Effects of Lenses (5 Files Merged)

DEFECTS OF LENSES Conditions for two lenses to form achromatic doublet
There are two major defects; Chromatic aberration and spherical aberration. >the two lenses should be made of different materials.
Aberration is the distortion of the images formed by either spherical mirrors or >the radius of curvature of the curved surfaces of a plano convex lens is
lenses. numerically the same as that of one surface of the convex lens.
(a) Chromatic aberration ( color defect) >the ratio of their respective focal lengths is numerically equal to the ratio of
their corresponding dispersive powers.
This is the formation of images which are blurred with colored edges when white
light from an object is made incident on a lens. Different colors of white light have i.e
different refractive indices in glass.
Example; A biconvex lens ,the radii of curvature of each surface being 20cm is
As a result they are deviated at different angles and brought at different foci. The
made of glass of which the refractive indices for red and violet light are 1.642 and
final image formed is thus distorted with colored edges.
1.685 respectively. Determine the separation of the images formed in the red and
violet constituents of light.
; r1=r2=20cm
For red
=0.o643
cm
For violet; ( )
25.06
FR is focal point for red Separation cm.
Fv is the focal point for Violet (b) Spherical aberration; Spherical aberration occurs in mirrors and lenses of
large aperture. It is the distortion of images where a point object does not
Chromatic aberration can be minimized by using achromatic doublet
result in a point image but as a circular blur.
The defect is due to the fact that the focal length of the mirror or lens for
marginal rays is less than that of the paraxial rays. When a parallel beam of light
is incident on to the mirror or lens, it is reflected/refracted so the marginal rays
come to a focus at Fm while paraxial rays converge at Fp hence the final image is
distorted.
The convex lens deviates an incident ray towards its principal axis and the concave
lens deviates it away from its principal axis. The dispersion between two colors
produced by the convex lens is thus neutralized.
© PHYSICS DEPARTMENT NTARE SCHOOL 2021 1 © PHYSICS DEPARTMENT NTARE SCHOOL 2021 2
VISUAL ANGLE
This is a small angle in radians subtended at the by the object. Since is a small
angle,
. i.e The size of the image is determined by the angle the object subtends at
the eye.
Why the furthest pole in line with others of the same size appears shorter
In mirrors, spherical aberration is minimized by;

(i) using a parabolic mirror this brings all reflected rays into a single focus.(ii)
making the angle of incidence on the mirror surface small. The size of the image is determined by the angle the object subtends at the eye.
(ii) Placing an opaque disc with a hole in the middle in front of the mirror. Since the furthest pole subtends the smallest angle it looks shorter.
This will allow only paraxial rays.to reflected.
Poles of different heights but subtending the same angle at the eye appear to
In lenses spherical aberration is minimized by; be of the same height
(i) making the angle of incident on the lens very small.
(ii) placing an opaque disc with a hole in the middle in front of the lens. This
will allow only paraxial rays to be refracted. However this reduces the
brightness of the image.
OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
When using a telescope or microscope to view an object, the appearance of the final
image is determined by the cone of rays entering the eye. The eye should therefore
be able to; MAGNIFING POWER/ANGULER MAGNIFICATION
This is the ratio of the angle subtended at the aided eye by the final image to the
>form the image of an object on the retina.
angle subtended at the unaided eye by the object where β is the angle
>focus images of distant objects e.g stars. subtended at the aided eye by the final image and α is the angle subtended at the
normal eye by the object.
>focus images of near objects. A normal eye can see an object clearly when it is
placed at the least distance of distinct vision (near point), D. Simple microscope/magnifying glass
D=25cm from the eye lens. It consists of a converging lens forming a virtual, erect and magnified image. This
occurs when the object is place between the lens and its principal focus .Consider an
object of height h placed at D subtending an angle α at the normal eye.
Since α is a small angle in radians, .
When using a converging lens as a magnifying lens, the object is placed between the
lens and the principal focus and adjusted until the image is formed at D.
Since β is a small angle subtended at the aided eye, .
Angular magnification . In normal adjustment, the objective lens forms a real image of the object at a point
between the eyepiece and its principal focus Fe. The eyepiece is adjusted until a
From , large virtual image is formed at a distance D (near point) from the eyepiece.
Angular magnification (in normal use)
. Since small angles in radians, and
But v= -D,
But
( ) . and
Therefore, a lens of short focal length is needed for high magnification. Therefore,
An image seen in a magnifying glass is free from chromatic aberration Examples
1. A compound microscope has an objective of focal length 3.5cm and an eyepiece

of focal length A small object is placed 4cm from the objective. The final image
is formed 35cm from the eyepiece.
If the final image coincides with the object, find the;
(i) separation of the lenses

(ii) value of
(iii) angular magnification
The object O gives rise to various colored images IR and Iv for red and violet etc.
according to colors of the spectrum. The top point of each image lies along the same
line hence subtending the same angle at the eye close to the lens. The colored
images practically overlap. The virtual image formed is thus free from chromatic
aberration.
COMPOUND MICROSCOPE (Normal adjustment)

(i) separation=35-4=31cm
(ii) For the objective, =4, =3.5, =?
For the objective;
=28cm
For the eyepiece,

Therefore the object is placed 2.45cm from the objective
(ii) For the objective;
(iii) Linear magnification , For the eyepiece;
Linear magnification=
(iv)
Angular magnification
But COMPOUND MICROSCOPE WI IMAGE AT INFINITY
2. A compound microscope consists of an objective of focal length 2cm and an

eyepiece of focal length 5cm.The distance between the lenses is 15cm and the final
image is formed 25cm from the eyepiece. Calculate the;
(i) potion of the object
(ii) magnifying power of the microscope
(i) For the eyepiece;
The objective lens forms the intermediate image of the object at I. The eyepiece is
adjusted until its principal focus coincides with the intermediate image. The final
image is formed at infinity.
Magnification
TELESCOPES
Telescopes are instruments used for viewing distant objects.
since and l angles in radians and Telescopes are made of objectives of long focal lengths and eyepieces of short focal lengths.
The telescope is normal adjustment when the final image is formed at infinity.
In this case, the separation of the objective and the eyepiece is equal to since the
But object and the image are at infinity, the angle subtended at the naked eye is equal to the
angle subtended at the object.
( )
They are either refracting or reflecting telescopes.
Refracting telescopes
These consist of both lenses- the objective and the eyepiece.
Trial Questions
(a) Astronomical telescope
. (a) Describe with the aid of a diagram how two convex lenses can be arranged to It is made of two lenses; the objective of long focal length and the eyepiece of short
form a microscope in normal adjustment focal length.
(b) Derive an expression for angular magnification of the microscope in (a) above
(c) State one advantage and one disadvantage of setting a microscope such that
Case1: normal adjustment (final image at infinity)
the final image is at infinity rather than at the near point
(d) A compound microscope consists of two converging lenses of focal lengths
1.0cm and 5.0cm respectively. An object is placed 1.1cm from the objective
and the microscope is adjusted so that the final image is formed 30cm from,
the eyepiece. calculate the;
(i) separation of lenses
(ii) magnifying power of the lenses
2. A point object is placed on the axis of, and 3.6cm from, a thin converging lens of
focal length 3.0cm. A second thin converging lens of focal length 16.0cm is placed
coaxial with the first one and 26.0cm from it on the side remote from the object.
Find the position of the final image formed by the two lenses
3. A compound microscope consists of an objective lens of focal length 10mm and
an eyepiece lens of focal length 50mm. The objective forms an intermediate image
of an object at a distance of 160mm from it. The eyepiece is adjusted until the final The objective forms a real, diminished, inverted image of a distant object at its focal point
image is formed 250mm from it. Calculate the; . The eyepiece is adjusted until its principal focus coincides with . The eyepiece forms
(i) distance of the object from the objective. a final magnified virtual image of at infinity.
(ii) distance of the intermediate image from the eyepiece.
(iii) the magnifying power of the instrument. and for small angles,
4. A compound microscope consists of two thin lenses, an objective of focal length and for small angles,
20mm and an eyepiece of focal length 50mm, placed 220mm apart. If the final image
is viewed at infinity, calculate the distance of the object from the objective and also
the magnifying power of the system when it is used by a man whose near point
For higher magnifying power,
distance is 250mm.
Differences between a microscope and a telescope
Microscope Telescope
- Used to view very small objects at close - Used to view distant objects such as
range such as bacteria stars
- In normal adjustment final image is - In normal adjustment final image is
formed at near point formed at infinity.
- In normal adjustment the separation of - In normal adjustment the separation of

the lenses is greater than the lenses is equal to
- Consists of lenses the objective and - Consists of two converging lenses; only
eyepiece both of short focal lengths the objective has a long focal length and
the eyepiece has short focal length For the eyepiece
Examples
1. An astronomical telescope has an objective lens of focal length 50 cm and an eyepiece

of focal length 2 cm. Find the Separation cm.
(i) magnifying power if the instrument is in its normal adjustment (ii) Apparent size of the image
(ii) separation of the lenses if the final image is formed 25 cm from the eyepiece. also
(ii)
also
cm
(iii) and
For the eyepiece
3. An astronomical telescope has an objective of focal length 250 cm and an eyepiece of

focal length 8 cm. The eyepiece is adjusted until a real image of the sun is formed 24 cm
from the eyepiece.
Calculate the distance between the objective and the eyepiece.
Separation cm.
2. An astronomical telescope with an objective of focal length 15cm and an eyepiece of
focal length 0.75 cm is used to examine an object 2cm long and
240 cm away from the objective. The final image is 10 cm in front of the eyepiece.
Calculate the
(i) distance between the lenses
(ii) apparent size of the final image
(iii) angular magnification For the eyepiece
(i)
Separation cm.
For the objective
Case2: final image at near point
The objective lens forms a real image of a distant object at its principal focus .
The eyepiece is adjusted so that the intermediate image is closer to it at a distance . Therefore
The eyepiece is adjusted until the final magnified image is formed at the near point
Example
A telescope has an objective of focal length 60 cm and an eyepiece of focal length

6 cm. If the eye is close to the eyepiece, find the
(a) magnifying power when
(i) the telescope is in its normal use
(ii) final image is formed 25 cm from the eyepiece
(b) Calculate the distance of the eye ring from the eyepiece if the telescope is in normal
adjustment
(c) What is the magnification if the eye is at the eye ring and the telescope is in normal
use?
and for small angles, (a)(i)
and for small angles,
(ii) since and are small angles, and
is linear magnification For the eyepiece
( ) ( )
Taking magnitude ( )
Magnification is increases in the ratio of ( ) ( )
The eye – ring (exit pupil)
(b)
cm
Therefore the eye ring is at a distance of 6.6 cm from the eyepiece.
The eye ring is a circular image of the objective in the eyepiece. It is the best position of the
(c)
eye to have minimum strain.
Since the eye-ring is real, the telescope has a wide field of view. If the telescope is in normal N.B: For minimum strain, the final image is at infinity for a telescope and at near
adjustment, point for a microscope.
Question
The objective lens of an astronomical telescope in normal adjustment has a diameter of

15cm and a focal length 400cm. The eyepiece has a focal length of 2.5cm. Find the
(i) magnifying power of the telescope

(ii) position of the eye ring
(iii) diameter of the eye ring
Resolving power of a telescope
This is ability of optical instrument to separate images of distant objects that are very close
together. M is the position of the eye ring.
If is resolving power of a telescope ; is the mean wavelength of light from Rays from a distant object are converged by the objective to form an image at its principal
distant objects and is the diameter/aperture of the objective. focus . The eyepiece which is placed between its objective and the intermediate image is
Resolving power depends on . adjusted until its principal focus coincides with .
The final virtual and erect image is formed at infinity.

(b) Terrestrial telescope
Case2: Final image at near point (final image at D)
This is a refracting astronomical telescope with erecting lens of focal length placed
between the objective and the eyepiece.
An erecting lens placed at a distance from the intermediate inverted image . The
erecting lens inverts intermediate image and forms a real and erect image of the same
size as at a distance . The eyepiece is adjusted until its focal point coincides with . The
eyepiece forms a final erect and magnified image at infinity.
Disadvantages of erecting lens

Rays from a distant object are converged by the objective to form an image which acts as
 It forms erect images
a virtual object to the eyepiece. The eyepiece placed at a distance such that ,
 It reduces the intensity of light emerging through the eyepiece since light is reflected at
diverges rays from the objective and forms a final virtual and erect image at a distance .
its surfaces.
 It increases the length of the telescope in normal adjustment by (separation of the and for small angles,
objective and the eyepiece is ( )
(c) Galilean telescope (opera glasses)
This uses a converging lens of long focal length as the objective and a diverging lens For the eyepiece,
as the eyepiece of short focal length .
Case1: normal adjustment (final image at infinity) ( )
Advantages of a Galilean telescope over astronomical telescope

 It is shorter. Its separation | | compared to for astronomical
telescope in normal adjustment.
 It forms final erect image hence it is used to view objects on land.
Disadvantages of a Galilean telescope over astronomical telescope

 It has a virtual eye ring which is not accessible to the observer
 It has a small field of view
Example Each prism reflects the light through making the effective length of the telescope
three-times the distance between the objective and the eyepiece.
A Galilean telescope has an objective of focal length 12 cm and an eyepiece of focal length
5 cm. When viewing a distant object, the final image is formed 30 cm from the eyepiece. Note: the prism binocular is taken as an astronomical telescope in normal adjustment where
Determine the angular magnification
(i) Angular magnification
where and (ii) Separation of the lenses is
Example
In a pair of prism binoculars, the optical path from the objective to the eyepiece is 50 cm.
The eyepiece has a final length of 2.5 cm. Find the magnifying power in normal adjustment.
In normal adjustment, separation of the lenses is
cm
cm
Reflector telescopes
Image is virtual
Question
A converging lens of focal length 20 cm and a diverging lens of focal length 10 cm are
arranged for use as an opera glass. When an object is placed 60 cm from the converging
lens, a real image is formed 30 cm from the diverging lens. Determine the separation of the
lenses.
Prism binoculars (telescopes)

Prism binoculars consist of astronomical telescope containing two totally reflecting prisms
between the objective and the eyepiece. The objective and eyepiece are convex lenses.
These consist of large parabolic mirrors as the objectives.
A reflecting telescope uses a curved mirror to focus the light. Light from distant objects such
as stars enters the telescope tube in parallel rays. These rays are reflected from the concave
mirror to a diagonal plane mirror. The diagonal mirror reflects the light through a hole in the
side of the telescope tube to a lens in the eyepiece.
Prism P is placed with its refracting edge vertical while prism Q is placed with its refracting
edge horizontal.
The image formed by the objective lens is inverted in a horizontal direction by P and Q
inverts it vertically. The image formed is now the same way up and same way round as the
object. The eyepiece acts as the magnifying glass and produces the final upright image.
(a) Newton reflector telescope (a) Coude reflector telescope
It consists of a parabolic concave mirror of focal length as the objective and a This consists of parabolic mirror of long focal length.
plane mirror as a diagonal mirror.
Rays of light from a distant object are reflected by the objective onto a slanting
plane mirror. The plane mirror reflects so that the intermediate image is formed.
The eyepiece is adjusted until its principal focus coincides with . Light from a distant object is reflected by the objective onto a convex mirror . The
The final image is formed at infinity. convex mirror reflects light onto a slanting mirror mirror P. The plane mirror reflects
In normal adjustment, the magnifying power is . light so that the intermediate image is formed at . The eyepiece is adjusted until its
principal focus coincides with the intermediate image. The final virtual image is
formed at infinity.
(b) Cassegrain reflector telescope
It consists of a parabolic concave mirror of focal length as the objective and Angular magnification where
convex mirror as a diagonal mirror.
Example
1. A small convex mirror is placed 0.60m from the pole and on the axis of a large concave
mirror of radius of curvature 2m. The position of the convex mirror is such that a real
image of a distant object is formed in the hole drilled through the concave mirror at its
pole. Calculate the
(a) radius of curvature of the convex mirror.
(b) angular magnification of the final image seen through a convex lens of the
eyepiece of focal length 5cm.
Rays of light from a distant object are reflected by the objective onto the convex
Action of ;
mirror M. The convex mirror reflects light so that the intermediate image is
formed at the hole at the pole of a concave mirror. The eyepiece is adjusted until its
Action of ;
principal focus coincides with the intermediate image. The final image is formed at
infinity.
The magnifying power is ; is linear magnification of the convex mirror.
Its radius of curvature is
Angular magnification ;
2. A distant star subtending an angle of is viewed with a reflecting telescope

whose objective is a concave mirror of focal length 10m. The reflected light is
intercepted by a convex mirror placed 9.5m from the pole of the objective where there is
a hole. The image is viewed with a converging lens of focal length 5cm producing the
final image at infinity.
(i) Draw a ray diagram for this telescope
(ii) Calculate the size of the image of the star at the pole of the objective.
(iii) Find the magnifying power of the telescope Mode of action: a powerful bright source of light is placed with its filament at the centre of
(iv) If the diameter of the objective is 400mm and the light from the star has a the curvature of the concave reflector. The concave reflector prevents loss light and directs it
wavelength of m, find the resolving power of the telescope.
to the condenser. The condenser concentrates the beam of light into the film/slide. The slide
is placed at a distance such that from the projection lens of focal length so
that a real, magnified and erect image of an inverted slide (object) is formed on the screen.
The magnification of the image produced
Magnification is also obtained from √ √
Let and be the heights of and respectively. For small angles in

