PHYSICS UNIT 3

Sources of uncertainty:
Difficulty of reading meters simultaneously
Parallax error on analogue meter
Fluctuating readings on meters
Zero error on meter / Zero error on meter if an analogue meter / Systematic/zero error on height or timer
Small measurement so large percentage uncertainty
Parallax error when measuring length/extension
Resistance inherent in circuit
Time interval is very small
Reference to measurement of extension or diameter with corresponding reason
Thickness of rays Or difficulty of correctly aligning pins
String slipping on winding mechanism
Reaction time
Elastic limit should not exceeded
Time taken by electromagnet to release ball
Difficulty of dealing with different starting and stopping points

Comment on safety:
Low risk experiment where the supply voltage is only 1.5 V, 3V, 6 V, 9V, 12V / low risk as low voltage
for ray box
Risk of falling weight hurting foot, so wear (protective) shoes
Risk of breaking wire hurting eye, wear goggles
Avoid touching the hot lamp (which could cause burns), avoid contact with lamp
Sound not too loud to avoid ear damage
Risk of injury from pins, handle pins carefully
Care should be take not to tread on steel ball to prevent slipping
Use of headwear/kneepads to prevent injury (when falling)

Criticise the results:

No repetition shown
Only 4/5 sets of readings shown Or insufficient number of readings
Not evenly spaced
Poor range / Small range in potential difference, current, load etc
Inconsistent significant figure/decimal places
No repetition evidence of loading and unloading
No evidence of repetition/averaging /
More readings needed at point of curvature / long gaps between two points
No reading for negative voltage
Length not measured to nearest mm
Lack of precision in radius, thickness etc
Not enough readings
There is a missing unit.
There is inconsistent precision in incidence and/or refraction.
Reason for different value for viscosity experiment
i. Didn’t reach terminal velocity
ii. Distance between markers is too small
iii. Tube too narrow
If there is a uncertainty in the measurements that cases we should think about significant
figure

RULE: 1
Non-zero numbers are always significant
234,674,876 is a number with 9 non-zero digit. Here all 9 digits are significant

RULE: 2
A zero is significant if it is
(i) at the right end of a number AND after a decimal
Example: 74.0 has 3 significant figures

(ii) between digits that are significant

Example: 2002 has 4 significant figures
0.234 has 3 significant figures
234,674,876.0 has 10 significant figures
234,674,870.0 has 10 significant figures
0.0234 has 3 significant figures

RULE: 3
Exact quantities have unlimited significant figures (There is no uncertainty for this types of
measurements)
Example: 12 pieces of eggs; here there is no uncertainty so we should not think about significant
figure
Counted quantities do NOT limits significant in calculations.

RULE: 4
Zeros at the end of a whole number MAY be significant, good reason to use scientific notation
Example: 12000; in scientific notation we can be used here
1.2×104 has 2 significant figures
1.20×104 has 3 significant figures

ROUNDING:
Round up to the final significant digit if the next digit is 5 or higher

WHEN CALCULATING:
A. Add or Subtract: round result to same number of DECIMAL PLACES as the measurement
with the FEWEST decimal places.
Example: 2.96(2 decimal places)+1.2(1 decimal places)=4.16 = 4.2 (round to 1 decimal places)

B. Multiply or Divide: round result to same number of SIGNIFICANT FIGURES as the

measurement with the FEWEST significant figures.
Example: 2.1m (2 significant figures)×2.336m(4 significant figures) = 4.9056m2=4.9m2(2
significant figures)
ADVANCED TOPICS: Logarithms
Number of digits after the decimal point = number of significant figures in original number
Example: 8.15(3 significant figures)
log(81.5)=1.991 (3 significant figures after decimal)
The number in front of the decimal indicates order of magnitude, and is not significant.

10x: raising 10 to a power with N decimal places gives a result with N significant figures.
Example: 101.911 (3 significant figures after decimal) =81.470 = 81.5(round to 3 significant
figures)

Precise: how close repeated results are to one another.

Accuracy: how close a result is to the true value?
Errors: difference between an individual result and the true value.
Uncertainty: estimate of the range of values within which the true value lies for a measurement.

Example 1: Multiply 26.4cm  0.4cm and 34.6cm  0.4cm

Answer : (26.4cm  0.4cm )  (34.6cm  0.4cm)

 (26.4  1.5%)  (34.6cm  1.2%)
 913.44cm 2  2.7%
 913cm 2  24.651cm 2
 913cm 2  25cm 2
 913cm 2  30cm 2

UNCERTAINTY CALCULATION:
Reading with no zero error:

Uncertainty= ½ resolution

Examples: Thermometer, measuring cylinder, balance, digital voltmeter, digital ammeter, pressure
gauge etc

Reading with zero error:

Uncertainty= resolution

Examples: Ruler, stopwatch, protector, micrometer screw gauge, Vernier calipers, analog meters,
etc

Variables
These are physical, chemical or biological quantities or characteristics.
Categoric variables
Categoric variables have values that are labels, eg names of plants or types of material.
Continuous variables
Continuous variables can have values (called a quantity) that can be given a magnitude either by counting
(as in the case of the number of shrimp) or by measurement (eg light intensity, flow rate etc).
Control variables
A control variable is one which may, in addition to the independent variable, affect the outcome of the
investigation and therefore has to be kept constant or at least monitored.
Dependent variables
The dependent variable is the variable of which the value is measured for each and every change in the
independent variable.
Independent variables
The independent variable is the variable for which values are changed or selected by the investigator.
Nominal variables
A nominal variable is a type of categoric variable where there is no ordering of categories (eg red flowers,
pink flowers, blue flowers)

Systematic errors: Errors associated with a flaw in the equipment or in the design of the
experiment. Systematic errors cannot be estimated by repeating the experiment with the same
equipment. Consider again the example of measuring an oscillation period with a stopwatch. Suppose that
the stopwatch is running slow.

Random errors are statistical fluctuations (in either direction) in the measured data due to the precision
limitations of the measurement device. Random errors usually result from the experimenter's inability to
take the same measurement in exactly the same way to get exact the same number.

Zero Errors. Any indication that a measuring system gives a false reading when the true value of a
measured quantity is zero, e.g. the needle on an ammeter failing to return to zero when no current flows.
A zero error may result in a systematic uncertainty.

The main difference between systematic and random errors is that random errors lead to fluctuations
around the true value as a result of difficulty taking measurements, whereas systematic errors lead to
predictable and consistent departures from the true value due to problems with the calibration of your
equipment.

Parallax is a displacement or difference in the apparent position of an object viewed along two different
lines of sight, and is measured by the angle or semi-angle of inclination between those two lines.