6/16/2020

ELECTRICAL WIRING
SYSTEM

5
D. N. Rathod
 PREFACE
I am extremely happy to present the book of “Electrical
Wiring System” for you. I have divided the subject into small
chapters so that the topic can be arranged and understood
properly. I tried to present all the basics which require
entering into this field.
Most importantly, I am would like special thanks to my
parents for everything that they have done throughout my life
and their support. I am would also like to thanks my friends
for their endless and unconditional love.
I am also thanks to all those persons who have helped me
directly or indirectly in enabling me to bring about this Book
into success.
Again, thank you all.

- D. N. Rathod
- dhruvilrathod@live.in

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It must be stated that the full credit of this book is not due to
the author, bur to the various standards organizations,
companies and author who originated and developed those
data. I have selected data and information from several
sources. This is done with a view to providing the new
generation of engineering students, a comprehensive and easy
to access of design data in a condensed manner. For this, I am
indebted to the following author:
U. A. Patel
M. K. Giridharan
Dr. D. M. Patel

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 INDEX

PREFACE ................................................................................................................................... i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .........................................................................................................ii

INDEX ..................................................................................................................................... iii

CHAPTER 1: WIRING ............................................................................................................ 5

1.1 System of wiring: .......................................................................................................................... 7

1.2 Wire and Cable: .......................................................................................................................... 16
1.3 Domestic wiring installation: ...................................................................................................... 18
1.4 Methods of wiring: ...................................................................................................................... 20
1.5 Control circuits in domestic installations: ................................................................................... 22
1.6 Industrial wiring: ......................................................................................................................... 26
1.7 Cables.......................................................................................................................................... 32
1.8 Fuse ............................................................................................................................................. 35
CHAPTER 2: ILLUMINATION ............................................................................................. 37

2.1 Definitions................................................................................................................................... 37
2.2 Design of indoor lighting schemes: ............................................................................................ 42
2.3 Typical lamp data ........................................................................................................................ 47
2.4 Method of lighting calculation: ................................................................................................... 53
CHAPTER 3: LIGHTING DESIGN CALCULATION .......................................................... 60

3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 60

3.2 Arrangement of fixtures .............................................................................................................. 66
CHAPTER 4: EARTHING ...................................................................................................... 67

4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 67

4.2 Equipment Earthing: ................................................................................................................... 67
4.3 Methods of earthing: ................................................................................................................... 69
4.4 Importance of Earthing ............................................................................................................... 74
4.5 Earthing Rules............................................................................................................................. 76
4.6 Components of Electrical Earthing System ................................................................................ 77
4.7 Types of Earthing Systems ......................................................................................................... 81
4.8 Types of Systems Earthing ......................................................................................................... 82
4.9 Fault level computation and earthing design .............................................................................. 86
4.10 Design of earth electrodes:........................................................................................................ 89

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CHAPTER 5: ELECTRICAL POWER TRIANGLE .............................................................. 91

5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 91

5.2 Impedance triangle ...................................................................................................................... 92
5.3 Comparison of different reactive compensators ......................................................................... 97
5.4 Power Factor Improvement ......................................................................................................... 98
ELECTRICAL LAW ............................................................................................................. 100

FORMULA ............................................................................................................................ 104

Standard Electrical Units of Measure .................................................................................... 106

Multiples and Sub-multiples .................................................................................................. 106

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 CHAPTER 1: WIRING
The most important requirement for any electrical wiring system is
safety. Before attempting to wire your house, you must have a solid
understanding of the regulations and safety standards to prevent
mistakes that might cause shocks, injuries, damage or fire. Most states
don't allow unlicensed electricians to work on the wiring, so you need
to check the National Electrical Code in your area before beginning a
project.
You'll need a proper electrical wiring diagram to carefully plan out
where the wires go with the number of outlets and home switchboard
panels in each room in your house. You also have to include the spot
for the circuit breaker in your diagram. Once your plans have been
approved, you can begin setting up the outlets, switches and breaker
with the correct amperage on the walls.
It's generally safer to install many outlets within one room than use
extension cords later on. When these are in place, it's time to roll the
wires from the breaker box into the outlets, according to the plan in
your diagram. Be sure to carefully follow the instructions on the
breaker box when you set the wires, outlet, switch and fixtures.
Lastly, install the circuits that match the required amperage for the
wires.
Particular system of wiring for an electrical installation, the following
point must be due consideration.

1. Life of installation
2. Future extensions or alterations

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 3. Construction of building
4. Fire hazards or other special conditions.
5. Corrosive fumes
6. Dampness

There are various systems by which power is distributed to the

domestic consumers

1. Single phase two wire system

2. Three phase three wire system
3. Three phase four wire system

The most commonly used system for the ordinary domestic consumer
is the 2 wire system.
After the energy meter the consumer must provide a main switch
which would control the complete lighting and power circuit of the
house. Thus main switch operates simultaneously on the phase and
neutral. It’s also known as iron clad switch and is enclosed in a box
made of iron.
Iron clad switches are available in the following types

1. Double pole iron clad switch (DPIC):- it used for controlling

single phase 2 wire circuits. This is normally used in domestic
wiring.
2. Triple pole iron clad switch (TPIC):- This switch is
controlling a 3 phase 3 wire circuits. This is normally used for
industrial installations.

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 3. Triple pole iron clad with neutral link (TPNIC):- This switch
is used for controlling a 3 phase power with 4 wire system. Its
use is mainly for industrial installations.

1.1 System of wiring:

The following factors must be given due consideration while selecting
a system of wiring for Building.

1. Life of the installation

2. Type of wire and material used
3. Future extensions or alterations
4. Nature of load
5. Construction of building
6. Quality of wiring system
7. Fire hazards or other special conditions
8. Corrosive fumes
9. Dampness
10. Safety of the system
11. Appearance of the wiring system used
12. Cost of the wiring system

Irrespective of the choice of wiring system, cables used in the

installation should be adequately protected against the risk of
mechanical damage to which they are liable under normal conditions
of working.
Wiring system are normally classified as per the types of wire used
the wiring.

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Following are the types of wiring systems commonly used for
residential building, commercial building, etc.

1. Cleat wiring
2. Wooden casing and capping wiring
3. C.T.S or T.R.S wiring
4. Metal sheathed wiring or lead sheathed wiring
5. Conduit wiring

1.1.1 Cleat wiring:-

Cleat wiring is normally used for temporary wiring purposes. As a
permanent system of wiring, it is not preferred in domestic premises.
It is quite suitable for taking a temporary connection, such as for
function, marriages, etc.
In this Type of wiring, vulcanized India rubber (V.I.R) or polyvinyl
chloride (PVC) insulated wires are used as conductors. Wires are held
by the help of porcelain cleats which are placed 6mm off walls or
ceilings.
Grooves are provided in the base portion of the cleat for
accommodating the wires. After the wire is run into the cleat base,
cap portion of the cleat is placed over it. The whole of it is then
screwed on wooden plugs (gutties) previously cemented into the wall
and ceiling. Thus, the cables are firmly gripped between the two
halves of the cleats. The cleat used is of different size and different
types in order to accommodate cables of various size and different
numbers of cables respectively. The cleats are of three types.

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 1. One groove
2. Two grooves
3. Three grooves

Figure 1. Cleat wiring

To accommodate one, two and three cables or wires respectively. In

order to ensure longer life to cleat wiring system, cleats should be
usually used at intervals of 30 cm and in no case at more than 60 cm.
Advantages of Cleat Wiring:

 It is simple and cheap wiring system

 Most suitable for temporary use i.e. under construction building
or army camping
 As the cables and wires of cleat wiring system is in open air,
Therefore fault in cables can be seen and repair easily.
 Cleat wiring system installation is easy and simple.
 Customization can be easily done in this wiring system e.g.
alteration and addition.

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  Inspection is easy and simple.

Disadvantages of Cleat Wiring:

 Appearance is not so good.

 Cleat wiring can’t be use for permanent use because; Sag may
be occurs after sometime of the usage.
 In this wiring system, the cables and wiring is in open air,
therefore, oil, Steam, humidity, smoke, rain, chemical and acidic
effect may damage the cables and wires.
 It is not lasting wire system because of the weather effect, risk
of fire and wear & tear.
 It can be only used on 250/440 Volts on low temperature.
 There is always a risk of fire and electric shock.
 It can’t be used in important and sensitive location and places.
 It is not lasting, reliable and sustainable wiring system.

1.1.2 Wooden casing and capping wiring:

This is one of the cheapest types of wiring and is commonly used for
house wiring. The cable used in this type of wiring is either V.I.R or
P.V.C or any other approved insulated cables. The cable is carried
through the wooden casing enclosures. The casing consists of V-
shaped grooves and is covered at the top by means of rectangular strip
of teak wood know as capping of the same width as that of casing.
Wooden casing of seasoned teak wood is used in rectangular blocks
having a number of grooves equal to the number of wires to be fixed.
This casing is placed 3.5mm apart from the walls or the ceiling by

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means of wooden blocks or porcelain discs to safeguard it from the
dampness of the building.
These types of wiring should be adopted only for voltages up to 250V
in dry places and in places where there is no risk of fire. The
assembled view of wooden casing and capping wiring with V.I.R
wires placed in the grooves.
Advantages of Casing Capping Wiring:

 Better appearance than cleat wiring.