Calculations
radians,
1. A projector produces an image of area onto a screen placed 5m from the

projection lens. If the area of the object slide is , find
(i) focal length of the projection lens
Magnification due to the convex mirror (ii) distance of the slide from the lens
Area of the object , Area of the image ,
Magnification √
Size of the image of the star at the pole of the objective is
Using
Magnifying power
And Using
Distance of slide from the lens is given by

2. A colour slide has a picture area of . Find the focal length of the
projection lens which will be needed to project an image on a screen 5 m
Advantages of a reflector telescope over a refractor telescope from the lens.
 A reflecting telescope is free from chromatic aberration since no refraction takes
Area of the object
place at the objective parabolic mirror
 There is no spherical aberration for a point object on the axis at infinity since a Area of the image
parabolic objective mirror is used to bring all parallel incident rays to a single focus.
Magnification √
 A reflecting telescope forms brighter image since it has a high resolving
 A reflecting telescope is cheap to make since only one surface has to be grounded Using
compared with two surfaces for a lens.
3. A projection lantern is required to project a slide 7.5 cm square on to a screen
2.1 m square. The distance between the slide and the screen is 20 m.
THE PROJECTION LANTERN
Determine the focal length of the projection lens.
Area of the object
Area of the image
Magnification √
and
and NTARE SCHOOL
PHYSICS PAPER 2
A.C CIRCUITS
Alternating current or e.m.f is one that varies periodically with time in magnitude
and direction.
cm
4. A projector is required to project slides which are 5 cm square onto a screen which is 5
m square. If the focal length of the projection lens is 0.1m, what should be the distance
between the screen and the slide?
Area of the object
Area of the image is the e.m.f at any time
is the peak or maximum value of e.m.f which is also referred to as the amplitude.
Magnification √ is the angular velocity
is the frequency
Using Similarly and
And Using N.B

Distance between the screen and the slide is given by 1. In direct current (d.c), the drift velocity of the electrons is in one direction. In a.c
the direction of drift velocity reverses many times per second
2. A.C and d.c have the same effects of heating and lighting.
3. The magnetic field due to a.c fluctuates with time. Thus a moving coil meter does
not give a reading with a.c.
THE LENS CAMERA 4. A.C is easily generated and distributed (stepped up and down) than d.c.
Root mean square value (r.m.s)

Root mean square value of an alternating current is the value of a steady direct
current which dissipates heat in a given resistor at the same rate as alternating
current.
√
Root mean square value of an alternating voltage is the value of a steady voltage
which when maintained across a given resistor dissipates heat in it at the same rate
as the alternating voltage
√
The stopper regulates the amount of light incident on the film. The shutter allows or cuts off Proof of
√
light where necessary. The lens focuses light on the film.
The film is where the image is formed.
N.B
 Chromatic aberration in camera is minimised by using a chromatic doublet
 Spherical aberration is minimised by using a stopper/diaphragm. This allows in only a
If then value of an Over a complete cycle,
a.c 〈 〉 〈 〉
small central beam which forms a bright image.
and 〈 〉 〈 〉
 Plano convex lenses with convex side facing the incident beam also minimises
( ) 〈 〉 〈 〉
spherical aberration
〈 〉 〈 〉
〈 〉
〈 〉
But √
END 〈 〉 〈 〉 Thus
√ √
〈 〉 〈 〉
Proof of spring. The deflection of the pointer is proportional to the magnetic force which
√
is proportional to .
If a resistor is connected to a direct current source, the rate of dissipation of heat is
given by where is the p.d across the resistor. 3. Hot – iron wire meter
If the same resistor is connected to a.c source, rate of dissipation of heat is given by
〈 〉 〈 〉 〈 〉
〈 〉 〈 〉
〈 〉
〈 〉
〈 〉
〈 〉
〈 〉
But √
〈 〉 〈 〉
〈 〉
√
〈 〉 〈 〉 Current to be measured is passed through the resistance wire XY. The wire gets
Therefore hot, expands and sags. The sag is taken by the fine wire PQ held taut by the
Over a complete cycle, √
spring. Wire PQ passes round the pulley attached to the pointer which deflects
N.B over the scale as the pulley rotates when PQ moves down. The deflection of the
r.m.s is the one which is normally quoted e.g 240 V is the r.m.s for UMEME supply pointer is proportional to the square of the average current.
and the peak value √ √
Therefore an electric appliance is not suitable for use on the a.c mains if it can’t 4. The thermocouple meter
withstand a voltage of about 339 V.
MEASUREMENT OF A.C
1. Moving iron meter (repulsive type)
P and R are two wires of dissimilar metals joined at Q to form a junction of a

thermocouple. The junction is held in an evacuated bulb B to shield it from
Current to be measured is passed through the coil. It magnetizes the soft iron draught.
rods so that their adjacent ends acquire the same polarity. As a result, the rods When a.c flows through XY, a thermoelectric e.m.f is generated and produces
repel each other. This causes the pointer to deflect through an angle current which can be measured by a microammeter previously calibrated by
proportional to the average force between the rods. Since the force is known values of d.c through XY. This type of meter relies on heating effect of
proportional to , the deflection of the pointer is proportional to the average current and therefore measures r.m.s values.
value of hence a non-linear scale. It can be used to measure a.c of high frequencies because of its low inductance
and capacitance compared to other meters.
2. Moving iron meter (attractive type)
5. Half-wave rectifier meter
Current to be measured is fed into a meter through the rectifier (diode) which
Current to be measured is passed through the solenoid. It induces a magnetic conducts current in one direction. So the direct current of varying magnitude
field in it. The soft iron block is attracted by the solenoid. As the soft iron moves, flows through the meter. The moving coil meter is calibrated to measure the
it rotates the pointer over the scale until it is stopped by the torque on the hair average current.
RECTIFICATION OF A.C A.C THROUGH A RESISTOR
Rectification is a process of converting a.c to d.c. In converting from a.c to d.c, we
use rectifiers or diodes whereas from d.c to a.c we use inverters.
A diode is an electrical device which allows the flow of current only in one direction.
(a) Half wave rectification

Let E be the applied p.d such that
In half wave rectification, only one half of the If is the p.d across R, then
a.c is allowed to pass through the load while From Ohm’s law
the other half flowing in opposite direction is where (Peak value of )
blocked.
Thus
During one cycle, the diode allows half
forward cycle to flow in direction ABCD and
blocks the reverse cycle from flowing in the direction DCBA.
and are zero at the same time and reach their peak values at the same time.
Therefore and are in phase.
From and , power is always produced when current is
produced in either direction through the resistor.
(b) Full wave rectification
In the first quarter cycle, when X is positive, diodes B

and D conduct.
When Y is positive, diodes A and C conduct. In each
case, the current through the load is in the same hence
full wave rectification.
Peak value (maximum) for power

Average power 〈 〉 or 〈 〉 or
Example
1. A sinusoidal voltage is connected across a resistor.
Find the
(i) amplitude of the current through the resistor.
Smoothing (ii) average power developed in the resistor.
To produce a steady d.c, smoothing is necessary. This is done using a capacitor (iii) frequency of the current through the resistor
connected in parallel with the load. ()
When the rectifier causes the current to flow through the load, the capacitor also ( )〈 〉
charges to almost full. The p.d across the load reaches its maximum value.
When the p.d across the loaf starts to fall, it becomes less than that across the Or 〈 〉
capacitor and the capacitor starts to discharge through the load, in the same ( )
direction.
2. An electric kettle draws W from a 249 V mains supply. Find the peak
value of the current drawn by the kettle if the voltage is sinusoidal.
But
√
√
If is the capacitance of the capacitor and is the charge on the capacitor then
√
3. Calculate the root mean square value of an alternating current which dissipates ( )
energy in a heating coil immersed in a liquid in a calorimeter at two times the . This is instantaneous current
rate at which direct current of 4 A would if passed through the same coil under ( ) where
the same conditions.
〈 〉 Therefore the current leads the voltage by . Or the voltage lags the current by
〈 〉 i.e the current and voltage are out of phase
〈 〉 √
4. A sinusoidal a.c amperes flows through a resistance of . Find

the mean power dissipated in the resistor. Hence find the r.m.s value of the
current.
〈 〉 〈 〉 〈 〉 〈 〉 〈 〉
Explaining the graph

When the capacitor is empty, p.d across the plates is zero. When the voltage source
is connected across it, the current flowing is maximum.
5. A sinusoidal alternating voltage volts is applied across a
As the capacitor charges, p.d across the plates increases. Opposition to flow of
resistor of . Determine
current also increases. At the end of the first quarter cycle, the capacitor becomes
(i) r. m.s value of the current which flows
fully charged and current flowing reduces to zero and the p.d across the plates
(ii) frequency of the current through the resistor.
becomes maximum.
() In the second quarter cycle the capacitor starts to discharge and the p.d reduces.
Current increases due to the reduction in opposition to its flow.
√ √
( ) In the third quarter cycle, the capacitor discharges and current again increases to
maximum. Hence current in the circuit leads voltage by phase angle .
A.C THROUGH A CAPACITOR Capacitive reactance

This is the non-resistive opposition to the flow of alternating current in a circuit
containing the capacitor. It is measured in ohms.
From
Capacitive reactance since
In figure 1, the bulb does not light while in figure 2 the bulb lights.
In figure 1, the current does not pass through the capacitor because there is an
insulating medium (dielectric) between its plates which does not allow the current to
pass through it.
In figure 2, the bulb lights because when a capacitor is connected to an a.c supply,
the plates of a capacitor are continuously charging and discharging and so the a.c
flows through the wire but no current actually passes through the capacitor.
Or
∫ ∫
But
Let be the p.d across the capacitor at any given time. Also
Thus For finite current in a pure inductor (inductor with zero resistance), the applied
voltage must be equal and opposite to the back e.m.f
( )
Thus where (peak value)
( )
Examples
1. A 240 V, 60 Hz alternating voltage is applied across a capacitor of capacitance Therefore voltage leads current by
. Calculate the
(i) r.m.s value of current which flows
(ii) power expended
()
( )〈 〉 〈 〉 〈 〉 〈 〉
〈 〉 The back e.m.f induced in an inductor is greater when the current is varying at its
maximum rate and this occurs when the current is zero. Since the magnitude of the
But 〈 〉
back e.m.f is equal to that of the applied p.d, the magnitude of the applied p.d is
〈 〉
also maximum when the current is zero. When the current has reached its maximum
value its rate of change is momentarily zero. At such times, the back e.m.f and the
2. A capacitor of is in series with an a.c source of frequency 500 Hz. If r.m.s
applied p.d become zero i.e when , and when , hence
value of the current flowing is A, calculate the voltage across the capacitor.
current and voltage are out of phase by .
Back e.m.f lags by

and are out of phase by
Inductive reactance
Inductive reactance is the non-resistive opposition to the flow of alternating current
Questions
through the inductor. It is measured in ohms.
1. An alternating voltage of 12 V and variable frequency is connected in series
From where
with a capacitor of capacitance . Calculate the value of the current in the circuit
when and
2. A capacitor of capacitance is used in a radio circuit when the frequency is
Hz and the current flowing is A. Calculate the voltage across the
The value is called the inductive reactance
capacitor.
Therefore
A.C THROUGH AN INDUCTOR
Or
∫
From and
If the coil has appreciable self-inductance, , the current is less than the would flow
through a mon-inductive coil of the same resistance. This is because self-inductance
opposes changes in current. But But
If flows through an inductor, a back e.m.f is induced in the coil due to
a changing current.
( )
Examples changing magnetic flux in the coil induces eddy currents in the core. These
1. A sinusoidal alternating voltage of 6 V (r.m.s) and frequency 1 kHz is applied to a eddy currents cause the core to heat up.
coil of inductance 0.5 H. assuming that the coil has a negligible resistance,
calculate the r.m.s value of the current. POWER IN A.C CIRCUITS
1. In an inductor
Recall and
At an instant, power absorbed 〈 〉 〈 〉
〈 〉
〈 〉
〈 〉
2. Since 〈 〉 〈 〉
The variation of power at any time is a sine curve with average of zero. Hence no
power is absorbed in a pure inductor i.e an inductor is wattless in a.c circuits.
2. In a capacitor
Recall and
In the figure, state what is observed when switch K is closed and explain your At an instant, power absorbed 〈 〉 〈 〉
observation. 〈 〉
When K is closed, bulb flashes briefly for a short time and then goes off. 〈 〉
This is because the bulb has some resistance while an inductor coil has 〈 〉
zero resistance. Since current always follows a path of zero resistance, the Since 〈 〉 〈 〉
current will flow through the inductor leaving the bulb out of circuit. Hence Similarly power absorbed in a capacitor is zero.
the bulb goes off.
3. Two bulbs and are connected in parallel to a battery B. is connected in Qualitative explanation of why 〈 〉
series with an iron-cored inductor coil L and is connected in series with a 1. In a capacitor
resistor R. During the first quarter cycle, the capacitor charges, energy is drawn from the
source and stored in the electric field of the capacitor. During the next quarter
cycle, the capacitor discharges and the energy is returned to the source. In the
third quarter cycle, the capacitor charges in opposite direction and in the last
quarter cycle, it discharges. Hence in one complete cycle there is no energy
stored in the capacitor.
2. In an inductor
When the current increases, back e.m.f is induced which opposes the raise of the
R is adjusted so that and have the same brightness. When switch K is current. The current flows in against back e.m.f and therefore does work against
closed, lamp becomes more bright almost immediately while lamp it. The total work done in bringing the current to its final value is stored in the
increases slowly to full brightness. magnetic field of the coil. When the magnetic field and current decrease, back
This is because back e.m.f is induced in the coil which tries to oppose the e.m.f in an inductor causes it to act as a generator by returning the energy stored
growth of current in lamp . in the magnetic field to the source. Therefore, in a complete cycle, the average
power is zero.
4. A bulb is connected in series with an inductive coil and an a.c source as shown. VECTOR DIAGRAMS (PHASOR)
A sinusoidal alternating quantity can be represented by a rotating vector (phasor).
When a solid iron core is introduced into the coil, the bulb becomes dimmer and
the core hot. Explain
When the iron core is introduced into the coil, the magnetic flux linkage
with the coil increases which in turn increases back e.m.f. This leads to a
The above graph is given by .
reduction in the current flowing through the bulb hence the bulb dims. The
This method helps us to represent two sinusoidal quantities with the same frequency The applied voltage vector sum of and
though out of phase. ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
is the phase difference between the current and the applied voltage
(a) Resistor in a.c circuits
} V and are in phase But and
( ) ( )
√( )
√( )
(b) Capacitor in a.c circuits
But the quantity √( ) is called the impendence of the circuit and
} V lags by
measures its opposition to a.c.
It has both resistive and reactive components and its S.I unit is the ohm.
Impendence is defined as the non-resistive of combined opposition to the flow
of a.c in capacitors and resistors.
√( )
(c) Inductor in a.c circuits

} V leads by When and are in series, lags by
Example
1. A capacitor is joined in series with a 2.5V, 0.30A lamp and a 50Hz supply.
Calculate the
(i) p.d of the supply (r.m.s) to light the bulb in normal brightness.
(ii) p.d across the capacitor
(iii) p.d across the resistor
(iv) its phase angle
SERIES CIRCUITS
( ) Resistance of the bulb
When drawing vector diagrams, a vector representing a quantity which is common
for all circuit components is drawn first and is considered as a reference vector. This Capacitive reactance
vector is drawn horizontally directed to the right. All other vectors are drawn so that
their phase angles with respect to it are correct. Total impendence √ √
For the series circuits, it is the current and for the parallel connections it is the
voltage. ( )P.d across the capacitor
Only r.m.s values of and are considered. ( )P.d across the resistor
( ) ( )
(a) Resistance R and capacitance C in series
Phase angle
(b) Resistance R and inductance L in series
The same current flows through each component and so the reference vector is
representing the current.
P.d across R is in phase with and the p.d across C lags by
√ √( ) ( ) √( )
√( ) This gives the impendence
( ) ( ) ( )
When L and R are in series V leads by
Example
1. An iron-cored 2H and resistance is placed in series with a resistor of
resistance and 100V of 50Hz a.c supply connected across the arrangement.
Find the
(a) Current flowing in the coil
(b) Phase angle relative to the voltage supply
(c) Voltage across the coil
Note
1. The impendence Z varies as the frequency of the applied voltage. It decreases
and then increases as is varied.
2. The resistance R is independent of and hence shown by a straight line parallel
to axis.
3. The current has a maximum value at . This is known as resonant frequency of
Total resistance in the circuit is the circuit. At this point hence .
Inductive reactance 4. is shown by the dotted lines. It decreases to zero for a particular
Impendence √ frequency and after it, it increases again.
Total current flowing in the circuit
Phase angle ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) An expression for the
At resonant frequency
Voltage across the coil
(c) L, C and R in series

