o u t by t h e serial killer David Berkowitz (also known as ' S o n of S a m ' ) .

Read t h e lyrics. Underline t h e s e n t e n c e s in which t h e p s y c h o killer describes his state of mind. D o e s he share a n y
characteristics with Poe's narrator in The Tell-Tale Heart?
W h a t is t h e source of t h e p s y c h o killer's frustration? Would t h e a v e r a g e person find t h e s e ' d e f e c t s ' serious or
trivial? Do y o u find any similarity with Poe's narrator's fixation o n t h e old man's e y e ?

Psycho Killer Psycho Killer

I can't seem to face up to 1 the facts Qu'est-ce que c'est?
I'm tense and nervous and Fa fa fa fa fa fa fa fa fa far better
I can't relax Run run run run run run run away (2)

I can't sleep 'cause my bed's on fire Ce que j'ai fait, ce soir la

Don't touch me I'm a real live wire 2 Ce qu'elle a dit, ce soir la
Realisant mon espoir
Psycho Killer Je me lance, vers la gloire 5 ... OK
Qu'est-ce que c'est? 3
Fa fa fa fa fa fa fa fa fa far better We are vain and we are blind
Run run run run run run run away (2) I hate people when they're not polite

You start a conversation, you can't even finish it. Psycho Killer
You're talkin' a lot, but you're not sayin' anything. Qu'est-ce que c'est?
When I have nothing to say, my lips are sealed 4 . Fa fa fa fa fa fa fa fa fa far better
Say something once, why say it again? Run run run run run run run away (2)

GLOSSARY

1. face up to: be able to deal with 3. Qu'est-ce que c'est?: (French) What is it? that evening, what she said, that
2. live wire: wire charged with 4. sealed: tightly closed evening, seeing my hope I throw
electricity 5. Ce que ... gloire: (French) What I did, myself towards glory

Can y o u think of a n y p s y c h o p a t h i c c h a r a c t e r s in films y o u have s e e n o r b o o k s y o u have r e a d ? W h y are p e o p l e

fascinated by t h e s e characters, in your o p i n i o n ?
 m

» 104 THE ROMANTIC AGE - Fiction

WRITERS' GALLERY
A foster family Edgar
Poe was b o r n in Bost
1 8 0 9 . W h i l e h e was still a y o u n g c h i l d , h e lost b o t h h i s p
h i s father, w h o was a n a l c o h o l i c , a b a n d o n e d t h e f a m i l y a
m o t h e r d i e d o f c o n s u m p t i o n . He was p l a c e d i n a foster fa
R i c h m o n d , V i r g i n i a ; h e later a d o p t e d t h e i r f a m i l y n a m e , .
as h i s m i d d l e n a m e . He was, h o w e v e r , n e v e r o f f i c i a l l y ad
a n d h i s life was m a r k e d b y b i t t e r c o n f l i c t s w i t h h i s foster fa

Studies and military career B e t w e e n t h e ages o f six a n d e

Poe s p e n t t i m e w i t h t h e Allans i n E n g l a n d , w h e r e h e a t t e n
boarding school. W h e n he returned to R i c h m o n d he c o m

EDGAR ALLAN P O E h i s s e c o n d a r y e d u c a t i o n a n d e n t e r e d t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Vir

(1809-1849) He r a n u p h e a v y g a m b l i n g d e b t s w h i c h h i s f o s t e r f a t h e r re
' t o pay, so h e q u i t h i s studies a n d travelled t o B o s t o n t o p u
l i t e r a r y c a r e e r . I n 1 8 2 7 h e p u b l i s h e d h i s f i r s t b o o k , Tamerlane and other Poems, which
u n n o t i c e d . Totally p e n n i l e s s , Poe enlisted in t h e Army, w h e r e his g o o d record persuaded h i
pursue a m i l i t a r y career. I n 1 8 2 9 h e e n t e r e d t h e a c a d e m y o f West P o i n t , b u t after o n l y six m o n t
d e c i d e d t o leave.