 Cheap in cost
 Easy to install and rewire
 Easy to inspect by opening the capping

Disadvantages Casing Capping Wiring:

 Not suitable in damp places

 Risk of fire
 This type of wiring can be used only on surface and cannot be
concealed in plaster.
 Since it requires better workmanship, labor cost is more.

1.1.3 C.T.S or T.R.S Wiring:

This type of wiring is also used for house wiring and is quite cheap.
Cab tyre sheathed (C.T.S) wire or tough rubber sheathed (T.R.S) wire
is normally used as conductor for this wiring. The wires are run on the
teak wooden battens are fixed on the wall or the ceiling by means of
screws and wooden plugs. Teak wood battens used for these types of
wiring must be well seasoned, perfectly straight and well varnished.

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Their thickness should not be less than 10 mm and their width will
depend upon the number of conducting wires to be run over this
batten. It is available in many standard widths. The wires are fixed on
the wooden batten with the help of tinned brass clips which are fixed
on the wooden batten.

Figure 2. C.T.S or T.R.S Wiring

The C.T.S or T.R.S cables used are not much affected by chemicals,
water and steam. However, these are affected by lubricating oil. This
type of wiring has long life, better appearance less risk against fire.
These types of wiring cannot be used where there is possibility of
mechanical injury to the wiring such as in workshops. Moreover, its
use should be avoided where the wiring is open to sun and rain.
Advantages of Batten Wiring

 Wiring installation is simple and easy

 Cheap as compared to other electrical wiring systems

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  Paraphrase is good and beautiful
 Repairing is easy
 Strong and long-lasting
 Customization can be easily done in this wiring system.
 less chance of leakage current in batten wiring system

Disadvantages of Batten Wiring

 Can’t be installing in the humidity, Chemical effects, open and

outdoor areas.
 High risk of firs
 Not safe from external wear & tear and weather effects
(because, the wires are openly visible to heat, dust, steam and smoke.
 Heavy wires can’t be used in batten wiring system.
 Only suitable below then 250V.
 Need more cables and wires

1.1.4 Metal sheathed wiring:

This type of wiring is also adopted for low voltages installation. This
system is more or less similar to C.T.S wiring except that the cable
used is different in this wiring system. In this system conductors used
are insulated with V.I.R and then covered with an outer sheath of lead
aluminum alloy containing 95% lead and 5% aluminum. The metal
sheath is provided over the insulated conductor in order to protect the
wiring system from mechanical injury, dampness and atmospheric
action.

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Similar to C.T.S wiring system, cables are run on wooden batten and
are fixed with the help of tinned link clips. Metal sheathed cables are
particularly suitable for places exposed to sun, rain and dampness.
However, they are not suitable for corrosive environment.
Advantages:

 Conductors are protected against mechanical injury

 It is suitably employed under damp situations
 It gives better life
 Conductors are protected against chemicals
 It can be installed in open space.

Disadvantages:

 Cables are costlier than C.T.S or T.R.S wires

 In case of leakage, there is every risk of wires
 Skilled labor and proper supervision is required
 It is not suitable for places where chemical corrosion may occur

1.1.5 Conduit wiring:

Conduit wiring system is the best for domestic and commercial
installations. It provides proper protection to the installation against
fire hazards, shock, mechanical damage and dampness. The cable
used in this system is either V.I.R or P.V.C insulated and is run in
mild steel or P.V.C pipes called as conduits. Conduits carrying the
insulated wires can be to installed on the surface of the walls or
concealed in the walls and the ceiling. Modern practice is to
unaffected. The life of this installation system is sufficiently long.

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This system of wiring provides a good protection to the installation
against fire due to short circuit, mechanical damage and dampness.
However, this is the costliest system of domestic and commercial
installation.
There are two additional types of conduit wiring according to pipe
installation

1. Surface Conduit Wiring

2. Concealed Conduit Wiring

1. Surface Conduit Wiring

If conduits installed on roof or wall, it is known as surface conduit
wiring. In this wiring method, they make holes on the surface of wall
on equal distances and conduit is installed then with the help of rawl
plugs.
2. Concealed Conduit wiring
If the conduits are hidden inside the wall slots with the help
of plastering, it is called concealed conduit wiring. In other words, the
electrical wiring system inside wall, roof or floor with the help of
plastic or metallic piping is called concealed conduit wiring.
Obliviously, It is the most popular, beautiful, stronger and common
electrical wiring system nowadays.
Advantages:

 Conduit provides protection against mechanical injury and fire

 Conduit provides protection against chemicals
 The whole system is water proof

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  Conductors are safely secured from moisture
 Replacement and alteration of defective wiring is easy.
 This wiring has far better look
 It has a longer life
 It is shock proof if earthlings and bounding is properly done

Disadvantages:

 It is costly system of wiring

 It requires more time for erection
 It requires highly skilled labor
 Internal condensation of moisture may cause damage to the
insulation unless the system outers are properly drained and
ventilated.

1.2 Wire and Cable:

In electrical house wiring, it is difficult sometimes to differentiate
between wire and cable. In fact, single wire which may be bare or
covered with insulation in known as wire. Several wires with
insulation and stranded together are known as cable. The cable
consists of three parts.

1. Conductor or core – the metal wire or strand of wires. It can be

single core, twin core, three core, etc.
2. Insulation – it is a cover of insulating material to avoid the
leakage of current from the conductor and

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 3. Protective covering - it is an outer covering used to cover the
insulation for protection against mechanical damage and
moisture

Normally cables are classified according to the insulation used over

the conductor. The various classifications of cables commonly used
for domestic wiring are as follows.

1. Vulcanized Indian rubber (V.I.R) cables

2. Tough rubber sheathed (T.R.S) cables
3. Cab tyre sheathed (C.T.S) cables
4. Poly vinyl Chloride (P.V.C) cables
5. Lead sheathed cables
6. Weather proof cables

The proper types and size of the cable should be selected for an
installation according to:

1. Nature of conditions, e.g. underground, damp conditions, etc.

2. The operating voltage, and
3. The current capacity of the installation

The operating voltage will decide the external protection to be

provided on the cable.
The operating voltage determines the thickness of insulation.
The current capacity of the installation will determine the cross-
sectional area, or the size of the cable conductor.

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1.3 Domestic wiring installation:
While planning an electrical installation for a residential building,
first proper locations should be selected for all the outlets for lamps,
fans, and other application (Fixed and portable). Next, the system of
wiring which is the best from different aspects should be finalized.
All runs of wiring and the exact positions of all points of switch
boxes, outlets, etc. should be properly marked on the plans of the
building. Description of the distribution system of a domestic
installation needs the explanation of certain terms like service
connection, sub circuits etc.

1.3.1 Service Connection:

The instated cable that supplies electric power from the supply pole to
the consumer’s terminal is normally termed service connection. This
may be an overhead or an underground cable. Residential building
normally needs a single phase supply in which the service connection
has three wires, namely, phase, neutral and earth.
For feeding industrial load, a 3- phase supply with neutral available is
most essential. In such a case, the service connection consists of five
wirers, three wires for three-phase, fourth for the neutral and fifth for
the earth wire.
1.3.2 Sub-circuits in domestic wiring:
Sub-circuits in domestic installation can be broadly classified into two
categories:

1. Light and fan sub-circuit

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 2. Power sub-circuit

Power sub-circuit should be kept separate and distinct from lighting

and fan sub-circuits.

1) Light and fan sub-circuit:

The sub-circuit of the electrical installation feeding supply to various

light points, i.e. lamps, tubes, etc. and to fan points; i.e. ceiling and
table fans etc. is termed as light and fan sub-circuit respectively.
While planning this sub-circuit for a residential building, the
following points must be given proper consideration:
The number of light and fan points connected in one sub-circuit
should not exceed 10.
The total load connected in a sub-circuit should not be more than
800W
Control of light and fan points in any sub-circuits should be carried
out by 5A switches fitted on a switch board.
Socket outlets provided in these sub-circuits should be of 5A rating.
Only a single phase supply should be fed to these sub-circuits.
In practice, at least two lighting sub-circuits should be provided in
each house because in case of fault in any one sub-circuit will not
affect the other sub-circuit.
2) Power sub-circuit:
The part of the complete installation that supplies appliances like hot
plate, electric iron, small single-phase motor of washing machine,
refrigerator etc. is generally called the power sub-circuit. The

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following points must be considered for proper planning of these
circuits:
The number of power points connects in one sub-circuit should not
exceed two.
The load connected to a sub-circuit should not be more than 2.0 kW.
Control of these circuits should be carried out by 15A switches.
Socket outlets provided in these circuits should be of 15A rating.
These sub-circuits must be used on single phase supply.
At least one spare circuit should be provided on each distribution
board as per IS 732-1963.

Figure 3. Power sub-circuit

1.4 Methods of wiring:

There are two methods of wiring:

1. Joint box or tee method

2. Looping in method

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1.4.1 Joint box or tee method:
In joint box method, the connections to the lamps are made through
joints made in joint boxes by means of suitable connectors or joint
cutouts. In this method, though there is a saving in the quantity of
wire of cable required but the same is off-set by the extra cost of joint
boxes. The other disadvantage of T-connection is that the number of
T-connections made in a wiring system results in weakness if not
properly made.
Now a day, the use of this system is limited to temporary installation
only as its cost is low.