L, C and R in series is the most general series circuit widely used in radios. √
Example
1. A variable capacitor is connected in series with a coil and a sinusoidal alternating
supply of 20 V (r.m.s) of a frequency of 50 Hz. When the capacitor has a value of
, the current in the circuit reaches maximum value of 0.50 A.
Find
(i) resistance of the circuit
(ii) self-inductance of the coil
(iii) p.d across the capacitor.
(i)
(ii) at maximum current
If is greater than , √( )
(iii)
√( ) ( )
√( )
2. A resistance of , an inductor of inductance 0.15 H and a capacitor of
√( ) This gives the are connected in series through the 100 V, 50 Fz a.c supply.
impendence Calculate the
( ) ( ) (i) impendence
(ii) current
(iii) voltage across L, C and R
(iv) phase difference between current and supply
(ii) Sketch, using the same axes, the variation with time, of the voltage across the
(i) √ ( ) inductor and current through it. Explain the phase difference between them
(6marks)
3. (a)(i) Distinguish between root mean square value and peak value of an alternating
√ ( ) current. (2marks)
(ii) (ii) What is the peak value of the voltage from 240V a.c mains?
(iii) (b)
A coil of inductance is connected to a source of a.c as shown in the figure above. If

(iv) ( ) ( )
the current in the coil is , find
Phase angle is (i) an expression for voltage, V across the coil (3marks)
(ii) Sketch using the same axes, graphs to show variation of and with time and
comment on the graphs. (2marks)
GENERAL QUESTIONS (c) Explain why a capacitor allows the flow of a.c but not d.c yet it conducts direct
1. (a) (i) What is meant by root mean square of an alternating current? (1mark) current. (3marks)
(ii) Describe with the aid of a labelled diagram, the structure and operation of a (d) (i) With the aid of a diagram, explain how a repulsion type of moving iron meter
moving iron meter (5marks) works (6marks)
(iii) What is meant by the term reactance? (1mark) (ii) State two advantages of a moving iron metre over a moving coil one. (1 mark)
(b) In the figure below, is the voltage drop across the inductor.
(i) Draw a vector diagram to show the orientation of with respect to current
(1mark)
(ii) Using the same axes, sketch graphs to show the variations of and with time.
(2marks)
(c)
The bulbs P and Q have the same rating. P is connected in series with a capacitor End
across an a.c source while Q is connected in series with an identical capacitor across
the d.c source of e.m.f equal to the root mean square voltage of the a.c.
Explain why bulb P lights continuously while Q lights for some short time and goes
off. (5marks)
(d) A 240V, 60Hz alternating voltage as applied across a capacitor of
capacitance . Calculate the
(i) root mean square value of current which flows (4marks)
(ii) power expended (1mark)
2. (a) Define the terms amplitude and root mean square value of an alternating current
(2marks)
(b) A sinusoidal alternating current amperes flowing through a
resistor of resistance . Find the mean power dissipated in the resistor. Hence
deduce the root mean square value of the current. (4marks)
(c) Describe with the aid of a labelled diagram, how a hot wire ammeter works
(5marks)
(d) An inductor of inductance is connected across a source of alternating
voltage .
(i) Find the current that flows (3marks)
NTARE SCHOOL 2. Displacement: This is the distance moved by the vibrating particle from the mean
PHYSICS PAPER 2 position
WAVES 3. Amplitude : This is the maximum displacement of any vibrating particle from
A wave/wave motion is a means of transferring energy from one point to another the mean position. It is measured in metres.
without there being any transfer of matter between the points. 4. Period (T): This refers to the time taken by any vibrating particle to complete one
To and fro movements of a body describe an oscillation e.g S.H.M where a body cycle. It is measured in seconds (s).
oscillates about a fixed point. An oscillation can be mechanical (there is constant 5. Frequency : This the number of complete cycles made in one second. It is
exchange of potential and kinetic energy) or electromagnetic (there is constant measured in hertz (Hz). A hertz is defined as one cycle per second.
exchange of energy stored in electric and magnetic fields) 6. Wavelength : This is the distance between two successive oscillating particles
that are in phase. Two particles are said to be in phase if they are at similar
Mechanical waves positions and moving in the same direction.
These are waves produced by a disturbance in a material medium and are
transferred by the particles of the medium oscillating to and fro. E.g water waves, Relationship between and
waves produced by musical instruments, sound waves etc. Consider a wave moving with velocity . It covers a distance in time
Such waves need a material medium for their transmission. Distance velocity time
Electromagnetic waves
These are waves consisting of a disturbance in form of varying electric and magnetic but
fields. E.g radio waves, light waves, x – rays etc
Differences between mechanical and electromagnetic waves PROGRESSIVE WAVES

Mechanical waves Electromagnetic waves A progressive wave is a wave that transfers energy from one point to another
1. Need a medium for their 1. Can pass through the vacuum without any net transfer of matter. There are two types of progressive waves;
transmission transverse and longitudinal.
2. Moves with low speed 2. Move with high speed
3. Have longer wavelength 3. Have shorter wavelength Transverse waves
These are waves where particles vibrate in a direction perpendicular to the direction
4. Are due to oscillations or vibrations 4. Are due to vibrations in electric and of the wave travel. E.g water waves and electromagnetic waves.
of the particles of the transmitting magnetic fields
medium
Uses of waves
Uses of waves include; communication industry (radio, T.V waves, telephones etc),
cooking (microwaves), production of electricity (water waves), u;tra sounding in In transverse waves, the distance between two successive crests or troughs equal to
hospitals (sound waves) etc. one wavelength.
Common terms used Longitudinal waves

These are waves where particles vibrate in a direction parallel to that of the wave
travel. E.g sound waves, compression waves in springs etc
In longitudinal waves, the distance between two successive compressions or
rarefactions equal one wavelength.
1. An oscillation or cycle: This is a complete to and fro motion of a vibrating particle

about the mean position
1 2
© PHYSICS DEPARTMENT NTARE SCHOOL 2021 © PHYSICS DEPARTMENT NTARE SCHOOL 2021
Differences between longitudinal and transverse waves Progressive wave equation
Transverse waves Longitudinal aves
1. Particles vibrate perpendicular to the Particles vibrate parallel to the direction
direction of wave travel of wave travel
2. Can undergo polarisation No polarization can be obtained
3. Form crests and troughs Form compressions and rarefactions is the phase angle or phase difference
4. Wavelength equals distance Wavelength equals distance between
between two successive crests or two successive compressions or
troughs rarefactions
TYPES OF OSCILLATIONS
(a) Free oscillations
This is where there is no loss in total energy of the oscillating system and the
amplitude of oscillation remains constant. It also means that the total energy at
any time is constant. Consider a particle at point P a distance from O to the right. The displacement of
the particle from O is given by
( )
But
(b) Damped oscillations

This is where energy is continuously taken away from system and the amplitude Also
of oscillation reduces with time. E.g pendulum bob oscillating in air.
( )
Recall in equation
Equations and represent a plane progressive wave equation of a wave

moving from left to right. If the direction of the travel changes, the sign changes
from negative to positive.
(c) Underdamped, overdamped and critically damped
Examples
1. A plane progressive wave is represented by the equation ( )
where is in seconds and is in cm.
Calculate the
(i) frequency
(ii) wavelength
(iii) period and
In underdamped, the amplitude of the vibration progressively becomes smaller (iv) velocity
until it becomes zero.
In both critically and overdamped, no oscillations occur and the system returns ( )
very slowly to its equilibrium positions. When the time taken for the
displacement to be zero is a minimum, the system is said to be critically damped. comparing with ( )
3 4
and
and
cm or m
seconds
rad is the phase difference

2. The displacement in metres in a progressive wave is given by
. Find the ( )
(i) frequency
(ii) wavelength 4. A progressive wave and a stationary wave each has a frequency of 240Hz and a
(iii) velocity speed of 80ms-1. Calculate the
(i) phase difference between two vibrating points in the progressive wave
Comparing with ( ) which are 6 cm apart.
(ii) distance between nodes in the stationary wave
radians
m Distance between the nodes m
5. The displacement of a particle in a progressive waves is given by
3. A plane progressive wave is represented by the equation
( )m. Find the
( ) where is in seconds and in metres. Calculate the
(i) wavelength
(i) frequency
(ii) frequency
(ii) wavelength
(iii) velocity of the wave
(iii) velocity of the wave
(iv) period
(iv) phase difference in radians between the points 0.25 m and 1.10 m from
the origin.
(v) equations of the wave with triple amplitude and triple frequency travelling ( ) ( )
in the same direction. Comparing with
m
( ) comparing with ( )
6. The displacement of a [article in a progressive wave is given by

m where and are in cm and in seconds.
Calculate the
(i) wavelength
(ii) velocity of the propagation of the wave
5 6
Comparing with
s
cm ( )
( )
( )
7. A wave of magnitude 0.2 m, wavelength 2.0cm and frequency 50Hz propagates
Factorising the bracket term,
in the positive direction. If the initial displacement is zero at a point ,
(i) write the expression for the displacement of the wave at any time
(ii) find the speed of the wave
THE PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION
This states that whenever two waves are travelling in the same region the total
Generally ( )
displacement at any point is equal to the vector sum of their individual
( ) displacements at that point.
Stationary/standing waves
8. Two waves of frequencies 256 Hz and 280 Hz respectively travel with a speed of A stationary wave is formed when two progressive waves which are travelling in
340ms-1 through a medium. Find the phase difference at a point 2.0 m from opposite directions with the same speed and frequency and approximately equal
where they were initially in phase. amplitudes are superposed.
Stationary waves can be produced in narrow stretched strings which are fixed at one
but end and are continuously set into vibrations.
An increase in frequency can cause increased number of loops of large amplitudes.
and
radians N.B
9. 1. Points marked N are called nodes. A node is a point of zero disturbance
2. Points marked A are called antinodes. An antinode is a point of maximum
displacement
3. The distance between two successive node or antinodes equals half
wavelength ( )
4. Wavelength is equal to the distance between alternate nodes or antinodes.
The figure above shows a wave travelling in positive direction away from the
origin with a velocity of 9ms-1. Differences between progressive waves and stationary waves
(i) What is the period of the wave? Progressive waves Stationary waves
(ii) Show that the displacement equation for the wave is given by 1. There is continuous transfer of There is no energy transfer
energy through the medium
2. All particles vibrate with maximum Only some particles vibrate with
7 8
amplitude at some point or the maximum amplitude while some do not compare with
other vibrate at all
3. Crests and troughs (transverse) or Nodes and antinodes are formed
compressions and rarefactions
(longitudinal) are formed 2. A plane progressive wave is given by is reflected at a barrier
4. A single wave moves in one Two identical waves travelling in to interfere with the incoming wave. Show that the resultant wave is a stationary
direction opposite directions superpose one.
5. Wavelength is equal to the Wavelength is equal to the distance
distance between two successive between alternate nodes or antinodes
crests or troughs (transverse) or
distance between two successive
compressions or rarefactions ( ) ( )
(longitudinal)
6. Pressure variation is the same at Pressure is maximum at nodes and zero
hence a stationary wave.
every point in a medium at the antinodes
3. A plane progressive wave is represented by ( ) is reflected back

The stationary wave equation along the same path. Show that the overlap of the two waves may give rise to a
Consider two waves of the same amplitude and frequency travelling in opposite stationary wave.
directions. ( ) ( )
to the left
to the right ( ) ( )
By principle of superposition, where is the resultant wave equation
( ) ( ) Hence a stationary wave with amplitude
HUYGENS’ PRINCIPLE
Therefore is the equation of the stationary wave. A wave front is a line or surface in the path of a wave motion on which the
It can be rewritten as where is the amplitude of the disturbances at every point have the same phase.
stationary wave
Example
1. A plane progressive wave is given by ( ) where and are
metres and in seconds
(i) Write the equation of the progressive wave which would give rise to a
stationary wave if superposed on the one above A ray is a line at right angles to a wave front which shows its direction of travel
(ii) Find the equation of the stationary wave and hence determine its amplitude
(iii) Determine the frequency of the stationary wave Huygens’ principle states that every point on a wave front may be regarded as a
source of secondary spherical wavelets which spread out with the same velocity and
( ) ( ) the new wave front is the surface which touches all of the these secondary wavelets
(envelops).
Amplitude
9 10
Incident wave front AB is reflected on the plane surface to form a reflected wave (b) Plane wave fronts on a concave reflector
front CD. In time that wave strain from B reaches C the same strain from A arrives
at D.
Thus BC AD and
Triangles ABC and ADC have a common line AC hence they are similar
Thus
Therefore
Huygens’ Principle as applied to refraction (c) Plane wave fronts on a convex reflector
Consider a wave front OA incident on a plane boundary between two media of (d) Circular wave fronts on a concave reflector
refractive indices and respectively.
During time when A reaches B, wave fronts from O will have reached C.
If and is the speed of light in medium 1 and medium 2 respectively,
and
1 2 where and
1 2
1 2 (e) Circular wave fronts on a convex reflector
Since and are constants constant
Question
1. (a) State Huygens’ Principle
(b) Monochromatic light propagating in air is incident obliquely onto a plane
boundary with a dielectric material of refractive index . Use Huygens’
Principle to show that the speed of light in the dielectric is given by
where is the speed of light in air.
Interference of light waves
Refraction of waves Interference is the superposition of two waves from coherent sources leading to
(a) Plane wave fronts on a plane reflector alternate regions of maximum and minimum intensity.
Interference effects can be observed with all types of waves, for
example, light, radio, acoustic, surface water waves, gravity waves or matter waves.
Conditions for two sources of light to produce observable interference

1. The two interfering sources must be coherent (same frequency approximately
equal amplitude and constant phase difference). If the condition is not satisfied,
11 12
the phase difference varies continuously and the resulting intensity at any point Further information
will vary with time. Creation of interference fringes by an optical flat on a reflective surface
2. The interfering waves should have approximately equal amplitudes otherwise the
minimum intensity will not be zero and the pattern lacks contrast i.e those will be
a general illumination.
3. The separation between the two sources must be as small as possible otherwise
the fringes of maximum and minimum intensity will be so close together that the
fringes will not be separately visible.
4. The two sources must be narrow. If the sources are wide like car head lamps, the
two sources are not coherent and can’t produce interference patterns. This is
because a light beam is emitted by millions of atoms radiating independently so
that phase difference between waves from such sources fluctuates randomly
many times per second. The interference changes rapidly that the impression is
one of uniform illumination.
Light rays from a monochromatic source pass through the glass and reflect off both
Constructive and destructive interference the bottom surface of the flat and the supporting surface. The tiny gap between the
surfaces means the two reflected rays have different path lengths. In addition the ray
Constructive interference
reflected from the bottom plate undergoes a 180° phase reversal. As a result, at
This is the reinforcement of intensities from two coherent sources to give maximum
locations (a) where the path difference is an odd multiple of , the waves reinforce.
intensity when the two waves superpose.
At locations (b) where the path difference is an even multiple of the waves cancel.
N.B Since the gap between the surfaces varies slightly in width at different points, a
1. Amplitude is double that of either wave series of alternating bright and dark bands, called interference fringes, are seen.
2. Frequency is the same as that of either wave
Measurement of wavelength by Young’s interference fringes (bands)
3. Constructive interference occurs when the path difference is an integral multiple
of the wavelength i.e path difference
Destructive interference
This is the cancellation of intensities from two coherent sources to give minimum
intensity when the two waves superpose.
It occurs when the path difference is an odd multiple of half wavelength i.e path
The experiment is set up as shown in the diagram.
difference ( )
Light from a sodium lamp is made to illuminate the two slits S1 and S2 equally. Bright
and dark fringes are observed on the screen using a travelling microscope.
How interference patterns are formed The distance D from the double slits to the screen is measured using a metre rule in
When two waves from coherent sources cross, they superpose. When the path mm.
difference is an odd multiple of half wavelength, cancellation occurs resulting in The fringe separation is obtained by measuring the distance between fringes
minimum intensity. When the path difference is a multiple of a full wavelength, using a travelling microscope and dividing it by the number of fringe spacings.
reinforcement occurs resulting into maximum intensity. This leads to formation of The distance between the slits is measured using a travelling microscope. The
alternate permanent regions of maximum and minimum intensity called interference wavelength is calculated from
patterns.
N.B
1. If the source S is moved nearer to the double slits, the separation of the fringes is
not affected but their intensity increases. ( and are constants)
2. If the slit separation is decreased keeping the source fixed, the separation of the
fringes increases. ( )
13 14
3. If any of the slits (S, S1 or S2) is widened, the fringes eventually disappear.
Widening slits is equivalent to a large number of slits, each producing its own
Fringe separation
fringe system at different places. The bright and dark fringes of different systems
therefore overlap giving rise to uniform illumination.
4. If one of the slits is closed, the fringes disappear.
5. If white light is used, the central band is white and the bands either side are
coloured. Blue is the colour near the central fringe while red is further away. This
is because the wavelength of red is longer than that of blue. The path difference Therefore
to a central point on the perpendicular bisector of the two slits S1 and S2 is zero N.B
for all colours and therefore has a white band at the centre. (a) For bright fringes, the path difference is equal to the whole number of
6. If the slit separation is increased, the fringe separation reduces until a point wavelength
where there are no fringes observed.
(b) For dark fringes, the path difference is equal to the odd number of half
( )
N.B wavelength
When comparing wavelength of different colours, different colour filters are placed (c)
one at a time between the slits and the screen.
Examples
Proof of
1. In Young’s double slit experiment, the 8th bright fringe is formed 5 mm away
from the centre of the fringe system when the wavelength used is m.
calculate the separation of the slits if the distance from the slits to the screen is
80 cm.
Then m
Consider two coherent sources of light waves S1 and S2 a distance apart that 2. Two slits 2.5 mm apart are placed at a distance of 1 m from the screen. The slits
produce a fringe of width on a screen a distance from the slits. are illuminated with light of wavelength 550 m. Calculate the distance between
From triangle S1PT, ̅̅̅̅̅ ( ) the fourth and second bright fringes.
̅̅̅̅̅
From triangle S2PR, ̅̅̅̅̅ ( ) Then