Poverty Little is k n o w n o f w h a t h a p p e n e d i n t h e n e x t few years. He lived i n N e w York for a

o f t i m e in e x t r e m e poverty, b e f o r e d e c i d i n g t o g o a n d stay w i t h a n a u n t a n d h e r daughter, Virj
i n B a l t i m o r e . T h e r e h e p u b l i s h e d a s e c o n d c o l l e c t i o n o f p o e m s a n d m a d e a m e a g r e l i v i n g wri
a n d selling tales t o m a g a z i n e s . I n 1 8 3 6 h e m a r r i e d h i s c o u s i n Virginia, w h o s e pale, fragile, c h i l
b e a u t y is o f t e n f o u n d in t h e h e r o i n e s o f his p o e m s . H e was t w e n t y - s e v e n , s h e was t h i r t e e n .

Nervous disorders and alcohol addiction T h i s p e r i o d o f relative stability did n o t last. He b e g a n

s h o w s i g n s o f n e r v o u s d i s o r d e r s a n d b e g a n t o d r i n k h e a v i l y . He l o s t h i s j o b as e d i t o r a n d cri
H o w e v e r , h e c o n t i n u e d w r i t i n g . In 1 8 3 9 h e p u b l i s h e d a c o l l e c t i o n o f s h o r t stories, t h e Tales of
Grotesque and Arabesque, w h i c h b r o u g h t h i m very little f a m e or m o n e y . His n e x t b o o k o f c r i m e
d e t e c t i v e stories, The Murders in the Rue Morgue ( 1 8 4 1 ) , was m o r e successful.

Fame U n a b l e t o find e m p l o y m e n t , h e b e c a m e a f r e e l a n c e writer, e d i t o r a n d critic. His long-awai

f a m e c a m e w i t h t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f a p o e m , The Raven ( 1 8 4 5 ) w h i c h , however, did n o t p r o d u c e m
m o n e y d u e t o lack o f a d e q u a t e c o p y r i g h t p r o t e c t i o n i n t h o s e days. D u r i n g t h e w i n t e r o f 1 8 4 6 - 1
h i s wife Virginia died. Poe b e g a n t o lose h i s struggle w i t h d r i n k i n g , a n d a t t e m p t e d suicide.

WB& ft Mysterious death In S e p t e m b e r 1 8 4 9 h e left R i c h m o n d for B a l t i m o r e , b u t h e n e v e r c o m p l e t e d

j o u r n e y . H e w e n t m i s s i n g a n d , a f t e r f i v e d a y s , was f o u n d u n c o n s c i o u s o u t s i d e a t a v e r n w e a
c l o t h e s w h i c h were n o t h i s o w n . He was t a k e n t o h o s p i t a l w h e r e h e died a few days later, aged thf
n i n e , o f u n k n o w n c a u s e s . I n a c e r t a i n s e n s e , h i s l o n e l y d e a t h , s h r o u d e d i n m y s t e r y a n d sufferi
h a d i m i t a t e d his art.

5
Tales of ratiocination P o e is w i d e l y r e g a r d e d as t h e f a t h e r
WORKS
the m o d e r n detective story. Murder stories were already
e x i s t e n c e at t h e t i m e h e w r o t e . H o w e v e r , h e s h i f t e d t h e e m p h a s i s f r o m t h e a c t i o n t o t
i n v e s t i g a t i o n a n d s o l u t i o n o f t h e c r i m e . He c r e a t e d a d e t e c t i v e , M o n s i e u r D u p i n , w h o , t h r o u
 Writers' Gallery - Edgar Allan Poe 105

/> mm- \ • ^mmmm - .WMmmm--' mmm^mmmm

i n t u i t i o n , o b s e r v a t i o n o f detail, reason a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l analysis c o u l d solve e x t r e m e l y c o m p l i c a t e d

cases. He c a l l e d h i s stories 'tales o f r a t i o c i n a t i o n ' . The Murders in the Rue Morgue ( 1 8 4 1 ) is o n e o f t h e
f i n e s t e x a m p l e s . In c r e a t i n g t h i s g e n r e h e p a v e d t h e w a y for d e t e c t i v e s t o r y writers like Sir A r t h u r
C o n a n Doyle and Agatha Christie.