Figure 4. Joint box or tee method

1.4.2 Looping-in system:

It is necessary that there should be no soldered joint in the wires of an
internal distribution of wiring system. The looping-in method is used
to avoid soldered joints. This method is universally employed for
connections of various lamps or other appliances in parallel.

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In this system when a connection is required for a lamp through
switch, the feeding conductor is looped in by bringing it direct to the
terminal of the switch and then carrying it forward again to the next
switch from the same terminal. The switch and light feeds are carried
round the circuit in a series of loops from one point to another unit the
last point on the circuit is reached. The phase wire is looped in from
one switch to the other and neutral is looped in from one point to
another within the same sub-circuit. In no case joint is made in the run
of cable or wire.

Advantages:
 No junction boxes are required
 Since no joints are concealed in walls and roof spaces, they are
made only at outers and switch boards.
 The connections are accessible for inspection and hence fault
location is easy.

Disadvantage:

 Cable required is more and hence voltage drop and copper

losses are comparatively more.
 Looping in switches and lamp holders is usually difficult.

1.5 Control circuits in domestic installations:

For domestic appliances, single-phase, 230V, 50Hz A.C. supply is
available. Lighting circuits and power circuits are separately
controlled. Lighting circuit consists of lamp, fan and devices up to

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5A. On the other hand, power circuit mainly consists of loads which
have more than 5A i.e. 15A capacity. In this section, we will discuss
the simple control circuit for lighting purpose.
1.5.1 Control of one lamp one point:
Indicates the control circuit of single lamp operated from single point
or switch. In this case, the phase wire and neutral are made available
at the lamp terminals. Phase wire is taken through single pole single
throw (SPST) switch and neutral is directly connected to the lamp
terminal.

Figure 5. Control of one lamp one point

Switch must be connected in the phase wire and never in the neutral
wire. Similarly the fuse is always connected in the phase wire and not
in the neutral wire. This provides more safety to the operator. If the
switch is provided in the neutral, there is a potential between the live
wire and the earth, even with the switch in the off position. This
would cause the shock to the operator repairing the lighting points

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with the switch in the off position. If the switch is in the phase wire
then open (off) position of the switch makes the entire circuit dead
and the operator does not get the sock wile repairing the lighting
points with the switch in the off position.
1.5.2 Control of lamp and fan or more lamps using separate
switch (looping in system):
In this circuit, the wiring already done for one lamp is extended for
control of fan and so on for more number of lamps as shown in the
figure.
To control the fan phase wire is taken from the previous switch and
neutral is directly looped from previous lamp as shown in figure.

Figure 6. Control of lamp and fan or more lamps using separate switch (looping in system)

Such type of connection facilitates in saving of length of wire and

other wiring material.

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1.5.3 Control of one lamp from two different points (staircase
lighting circuit):
Most of the time, there is a requirement that one lamp is to be
controlled from 2 different places. Generally these types of circuits
are used in staircase lighting where one lamp is controlled from 2
different places. In this case, two single pole double throw (2-way)
switches are used.
A 2 way switch has four terminals, two of them being per mentally
connected together on what is often known as the bar side. One of the
bar terminals is blanked off by screw. The live or phase wire is
connected to the bar terminal of one 2 way switch and bar terminal of
the other switch is connected to the terminal of the lamp.

Figure 7. Control of one lamp from two different points (staircase lighting circuit)

25
The neutral of the supply is looped into the other terminal of the lamp
as usual. The remaining two terminals of each switch are
interconnected as shown in fig.

1.6 Industrial wiring:

The light, fan and domestic power load circuits as already mentioned
are always single phase circuits. In a workshop or a factory, for
motors whose rating exceeds 2 or 3 kW, 3 phase 3 wire supply is
required and for light and fan circuits, single phase supply is required.
Hence for a factory or a workshop, 3 phase, 4 wire supply is required.
3 phase motors are connected to 3 phase wire and light and fan
circuits are connected between one of the three phases and neutral.
For internal wiring, for supply to a motor use of V.I.R or P.V.C
insulated cables of suitable size depending upon the rating of motor is
made. In only exceptional cases, where motors are of very large
capacity, use of underground cables is made.
Design consideration in case of motor wiring installation is different
than that of the lighting wiring installation. In case of lighting load,
size of conductor / wire is decided on the total current of the load.
But in case of motor wiring, size of the conductor should not be less
than corresponding to 300 percent of the motor full load current. The
reason is that conductor should be capable of withstanding the starting
current of the motor which is generally 5 to 7 times the full load
current. Therefore each motor is fed separately from the main
distribution board. If there are more than one motor on single branch
circuit, then the rating of the conductor will depend on the total load

26
of all motors in that circuit plus starting current of the largest H.P.
motor.

Figure 8. Industrial wiring:

Each motor takes a high current at the starting which may be 5 to 7

times the full load current of that motor. Hence to limit the voltage
drop in cable as well as to limit huge current at starting, separate
device is used known as starter. Starter is located after the motor
switch.
In domestic installations, single earthing is sufficient but in workshop
or in factory, double earthing is necessary from the extra safety point
of view.
The conduit used in power wiring shall be electrically continuous
throughout and connected to the frame of the motor. The frame of the
motor shall be earthed by the owner by two separate and distinct
connections to the earth as shown in fig.

27
 Figure 9. Two separate and distinct connections to the earth

Why we need Inverter?

There is only one thing that is Battery is available by which we can
store electrical energy for use during load shedding. But we know that
battery is a DC source. In our home, all electrical equipment made for
230V AC supply. So we need 230V AC supply to run our electrical
equipment during load shedding. The inverter in our house is a device
which takes 12V DC supply and gives 230V AC Supply. So Inverter
is a circuit or you can call a device which converts DC to AC.
How to Select Rating of Inverter for Home?
If you want to install an Inverter in your home then first you must
select an Inverter of perfect rating which can drive the loads which
you want. So the selection of rating of Inverter is very important.

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For select the rating of the Inverter you need to calculate the load
which you are want to run during load shedding.

For Example, you want to connect

2 Fan of 70 Watt = 140W

2 Tube Light of 60W= 120W
2 LED light of 15W = 30W
1 Television of 120W = 120W
3 CFL of 25W = 75W

So, the total load is = 485W

You need to select the rating more than your total load because when
we just ON any electrical device it draws a much current at starting
time. The inverter has the rating in KVA so you need to
purchase 800KVA Inverter if your load is 500 W to 600W.

How to select the rating of Battery for the inverter?

You must select the rating according to your required time of use that
means if want to use the inverter 3 hours and your load is 485W then
the rating of the battery must be,

(485×3)/12=122Ah

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As 122Ah battery is not available in the market you can purchase
150Ah battery.
The formula is ampere-hour= (total load × required time in
hour)/battery voltage
We will show two basic UPS / Inverter with batteries connection the
home distribution board.

1. Auto UPS / Inverter with Two Wires

2. Automatic USP / Inverter Wiring with One Live Wire

1.6.1 Automatic UPS / Inverter wiring with two Wires.

No rocket science here. Just connect the outgoing Neutral and Live
wires to the UPS. Now connect the two outgoing Neutral and Phase
wires from UPS / Inverter (As output) to the appliances as shown in
fig.

Figure 10. Automatic UPS / Inverter wiring with two Wires

30
1.6.2 UPS / Inverter Wiring with Single Additional Live Wire
As a basic, we know that each load points should be connected
through Live (Phase) and Neutral wire to operate normally. In case
below, we have already connected the Phase & Neutral (from Power
house to the utility pole & Distribution board then) to each electrical
appliance i.e. Fans, Light points etc. that’s what we do in our
distribution board for home wiring.
Now, according to the below UPS connection diagram, connect an
extra wire (Phase) to those appliances where we have already
connected Phase and Neutral wires from (Power house & DB) (i.e.,
two wire as phase (Live) as shown in the below fig). And no need to
connect extra Neutral wire from UPS as it is already installed &
connected before. In simple words, you only need a live wire to
connect to the appliances as shown in fig

Figure 11. UPS / Inverter Wiring with Single Additional Live Wire

31
1.7 Cables
General construction of cable:
The underground cable employed for transmission of power at high
voltage consists of the following basic components:
Cores or conductors: it consists of one central core or a number of
cores (two, three or four) of tinned stranded copper or aluminum
conductors. Conductors are used in stranded from to provide
flexibility. Conductor number is 3, 7, 19, and 37 and so on. Various
conductors are spiraled round the central conductor. This is done to
prevent bird-caging when the conductor is bent.

Figure 12. Cables

Insulation: The satisfactory operation of a cable depends to a great

extent upon the characteristics of insulation employed. The main
requirement of the insulating materials used for cables are:
High insulation to avoid leakage current
High dielectric strength to avoid electrical breakdown of the cable
High mechanical strength
Non inflammable
Low permittivity

32
Low coefficient of thermal expansion
Non hygroscopic
Chemically inert
High breakdown strength
High resistively
High viscosity
Some of the insulating materials used in cable are
Rubber
V.I.R (vulcanized India rubber)
Impregnated paper
P.V.C (polyvinyl chloride)
Polythene
Varnished cambric (or empire tape)
Gutta percha
Silk and cotton
Enamet
Metallic sheath: as cable is placed underground, the soil may present
moisture, gases and some other liquids. Therefore, a metallic sheath is
applied over the insulation for protecting the conductors and
insulation from mechanical damage. It also prevents ingress of
moisture into the insulation.
Bedding: for protection of sheath against corrosion and from
mechanical with fibrous material is provided over the metallic sheath.
Sometime jute strands or hessian tap is also used for bedding.