̅̅̅̅̅
m
Equation
̅̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅
3. In Young’s double slit experiment, an interference pattern in which the 10th bright
̅̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅
fringe 3.4 cm from the centre of the pattern was obtained. The distance between
Since ̅̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅ such that ̅̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅
the slits and the screen was 2.0 m while the slit separation was 0.34 mm. Find the
̅̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅ wavelength of the light source.
̅̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅
For a bright fringe, ̅̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅
Where
m
For the next bright fringe, Wavelength is m
15 16
4. In Young’s double slit experiment, the distance between the centre of the Light reflected from the upper surface of the lower plate suffers a phase change of
interference pattern and the 10th bright fringe on either side is 3.44 cm and the 1800 (a trough is reflected as a crest and a crest is reflected as a trough).
distance between the slits and the screen is 2.0 cm. If the wavelength of light Waves reflected from the lower surface of the upper plate and those reflected from
used is m, determine the slit separation. the upper surface of the lower plate are coherent and when superposed, interference
occurs and interference bands are formed.
When the path difference is an integral multiple of full wavelength, a dark fringe is
formed and when it is an odd multiple of half wavelength, a bright fringe is formed.
m
i.e dark fringes occur when and bright fringe occur when ( )
The slit separation is m
Appearance of fringes when white light is used

5. In Young’s double slit experiment, the separation of the slits is 0.42 mm and the
When white light is used, coloured fringes are obtained. The blue fringe is nearest
perpendicular distance from the line S1S2 to the screen is 75 cm. P marks the
the edge and the red fringe is furthest. After the first red fringe, the coloured fringes
centre of the 3rd bright fringe from O. If light of wavelength m is used,
overlap. At large distances from the edge, the fringes are so much out of phase
calculate the
which results in white illumination i.e no fringes are formed.
(i) distance OP
(ii) distance S2P – S1P Definitions
1. Optical path: This is the distance in vacuum that would contain the same number
of wavelengths as the actual path taken by a ray of light travelling through a
medium.
m Or
It is the product of the geometric path length and refractive index of the medium
OP m
through which light propagates.
S2P – S1P path length m
2. Division of wave fronts: This is the production of two coherent sources from a
single source e.g Young’s double slit experiment, Lloyd’s mirror etc.
6. Two slits m apart are placed a distance of 0.3 m from the screen. The
3. Division of amplitude: This is where two waves that interfere originate at the
slits are illuminated with light of wavelength m. Calculate the angular
same point on the wave front produced by the source and each having part of
position for the first dark fringe.
the amplitude of the original e.g air-wedge, Newton’s rings.
4. Path difference: This is the difference is the difference in the optical paths of two
( ) ( )
waves travelling from one point to another.
( ) ( )
rad NEWTON’S RINGS
Angular position is rad
THE AIR WEDGE
Note A biconvex lens of large radius of curvature is placed on a flat glass plate.
There is a path difference of between waves reflected from A and those from B. A sodium lamp S is placed at the principal focus of a convex lens L.
An air wedge is a wedge shaped film of air. Monochromatic light is incident normally Monochromatic light from S is incident onto the lens L. L produces a parallel beam
on the air-wedge. Some light is reflected from the lower surface of the upper plate and directs it onto the glass plate G. The beam splitter reflects the beam to fall
while the other is transmitted and finally reflected from the upper surface of the normally on the air film between the convex lens and the flat glass plate.
lower plate. Interference occurs between light reflected from the lower surface of the lens and
that reflected from the upper surface of the flat glass plate. A series of dark and
17 18
bright fringes are seen through a travelling microscope. These interference patterns Testing the flatness of a simple surface
are called Newton’s rings.
Qualitative explanation of how Newton’s rings are formed.

At the lower surface of a concave lens, some light waves are reflected whole others
are transmitted and finally reflected at the upper surface of the flat glass plate.
Interference occurs between light reflected from the lower surface of the lens and
that reflected from the upper surface of the flat glass plate. A series of dark and
bright fringes is seen through glass plate G, when a travelling microscope is focused
on the air film.
At the centre of the fringe system, there is a dark spot due to 1800 phase change.
A dark fringe is formed when and a broght fringe is formed when
( ) The surface under test is made to form an air-wedge with a plate glass surface of
standard smoothness (flat glass plate). Monochromatic light is made incident
where is the thickness of the air film.
normally on the air-wedge.
The light reflected from the air wedge is observed using a microscope and an
N.B:
interference pattern is observed.
If water is placed between the lens and the flat glass plate, it reduces the wavelength
If the surface is flat straight, parallel and equally spaced bands are seen.
of light. Since the ring radius is proportional to the wavelength, the Newton’s rings
If uneven fringe pattern is seen, the surface is not flat.
are observed.
Calculations of the fringe separation

Measurement of wavelength using Newton’s rings
For dark fringes,
From equation
Monochromatic light from a sodium lamp S is reflected by the glass plate G so that it
falls normally on the convex lens. A series of bright fringes is seen through glass
plate G using a travelling microscope. Hence the fringes are equally spaced.
Using the travelling microscope, the diameter of the dark fringe is measured. The separation of the adjacent fringes Or
The experiment is repeated for other dark fringes. The values are tabulated including
For bright fringes ( )
value of . A graph of against is plotted. The slope of the graph calculated.
Wavelength is obtained from where is the radius of curvature of the lens
surface in contact with the flat glass plate.
Hence the fringes are equally spaced.

The separation of the adjacent fringes Or
19 20
Example normally with light of wavelength m, interference fringes of separation
1. A piece of wire of diameter 0.050 m and two thin glass strips are available to 1.5 mm are formed. Find the thickness of the metal foil.
produce the air-wedge. If a total of 200 fringes are produced, what is the
wavelength of light used?
But
2. An air-wedge is formed by placing two glass slides of length 5.0 cm in contact at

one end and a wire at the other end as shown below
5. Two glass plates 4 cm long touch at one end and are separated by a piece of
paper 0.02 mm thick at the other end. The wedge formed is illuminated normally
by bright light of wavelength 589nm.
Calculate the
Viewing from above vertically, 10 dark fringes are observed to occupy a distance (i) separation of the bright bands produced
of 2.5 mm when illuminated with light of wavelength 500nm. Determine the (ii) number of bright bands observed
diameter of the wire.
also But
For bright bands ( )

The diameter of the wire is
3. Two plates 12.0cm long are in contact at one end and separated at the other end
by a piece of metal foil cm thick. When the plates are illuminated
normally by light of wavelength 500nm, a system of fringes is observed. PRODUCTION OF INTERFERENCE FRINGES USING A SINGLE SLIT
Find the (a) Bi prism
(i) fringe separation
(ii) number of fringes formed
but
The experiment is arranged as seen in the diagram. Light from a monochromatic

source S is incident at the two halves of the bi prism. The light emerging after
Therefore separation
refraction from the two halves of the bi prism appear to be coming from S1 and
S2. Therefore S1 and S2 are virtual images of S and are coherent sources which are
close together.
There are 100 fringes formed. Waves which appear to be coming from S1 and those which appear to be coming
from S2 overlap and interference fringes are observed using a microscope.
4. Two glass slides in contact at one end are separated by a metal foil 12.5 cm from
the line of contact to form an air-wedge. When the air-wed is illuminated
21 22
Measurement of wavelength using a bi prism Effects of interference (every day example)
(a) Colours of oil film on water
When monochromatic light falls on the oil some light is reflected from the
Monochromatic light from the slit S falls on the bi prism and alternate bright and surface of the oil while the other is refracted into the oil film and finally reflected
dark bands are observed through the low power microscope. at the oil-water surface. The beams of light reflected from the surface of the oil
A Perspex rule is placed in front of the microscope and moved until the and that reflected from the oil-water surface are coherent. When they overlap, a
graduations are clearly seen. series of alternate bright and dark fringes are formed.
The average distance between the bands is then measured on the Perspex rule. When the path difference gives a constructive interference for light of one
The distance D between the slit and the Perspex rule is measured using a metre wavelength, the corresponding colour is seen in the film.
rule in mm.
A convex lens is placed between the bi prism and the Perspex rule adjusted until N.B
the images of S1 and S2 are clearly seen on the Perspex rule. Interference patterns are not observed in thick films because in thick films, the
The separation of the images is measured. Distances and are also path differences are many and therefore there are many wavelengths. This makes
measured. the spread in wavelength of light used to become significant. When one
The shift separation is obtained from component produces a bright fringe, the other produces a dark fringe and vice
versa as a result interference patterns are not observed.
Wavelength is then given by
(b) Pulsing of the picture on a television receiver

N.B
This occurs when an aircraft passes low overhead. The signals travelling directly
A bi prism is preferred over Young’s double slit experiment in determination of
from the transmitting aerial to the receiving aerial and those reflected from the
wavelength because in a bi prism, the fringes are much brighter than those
aircraft interfere. Because the waves reflected from the aircraft are weaker, the
produced by Young’s slits. This is because much greater amount of light can pass
interference is never completely destructive.
through the bi prism compared with that passing through the double slits.
DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT WAVES
(b) Lloyd’s mirror
Diffraction is the spreading of light beyond its geometrical shadows thus leading to
interference pattern on the edges of the shadow.
For diffraction to occur the dimensions of the obstacle must be of the same order as
the wavelength of the light used.
Differences between diffraction and interferences

Diffraction Interference
The experiment is arranged as seen in the diagram. Light from S falls on a mirror at a
Is the spreading of light beyond its Is the superposition of light waves from
very small glancing angle and a virtual image S1 of S is formed by reflection at the
geometrical shadows thus leading to coherent sources leading to alternate
surface of the mirror.
interference pattern on the edges of the regions of maximum and minimum
The reflected beam and the directed beam are coherent. When they overlap, a series
shadow intensities
of alternate bright and dark bands are formed.
Involves superposition of waves from Involves superposition of waves two
The zeroth fringe at N will be dark due to 1800 phase change.
different parts of the same wave front different wave fronts
In the directions where the path difference is a whole number of wavelength, dark
fringes are formed. If it is an odd number of half wavelengths, bright fringes are
formed.
23 24
The diffraction grating Explaining the formation of the single slit diffraction pattern
A diffraction grating is the arrangement of identical equally spaced diffracting
elements
Or
A diffraction grating is a large number of close parallel slits, ruled on glass or metal.
Diffraction at single slit
- Every point on AB is imagined to be a source of secondary spherical wavelet

- At O, all wavelets from each point on AB arrive in phase, constructive interference
takes place and therefore there is a bright band, forming the central maximum.
- If C is the mid-point of the slits, the first dark bands on either side of the central
band are formed. In the direction , if the path difference for wavelets from A
and C is , there is distinctive interference and the first minima is formed.
The figure represents a section of a diffraction grating which is being illuminated
Between two minima there is a subsidiary maximum.
normally by light of wavelength . Each of the clear spaces A, B, C act like a very
small narrow slit and diffracts the incident light to an appreciable extent in all the
An experiment to observe diffraction of light
forward directions.
Consider that light which is diffracted at some angle to the normal.
The slits are equally spaced and if is such that light from A is in phase with that at
B and C, then light from each slit is in phase with that from every other.
This happens when where
is called the diffraction order.
But
Therefore this is called diffraction maxima.
The slit is opened wide and the lens is moved to give a sharp image of light on the
Principal maximum is obtained when
screen.
Grating spacing where is the number of lines per metre Observing through the eyepiece, the slit width is gradually reduced until a white
N.B central band having dark bands on either side fringed with colour is obtained.
If the screen is placed beyond the grating, the intensity distribution will consist of
diffraction maxima of equal intensity. Effect on the diffraction pattern of using a grating with a large number of lines
A large number of slits produces what can be considered to be completely
Variation of intensity with angular position for a single slit diffraction destructive interference in all directions other those produced by and
therefore gives rise to very sharp principal maxima.
Why the sky appears blue on a clear day

Sunlight consists of many wavelengths extending from red to violet. When it passes
through the atmosphere, the shorter wavelength blue is scattered more than other
longer wavelength in the atmosphere. The blue scattered short wavelength light is
what makes the sky appear blue.
25 26
Formation of pure spectrum by a transmission grating - The angle between the two positions T1 and T2 is determined.
- Wavelength is calculated from ( ) where is the grating spacing.
Advantages of transmission grating over glass prisms in determining wavelength

- A transmission grating leads to direct determination of wavelength while use of a
prism requires a complicated formula.
- By using diffraction orders, an average wavelength can be determined while the
prism method yields only one value hence the transmission grating gives a more
accurate value of wavelength.
Examples
White light is made incident on a diffraction grating. A convex lens is then placed in
1. Light of wavelength m is incident on a diffraction grating with 500
front of the grating and a screen is placed in the focal plane of the lens. Different
lines per centimeter. Find the diffraction angle for the first order image.
wavelengths are deviated by different amounts and hence travel in different
directions.
lines per metre, m
The lens focuses all the corresponding colour image at the same point. A pure
spectrum is then formed on the screen.
Uses of diffraction of light

- Determination of wavelength
- Determining the structure of crystals
2. A transmission grating of lines per metre is illuminated with light of
- Holography (production of 3-dimensional images)
wavelength 580 nm and 590 nm in turn. Calculate the
(i) highest order spectrum observable
Measurement of wavelength using a diffraction grating
(ii) angular separation of the two wavelengths in the second order spectrum
(iii) respectively orders for the two wavelengths to overlap
lines per metre,
and
For Angular separation
(iii) Overlap occurs when

- The collimator is adjusted to produce a parallel beam of light. For
- The telescope is adjusted to receive a parallel beam of light from the collimator.
- The table is levelled.
- The diffraction grating is fixed on the table such that light from the collimator is
(ii) Therefore 58th and 59th are the
incident on it normally. nodes
- The telescope is adjusted to receive light directly from the collimator (zero order
image). Position T0 is noted on the scale. 3. Light consisting of two wavelengths which differ by 160 nm passes through a
- The telescope is turned to one side to observe the first image. The position T 1 of diffraction grating with lines per metre. In the diffraction light, the 3rd
the telescope is noted on the scale. order of one wavelength coincides with the 4th order of the other. What are the
- The telescope is moved back to position T0 and then rotated in opposite two wavelengths and at what angle of diffraction does the coincidence occur?
direction to observe the first order image.
- The position T2 of the telescope is noted on the scale.
27 28
NTARE SCHOOL
PHYSICS PAPER 2
WAVES cont….
POLARISATION
Or
Unpolarised light is one in which vibrations exist in every plane perpendicular to the
m directions of the travel of the wave.
m Polarisation is the production of light whose vibration of the electric vector is in only
one plane.
Plane polarised light is the light whose electric field vector oscillates in one
4. A rectangular piece of glass 2cm 3cm has 18000 evenly spaced lines ruled
particular plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
across its surface parallel to the shorter side, to form a diffraction grating. Parallel
rays of light of wavelength cm fall normally on the grating.
Find the highest order of spectrum in the transmitted light.
What is the minimum diameter of a camera kens which can accept all the light of
this wavelength in this order which leaves the grating on one side of the normal?
lines per cm For
PRODUCTION OF POLARIZED LIGHT