Arabesque He also w r o t e tales o f terror, w h i c h h e c a l l e d ' a r a b e s q u e s ' . G o t h i c f i c t i o n was p o p u l a r at

t h e t i m e a n d p r o v i d e d s u c h b a s i c e l e m e n t s as c a s t l e s , a n i m a t e d p o r t r a i t s , p h y s i c a l d e c a y , s t o r m y
w e a t h e r a n d h o w l i n g w o l v e s . His c h a r a c t e r s are o f t e n i n v o l v e d i n a l i f e - t h r e a t e n i n g s i t u a t i o n , a b o u t
t o b e e x e c u t e d or t o h a v e a fatal a c c i d e n t . I n The Premature Burial ( 1 8 4 4 ) h e explores the terror of a
m a n w h o r e g a i n s c o n s c i o u s n e s s o n l y t o d i s c o v e r h e h a s b e e n b u r i e d alive. O t h e r o u t s t a n d i n g tales o f
t e r r o r are The Fall of the House of Usher ( 1 8 3 9 ) , The Black Cat ( 1 8 4 3 ) a n d The Pit and the Pendulum
( 1 8 4 3 ) , in w h i c h Poe uses h i s great t a l e n t t o m a k e i m a g i n e d h o r r o r b e c o m e t o t a l l y p h y s i c a l .

Psychological thrillers P o e was also a m a s t e r o f t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l thriller. M a n y o f h i s c h a r a c t e r s

show s y m p t o m s of paranoia a n d have to deal with obsessions, n i g h t m a r e s a n d nervous disorders.
His a n a l y s i s i n William Wilson is a n i n t r i g u i n g e x p l o r a t i o n o f a split p e r s o n a l i t y l o n g b e f o r e Freud
studied the subject.

Poetry He was also a n i n f l u e n t i a l p o e t a n d literary critic. I n h i s w o r k s o f literary t h e o r y h e o u t l i n e d

a series o f p r i n c i p l e s a n d t e c h n i q u e s w h i c h h e b e l i e v e d h a d t o b e a p p l i e d in t h e w r i t i n g o f poetry. He
b e l i e v e d t h a t p o e t r y s h o u l d b e d e v o i d o f a n y m e s s a g e or m o r a l t e a c h i n g , its o n l y p u r p o s e b e i n g t o
give pleasure. He i d e n t i f i e d t h e n e e d for a ' c o n d e n s e d ' style, a n d p a i d particular a t t e n t i o n t o i m a g e r y
a n d s o u n d . He also u n d e r l i n e d t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e m u s i c a l e l e m e n t s i n p o e t r y w h e n h e d e f i n e d it
as ' t h e r h y t h m i c c r e a t i o n o f b e a u t y ' . T h e b e s t e x a m p l e s o f t h i s a p p r o a c h are The Raven (1845) and
Annabel Lee ( 1 8 4 9 ) , a p o e m d e d i c a t e d t o h i s wife a n d i n s p i r e d b y o n e o f h i s f a v o u r i t e t h e m e s , t h e
d e a t h o f a b e a u t i f u l w o m a n . His p o e t r y a n d literary t h e o r y p a v e d t h e w a y for s y m b o l i s t p o e t r y a n d
inspired s u c h F r e n c h p o e t s as R i m b a u d a n d Baudelaire.

Reputation Poe's reputation in America during his lifetime was u n d e r m i n e d b y a c c u s a t i o n s of

p a e d o p h i l i a , sadism, a l c o h o l i s m a n d drug a d d i c t i o n . It was t h e F r e n c h p o e t Baudelaire, t h r o u g h his
e x c e l l e n t t r a n s l a t i o n s , w h o e n c o u r a g e d a p p r e c i a t i o n o f h i s w o r k in Europe. S i n c e t h a t t i m e , P o e h a s
b e e n g i v e n b o t h t h e p u b l i c a n d c r i t i c a l r e c o g n i t i o n h e d e s e r v e s . W r i t e r s s u c h as O s c a r W i l d e
( • M o d u l e F) a n d W . B . Yeats ( • M o d u l e G ) h a v e i d e n t i f i e d h i m as a n i m p o r t a n t i n f l u e n c e , h i s w o r k
has b e e n interpreted by t h e c o m p o s e r s R a c h n i a n i n o v a n d Debussy, a n d several films h a v e b e e n
b a s e d o n h i s stories. His w o r k c o n t i n u e s t o inspire artists i n every field o f e x p r e s s i o n .

TASK
What events in Edgar Allan Poe's life most affected him as a writer?
How did he contribute to t h e development of a new literary genre?