33
Armouring: Over the layer of bedding, armouring consisting of one
or two layers of galvanized wire or tape is provided to save the cable
from mechanical injury while handling.
Serving: over the armouring, a layer of fibrous material similar to
that of bedding known as serving is provided in order to protect the
armouring from atmospheric conditions.
1.7.1 Classification of cables:
Underground cables may be classified as follows:

1. According to the voltage level

2. According to the insulating material used.

According to voltage, cables are classified as:

Low voltage (L.T) cables up to 1 kV
High voltage (H.T) cables up to 11 kV
Super tension (S.T) cables up to 33 kV
H- type cables 33 to 66 kV
S.L type cable up to 66 kV
H.S.L type cable up to 66 kV
Extra high tension (E.H.T) cable up to 66 kV
Oil filled cables 66kV to 230kV
Gas pressure cables 400kV
Extra super voltage cables up to 132 kV and above
1.7.2 Types of cables:
Following are type of cables according to the number of conductors:
Single core cable

34
Multi core cable
2 core cables
3 core cables

3 core cable

4 core cable
1.8 Fuse
A fuse is metal wire connected in series with a circuit to protect the
circuit in the event of short circuit or excessive overload. If the
current in the circuit becomes very high as compared to the rated
current, the fuse wire melts and opens the circuit. This wire which
melts and opens the circuit is known as fuse element. The element
along with the contacts, link and base is known as fuse.
A fuse performs two basic functions:

I. The passive function of carrying current during normal

conditions in the circuit and
II. The active function of interrupting over currents.

The minimum fusing current is defined as the smallest current r.m.s.

value which can cause melting of fuse wire. The rated current of a
fuse is the current it can carry indefinitely without fusing. The fusing
factor is defined as:

Fusing factor =

The fusing factor is approximately 1.9 for semi-enclosed rewirable

fuses used for low voltage domestic and commercial installations and
1.45 cartridge fuses. The fusing current is given by
35
Fusing current = kd1.5
Where d is the diameter of fuse wire
K is a constant dependent on the material of fuse wire
The material used for fuse element should posses the following
properties:

I. Low melting point

II. High conductivity
III. Free from oxidation

Table 1.Current rating of fuse wire for semi enclosed fuses

Current rating A Diameter of fuse wire (mm)

Tinned copper Lead Tin lead alloy
(63% Tin, 37%
Lead)
1.5 0.12 0.60 -
3 0.15 0.70 0.60
5 0.20 0.90 0.80
6 0.25 1.0
10 0.35 -
15 0.50 2.0
20 0.60
25 0.75
30 0.85

36
 CHAPTER 2: ILLUMINATION
2.1 Definitions

1. Light: it is defined as a form of electromagnetic energy radiated

from a hot body which produces the visual sensation upon the
human eye. It is usually denoted by Q expressed in lumen hours
and is analogous to watt hours
2. Luminous flux: it is defined as the total quantity of light energy
emitted per second from a luminous body. It is measured in
lumens. It is represented by symbol F or ϕ. A lumen can also be
defined as the luminous flux falling on a unit area illuminated by a
source with a luminous intensity of 1 candela at a unit distance fro,
the area.
3. Luminous intensity: it is a measure of the strength of the source
of light. It is given by the luminous flux radiated out per unit solid
angle in that direction. In other words, it is solid angular flux
density of a source in a specified direction. It is denoted by I.

If dϕ is the luminous flux radiated out by a source within a solid

angle of d steradian in any particular direction, then

I=

If the flux is measured in lumens and solid angle in steradian, its

unit is lumens/steradian (lm/sr) or candela (sd). The candela is
sometimes known as candle power or C.P.

37
 This definition strictly holds for a point source. If a source has an
average luminous intensity or 1 lm/sr (or I candela), then total flux
radiated by it all around is

Hence, a source of 1candela i.e. I=1 radiates a total of lumens.

4. Illumination: A surface is said to be illuminated when luminous

flux is falling upon it. It is measured by the normal flux received
by the per unit area of the surface. It is denoted by E. its unit is
lumens/m2 (lm/m2) or lux (lx)

Mathematically

E= illumination (lm/m2)
Φ= luminous flux (lm)
A= area of the surface (m2)

5. Solid angle: plane angle is the angle subtended at a point in a plane

by two converging straight line. Its magnitude is given by

It is measured in radians and denoted by .

The largest angle subtended at a point is 2
Solid angle is the angle generated by the surface passing through
the point in space and the periphery of the area. It is denoted by

38
and expressed in steradians. It is given by the ratio of the area of
the surface to the square of the distance between the area and the
point.
i.e.

Solid angle ( ) =

Or

( )=

The largest solid angle subtended at a point is due a sphere at its

center.
If r is the radius of any sphere, its surface area is 4 r2 and the
distance of its surface area from the center is r. therefore, the solid
angle subtended at its center by its surface is given by

( )=

=4 steradians

39
6. Lumen: It is the unit of luminous flux. It is defined as the amount
of luminous flux given out in a space represented by a unit solid
angle by a source having an intensity of one candle power in all
directions.
i.e. Lumens= Candle power × Solid angle
7. Candle power: It is the light radiating capacity of a source in a
given direction.
It is defined as the number of lumens emitted by the source in a
unit solid angle in a given direction. It is denoted by C.P.

=
8. Lamp efficiency: It is defined as the ratio of the luminous flux to
the power input. It is expressed in lumens/watt.
9. Utilization factor: It is defined as the ratio of total lumens reacting
the working plane to the total lumens given out by the lamp. It is
also called as coefficient of utilization.

i.e. Utilization factor =

Utilization factor depends on the following:

1. Height of the source of light
2. Type of the lighting (direct or indirect )
3. Color of surrounding walls and ceiling.
Value of utilization factor for direct lighting lies between 0.25 to
0.5 and for indirect lighting; it lies between 0.1 to 0.3.

40
10. Maintenance factor: Due to accumulation of dust, dirt and
smoke on the lamps, they emit less light than that they emit when
they are new ones. Similarly the walls and ceilings, etc. after being
covered with dust, dirt and smoke do not reflect the same output of
light as they do when they are new.

Therefore, the maintenance factor is defined as the ratio of

illumination under normal working condition to the illumination
when the things are perfectly clean
i.e.

Maintenance factor =

Its average value lies near about 0.8

11. Depreciation factor: It is merely the inverse of the maintenance
factor. It is defined as the ratio of illumination when everything is
clean to the illumination under normal working conditions.
i.e.
Depreciation factor =

The value of depreciation factor is more than unity and lies

between 1.3 to 1.4.
12. Waste light factor: When a certain area is illuminated by number
of lamps, there is always certain amount of wastage of light on
account of overlapping and falling of light outside the edges of the
surface. This effect is taken into account by multiplying the
theoretical value of lumens required by 1.2 for rectangular areas

41
 and 1.5 for irregular areas and objects such as statues, monuments,
etc.
13. Absorption factor: in the places, where atmosphere is full of
smoke fumes, such as in foundries, there is a possibility of
absorption of light. The ratio of total lumens available after
absorption to the total lumens emitted by the source of light is
called the absorption factor. Its value varies from unity for clean
atmosphere to 0.5 for foundries.
i.e.
Absorption factor =

14. Reflection factor: When a ray of light impinges on a surface, it is

reflected from the surface at an angle of incidence. A certain
portion of incident light is absorbed by the surface. The ratio of
reflected light to the incident light is called the reflection factor

i.e. Reflection factor =

Its value is always less they unity.
2.2 Design of indoor lighting schemes:

The following aspects should be looked into carefully while designing

indoor lighting i.e.

1. Provision of adequate illumination.

2. Provision of light distribution all over the working plane as
uniform as possible
3. Provision of desired color light.
4. Provision to avoid hard shadow and glare as far as possible.
42
2.2.1 The various factor involved in the design of a proper lighting
system are as under:

1. Illumination level: this is the most important factor to decide the

illumination level, wattage of lighting source and spacing etc, so that
we are able to see our surroundings, do our job and see things the way
we want to see. Colors of the body have the property of reflected light
in different proportion. The other factors involved are the degree of
illumination for desired illumination, size of the object, its distance
from the viewer, contrast between the objects to be seen and
background. The moving objects require more illumination as
compared to the stationary objects.

Illumination level required for various locations in residential and

commercial buildings is recommended as under:

I. Recommended levels of illumination for domestic Buildings

(National electrical code 1985)

Table 2.

No. Location Illumination

level-lux
1 Entrance, Hallways 100
2 Living room 300
3 Dining room 150
4 Bedroom General 300
Dressing, bed 200

43
 heads
5 Kitchen 200
6 Kitchen sink 300
7 Bathroom 100
8 Sewing 700
9 Workshop 200
10 Stairs 100
11 Garage 70
12 Study 300

II. Recommended levels of illumination for Recreation /assembly

buildings (National electrical code 1985)

Table 3.