1. Selective absorption
For
Diameter ( ) cm
Two Polaroid sheets P and Q are placed one behind the other in front of a source
Question
of light. With axes of P and Q parallel, light of maximum intensity is observed
A light source emits two wavelengths of 450 nm and 650 nm. The light is incident
beyond Q. When Q is rotated about the direction of propagation, the intensity of
normally on a phase diffraction grating of 600 lines per mm.
light that emerges from it decreases. When its axis is perpendicular to that of P,
Find the
light is cut off. When Q is rotated further, light reappears becoming bright again
(i) angular separation of these lines in the second order diffraction
when axes of P and Q are parallel. The light emerging from P and Q is now plane-
(ii) the respectively orders for the two wavelengths to overlap.
polarised or linearly polarised.
Or
A Polaroid is an artificial crystalline material which can be made in thin sheets
Waves to continue……………….. which allow only light waves due to vibrations in a particular plane to pass
through them.
2. Production of plane polarised light by reflection
Ordinary light is made incident on glass at an angle of about . The reflected

light is then viewed through a polaroid. The polaroid is rotated about the line of
29
© PHYSICS DEPARTMENT NTARE SCHOOL 2021 1
© PHYSICS DEPARTMENT NTARE SCHOOL 2021
vision until light disappears at one position of the polaroid. This happens when A narrow beam of ordinary light is made incident on one side of a Nicol prism
the reflected ray is perpendicular to the refracted ray. The reflected light is then and is observed from the opposite side through an analyser.
plane polarised. The angle of incidence is varied by rotating the prism and for each angle; the
analyser is rotated about the line of vision.
Note Beyond some angle of incidence, the intensity of light seen through the prism
When the refracted ray is not at right angles to the reflected ray, the vibrations of varies and finally at one position of the prism, light disappears.
incident light with a component which is perpendicular to the direction of The emergent light is then plane polarised.
propagation of the reflected ray can contribute to it and produce a reflected ray
which is partially plane polarised. 4. Polarisation by scattering
If is the refractive index of the glass,

But
( )
[Brewster’s law]
is called the angle of polarisation/polarizing angle.
It is defined as the angle of incidence at which the reflected ray is completely A beam of ordinary light is passed through tank water in which a drop of milk
plane polarised. has been added. Light is seen through a polaroid placed at different positions A,
B and C. when the polaroid is rotated about the line of vision, light disappears at
From and since varies with the colour of light, white light can not be one position. The light is then plane polarised.
completely plane polarised by reflection.
Application of polarisation
Example 1. Reducing glare
1. The polarizing angle for light in air incident on a glass plate is . What is Glare caused by light is reflected from smooth surfaces can be reduced by using
the refractive index of glass? polaroid discs suitably oriented in sunglasses.
Polaroid discs are also used in cameras as filters to enable the camera to see
details that would otherwise be hidden by glare.
2. Photo elasticity (stress analysis)

2. The refractive index of diamond for sodium light is 2.417. Find the angle of
incidence for which the light reflected from diamond is completely plane
polarised.
( )
3. Polarisation by double refraction using Nicol prism A material under stress becomes doubly refracting and if viewed in white light
between two crossed polaroids, coloured fringes are seen round regions of strain.
2 3
3. Saccharimetry (measurement of concentration of sugars in sugar solutions)
Hz Hz
Difference Hz
2. A tuning fork of frequency 312 Hz is sounded with a fork of unknown
frequency , 4 beats per second are heard. When a little plasticine is added to the
prongs of the fork, the beats decrease in number. Find the value of .
Polarised light from a polariser, P, is made incident onto an empty transparent Solution
container and observed through the analyser A. A is rotated about the line of Let Hz
vision until light is cut off. Since on adding plasticine beats decrease,
A liquid under test is put in the container, the liquid rotates the plane of vibration
of polarised light passing through and light is then observed at E.
The analyser is rotated again until light is cut off. The angle of rotation is
measured and is proportional to the concentration of the solution Hz
4. In liquid crystal displays (L.C.Ds) Demonstration of beats

Two tuning forks of the same frequency are used. A little plasticine is stuck on one
prong of one the tuning fork to lower its frequency slightly.
BEATS The two tuning forks are then struck simultaneously and the stems pressed against
Beats are the periodic rise and fall in the intensity of sound. the bench top.
Beats are formed when two sounds of nearly equal frequencies but similar
amplitudes are sounded together. When the two sounds arrive at the ear in phase, a Uses of beats
loud sound is heard. 1. Measuring frequency of a note by use of another note of known frequency
When the two sounds arrive at the ear when they are 1800 out of phase, a minimum The note of unknown frequency is made to produce beats with a note of
sound is heard. known frequency as long as and are almost the same.
The number of beats in seconds, , are counted and the beat frequency
calculated.
Beat frequency
One of the frequencies is changed slightly and the experiment repeated.
Beat frequency is the number of intense sounds heard in one second if two notes f
The new beat frequency is determined.
nearly equal frequencies are sounded together.
If , the frequency of the test note is calculated from
Consider two notes A and B whose frequencies are and respectively.
If , the frequency of the test note is calculated from
In some time, T, A completes cycles and B completes cycles.
If T is such that A completes one more cycle than B, then
2. Tuning of musical instruments to a given note
The musical note is sounded together with a tuning fork of known frequency .
But The number of beats in seconds, , are counted and the beat frequency
calculated. One of prong of the tuning fork is loaded with a piece of plasticine
and the experiment is repeated.
Example The new beat frequency is determined.
1. Tuning forks and are sounded together to produce beats of frequency 8Hz. If , then the frequency of the test note is calculated from
Fork has a frequency of 512 Hz. When is loaded with plasticine, beats of If , the frequency of the test note is calculated from
frequency 2Hz are head when the two tuning forks are sounded together. Find
the difference in frequencies of when loaded and when unloaded. Conditions necessary for the formation of audible beats
 Notes of nearly equal frequencies are sounded together
Solution  The notes sounded together should have the same amplitudes
Since beats decrease when is loaded, then
4 5
 Sound waves from the two sources must overlap.
DOPPLER EFFECT
Doppler Effect is the apparent change in frequency of a wave motion when there is a
relative motion between the observer and the source.
Apparent wavelength
Uses of Doppler effect
Apparent frequency
 Determination of direction of motion of stars
 Determination of plasma temperature ( )
 Estimation of speed of cars using speed guns Since is less than , is greater than and so the apparent frequency
 Estimation of speed of stars increases as the source moves towards the observer.
 Measurement of speed of rotation of the sun
Example
(a) Used by police to estimate the speed of the car using speed guns A police car travelling at a speed of 50 ms-1 sounds a siren of 1000 Hz as it
The speed of a car can be found by measuring the shift in frequency by the approaches a stationary observer. Find the apparent frequency as heard by
microwaves reflected by it. If a car is moving with a speed V towards stationary the observer if the speed of sound in air is 340 ms-1.
microwaves of frequency , the car acts as observer moving towards a stationary Apparent wavelength
source.
Apparent frequency
The speed of the car is calculated from where is the beat frequency
( )
(b) Estimating the speeds of distant stars ( ) Hz

The photo graph of a star is taken. The position of a particular spectral line and
its wavelength are noted. The spectral photograph of a spark is taken in a 2. Source moving away from a stationary observer
laboratory.
The spectral line and its wavelength corresponding to an element known to be
in the star is compared with one above.
If (red shift), the star is moving away from the earth.
If (blue shift), the star is moving away towards the earth. In one second, waves will occupy a distance
The speed of the star is calculated from where is the wavelength shift Apparent wavelength
Apparent frequency
(c) Calculation of apparent frequency
Let be the speed of the source of sound ( )
be the speed of an observer Since is greater than , is less than and so the apparent frequency
be the true frequency of the source decreases as the source moves towards the observer.
be the speed of sound in air
1. Source moving towards a stationary observer Example 1
If the source was stationary, waves would occupy a distance in one A car travelling at 72 kmh-1 has a siren which produces sound of frequency
second 500 Hz. Calculate the difference between the frequencies of sound heard by
the observer by the roadside as the car approaches and recedes the observer.
Speed of sound in air is 320ms-1.
72 kmh-1
If the source moves with a speed towards a stationary observer in one
second, waves will occupy a distance . Case 1: Approaching
Apparent wavelength
6 7
Apparent frequency Case 1: source moving away from the observer
Apparent wavelength
( )
Apparent frequency
( ) Hz
( )
Case 1: Receding ( ) Hz
Apparent wavelength
Apparent frequency Case 2: source (echo) moving towards the observer
Apparent wavelength
( )
Apparent frequency
( ) Hz
Difference Hz ( )
( ) Hz
Example 2
Beat frequency
A car sounds its horn as it travels at a speed of 15 ms-1 along a straight road
between two stationary observers A and B. observer A hears a frequency of
Hz
538 Hz while B hears a lower frequency. Calculate the frequency heard by B.
Speed of sound in air is 340 ms-1.
3. Observer moving towards a stationary source
In this case the wavelength does not change.
In one second, waves occupy a distance
The car is moving away from B towards A
Wavelength
For A:
Apparent wavelength The velocity of the waves relative to the observer
Apparent frequency
Apparent frequency
( )
( )
( )
Hz
4. Observer moving away from a stationary source
In one second, waves occupy a distance
For B:
Wavelength
Apparent wavelength
Velocity of the waves relative to the observer
Apparent frequency
Apparent frequency
( )
( ) Hz
( )
The frequency head by B is Hz
5. Observer and source moving toward each other
Example 3
Apparent wavelength
Calculate the frequency of beats (beat frequency) heard by a stationary
observer when a source of sound of frequency 100 Hz moves directly away Velocity of the waves relative to the observer
from him with a speed of 10 ms-1 towards a vertical wall. Apparent frequency
( )
8 9
6. Observer and source moving away from each other Example 3
Apparent wavelength A whistle of frequency 1000 Hz is sounded on a car travelling towards a cliff
with a speed of 18 ms-1, normal to the cliff. Find the apparent frequency of
echo as heard by the driver. Speed of sound in air is 330 ms-1.
Apparent frequency
( )
Example 1 Velocity of the waves relative to the observer

A car traveling normally towards a cliff at a speed of 30ms-1 sounds its horn Apparent wavelength
which emits a note of frequency 100 Hz. What is the apparent frequency of Apparent frequency
echo as heard by the driver?
Speed of sound in air is 330 ms-1. ( )
( ) Hz
Frequency of the echo is Hz
Example 4
A source of sound waves generates waves of frequency 500 Hz. If the speed of
Apparent wavelength sound in air is 340 ms-1 find the
Apparent frequency (i) wavelength of the waves detected by the observer when the source is
moving away from the observer at a speed of 30 ms-1
( )
(ii) apparent frequency when the source is moving towards the observer and
( ) Hz the observer is moving away at a speed of 20 ms-1.
Apparent frequency of the echo is Hz
(i) Apparent wavelength m
Example 2 (ii) Apparent wavelength
One species of bats locates obstacles by emitting high frequency sound
Velocity of waves relative to the observer
waves and detecting reflected waves. A bat flying at a steady speed of 5 ms-1
emits sound of frequency 78 kHz and is reflected back to it. Calculate the Apparent frequency ( )
frequency of sound received by the bat. ( )
Hz
Apparent frequency is Hz
MUSICAL SOUNDS
Sound is any mechanical vibration whose frequency lies within the audible range.
Apparent wavelength
How sound waves propagate from one point to another
Apparent frequency When a medium is set into vibration, the molecules vibrate to and from about their
mean positions. The vibrating molecules pass on energy to the neighbouring
( )
molecules. These molecules vibrate and on energy. Compressions and rarefactions
( ) Hz are then formed and sound is propagated.
Frequency received by the bat is Hz
Music and noise
A sound of regular frequency is called a tome or a musical note. Music is a
combination of such sounds.
Noise is a sound which is not wanted or unpleasant to the ear.
10 11
Musical intervals Can undergo plane polarisation Can not undergo plane polarisation
The ratio of frequencies between two notes is called a musical interval Travel much faster in air Travel slower in air
Characteristics of sound notes (differences between musical sounds) Sound is easily heard at night than during the day
(a) Pitch During the day, the air near the earth is warmer than air higher up. As sound wave
A pitch is a characteristic of a note which enables one to differentiate between a moves upwards, its speed reduces and sound is refracted away from the earth hence
high note and a low note. sound intensity reduces.
It depends on At night the air near the earth is colder than air higher up. As sound wave moves
 frequency of sound produced upwards, its speed increases and sound is refracted towards the earth hence sound
 relative motion between the source and the observer intensity increases.
(b) Intensity and loudness
Intensity of a sound wave is the rate of flow of energy through an area of 1 m2 Sound is heard clearly when the wind blows in the direction in which sound travels
perpendicular to the direction of flow of the sound wave.
It depends on
 amplitude of vibrating body i.e intensity is directly proportional to the
square of the amplitude
 distance from the vibrating body i.e intensity is inversely proportional to
the square of the distance from the vibrating body. When wind is blowing towards the observer the bottom of the sound wave front is
 Area of the vibrating surface i.e intensity is directly proportional to the moving more slowly than the upper part. The wave fronts turn towards the observer
surface area of the vibrating body who therefore, hears sound easily.
 density of the medium i.e intensity is directly proportional to the density
of the medium in which it vibrates
 motion of the medium i.e if the wind blows in the direction in which sound
travel, the intensity increases
if the wind blows in opposite direction, intensity decreases
When wind is blowing in opposite direction, the bottom of the sound wave front is
Loudness moving faster than the upper part. The wave fronts turn upwards away from the
Loudness is the sensation of a note in the mind of an individual. It depends on observer. The intensity of sound reduces.
 sound intensity of the sound reaching the person concerned and on the
person Factors that determine the speed of sound in air
 sensitivity of the ear to the different frequencies  Temperature of the air
 variation of pressure exerted on the ear drum by the nerves  Percentage of humidity in the air
(c) Quality/timbre (a) Temperature

This is a characteristic of a musical note which enables us to distinguish a note The speed of sound is proportional to the square root of tits kelvin temperature.
produced by one instrument from another of the same pitch and intensity. Increase in temperature of air increases its volume in accordance to Charles’ law.
This therefore makes air less dense since .
Similarities between sound and light waves Decrease in density increases the speed of the sound in air hence sound travels
 Both can be reflected and refracted faster in hotter air than in cold air.
 Both can be diffracted and undergo interference
(b) Humidity
Differences between sound waves and light waves Humid air is less dense. At a given pressure, the ratio of pressure to density
Light waves Sound waves increases with humidity. Since , sound travels faster in humid air than dry
Do not need a material medium for Need a material medium for propagation
air.
propagation
Are transverse in nature Are longitudinal in nature
12 13
Reverberation (b)
Reverberation occurs when the sound produced at one instant by a source is closely
followed by its echo. This is due to the reflecting surface being very close. The
observer fails to distinguish the original sound from the echo and gets an
impression that the original sound has been prolonged.
Implications of reverberation in concert halls

In large halls, clothes, cushions and human skin absorbs the sound instead of Two loudspeakers L1 and L2 are connected in parallel to an audio-frequency
reflecting it and consequently the music and speech appear to be weaker and in oscillator. A sensitive sound detector e.g microphone is moved along line AB,
such cases reverberation of a small degree enhances audibility parallel to the line joining the two loud speakers.
Excess reverberation, however, makes the speech or music to sound indistinct and Alternate loud and soft sounds are heard.
confused. Loud sound is heard where there is constructive interference i.e where sound waves
from L1 and L2 arrive in phase.
Minimizing reverberation Soft sound is heard where there is destructive interference i.e where sound waves
Reverberation is minimised by covering the wall of walls with soft materials so that from L1 and L2 arrive out of phase.
there is reduced reflection of sound as most of the incident sound is absorbed by
the soft materials. Example
The amplitude of a wave decreases as the distance from the source increases
This is because as the distance from the source increases, there is a decrease in the
intensity of the sound wave caused by
 loss of energy of the wave to the transmitting medium
 the wave energy spreading over a wide area to a point, a distance from the
source
Intensity also Intensity
Two loudspeakers which emit sound of the same frequency are placed as shown in
the figure. A microphone moved along the line AB detects intensity maxima at
regular intervals of 3.4m. Find the frequency of the sound waves emitted if the speed
Therefore, the amplitude is inversely proportional to the distance of the wave from of sound in air is 340 ms-1.
the source and so should decrease as the distance decreases. m m m
m
Resonance
Hz
Resonance is said to occur when a system is set to vibrate at its natural frequency
Therefore frequency of sound waves is Hz
due to impulses received from a nearby system vibrating at the same frequency.
Determining the value of sound by dust tube method