No. Location Illumination level-

lux
1 Assembly and concert halls
Foyers, auditoria 100-150
Platforms 450
Corridors 70
Stairs 100
2 Cinema Halls
Foyers 150
Auditoria 50
Corridors 70

44
 Stairs 100
3 Theatres
Foyers 150
Auditoria 70
Corridors 70
Stairs 100

III. Recommended levels of illumination for School/College buildings.

Table 4.

No. Location Illumination level-

lux
1 Assembly Halls
When used for examinations 300
General 150
Platforms 300
2 Classes and lecture rooms
Desktop 300
Blackboard 200-300
3 Libraries
Shelves 70-150
Reading room 150-300
Reading tables 300-700
Cataloguing/stack rooms, etc. 150-300
4 General

45
 Office 300
Staff rooms 150
Corridors 70
Stairs 100

IV. Recommended levels of illumination for office buildings

Table 5.

No. Location Illumination level-

lux
1 Entrance hall/reception 150
2 Conference rooms/executive 300
offices
3 General office space 300
4 Business machine operation 450
5 Drawing office 450
6 Corridors 70
7 Stairs 100
8 Lift landings 150

V. Recommended levels of illumination for hospital buildings

Table 6.

No. Location Illumination level-

lux
1 Reception & waiting 150

46
 General wards 100
Bed side 150
Toilets 70
Stairs 100
2 Operation theatre
General 300
Operating tables Special
3 Laboratories 300
Radiology 100
Causality & OP 150
Dispensaries 300
4 Laundry 200
Dry cleaning 200
Ironing, mending 300
5 General office 450
6 Kitchen 200

2.3 Typical lamp data

1. Incandescent lamps

Table 7.

Rating-Watts Life-Hours Initial Lumens

60 1000 870
100 750 1750
150-par 2000 1740
200 2000 2300
500 2000 6500

2. Fluorescent lamps

Table 8.

Rating-Watts Life-Hours Initial Lumens

18 7000 1120
20 7000 1020
47
 36 7000 2800
40 7000 2700
2×40 7000 4000

3. Compact fluorescent lamps

Table 9.

Rating-Watts Life-Hours Initial Lumens

5 10000 220
7 10000 380
11 10000 560
13 10000 680
15 10000 810
18 10000 1050
23 10000 1500
26 10000 1800
32 10000 2400

4. Mercury vapor lamps

Table 10.

Rating-Watts Life-Hours Initial Lumens

100 18000 3700
175 24000 8600
250 24000 12100
400 24000 22500
1000 24000 57000

5. Metal halide lamps

Table 11.

Rating-Watts Life-Hours Initial Lumens

50 15000 3400

48
 70 15000 5600
100 15000 9000
150 10000 13500
175 10000 15000
250 10000 20500
400 20000 36000
1000 12000 110000

6. High pressure sodium vapor lamps

Table 12.

Rating-Watts Life-Hours Initial Lumens

35 16000 2250
50 24000 4000
70 24000 5800
100 24000 9500
150 24000 16000
250 24000 27500
400 24000 47500
1000 24000 140000

7. Pulse start metal halide lamps

Table 13.

Rating-Watts Life-Hours Initial Lumens

50 15000 3400
70 15000 5600
100 15000 9000
150 15000 15000
175 15000 17500

49
 200 15000 21000
250 15000 26300
320 20000 34000
400 20000 44000
450 20000 50000

1. Uniformity of illumination: The illumination system designer has

to make sure that uniformity of illumination as far as possible
should be maintained within the place for which illumination is
required. Because human eye is relaxed if light is uniform and
fatigue due to more pressure on eye is felt in inadequate light at
that spot. In the field of illumination, it has now been felt that the
range of brightness within the field of vision is not greater than 3:1
which can be achieved by employing general lighting in addition to
localized lighting. For instance, in a sewing or embroidery room,
localized lighting is focused on working plane and general lighting
will serve when sewing work is not carried out.
2. Color of light: Appearance of color of object to the human eye
entirely depends upon color of light emitted by the source. In
general, composition of light should be such that the color appears
natural i.e. its appearance should be by and large same as that seen
during day light. The day light fluorescent tubes make it possible to
illuminate large space with artificial day light giving good color
rendering economically.
3. Shadows: formation of long and hard shadows causes fatigues of
eyes which is said to be improper illumination design. The shadow
less light can be obtained by (1) installing more number of small
50
 luminaries mounted at height no less than 2.5 meters (2) By using
wide surface of light using globes over filament lamps (3) By using
indirect lighting system.
4. Glare: It may be direct or indirect i.e. it may be caused directly by
the light source or may be a reflected brightness such as from a
desk top, nick led machines parts, calendared paper, fine spirit
polish on furniture etc. the glare is a hindrance to vision and causes
discomfort to the eye. This should be done away with by designing
illumination through a professional engineer.
5. Mounting height: The mounting height largely depends upon size
and types of building. In residential buildings, the light points are
installed on walls of the rooms about 2.75 to 3.0 meters above
floor. In large size rooms, halls, etc. the light points are made to
hang from ceiling so that its height is around 2.75 to 3.0 meter
from floor to obtain uniform intensity of light throughout the room.
6. Spacing of luminaries: in order to obtain an almost uniform
intensity of light all over the working plane, the distance between
the lamps should not be too much. The illumination will be more
uniform if there are more number of small size lamps. To have
uniform illumination the ratio of spacing between the lamps and
their height above the working plane (space height ratio) should
not exceed 1.5 and not less than 1 in any case.
7. Co-efficient of utilization: A surface to be illuminated is to
receive light either directly from the lamps or reflected from the
ceiling and walls. In any case, the total flux reaching the surface

51
 will never be equal to the flux emitted by the lamp due to
absorption of light by reflectors, ceiling and walls. Therefore, the
light flux reaching the working plane can be calculated by
multiplying the total lumen flux emitted by the lamp by a factor
called utilization factor or co-efficient of utilization. Its value
depends upon types of reflector, color of walls and ceiling etc.
However it varies from 0.5 to 0.8.
8. Depreciation factor: the total flux emitted by the source and
reflector may be reduced due to deposition of dust and dirt upon
their surface. Similarly, quantity of light reflected from the ceiling
and walls also decreases with the passage of time. This reduction in
light flux can be improved if the lamp fittings are cleaned
regularly, walls painted or white washed with white colors. It may
be 0.8 or even less if walls are dustier. An absolute cleanliness is
not practicable in planning of a lighting scheme, the depreciation
factor has also to be kept in view which is:

= = Average value nearly 0.8

sometimes, the depreciation factor is also given as:

i.e.

In this case, the value of depreciation factor is more than 1, i.e., 1.3 to
1.5.

52
2.4 Method of lighting calculation:
A number of methods have been employed for lighting calculation,
among which following methods are popular.

1. Watts per square meter method.

2. Lumen or light flux method
3. Point to point or inverse square law method.

2.4.1 Watts per square meter method.

This is principally a “rule of thumb” method and used for rough
estimation. It consists in making an allowance of watts per square
meter of area to illuminate according to the illumination level desired
at the place.
2.4.2 Lumen or light flux method:
This method is simple and applicable to those sources of light which
produce an approximately uniform illumination over the working
plane.
From the size of lamps employed and from their efficiency, total
lumens output are determined. Multiplying the total lumens output
from the source by coefficient of utilization, lumens received on the
working plane are determined. If the lamps and surroundings are not
perfectly clean, then in determination of lumens received on working
plane, the depreciation factor (or maintenance factor) should be
included.
Thus, in this method total lumens received on the working plane.
= No. of lamps × wattage of each lamp × efficiency of each lamp in
terms of

53
 lumens per watt ×

or

Lumens received on working plane

= No. of lamps × wattage of each lamp × efficiency of each lamp in
terms of lumens per watt × coefficient of utilization × maintenance
factor
2.4.3 Point to point method:
Lumen method is not suitable for lighting calculation of outdoor
installation especially street lighting. In these installations, the light
comes to the object directly from the source and there is no reflected
light. The calculation in such cases is done by use of inverse square
low or cosine law. So this method is also known as inverse square law
method. This method of calculation is known as “Point to point”
method. The total illumination at a point is the sum of illumination
due to various light sources. In such calculations the light source can
be considered as a point source because the distance of the point at
which illumination is to be calculated is large as compared to the
dimension of the lamp. Since the candle power of a lamp is different
in different direction, it is necessary to use the polar curve for the
calculations. This method is applied where illumination at a particular
point is required and the candle power of lamp in the particular
direction under consideration is known.
If the polar curve of lamp and its reflector giving candle power of the
lamp in different direction is known, the candle power in any

54
particular direction can be calculated. Then by applying inverse
square law, the illumination at any point can be found out.
If two or more lamps illuminate the same working plane, the
illumination due to each can be calculated by adding up to get total
illumination.
For calculating the illumination in a given room or for calculating the
number of lamps / tube light fittings when level of illumination to be
maintained is given, the following formulae can be used.
That is,

N=

Where, N = no. of fittings needed

E = illumination (lux)
A = working area (m2)
O = luminous flux produced per lamp (lumens)
CU = coefficient of utilization
MF = maintenance factor

Luminous flux of different types of lamps is given in table given

below
Table 14.

No. Description of lamp Lumen Lumen

Efficiency output at
/watt 230 V
1 Fluorescent lamp 80 W – 5 58 4640
Ft. warm white 60 2400
40 W – 4 Ft. warm white 46 920
20 W - 2 Ft. warm white
2 Incandescent lamp 40 W 10 400
60 W 12 720
100 W 13.80 1380
200 W 14 2100
55
 300 W 14.75 2950
500 W 16 4800
1000 W 16.9 8450
19 1900
3 Mercury discharge lamps 80 W 31 2480
125 W 31 3875
250 W 35 8750
400 W 39 15600
4 Sodium discharge lamps 45 50 2250
W 57 3420
60 W 65 5525
85 W 70 9100
140 W

Example 1: A workshop measures 10m × 25m. the shop is

illuminated by 24 lamps of 200 W each. The lumen efficiency of each
lamp is 15 lumens per watt. Depreciation factor assumed to be 0.8 and
a coefficient of utilization of 0.5 determine the illumination on the
working plane.

Solution:

Area = 10m × 25m = 250 m2

No. of lamps = 24
Wattage of lamp = 200W
Lumen efficiency = 15lm/W
Depreciation factor = 0.8
Coefficient of utilization = 0.5
Total lumen given by the lamps.

56
Φ = No. of lamps × wattage of each lamp × lumen efficiency
= 24 × 200 × 15
= 72,000 lumens
Lumens actually falling on the working plane
= ϕ × coefficient of utilization × depreciation factor (<1)
=72,000 × 0.5 × 0.8
=28,800 lumens

Illumination =

= lumens / m2

= 11.5 Lux

Example 2:
Estimate the number and wattage of lamps which would be required
to illuminate a workshop space 60m × 15m by means of lamps
mounted 5 meters above the working plane. The average illumination
required is about 100 lux, coefficient of utilization = 0.4, luminous
efficiency 16 lumens per watt. Assume a space height ratio of unity
and a candle power depreciation of 20 %.

57
Solution:

Gross lumens required, ϕ =

= 2, 81,250

Total wattage required =

= 17,578 W
For a space – height ratio of unity, only three lamps can be mounted
along the width of the room and 12 lamps can be arrange along the
length of the room. Thus, the total number of lamps required
= 12 × 3
= 36

Wattage of each lamp, W =

= 488.3
We will select the nearest standard lamp of 500 W. location of the
lamp is shown in fig.

58
2.5m

59
 CHAPTER 3: LIGHTING DESIGN CALCULATION
3.1 Introduction
In professional field proper lighting design is very important because
an under lighting arrangement will decrease the efficiency of the task
for which the lightings were designed and an over lighting
arrangement will result in over expenditure of the company. On small
scale this difference is not too much to worry about but in large
buildings, plants, factories, etc it becomes very significant in
today electrical wiring installations.
The simple and basic approach for calculating the
lighting requirement is to divide the total light requirement of the
room by light output (lumen) provided by a single lamp. Although
this is the basic approach for an average household room, but it’s not
practically accurate.
In practical there are several other parameters which are necessary to
be considered in the calculation because nothings Ideal. For example
the luminaries lumen output won’t be the same throughout the entire
life span, dust deposition on lamps will also reduce their output over
time which means cleanliness is also an important parameter. A bright
painted room reflects more light than a dark colored room so they
both have different lighting requirements.

So it is important to first understand few basic terms about lighting

design before beginning the calculations.

60
The best option available for lighting design is the use of standard
lighting software. If no such facility is available, any one of the
following techniques can use for the design.

1. Short hand method

2. Long hand method
3. Simplified method

3.1.1 Short hand method

In this method it is assumed that the average maintained quantity of
lumens arriving on the work plane will be half the quantity of the total
new lamp lumens. This method assumes ‘normal’ sized rooms,
‘normal’ surface reflectance and ‘normal’ dirt conditions. A normal
sized room is the one in which the mounting height (distance from the
luminaire bottom to the work plane) is less than half the smallest
room dimension. It is also assumed that conventional fixtures are
used. A high bay fixture is used when the mounting height is over 6
m. otherwise low bay fixtures are recommended. The total number of
fixtures (luminaires) to be used is then calculated as follows.

Step-1 obtain the required level of illumination in lux.

Step-2 choose a particular lamp and obtain the lamp lumens from the
lamp data.

61
Step-3 delivered maintained lamp lumen (DMLL) = 0.5 × Rated
lamp lumens.

Step- 4 number of fixtures (luminaires) =

Select the nearest round figure.

Step- 5 Area per fixture =

Step- 6 Spacing between fixtures =

Spacing should not be more than the mounting height (MH) for high
bay fixtures and 1.5 times the mounting height for low bay fixtures.
Check for conformity. If the spacing is too large, go back to step – 2
and start again with a lower lamp rating.
3.1.2 Long hand method:
This is a more accurate and effective method of estimating the
number of light fixtures (luminaires) and their spacing, because it
takes into account the differences in photometric performance caused
by room geometry and system lumen depreciation. The core idea of
this method is the determination of coefficient of utilization (CU) on
the concept that the area to be lighted has three cavities or spaces that
have effective reflectances with respect to each other and the work
plane. The given space to be lighted is divided into three cavities that
are shown below. The space between the ceiling and the bottom of the
luminaire is known as ceiling cavity (CC) and the distance is h cc, or
62
the height of ceiling cavity. The space between the work plane nad the
bottom of luminaire is room cavity (RC) and the distance is h rc or the
height of room cavity. The space between the work plane and the
floor is floor cavity (FC) and the height is hfc or the height of floor
cavity. The room cavities are shown in figure below.The cavity ration
represents the geometric properties of the ceiling, room and floor
cavities and can be found using the formula:

Cavity ratio =

Where,
h= hcc, for ceiling cavity ration (CCR)
= hrc, for room cavity ratio (RCR)
= hfc, for floor cavity ratio (FCR)
Step-1
Study the site plan and elevation of the installation. Determine the
lighting needs in consultation with standards and the end used.
Step-2
Select the light sources and luminaire, appropriate to the installation
geometry, nature of visual task and energy criteria.
Step-3
Calculate the ceiling, room and floor cavity ratios and using table 17
find out the effective ceiling and floor cavity reflectance.
Step-4
Use the given chart for coefficient of utilization, the effective ceiling
and floor reflectance and RCR; find out the value of effective
coefficient of utilization.

63
Step-5
Select the light loss factor (L.L.F), this factor was previously referred
to as maintenance factor (MF). Generally, accepted values are
A/C room, clean room, etc 0.8
Industrial environment 0.7
Dusty areas 0.6
Step-6
Used the formula to arrive at the quantity of luminaires (fixtures)

Number of luminaires =

Step-7
Arrange the luminaires symmetrically giving due considerations to
spacing criterion to achieve uniformity of illumination.
Area per luminaire (fixture) =

Therefore, fixture spacing =

Spacing should not be more than the mounting height (MH) for high
bay fixtures and 1.5 times the mounting height for low bay fixtures.
Check for conformity. If the spacing is too large, go back to step-2
and start again with a lower lamp rating.
3.1.3 Simplified design procedure
A simplified design procedure for lighting design by lumen method
for a simple interior is given below (Assumption: C.O.U. chart based
on room index is available)

64
Step-1
Study the site plan and elevation of the installation. Determine the
lighting needs in consultation with standards and the end user.
Step-2
Select the light sources and luminaire, appropriate to the installation
geometry, nature of visual task and energy criteria.
Step-3
Calculate the room index (RI) using the formula:

Room index (RI) =

Step-4
Based on this, coefficient of utilization value can be obtained from the
C.O.U. table for the selected luminaire. These values are generally
based on the RI and room surface reflectance which are generally
70% for light colored, 50% for average and 30% for dark walls and
50%, 30% and 10% for corresponding ceilings.

Step-5
Select the light loss factor (LLF), this factor was previously referred
to as maintenance factor (MF). Generally, accepted values are:
A/C room, clean rooms, etc 0.8
Industrial environment 0.7
Dusty areas 0.6
Step-6
Use the formula to arrive at the quantity of luminaires:

Number of luminaires =

65
Step-7
Arrange the luminaires symmetrically giving due considerations to
spacing criterion to achieve uniformity of illumination.

Area per luminaire (fixture) =

Therefore, fixture spacing =

If this spacing is too wide, repeat the process with a fixture with lower
wattage of lamps. Normally, spacing should not be more is more than
the mounting height for high bay fixtures and 1.5 times the mounting
height for low bay fixtures.
3.2 Arrangement of fixtures
Fixtures shall be arranged from the middle of the room to the outside.
A square array is the best option but rectangular array also will work
satisfactorily as long as the spacing to mounting height ratio is not
violated. With even quantities of rows or columns, the locations are
half the spacing off the centre line. The closest fixture to a wall
should be one half the spacing or less.