Experiment to demonstrate interference of sound waves
(a)
Sound from the source S is admitted into the tube as seen above. The tube is pulled
outwards slowly. One wave follows a constant path SAR and the other follows a
variable path SBR. As the sliding tube is pulled, a series of maximum and minimum
A measuring cylinder B is placed on its side lying horizontally on smooth supports.
intensities are obtained.
The inside of the cylinder is coated with lycopodium powder or chalk dust along its
length. A paper cone C attached to a loudspeaker L is fitted over the open end of B.
14 15
L is connected to a suitable oscillator and sound waves are produced which travel to Question
the closed end of B and are reflected to form a stationary wave.
The frequency of the oscillator is varied until the lycopodium powder settles into
regularly spaced heaps in the cylinder. These are nodes N. The average distance
between successive nodes is obtained and is equal to half wavelength ( ).
In an experiment to the velocity of sound in air, lycopodium powder settles in heaps
The velocity of sound in air is calculated from where is the frequency of the
as shown in figure above. If the frequency of the vibrating rod is 800 Hz and the
oscillator.
distance between five consecutive heaps is 0.85 m, calculate the speed of sound in
air.
Disadvantages of using dust tube method
 The sound waves are damped by the sides of the tube and therefore the method
PIPES
does not give the speed of sound in free air
(a) Closed pipes
 The distance between successive nodes can not be measured to a high degree of
A closed pipe is the one which has one end closed and the other open.
accuracy
 The dust and the tune must be dry which may not be the case.
Example 1
The air column at A vibrates with maximum amplitude. This is the position of the
antinode. The amplitude of vibration decreases from end A (maximum) to N
(zero). N is the position of the node.
The length of the air column corresponds to the position of the antinode A. this
In an experiment to determine the speed of sound in air in a tube, chalk dust settles
position does not coincide with the end of the pipe but slightly above.
in heaps as shown in figure above. If the frequency of the vibrating rod is 250 Hz and
The difference between the end of the pipe and the position of the antinode is
the distance between three consecutive heaps is 136 cm, calculate the speed of
called the end correction, .
sound in air.
The end correction is the length of a vibrating air column beyond the end of the
m
resonance tube.
End correction increases the length of air in a pipe. This reduces the frequency of
a note produced by the pipe. Since the pitch of a note depends on its frequency,
Example 2
end correction reduces the pitch of a note.
The fundamental frequency is lowest frequency that a vibrating string or pipe can
produce.
A harmonic is a note whose frequency is an integral multiple of the fundamental
note.
A fundamental note is note is a note of lowest frequency that a vibrating string
A tube T has a tight fitting piston at one end and a small loudspeaker L at the other
or pipe can produce.
end. Nodes are detected in air at Q, R and S where PS 66cm. If the frequency of
Overtones are notes of higher frequencies which are produced with the
sound from L is 800Hz, determine the speed of sound in air.
fundamental note.
m
m Resonance in a closed pipe
For fundamental note, the length of the air column is equal to .
16 17
If is the fundamental frequency, (1st harmonic), where is the 3rd harmonic;
velocity of sound in air. Since 0.387 m is comparable to 0.397 m, the mode is the 3rd harmonic.
Overtones: First overtone (3rd harmonic) Or comparing frequencies;

Observable frequency is
1st harmonic;
3rd harmonic;
Since 879.31Hz is comparable 860Hz, the mode is the 3rd harmonic.
But
this is the why it is called the 3rd harmonic. Example 2
A small loudspeaker, activated by a variable frequency oscillator is sounded
Second overtone (5th harmonic) continuously over the open end of a vertical tube 40cm long and closed at its
lower end. At what frequency of the note emitted by the loudspeaker is increases
from 200Hz to 1200Hz. Velocity of sound in air is .
For closed pipes, only odd harmonics are possible

i.e
But
this is the why it is called the 5th harmonic.
Therefore, in closed pipes, only odd harmonics are possible. i.e Measurement of speed of sound in air using a resonance tube
Pressure variation in a closed pipe

At the closed end of the pipe, the displacement of air is minimum thus pressure
is maximum. At the open end, air is free. The pressure is minimum (constant and
equal to the atmospheric pressure).
Example 1
A cylindrical pipe of length 29 cm is closed at one end. The air column in the pipe
resonates with a tuning fork of frequency 860 Hz sounded near the open end of A glass tube with a tap at the bottom is filled with water. A tuning fork of known
the pipe. Determine the mode of vibration and find the end correction. frequency, , is sounded over the mouth of the tube as water is gradually ran out
Speed of sound in air is 340ms-1. of the tube until a loud sound is heard.
The tap is closed and the length of the air column is measured and noted.
Observable frequency The experiment is repeated with other tuning forks of different frequencies and
their corresponding lengths of air column recorded.
Observable wavelength
The values of are put in a table including values of .
Comparing wavelength;
1st harmonic; A graph of against is plotted.
Thus mode is not 1st harmonic
18 19
The tap is again opened and water is gradually run out of the tube until a second
loud sound is heard.
The velocity of sound in air is obtained from ( ).
Side work
For 1st loud sound,
The slope , of the graph is calculated. The velocity of sound in air is calculated
For 2nd loud sound,
from .
Side work
( )
( )
Measurement of end correction using resonance tube when only one fork is
available
Measurement of end correction using a resonance tube
Same diagram and procedure as previous experiment
Same diagram and same procedure as previous method Only change to and to
A graph of against is plotted. ( )
End correction is obtained from
The intercept on the -axis is recorded.
The value of is the end correction of the tube. Side work
For 1st loud sound,
Side work
For 2nd loud sound,

( )
( ) ( )
( ) when
Example 1
Measurement of speed of sound in air using resonance tube when only one A uniform tube 50cm long is filled with water and a vibrating tuning fork of
tuning fork is available frequency 512Hz is sounded and held above it. When the level of water is
gradually lowered, the air column resonates with a tuning fork when its length is
12cm and again 43.3cm. Estimate the lowest frequency to which the air in the
tube could resonate if the tube was empty.
( )
( )
The lowest frequency is
A glass tube with a tap at the bottom is filled with water. A tuning fork of known
frequency, , is sounded over the mouth of the tube as water is gradually ran out
of the tube until a loud sound is heard.
20 21
Example 2
A resonance tube is filled with water and a vibrating tuning fork of frequency
600Hz is sounded above it as water is gradually ran out of the tube.
But
The first loud sound is heard when the length of air column is 0.13m and the
third loud sound is heard when the length of the air column is 0.698m. this is why it is called
Determine the speed of sound in air and the end correction of the tube. 3rd harmonic
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) Note
( ) 1. For open pipes all harmonics are possible
( )
Using ( ) 2. The fundamental frequency of an open pipe is twice that of a closed pipe.
( ) ( )
For closed pipe and for open pipe
( )
3. The notes from an open pipe are richer than those from closed pipes
( ) ( ) Put in ( ) because of extra overtones.
( ) Closed pipes; , , , ,……………….
Open pipes; , , , , , , ,……………….
Because of the above, open pipes are preferred to closed one as the
( ) musical instruments.
( )
Example 1
Calculate the frequency of the 3rd harmonic of a sound note set in a pipe of
(b) Open pipes length 0.5m, when the pipe is
(i) Fundamental note (1st harmonic) (i) closed at one end
(ii) open at both ends
(i)
(ii)
st nd
(ii) 1 overtone (2 harmonic)
Example 2
Two open pipes of lengths 92cm and 93cm are found to give beat frequencies
But
of 3Hz when each is sounding in its fundamental note. If the end corrections
this is why it is called are 1.5cm and 1.8cm respectively, calculate the
2nd harmonic (i) velocity of sound in air
(ii) frequency of each note.
(iii) 2nd overtone (3rd harmonic)
(i)
( )
( )
22 23
and STRINGS
( ) ( )
If a wire is stretched between two points and is plucked, a transverse wave travels
along the wire. This wave is reflected at the fixed ends.
( ) ( ) Consider a string of length , mass and under tension .
The velocity of the stretched string depends on and .
( ) ( )
√ ⁄
√ where ⁄ is the mass per unit length.
( ) Using dimensions,
( )
[ ] ,[ ] ,[ ] and [ ]
( ) ( ) ( )
For
Example 3 For
A uniform tube 50cm long stands vertically with its lower end dipped in water. For
The tube resonates with a vibrating tuning fork of frequency 256Hz when its , and
length above the water is 12cm and again when it is 39.6cm.
√ √
(i) Estimate the lowest frequency to which the tube resonates when it is open ⁄
at both ends. But ⁄
(ii) Find the end correction
√
From experiments
For an open pipe √

( )
( ) ( ) Modes of vibrations
( ) 1. Wire plucked in the middle (1st harmonic), fundamental
Using
is the fundamental frequency, is the velocity of the wave
But √
2. 1st overtone (3rd harmonic), wire plucked in the middle
But √
24 25
√ √ But √ 3. Wire plucked of its length (2nd overtone, 3rd harmonic)
This is why it is called 3rd harmonic.
3. 2nd overtone (5th harmonic) wire plucked in the middle
But √
But √
This is why it is called 5th
harmonic. 4. Wire plucked of its length (3rd overtone, 4th harmonic)
√ √
So the wire plucked in the middle we get i.e only odd harmonics
are possible. i.e all the harmonics are
possible.
Or
1. Wire plucked in the middle, fundamental (1st harmonic) √
But √
But √
From the above , and
st nd
2. Wire plucked of its length (1 overtone, 2 harmonic) If is the wavelength of the harmonics, then
Frequency of the harmonic, where is the speed of the wave.
The frequency of the fundamental is given by

√ Therefore
But √ Note
Also from
√ since √
26 27
Laws of vibrations of a stretched string A graph of against is plotted and is a straight line graph through the origin.
From √ This shows that
if and are constants

(c) To show that
√ if and are constants √
if and are constants The mass per metre of the wire is determined by weighing the wire and
√ dividing it by the length ( ) of the wire.
These are the laws of vibrations of a stretched string. The length of the wire is adjusted so that when it is plucked, it produces the
same note as that of the tuning fork used.
Verifying laws of vibrations of a stretched string (The sonometer) The procedure is repeated using wires of different but under the same tension
as first one.
Results are tabulated including values of √ .
A graph of against √ is plotted and is a straight line graph through the origin.
This shows that √
Since and √ then √
A and B are bridges
(a) To show that √ Factors affecting the pitch of a note from a vibrating string
A rider (a small piece of v-shaped paper) is placed in vertical at the centre of the  Length of the vibrating string
wire.  The stretching force (tension in the string)
A vibrating tuning fork of known frequency, , is held on the bridge at A.  The density of the material of the wire
The weights are added to the scale pan until the rider jumps off.  The thickness of the wire
The frequency of the tuning fork and the mass on the scale pan are noted.
Keeping the length constant, the procedure is repeated using tuning forks of Note
different frequencies and the corresponding masses on the scale pan noted. A musical note played on one instrument sounds different from the same note
The results are tabulated including values of . played on another instrument because different instruments have different
A graph of against is plotted and is a straight line graph through the origin. overtones for a given note.
This shows that Since the quality depends on the number of overtones, the quality of a note of the
But produced on one instrument is different from that produced from another
instrument. Hence the note sounds different.
since is a constant Example 1

√ A wire of length 0.6m and mass is under tension of 135N. The wire is
plucked such that it vibrates in its third harmonic. Calculate the frequency of the
Note third harmonic.
The above experiment shows that a wire under tension can vibrate with more
than one frequency.
But √
(b) To show that
A rider is placed in vertical at the centre of the wire. √
A vibrating tuning fork of known frequency, , is held against one of the bridges
until the rider jumps off.
√( )
The length between the bridges is noted.
The procedure is repeated using different tuning forks of known frequencies and
adjusting without altering and .
Therefore the frequency is
The results are tabulated including values of .
28 29
Example 2 CURRENT ELECTRICITY
A stretched wire of length 0.75m, radius 1.36mm and density 1380kgm-3 is clamped There are two types of charges; positive and negative. In any process in which charge is
at both ends and plucked in the middle. The fundamental note produced by the wire
transferred from one body to another, the total charge is constant i.e charge is conserved.
has the same frequency as the first overtone of a closed pipe of length 0.15m.
Calculate the tension in the wire. The SI unit of charge is the Coulomb. A Coulomb is the quantity of charge which passes any
Speed of the sound in air is 330ms-1.
section of a conductor in one second when a current of one ampere is flowing through it
For the closed pipe, first overtone,
CONDUCTION IN SOLIDS
This is due to free electrons that have thermal energy that depends on the metal temperature.
These free electrons wonder randomly from atom to atom. When a battery is connected
across the ends of a metal, an electric field is set up which accelerates electrons so that they
( )
( ) gain velocity and energy .When they collide with atoms vibrating about their fixed mean
For a wire √
N positions, they give up some of the energy to the atoms. The amplitude of vibration is
increased and the temperature of the metal rises.
The electrons are again accelerated by the field and again give up some energy. The electrons
Questions
acquire a constant average drift velocity and it’s this resultant drift of charges that is believed
1. A uniform wire of length 1m and mass 20g is fixed between two points. The
tension in the string is 200N. The wire is plucked in the middle and released. to constitute an electric current.
Calculate the speed of the transverse wave and the frequency of the fundamental
note. Derivation of
2. A wire of a guitar of length 50cm and mass per metre of kg is under
Consider a conductor of length L and cross
tension of 173.4N. If it is plucked in the middle, find the frequency and
wavelength of the fundamental note. sectional area A having n free electrons per
3. An open pipe of length 0.8 m has air in it vibrating at its second overtone and unit volume and each having a charge e.
resonates with a wire of length 0.50m made of a material of density 1889 kgm -3
fixed at both ends and under of 150N. The diameter of the wire is 0.36mm and is Volume of the conductor
plucked in the middle so as to set it into vibration at its third harmonic.
Determine the end correction of the pipe. Number of free electrons
Speed of sound in air is 340ms-1. Total charge
Current
Where
End of waves
Resistance R
This is the opposition to flow of steady (direct ) current through a conductor. It could also be
defined as the ratio of the p.d across the conductor to the current flowing through it.
30 1
Resistors in parallel
The SI unit of R is the Ohm ( while that of V is the volt (V) and that of I is the ampere(A).
The Ohm is the resistance of a conductor through which a current of one ampere flows when
a p.d of one Volt is maintained across it.
Symbols commonly used include;
Fixed resistance
Variable resistance
The p.d V across each of the resistors is the same. Net current I is the sum of currents
Potential divider
through each of the resistors R1, R2 and R3.
i.e
ARRANGEMENT OF RESISTORS
and
Resistors in series
But
Special case for two resistors in parallel
Consider three resistors R1, R2 and R3 arranged in series as shown in the diagram.
The same current flows through each of them. Net p.d is the sum of the p.ds across each of
the resistances.
But
But (effective resistance)
( ) ( )
2 3
Examples
(1)
Calculate the reading of the ammeter A and the value of I1 .