66
 CHAPTER 4: EARTHING
4.1 Introduction
Earthing means the connection of the neutral point of a supply system
or the non- current carrying parts of electrical apparatus such as
metallic frame work, metallic covering of cables, earth terminal of
socket outlet, stay wires, etc. to the general mass of earth by wire of
negligible resistance in such a manner that at all time an immediate
discharge of electrical energy take place without danger. This brings
the body of the equipment to zero potential and thus will avoid the
electric shock to the operator.
According to Indian electricity rules the earthing is defined as:
“The earthed or connected with earth means connection with the
general mass of the earth in such manner as to ensure at all time an
immediate discharge of energy without danger.”
Purpose of earthing:
The basic purpose of earthing is to achieve the following objectives:
1. To save human life from danger or shock or death by blowing
fuse of any apparatus this becomes leaky.
2. To protect all machines fed from over head line from lightning.
3. To protect large buildings from atmospheric lightning.
4. To maintain the line voltage constant

4.2 Equipment Earthing:

According to rule 61 of Indian electricity rules, 1956 it is obligatory
to earth the following points and apparatus used in the power system,
where the voltage is more than 125 V.
67
 1. All the metal frames of motors, generators, transformers and
controlling equipment.
2. The steel tower and steel tubular or rail poles carrying overhead
conductors.
3. The mental frames of portables electrical equipment such as
heaters, table fans, electric irons, refrigerator, air conditioners
vacuum cleaners etc.
4. Other metal parts such as conduits, switchgear casing etc.
5. Earth terminal of all the 3 – pin outlet sockets.
6. In case of concentric cables, external conductor i.e. armoring of
such cables.
7. Stay wires of overhead lines if stay insulator is not provided.

Table 15.

Sr. No. Capacity of load Size of earth wire (SWG) Size of earth electrode

Copper G.I. Copper G.I.

1 Up to 10 H.P. 8 8 60cm×60cm× 60cm × 60cm ×
3.18mm 6.35mm
2 Above 10 H.P. 8 6 Do Do
& up to
15 H.P.
3 Above 15 H.P. 6 2 Do 90cm × 90cm ×
& up to 6.35mm
30 H.P.
4 Above 30 H.P. 4 - 90cm × 99cm -
& up to ×6.3mm
50 H.P
5 Above 50 H.P & 2 or strip - Do -
up to 12.7mm

68
 100H.P.
6 Above 100 H.P. Strip 25mm × - Do -
2.5mm

4.3 Methods of earthing:

Electrical earthing system is composed of,

1. Earth Electrode: Earth Electrode is the last part for an earthing

system. It is the part of which is always buried into the earth. There
is some types of earth electrode are used like Pipe Electrode, Rod
Electrode, Driven Electrode, and Plate Electrode. According to
your condition of the electrical system or equipment’s you will
select the perfect types of electrode.
2. Earth Lead: This is the connecting conductor by which
connection to the earth electrode is made. Earth lead should be the
same metal as the earth electrode. If you are using different
conducting metal then the result can be different than you
expected. It should lay in such a way that it is always well
preserved. It can be taken through the conduit and connect with
system or equipment. But you have remembered the size of
the conductor. The perfect size or an average earth lead conductor
is minimum 3.00mm2 for pure copper and 6.00mm2 for GI or Steel.
If you have the authority to select one of this earth lead, I suggest
you select Copper earth lead.
3. Earth Continuing Conductor: It is the connecting wire which
will connect the different types of electrical equipment bodies to
the earth lead or the earth bus bar on ground level. Earth continuing

69
 conductor can be a separated wire, metal conduit pipe or PVC
insulated to the earth cable armoring.

There are various methods of achieving this connection from which

a few of the common methods are as follows:
1. Wire or strip earthing
2. Earthing through water mains
3. Road earthing
4. Pipe earthing
5. Plate earthing
4.3.1 Wire or strip earthing
In this method of earthing, strip electrodes of cross-section not less
than 25mm x 1.6mm (1in x 0.06in) is buried in a horizontal trenches
of a minimum depth of 0.5m. If copper with a cross-section of 25mm
x 4mm (1in x 0.15in) is used and a dimension of 3.0mm2 if it’s a
galvanized iron or steel.
If at all round conductors are used, their cross-section area should not
be too small, say less than 6.0mm2 if it’s a galvanized iron or steel.
The length of the conductor buried in the ground would give a
sufficient earth resistance and this length should not be less than 15m
4.3.2 Earthing Through Water Mains
In this type of earthing the GI or copper wire are connected to the
water mains with the help of the steel binding wire which is fixed on
copper lead as shown below.
The water pipe is made up of metal, and it is placed below the surface
of the ground, i.e. directly connected to earth. The fault current flow

70
through the GI or copper wire is directly get earthed through the water
pipe.

Figure 13. Earthing Through Water Mains

4.3.3 Rod Earthing
Rod earthing is similar to pipe earthing. In this method of earthing a
copper rod of diameter 12.5 mm or 16mm diameter galvanized steel
or a hollow section of 25mm galvanized iron pipe of length not less
than 2.5m is buried vertically underground.

Figure 14. Rod Earthing

71
The pipe can be buried manually or using pneumatic hammer. The
earth resistance is reduced to a desired value by the embedded
electrode.
4.3.4 Pipe Earthing
It is the most common type of earthing system. In this type of earthing
system, a perforated pipe made of galvanized steel/iron of approved
length and diameter is buried vertically. The size of the pipe used
depends on the magnitude of current and the amount of moisture
content in the soil. The diameter of the pipe is usually 40mm and
length 2.75m for normal soil. The amount of soil moisture determines
the length of the pipe.

Figure 15. Pipe Earthing

72
4.3.5 Plate Earthing
In this type of earthing, a plate made up of galvanized iron or copper
is buried vertically at a depth not less than 3m from the ground level.
The dimension needed for galvanized iron plate is
60cmX60cmX6.35mm and that for copper plate is
60cmX60cmX3.18mm.

Figure 16. Plate Earthing

73
4.4 Importance of Earthing
The main purpose of grounding is to minimize the unfortunate events
like accidents due to electric shock, fire as a result of current leakage
through unsought path and ensure the current carrying conductor’s
potential does not increase with respect to earth than the designed
insulation. In certain cases the metallic parts of the electrical
appliances comes in conduct with the live wire, which may be due to
the failure of the electrical installation or cable insulation failure.
Charges get accumulated in those metallic parts and a person gets a
severe electric shock or even death when he comes in contact with
such charged metallic parts. By means of earthing these charges can
be transferred directly to earth. The following shows the necessity of
earthing.

74
  Protection of lives of human and animals and also provide safety
to electrical appliance and installations from leakage currents.
 In case of fault in one phase the voltage in healthy phase need to
be constant.
 Protect the electrical system and buildings from lightning.
 Provides a return path for electrical traction and communication.
 Avoid the fire threat in installations.
4.4.1 Important Terms
Earth: The connection of an electrical installation through a
conductor to another conductor buried in earth.

Solidly Earthed: An electrical installation or appliance is said to be

solidly earthed when it is connected to earth conductor/wire directly
without using a circuit breaker, fuse, impedance or any other safety
devices or elements

Earth Electrode: A conductor buried in earth for the purpose of

electrical earthing is known as earth electrode. The shape of the earth
electrode may vary from conductive rod, conductive plate, metal
water pipe or any other conductor with low resistance. Earth
electrodes are made of copper, galvanized iron, cast iron etc.

Earth Lead: The conductive strip or wire that connects an electrical

installation or appliance to the earth electrode is called Earth Lead.
Earth lead can be of copper, galvanized iron etc.

75
Earth Continuity Conductors: They are the conductors used for
connecting the earth lead to various electrical appliances and devices
such as distribution boards, electrical sockets, appliances etc. It may
be in the form of flexible wire, cable metallic covering or metallic
pipe.

Sub Main Earthing Conductor: the wire connecting the distribution

board to various switch boards. Flexible wires are used as sub main
earthing conductor.

Earth Resistance: The resistance between the earth and earth

electrode is called earth resistance. It is the resistance of earth
electrode, earth lead, earth continuity conductor and earth added up
algebraically. The earth resistance is measured using Earth Megger.

4.5 Earthing Rules

According to IEE regulations and IE rules, earth pin in 3 pin plus
sockets and 4 pin power sockets must be efficiently and permanently
earthed. All metal casings and metal coverings containing or covering
electrical supply cable or equipment must be earthed. The metallic
frames of generators, transformers, stationary motors etc. must be
earth using two separate earthing or distinct connections with the
earth. In a dc three wire system, the middle wire must be earthed at
the generating station. Stay wires for the overhead electric lines must
be connected to earth at least one strand to the earth wires.

76
4.6 Components of Electrical Earthing System
The main components of electrical earthing system are:

1. Earth Continuity Conductor

2. Earthing Lead
3. Earth Electrode

4.6.1 Earth Continuity Conductor or Earth Wire

The conductor that connects all metallic part of the electrical
installation like the conduit, metallic shells, ducts, plug sockets,
distribution boxes, fuses, controlling and regulating devices, metallic
parts of transformers, motors, generators etc. and the metallic
framework where the electrical components are installed. The earth
continuity conductor’s resistance must be very low. As per IEEE
rules, the resistance between the consumer earth terminal and the
earth continuity conductor must be less and 1 ohms.
The sizes of these conductors depend on the size of the cable used for
the wiring circuit. The cross sectional area of the earth wire must be
less than half of the cross sectional area of the thickest wire used in
the electrical wiring installation.