(ii)
( ) ( )
3. A battery of emf 6V and internal resistance 1 is connected across a network of resistors

as shown in the figure Find the current supplied by the battery.
( )
( )
2.
Total resistance
The figure shows a network of resistors connected of a battery of emf 50V and internal
resistance 0.4 Calculate the;
(i) effective resistance in the circuit.
(ii) power dissipated in the battery.
4 5
4. The network of resistors of and are connected to a 12V d.c supply of Examples
negligible internal resistance as shown below .Calculate the power dissipated in the
1. A load of is connected via a potential divider of resistance to a 10V
resistor.
supply as shown below; What is the p.d across the load when the slider is of the way up the
slider?
Work it out
The potential divider

Let be the effective resistance of load and
This is where two resistance boxes are used in the laboratory to provide a known fraction of a
given potential difference.
( )
( )
2. In the circuit below, the voltmeter has a resistance of .
R1 and R2 are in series therefore R=R1+R2 (a) Find the reading of the voltmeter
(b) Calculate the power dissipated in the resistor.
(c) Calculate the power dissipated in the circuit
(d) What voltage would be obtained if the voltmeter was replaced by a CRO?
(e ) Explain the difference between the voltages in (a) and (d)
( )
6 7
(e) . The CRO has infinite resistance. It does not draw current from the circuit in which it is
connected.
Trial questions
1. A d.c source of emf 16V and negligible internal resistance is connected in series with two
resistors of 400 and R respectively. When a voltmeter is connected across the 400
resistor, it reads 4V When it is connected across R ,it reads 6V.Find the;
(i) value of R
(ii) resistance of the voltmeter
(a). 2.
( )
(b AB is 1m long and has a resistance of 10 . C is the mid-point of AB and the voltmeter reads
2V. Find the value of R.
( c). For 10 , ( )
FACTORS AFFECTING RESISTANCE
1. Temperature;
For 310 , ( )
An increase in temperature increases resistance because the amplitude of vibration of ions

For 100 ,
increases. Collisions of free electrons with fixed atoms increase leading to a reduction in
average drift velocity of electrons hence a higher resistance.
For 400 ,
2. Area of cross section;
When the area is increased, more electrons drift along the conductor. More charges cross a
given cross section leading to a higher current and hence a lower resistance.
(d). A CRO has infinite resistance 3. Length of the conductor;
Increase in length leads to a higher longer path for the electrons. This also leads to more
collisions with ions (fixed atoms) which results into a lower average drift velocity hence an
( ) increase in resistance
8 9
. is the resistivity of the material of the wire .It is defined as the resistance (a) Resistance and resistivity at
across opposite sides of a material of a cube of side one metre. It is measured in Ohm (b) Temperature coefficient of resistance Left for the reader.
metre
2. A metal wire 100cm long and 10-2 cm2 cross-section has a resistance of 0.2 at O .
Temperature coefficient of resistance,
Calculate the resistivity of a material at given that the temperature coefficient of
This is defined as the fractional increase in resistance at per Kelvin rise in temperature. resistance is 6.2x10-3K1.
It is denoted by . The S.I unit of is per Kelvin ( .
where;
3. The temperature coefficient of resistance of nichrome wire is . Find the

length of this wire of diameter 1mm and resistivity at needed to make a
A graph of against is of the form y=mx+c . The slope and intercept coil of resistance at
…………………(i)
……………….(ii)
( )
* +
Examples
1. The temperature of a wire of length 2.5m and diameter 0.36mm is varied and the
corresponding resistances measured and recorded. The following values were obtained;
Temperature 75 120 150 250 300 ( )
Resistance 103 103.8 104.4 105.9 106.8
Plot a suitable graph and use it to find;
10 11
4.A nichrome wire of length 1.0m and diameter 0.72mm at is made into a coil. The coil 5. The resistivity of mild steel is at and its temperature coefficient of
is immersed in of water at the same temperature and a current of 5.0A is passed resistance is .
through the coil for 8 minutes until when the water starts to boil at .
Calculate the resistivity of mild steel at
(i) Find the resistance of the wire at
(ii) Find the electrical energy expended assuming that all of it goes into heating the water.
But
(iii) Find the mean temperature coefficient of resistance of nichrome between
and . (Resistivity of nichrome at )
(i)
( )
(ii) Energy * +
Note 1. If is positive. Examples are metallic conductors like nichrome whose

resistance increases with increase in temperature. These are said to have a positive
(iii) Energy
temperature coefficient of resistance (t.c.r ).
2. Semi-conductors like Germanium, silicon etc whose resistance decrease with increase in
temperature are said to have negative temperature coefficient of resistance i.e
These semi-conductors have fewer electrons at room temperature. When the temperature is
increased, more electrons become free and their average drift velocity increases leading to a
decrease in resistance.
3. Super conductors. Super conductors like tin, lead e.t.c are conductors which when current
passes through them, no energy is wasted. When their temperatures are lowered to some
value below OK, different for each material, their resistances disappear. Hence a current
which once started seems to flow forever.
12 13
Ohm’s law
It states that the current through an ohmic conductor is directly proportional to the potential
difference across it provided there is no change in the physical conditions of the conductor eg
temperature.
An experiment to verify Ohm’s law
Dilute acid Neon gas
Junction diode .For a junction diode during forward

bias, a small increase in voltage produces a large
increase current and for reverse bias, an increase in
voltage results in a small reverse current.
P = Rheostat, Q = standard resistor, A = ammeter, V = voltmeter
The experiment is set up as seen in the diagram. The ammeter A and the voltmeter are
calibrated using a potentiometer. By adjusting P the current I through Q is varied and at each
value of I the voltmeter reading V is noted.
HEAT AND POWER
A graph of V against I is plotted and is a straight line graph through the origin
Heat energy =work done; but
This shows that p.d V is directly proportional to the current I .hence verifying Ohm’s law
From Ohm’s law
Also
Ohmic conductors are the ones which obey Ohm’s law. .In this type of conductors the current
is reversed in direction when the p.d is reversed but the magnitude of the current remains the
same. e.g pure metals, copper sulphate solution with copper electrodes
Non-ohomic conductors are those which do not obey Ohm’s law .Examples include;
thermistors, filament lamp, junction diode e.t.c
14 15
ELECTRICAL POWER E.m.f E= p.d across R + p.d across r
This is defined as energy liberated per second. Power,
A graph of V against I
OPEN AND CLOSED CIRCUITS
V is very high resistance ,V=E. A cell is said to be in an open

circuit when no current is drawn from it. The terminal p.d of
the cell in an open circuit is equal to the e.m.f of the cell.
A closed circuit is one where current flows through both the

external resistor and the internal resistance of the cell. The
terminal p.d of the cell in a closed circuit is always equal to the Intercept on V-axis = e.m.f E and slope
p.d across the external resistance.
- From
-
-
-
- Examples
ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (e.m.f ) AND INTERNAL RESISTANCE ( r)

(1). A cell is connected in series with a 1 resistor and a current of 0.3A flows through it.
E.m.f of a cell is defined as the potential difference across the terminals of a cell in an When a resistor is replaced with a 2 resistor the current falls to 0.25A. Calculate the e.m.f
open circuit. and internal resistance of the cell
Or e.m.f of a cell is defined as the total energy per coulomb it delivers around the circuit
joined to it.
…………(.i)
Internal resistance is the opposition to the flow of current through the cell itself.
………….(ii)
CIRCUIT PRINCIPLES
Put in (i)
16 17
2. A battery of e.m.f 2.5V and unknown internal resistance is connected in series with load
resistance of R Ohms. If the voltmeter connected across the battery reads 2.25V and the
power dissipated in the battery is 0.125w, find the;
(i) current flowing
(ii) internal resistance of the battery
(iii) value of R
The current I is passed through the battery T, in opposition to the e.m.f E. this Case is
(i) Power=IE ,
observed in recharging an accumulator.
Supply S sends a current I through a battery T in opposition to the e.m.f E. The pd VAB
(ii)
must be greater than the e.m.f E in this case.
Since the net pd VAB-E across the terminals must maintain the current I in r then,
(iii) V=IR
In contrast when the battery e.m.f itself maintains a current in the circuit, so that the current I
Trial numbers is in the same direction as the e.m.f E, the terminal pd is given by V=E+Ir
3. A battery of e.m.f 12V and internal resistance 0.5 is connected across a 6 load. Example.
Calculate the;
The circuit below shows two batteries in opposition to each other. One has an e.m.f E 1 of 6V
(i) rate of energy conversion in the battery and internal resistance r1 of 2 and the other an e.m.f E2 of 4V and internal resistance r2 of
8 .
(ii) rate of dissipation of electrical energy in the resistor
Calculate the pd VAB across AB
(iii) comment on the differences in (i) and (ii)
4. A battery of e.m.f 1.5V has terminal pd of 1.25V when a resistor of 25 is joined to it.
Calculate the;
(i) current flowing
(ii0 internal resistance r
(iii) terminal pd when the 10 resistor replaces the 25 resistor.
Since current is flowing in the anticlockwise direction.
18 19
ARRANGEMENT OF CELLS
When cells or batteries are in series and assist each other, the net e.m.f E is given by
Since E1 is in the same direction as I, the terminal pd
E=E1+E2+E3+……and their total internal resistance r=r1+r2+r3+………where E1, E2……and

0r if we consider E2, I flows in opposition to E2.
r1, r2 …..are their individual e.m.fs and corresponding internal resistances respectively.
2.
If one of the cells of e.m.f E2 is connected in opposition to the others ,then,
E=E1-E2+E3+…..but their total internal resistance remains the same (unchanged).
When similar cells are in parallel, total e.m.f E is the e.m,.f of one of them and the effective
internal resistance is .
Note;
1. Cells connected in parallel must have the same e.m.f otherwise one of them would draw
current from the other (circulation of current within the battery)
Resistors of 2 and 4 are connected in series with power supplies of 12V and 8V as shown 2. When cells are connected in parallel, they take longer to be exhausted because less current
above. Calculate the; is drawn from them.
(i) reading of the voltmeter Examples.
(ii) power dissipated in the 4 resistor 1. Two identical batteries each of e.m.f E and internal r3isistance r are connected in series.
When a 7 resistor is connected across the combination, it draws a current of 0.39A.
(i)
When the cells are connected in parallel, the resistor draws a current of 0.23A.
For E1 ,
Find the value of E and r
For E2,
(ii) ( )
In parallel, ( )
20 21
( ) ( )
( )
For pmax ,
2. Three identical cells are connected in series with resistors of 3 and 5 . A current of 1.2A
flows in the circuit. When the resistors are connected in parallel across the resistors in series,
the current in the circuit is 2.2A. Calculate the;
(i) internal resistance of each cell.

For maximum power, the variable resistance must be equal to the internal resistance of the
(ii) e.m.f of each cell. same cell.
(iii) power dissipated in the 3 resistor for the parallel combination

, R=r
th
Nelkon and Parker 7 edition 285 examples 1 and 2
OUTPUT POWER AND EFFECIENCY
Power supplied by the source /battery is called power input or power generated
Power delivered to the external resistor (load) is called power output A graph of output power against load resistance
Efficiency
Maximum power (Pmax)
As R tends to infinity
A graph of against load resistance
22 23
energy source is . The energy dissipated per second in the resistors is . By the
principle of conservation of energy , energy supplied =energy dissipated.
Note; One is free to consider the loop either in the clockwise or anticlockwise direction but
the direction considered must be shown in the diagram. In the algebraic summation signs
must be allocated to the e.m.fs E and the pds V=IR.
A graph of terminal pd against load resistance The sign allocation to pd depends on the direction of the current in the resistor in relation to
the direction of the loop.
V is positive if the current in the resistor is in the same direction as that of the loop and
KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS
negative if the current in the resistor is in opposite direction to that of the loop.
Law 1. The sum of currents entering a junction is equal to the sum of currents leaving the
The sign allocation to e.m.fs depends on the polarity of the cell in relation to direction of the
junction.
loop. E is positive if the loop moves from the negative terminal to the positive terminal of the
cell. E is negative if the loop moves from the positive terminal to the negative terminal of the
cell.
Or The algebraic sum of currents at a junction is always zero.
In the algebraic summation of currents, currents entering a junction are positive while those
leaving the junction are negative. Example 1
Kirchhoff’s first is often called the law of conservation of current or charge. The net charge
flow per second into the branch point is equal to the net charge flow per second out of the
branch point.
Law 2. In any closed loop, the algebraic sum of the e.m.fs is equal to the algebraic sum of the
potential drops ( pds). .This is sometimes called the closed loop equation. The
second law is a statement of conservation of energy. The energy supplied per second by the
In the above figure find the;

24 25
(i) Currents through the resistors 2.
(ii) Pds across BE and CD
(iii) Power dissipated as heat in the circuit
In the figure find the;
(a) Current through the 15 resistor
(b) Value of E
Loop 1 ( c ) Value of R
Loop 2
Solving (10 and (2) simultaneously,
Loop 1.
Note; The negative sign for indicates that is the direction opposite to that indicated on
the diagram.
(i) Current through
(ii) Solving equations (1) and (2) simultaneously,
(a) Let current through the 15 resistor be
Since VBE =VCD, BE and CD are parallel.

(b) Loop 3
(iii)
( ) ( ) ( )
( c) Let be the current through R.
Loop 2
26 27
(i) X reads 0.6 A , Y reads 0.2A and Z reads 0.4A.
(ii
3 .
(iii)
(iv)
Trial numbers
In the figure above ,X ,Y and Z are ammeters of negligible resistances. Find the: 4.
(i) readings on the ammeters X Y and Z
(ii) the pd between F and C
(iii) the power dissipated as heat in the resistors
(iv) power delivered by the 12V battery.
In the circuit diagram above, find the:
(a) currents through the resistors
(b) power dissipated in the resistor
5.
Loop 1
Loop 2
In the figure above find the:
Solving (1) and (2) simultaneously, (i) currents through the resistors
28 29
(ii) Show that AF is parallel to EB ( same pd=13V) 2) If , the current through the galvanometer flows from B to A giving a deflection in
the opposite direction.
(iii) power dissipated as heat in the circuit ( 24w)
3) If no current flows through the galvanometer and the galvanometer shows no
6.
deflection. The bridge is then said to be balanced.
Conditions for a Wheatstone bridge to balance
At balance the galvanometer shows no deflection. Pd across R1= pd across R3 and pd

across R2 = pd across R4
The diagram above shows an electrical network in which some currents and resistors are
indicated. Find the:
Equation (i) equation (2) This is a condition for balancing.
(i) Current through R
Alternatively;
(ii) Value of R
(iii) Pd between A and C
THE WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
This is an arrangement of four resistors and
Loop 1.
Loop 2.
Equation (1) equation (2)
A Wheatstone bridge provides an accurate method for comparing resistances. As

are varied, the potentials at A and B change.
1) If the potential at A, is greater than the potential at B, , the current through the
galvanometer flows from A to B giving a deflection on one side of the galvanometer.
30 31
Example THE SIMPLE WIRE METRE BRIDGE
The diagram below shows unbalanced Wheatstone bridge. P is a coil of resistance 20 at This consists of a resistance wire of known cross-sectional area mounted on a metre rule. It
0 . can be used to measure resistance, resistivity and temperature coefficient of resistance.
The circuit is set up as seen in the diagram. The jockey is tapped at different points along the
slide wire AB until the galvanometer shows no deflection.
a) Calculate the current through the (1.6A)
Let i1 be the current through R1 and R2 and i2 be the current through resistance wire AB.
b) Find the potentials at A and B ( )
At balance ,the potential art N is equal to the potential at C
c) If now the galvanometer is connected between A and B ,what would be the direction of the
current flow through the galvanometer Pd across R1= pd across AC
d) If the temperature coefficient of resistance of the material of coil P is , to where r is the resistance per centimeter
what temperature must the coil be raised for the bridge to balance. . ( )
Pd across R2 = pd across AC
Note; 1) A Wheatstone bridge is not suitable for comparing low resistances because the
test resistance becomes comparable to that of the connecting wires and therefore the results
obtained are not accurate. , . This is a balance point for a metre bridge. Note that l1+l2=100
2) A Wheatstone is not suitable for comparing very high resistances because the presence of
Example1 The left hand gap and the right hand gap of the metre bridge are connected by
very high resistances in the circuit causes the current through the galvanometer to be very
coils having resistances of and respectively. When the coil is shunted by a length
low even when far from balance. For high resistances a protection resistor is connected in
of wire, the balance point is found to be 0.58m from the left end of the bridge.
series with the galvanometer.
(i) What is the resistance of the shunt?
(ii) if the shunt is 1.2m long and has a radius of calculate the resistivity of the
shunt material.
32 33
Let R be the effective resistance of Rs and where Rs is the resistance of the shunt. ( )
=
Resistance and resistivity at are and
At balance, Using
Let L be the balance length at
(ii)
( )
L=60.5cm.
3. In an experiment to investigate the variation of resistance with temperature, a nickel wire

2. A coil consists of nichrome wire of diameter 0.5mm and length 1.5m. The coil is and a resistor are connected in the left hand gap and right hand gap respectively of the
connected across the left hand gap of the metre bridge circuit. A standard resistor is metre bridge. When the nickel wire is at a balance point is found to be 40cm from the
connected across the right hand gap of the bridge. With the coil immersed in a mixture of ice left end of the metre bridge.When the wire is at the balance point is found to be 50cm
and water, the balance point is found to be 60.2cm from the left hand end of the bridge. from the left end of the bridge. Calculate the:
a) Determine the resistance and resistivity of the nichrome wire at . 1) Temperature of the nickel wire if the balance point is .
b) What will be the balance length if the temperature of the wire was raised to . 2) The resistivity of nickel wire at this temperature, if the wire is 1.5m long and of cross-
sectional area of .
( t.c.r of nichrome )
EXPERIMENT TO COMPARE RESISTANCES USING A METRE BRIDGE.
Note; temperature of ice and water is . If Ro is the resistance at .

The two resistors R1 and R2 to be compared are connected to the metre bridge as shown in the
diagram. The jockey connected to the galvanometer G is tapped at different points along the
slide wire AB until the galvanometer shows no deflection. The balance lengths l1 and l2 are
measured and recorded.
34 35
At balance, EXPERIMENT TO MEASURE THE TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT OF RESISTANCE
Note: The greatest accuracy is achieved when the balance point is close to the middle of AB.
There are two distinct reasons for this.
i) When the balance point is near the middle, both balance lengths l1 and l2 are measured to
a reasonable degree of accuracy. The error in the ratio l 1/l2 as a result of measuring l1 and l2
is then close to a minimum.
ii) If L1 or L2 was small the error introduce by any contact resistance at A or B would be
significant . For further points Ref, Roger Muncaster second edition page 503
AN EXPERIMENT TO DETERMINE THE RESISTIVITY OF A MATERIAL OF A WIRE

A specimen wire is made into a coil and immersed in a water bath whose temperature is
USING A METRE BRIDGE
varied and measured using a thermometer. The coil is connected in the left hand gap and a
standard resistor Rs in the right hand gap of the metre bridge.
At each temperature the jockey is tapped at different points along the slide wire AB until
a point J is reached when the galvanometer indicates zero deflection.
The balance lengths l1 and l2 are measured and recorded. The experiment is repeated at
different values of and the corresponding values of l1 and l2 measured and recorded.
The experiment is connected as shown in the figure. A wire W is connected in the left hand
The values are put in a table including values of
gap and a standard resistor Rx in the right hand gap of the metre bridge.
A graph of RQ against is plotted. The slope S of the graph if calculated and the intercept Ro
At a known length x of the wire the jockey is tapped along the wire AB until the
on the RQ axis recorded. The temperature coefficient of resistance is obtained from
galvanometer shows no deflection .The balance lengths l1 and l2 are measured and recorded.
The experiment is repeated with different values of x and their corresponding balance lengths
recorded .The values are put in a suitable table including values of

POTENTIOMETERS
A graph of Rx against x is plotted and a straight line graph through the origin is obtained. A potentiometer consists of a mounted wire AB of uniform cross-section which may be of
any length.
(This shows that the resistance increases with length)
The slope S of the graph is calculated. The resistivity of the wire is obtained from.
where r is the radius of the wire which can be determined by using a micrometer
When a driver cell is connected to the slide wire AB, it applies a uniform p.d across the wire.
screw gauge. In problems involving potentiometers, the p.d/cm of the wire must be known.
36 37
Example Consider two situation (a) and (b) given below
A potentiometer slide wire AB, 100 cm long having a resistance of 8 is connected in series (a)
with a 3 resistor and an accumulator of e.m.f 2V and internal resistance 1 . Find the
p.d/cm of the wire.
, is the driver current

Resistance per cm of the slide wire If cell X has an e.m.f E and internal resistance , the p.d between A and J is being balanced
against the terminal p.d of cell X.
At balance, p.d/cm
p.d/cm resistanvce /cm But terminal p.d of the a cell in an open circuit
i.e e.m.f of cell X E
Potentiometers can be used to measure resistance, current and voltages. Therefore p.d/cm
In all cases, the unknown p.d is compared with the p.d across the slide wire. This helps to obtain the e.m.f E of cell X
The unknown p.d could be the p.d across the resistor, terminal p.d of the cell in an open (b)
circuit, e.m.f of a thermocouple, e.t.c
N.B
Balance point can only be obtained if the unknown p.d is connected in opposite direction to
the driver cell i.e the positive terminal of the driver cell should be connected to the positive
terminal of the unknown otherwise; the galvanometer deflection will only be in one
direction for all positions of the jockey.
Principle of a potentiometer Note that there are two separate currents in the circuit; and . Always indicate the parts of
the circuit where there is current flow in the diagram.
At balance,
But terminal p.d of the a cell in an a closed circuit
p.d across external effective resistance
i.e
Combining equations and
It consists of a uniform wire AB of about 1 m long and a driver cell X maintains a steady
current in the wire AB.
But
The resistance of the wire per cm (p.d/cm) is constant since the wire is uniform.
Thus the p.d across 1cm (p.d/cm) of the wire is also constant.
The p.d between the point A on the wire and any point Con it is therefore proportional to This expression helps to obtain the internal resistance of cell X
the length of the wire between A and C i.e
When a driver cell is connected to the slide wire AB, it applies a uniform p.d across the wire. Example
To obtain a balance point, the unknown p.d E is connected in opposition with the driver cell. 1.
At balance point, no current flows through the galvanometer G i.e . The current
through AC is solely by the driver cell.
In the figure above, AB is a uniform wire of length 1.2 m, diameter 0.24 mm and
resistance 8 . When K1 is closed and K2 open, the galvanometer G shows no deflection
38 39
when 67.5 cm. When K1 is open and K2 closed, galvanometer shows no deflection
when 83.3 cm.
Find the
(i) resistivity of the potentiometer wire
(ii) e.m.f of cell X
(iii) internal resistance of cell X Internal resistance of cell X is
(iv) balance length when both K1 and K2 are open
(v) balance length when both K1 and K2 are closed (iv) When both K1 and K2 are open, the 3 resistor is in the circuit but the 10 resistor is
Solution not in the circuit.
(i)
( )
N.B: If a switch is connected in series with a resistor, the resistor is only in circuit
when the switch is closed. If a switch is connected in parallel with the resistor, the
resistor is only in circuit when the switch is open.
(ii) When K1 is closed and K2 open, both the 10 and 3 resistors are not in the circuit.
p.d/cm
At balance
cm
When both K1 and K2 are open the balance length is 90.0 cm
Resistance per cm (v) When both K1 and K2 are closed, the 3 resistor is not part of the circuit but the 10
p.d/cm resistor is in the circuit.
At balance
Cell X has an e.m.f of 1.5 V
(iii) With K1 open and K2 closed, both the 10 and 3 resistors are in the circuit.
p.d/cm
Resistance per cm
p.d/cm cm
At balance 2. In the figure below AB is a uniform wire of length 1.0 m and resistance 4.0 . Y is a cell of
unknown e.m.f and internal resistance.
40 41
The internal resistance is 1.36
(iii) With both K1 and K2 closed, let be effective resistance of 10 and .
When the switches K1 and K2 are open, the galvanometer G shows no deflection when AD
93.8 cm. When K1 is closed and K2 open, G shows no deflection for AD 82.5 cm. With both
p.d/cm
K1 and K2 closed, G shows no deflection for AD 72.0 cm.
Find P.d across P.d across AD
(i) e.m.f of cell Y
(ii) internal resistance of cell Y
(iii) value of R
(i) When the switches K1 and K2 are open, 10 and R are out of the circuit
But
p.d/cm The value of
Questions
At balance 1.
V
(ii) When K1 is closed and K2 open, R is out of the circuit
In the figure, AB is a uniform resistance wire of resistance 4 and length 100cm. E is a

p.d/cm cell of e.m.f 1.5V. D is a driver cell of negligible internal resistance. When the switch K 2 is
closed and K1 is open, the balance length AP is 60.0cm. When K1 and K2 are both closed,
P.d across R P.d across AD
the balance length is 35.0cm.
(a) Find the
(i) internal resistance of E [1.43 ]
(ii) balance length when K1 is closed and K2 open. [43.73cm]
(b) Explain what happens when the e.m.f of cell E is greater than that of D and K2 is
closed while K1 is open
42 43
No balance point will be obtained since p.d across AB is less than the e.m.f of S is then connected to position 2 and the experiment is repeated to locate the new balance
cell E. length which is measured and recorded.
2.
Equation equation
Experiment to measure e.m.f of a cell using a potentiometer
In the figure, AB is a uniform resistance wire of resistance 4 and length 1m. When the
switch S
(a) is open, the balance length AC is 88.8 cm. Find the value of e.m.f of the cell.
[1.4208V]
(b) is closed, the balance length is found to be 82.5cm. Calculate the internal resistance
of this cell. [0.61 ]
With the switch S connected to position 1, the sliding contact moved along AB to locate a
Experiment to standardize a potentiometer
point J on AB for which the galvanometer shows no deflection. The balance length is
measured and recorded
At balance where is p.d/cm
S is then connected to position 2 and the procedure repeated to locate a new balance point
. The balance length is measured and recorded.
Equation equation
Es is the e.m.f of a standard cell

P.R is the protective resistor
K1 is closed leaving K2 open. The sliding contact is placed at different points along the slide
wire until a region of no deflection is obtained. Experiment to measure internal resistance of a cell using a potentiometer
The rheostat R is adjusted until this region is somewhere in the middle of the slide wire.
Switch K2 is then closed and the exact balance point is obtained. The balance length
is measured and recorded.
Experiment to compare e.m.fs of two cells using a potentiometer
With the switch S open, J is tapped along the slide wire AB until the galvanometer shows no
deflection.
The balance length is measured and recorded
At balance where is p.d/cm
S is then closed and J is moved along the slide wire AB until the galvanometer shows no
deflection.
The balance length is measured and recorded.
At balance
The switch S is connected to position 1 and the sliding contact moved along AB to locate a But
point J on AB for which the galvanometer shows no deflection. The balance length is
measured and recorded
where is p.d/cm Equation equation
44 45
Determination of end correction in the experiment to compare resistances
(Refer to previous diagram)
( ) where R is a standard resistor. With connections at and the balance corresponding to the p.d across is measured
and recorded.
Experiment to compare resistances using a potentiometer At balance
With connections at and the balance length corresponding to the p.d across is
measured and recorded.
At balance
With connections at and the balance length corresponding to the p.d across the
combination is measured and recorded.
At balance
Adding and
Two resistors R1 and R2 to be compared are connected in series so that the same current
flows through them. The circuit is connected as shown in the diagram. Equate and
P1 and P2 are rheostats.
With connections at and (full lines) the balance length is measured and recorded.
The connections at and are replaced by those at and (dotted lines) and the balance The true ratio resistances is then
length is measured and recorded.
Advantages of a potentiometer
(i) No current is drawn from the circuit under test hence giving accurate results.
(ii) The scale can be made as long as we choose with reason for maximum accuracy
(iii) The connecting wires may be thin since no current flows through them
Note (iv) Direct calibration with a standard cell is possible
(a) The balance length depends on (v) It has a wide range limited only by the value of e.m.f of the driver cell and the resistance
(i) the p.d/cm of the slide wire that also depends on the current of the series resistor.
(ii) the current and reistsance of the lower circuit.
(b) For balance to be obtained, the require value of must be less than the length of the Disadvantages
slide wire AB. (i) It is relatively cumbersome and slow to use
(ii) Faults may arise due to breaks in the circuit or incorrect connection
Possible problems/error in the experiments (iii) The temperature of the wire must remain constant
(i) If the balance can not be obtained with both resistances R1 and R2, then either the (iv) The wire is assumed to be of uniform thickness
current is too large or p.d/cm is to too small. Balance can be obtained by adjusting
the rheostats P1 and P2. Experiment to calibrate an ammeter using a potentiometer
(ii) If balance can be obtained with R1 and not with R2 then R2 is much greater than R1.
The potentiometer is not suitable for comparison of resistors which differ much in
resistance.
(iii) If both balance lengths and are too small, an end correction has to be made for
the resistances of the contact at the zero end.
End correction in a potentiometer circuits

For more accurate results, the contact resistance at the zero end of the slide wire
must be considered.
An end correction has to be added on all balance lengths. The circuit is connected as shown. Switch S is connected to position 1 and the balance
length is measured and recorded when the galvanometer shows no deflection
N.B
End correction is the length of the slide wire that has the same resistance as the
contact at the zero end.
46 47
S is then connected to position 2 and the balance lengths measured for different readings
of the ammeter A obtained by adjusting rheostat R.
Now the e.m.f of the thermocouple is determined from
At balance
where is the resistance per cm.
( ) Examples
R is adjusted and different values of obtained for different current readings including 1. A resistance wire of 1000 is placed in series with 1m length of a potentiometer wire. Of
( ) resistance 5.0 . A balance length is obtained when a standard cell of e.m.f 1.018V is
connected across the 1000 resistor and 48cm of the potentiometer wire. When a
A graph of against is plotted and constitutes the calibration currents
thermocouple was connected across 12.25cm of the potentiometer wire. Calculate the
e.m.f of the thermocouple.
Experiment to calibrate a voltmeter using a potentiometer
Resistance per cm
A potentiometer is connected as shown.
Switch S is connected to position 1 and balance point is located by tapping the jockey J at ( )
different points along AB. The balance length is measured and recorded.
S is then connected to position 2 the rheostat R is adjusted until the voltmeter indicates the
maximum value it can read . The new balance lengths is measured and recorded.
At balance
2.
The procedure is repeated for other values of by adjusting R.

The results are tabulated including values of
A graph of against is plotted and this constitutes the calibration curve.
In the figure above, the e.m.f of a standard cell is 1.02V and this is balanced by the p.d
Experiment to measure the e.m.f of a thermocouple
across a resistance of 2040 in series with a potentiometer wire AB. If AB is 1.0m long
and has a resistance of 4 . Calculate the length AC on it which balances the e.m.f 1.2 V
of the thermocouple.
With switch S connected to position 1 the jockey J is moved along AB until the centre zero ̅̅̅̅
galvanometer indicates a zero deflection. The balance length is measured and recorded.
̅̅̅̅ cm
S is then connected to position 2 and the jockey J is moved along AB until the centre zero
galvanometer indicates a zero deflection.
The balance length is measured and recorded.
48 49
3. Resistance per cm
With the connection at ,
With the connection at ,
In the figure, AB is a resistance wire of length 1.0 m and resistance 10.0 . E is an

accumulator of e.m.f 2.0V and internal resistance 1.0 . When a standard cell of e.m.f
1.018V is connected in series with the galvanometer G across AC, the galvanometer
shows no deflection. When the standard cell is removed and a thermocouple connected Let
via the galvanometer as shown by the dotted lines, a galvanometer shows no deflection and
when AD 41.0cm. Calculate the
(i) value of R
(ii) e.m.f of the thermocouple.
But From equation 1;
Thus The e.m.f of the thermocouple is
4. In the figure below Y is an accumulator of e.m.f 3V and negligible internal resistance Therefore and
connected in series with a 2 resistor and a slide wire AB of length 1.0m and resistance
8 . A cell X of e.m.f 2.5V and internal resistance 1.0 is connected in series with the two
resistors R1 and R2. Balance lengths of 42.8cm and 75.0cm are obtained when the
galvanometer is connected at and respectively.
End
Find the
(i) current flowing through R1 and R2.
(ii) resistances R1 and R2.
51
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DEFECTS OF LENSES Conditions for two lenses to form achromatic doublet

In mirrors, spherical aberration is minimized by;

Since α is a small angle in radians, .

Since β is a small angle subtended at the aided eye, .

Angular magnification (in normal use)

. Since small angles in radians, and

An image seen in a magnifying glass is free from chromatic aberration Examples

1. A compound microscope has an objective of focal length 3.5cm and an eyepiece

If the final image coincides with the object, find the;

(i) separation of the lenses

COMPOUND MICROSCOPE (Normal adjustment)

For the eyepiece,

(iii) Linear magnification , For the eyepiece;

But COMPOUND MICROSCOPE WI IMAGE AT INFINITY

2. A compound microscope consists of an objective of focal length 2cm and an

(i) For the eyepiece;

- In normal adjustment the separation of - In normal adjustment the separation of

1. An astronomical telescope has an objective lens of focal length 50 cm and an eyepiece

3. An astronomical telescope has an objective of focal length 250 cm and an eyepiece of

For the objective

A telescope has an objective of focal length 60 cm and an eyepiece of focal length

is linear magnification For the eyepiece

Magnification is increases in the ratio of ( ) ( )

The eye – ring (exit pupil)

Therefore the eye ring is at a distance of 6.6 cm from the eyepiece.

The objective lens of an astronomical telescope in normal adjustment has a diameter of

(i) magnifying power of the telescope

The final virtual and erect image is formed at infinity.

and for small angles,

Case2: Final image at near point (final image at D)

Disadvantages of erecting lens

Case1: normal adjustment (final image at infinity) ( )

Advantages of a Galilean telescope over astronomical telescope

Disadvantages of a Galilean telescope over astronomical telescope

Prism binoculars (telescopes)

These consist of large parabolic mirrors as the objectives.

2. A distant star subtending an angle of is viewed with a reflecting telescope

The magnification of the image produced

Magnification is also obtained from √ √

Let and be the heights of and respectively. For small angles in

1. A projector produces an image of area onto a screen placed 5m from the

Distance of slide from the lens is given by

And Using N.B

Root mean square value (r.m.s)

P and R are two wires of dissimilar metals joined at Q to form a junction of a

(a) Half wave rectification

In the first quarter cycle, when X is positive, diodes B

Peak value (maximum) for power

4. A sinusoidal a.c amperes flows through a resistance of . Find

Explaining the graph

A.C THROUGH A CAPACITOR Capacitive reactance

Back e.m.f lags by

A.C THROUGH AN INDUCTOR

(c) Inductor in a.c circuits

(b) Resistance R and inductance L in series

√( ) This gives the impendence

(c) L, C and R in series

A coil of inductance is connected to a source of a.c as shown in the figure above. If

Differences between mechanical and electromagnetic waves PROGRESSIVE WAVES

Common terms used Longitudinal waves

1. An oscillation or cycle: This is a complete to and fro motion of a vibrating particle

(b) Damped oscillations

Equations and represent a plane progressive wave equation of a wave