Figure17. Earth Continuity Conductor (Cable)

77
 Figure 18. Earth Continuity Conductor (bare copper conductor)

Generally the size of the copper wire used as earth continuity

conductor is 3SWG. Earth wires smaller than 14SWG must not be
used. In certain situations copper strips are used instead of bare
copper conductor.
4.6.2 Earthing Lead or Earthing Joint

Figure 19. Copper strip used as Earthign Lead

The conductor connecting the earth continuity conductor and the earth
electrode is called earthing lead or earthing joint. The point where the
earthing lead meets the earth continuity conductor meet is called
connecting point. The earthing lead must be straight, lower in size and
must have minimum number of joints.

Figure 20. Galvanised iron strip used as Earthing Lead

78
Even though copper wires are generally used as earthing lead, copper
strips are preferred for high installation as it can carry higher values
of fault current due to its wider area. Hard drawn bare copper wires
are also used as earthing lead. In that case all earthing conductors are
connected to the connecting point and the earthing lead is used to
connect earth electrode to the connecting point. To provide increased
protection to the electrical installations, two copper wires are used as
earthing lead to connect the equipment’s metal body to earth electrode
or earth plate. If there are 2 earth electrode there should be 4 earthing
leads. This isn’t for providing parallel path for fault current but for
carrying fault current simultaneously giving added safety.

Figure 21. Double Earthing for Motor

The area of cross section of the earthing lead should not be less than
half of area of cross section of the thickest wire used in the
installation. The largest size of the earth lead is 3SWG and the
minimum size should not be smaller than 8SWG. If the load current in

79
200A from the supply voltage then copper strip is preferred over
double earthing lead.

4.6.3 Earth Electrode or Earth Plate

The final part of the earthing system which is buried underground
which is connected to the earthing lead is known as the earth
electrode or earth plate. Earth electrode can be in the form of metallic
rod, pipe or plate which has very low resistance in order to carry the
fault current to the ground safely. The earth electrode can be of
copper or iron (galvanized). The earth electrode must be buried in
moist ground and in case the moisture content of earth is low then put
water in the galvanized iron earth electrode. The earth electrode is
always put in the vertical position. Layers of charcoal lime and salt is
put around the earth electrode or earth plate. This helps in increasing
the size of the earth electrode and also helps in maintaining moisture
around the earth electrode or plate. For effective earthing action the
earth electrode must be 4 meter long.

Figure 22. Earth Electrode or Earth Plate

80
4.7 Types of Earthing Systems
Protective measure always requires the coordination of earth
connection, types of conductive conductors and protective equipment
in relation to the types of earthing systems. This clause describes the
systems and their earth connection according to IEC 60364-1.
The standard assesses the following characteristics of the distribution
system;

 Types of systems of live conductors;

 Types of system earthing.

Resulting from his are the following characteristic values for the type
of distribution system

 Type and number of active conductors of the system

The systems are distinguished in AC and DC systems.

The following systems of live conductors are taken into account in the
standard.
Table16.

AC System DC System
Single-phase 2-wire 2-wire
Single-phase 3-wire 3-wire
Two-phase 3-wire
Two-phase 5-wire
Three-phase 3-wire
Three-phase 3-wire

81
4.8 Types of Systems Earthing
The various codes used, are derived from the relationship of the
distribution system to earth and the relationship of the exposed
conductive parts of the electrical installation to earth. Codes used
have the following meaning;
First letter Relationship of distribution system to earth

T Direct connection of one point to earth;

I All live parts isolated from earth or one point

connected to earth through an impedance

Second Relationship of the exposed conductive parts of the

letter installation to earth

T Direct electrical connection of the exposed

conductive parts to earthing independently of the
earthing of any point of the power system;

N Direct electrical connection of the exposed

conductive parts to earthed point of the power
system (in AC system, the earthed point of the
power system is normally the natural point or, if a
neutral point is no available, a phase conductor).

Subsequent Arrangement of neutral and protective conductors

letter

S Protective function provided by a conductor

separate from the neutral of from the earthed line
(or in AC system, earthed phase) conductor.

C Neutral and protective functions combined in a

82
 single conductor(PEN Conductor)

PE Protective conductor.

The main distributor systems are;

TN System, TT System, IT System
4.8.1 TN system
In T N System of earthing the source is directly earthed at one or
more point. The conductive parts of the installations are connected to
the earth through the earth points of the source by means of
conductor. So, that any earth fault current created in the installations
will pass through the earth through the earthing point of the source.

Figure 23. TN system

Here, one conductor runs along with the supply line where the
earthing points of the installation are directly connected. In overhead
system, this conductor may be a separate conductor but in
underground system, the cable sheath or armors is used for the
purpose.
83
4.8.2 TNS System
T N S earthing system is similar of T N system of earthing. In both T
N and T N S system, the neutral wire and earth wire run separately
along the network. The conductive parts of the installations are
connected to the earth wire to provide earthing. But in T N S system,
in addition to continuous earth wire from source, there are local earth
pits installed at consumer premises. The installations are also
connected to the local earth pits through earth electrodes. The local
earth electrodes are inter connected to the earthing system of the
source by means of earth wire runs along the network. That means
each local earth electrode is individually connected to the earth wire.

Figure 24. TNS System

4.8.3 TT System
In TT System of earthing, the source is earthed. But the conductive
parts of the installations are connected to the earth through one or
more local earth electrodes. These local electrodes does not have any
direct connection to the earthing system of source. This T T system of
earthing is applicable for both three phase and single phase
installations.
84
 Figure 25. TT System

4.8.4 IT System
I T System of earthing is generally used in unearthed three phase
network. Here, the three phase source is isolated from earth or
connected to earth through a high impedance of suitable value. The
conductive parts including metal body of the installations are
connected to the earth through one or more local earth electrodes.
These local electrodes does not have any direct connection to the
source

Figure 26. IT System

85
4.9 Fault level computation and earthing design

Equations:
Source
Per unit source impedance ZQ =

Source impedance in ohms ZQ =

Where,
C = voltage factor
= 1 for 230/415 V
= 1.05 for all other low voltages
= 1.1 for voltages from 1 kV to 230kV
UnQ = Nominal source voltage-line to line (rms) at Q
SkQ = initial symmetric short circuit apparent power at Q

1. Transmission line

Per unit line impedance Z1(pu) =

Base impedance Zb =

Line inductance (sym. Spacing) L = (0.5 + ) 10-7 H/m

Where,
d = spacing between conductors in meters and
r = radius of conductor in meters.

86
Inductive reactance of the overhead line = 0.0628 ( ) Ω/km

Where,
n = number of conductors per phase
d = spacing of overhead line in meters

r = mean radius of the conductor = meters

qn = area of cross- section of the conductor in mm2

2. Transformer

SrT = Rated apparent power of transformers-VA

UrT = Rated voltage of transformer on HV or MV side-V

ZT = Transformer impedance –Ω = Ω

PkrT = Full load loss of transformer-W

RT = Resistance of the transformer =

XT = Reactance of the transformer = Ω

IrT = Full load current of the transformer on HV or MV side-A

3. Soil

Soil resistivity = 2πDR ohm-m

Where,
D = Spacing of the spikes in meter and
R = Reading of the earth tester in ohms.

87
4. Earth electrodes
Permissible current density of the earth electrode

Id = A/m2

Where,
t = duration of fault in seconds (3 sec)
Earth electrode resistance values for different electrodes:

Plate electrode R= ohm

Pipe electrode R= ohm

Strip or conductor electrode R = ohm

Where,
A= area of plate electrode (both sides)-m2
l= length of the electrode-m
d= diameter of the electrode-m
t= width of the strip or twice the diameter of the circular
conductor-m
Data required:

1. Supply voltage of the system = Un

2. Fault level on the nearest substation = SkQ
3. Length of the transmission line from the substation to the
consumers transformer = l
4. Spacing of the conductors of the O/H transmission line = d
5. Radius of the conductor of the O/H line = r (cross section of the
conductor mm2-qn)

88
 6. Resistance of the line = Rl
7. KVA capacity of the consumer transformer = SrT
8. Percentage impedance (Impedance voltage) of the consumer
transformer = UkT
9. Full load loss of the transformer = PkrT
10. Soil resistivity of the transformer location

4.10 Design of earth electrodes:

The number of earth electrodes can be calculated based on the fault
level on the H.T side of the consumer transformer.

Permissible current density of an electrode =

= Id
Where, t= duration of fault (normally 3s)

Area of earth plates required =

(Where, = initial symmetrical rms fault current on the HV side of

the transformer)
= AE
Standard size of plate earth electrode = 1.2 × 1.2 × 0.012 m
Hence, the area of a plate electrodes = 2(1.2×1.2) m2
= 2.88 m2

Hence, number of earth electrodes required =

Determination of the earthing conductor size

Permissible current density of copper = 118 A/mm2

89
Area of the earth conductor on H.T. side =

(Choose the nearest standard area of cross- section)

Area of earth conductor on the MV side =

Where, = initial symmetrical rms fault current on the MV side of

the transformer
(Choose the nearest standard area of cross-section)

90
 CHAPTER 5: ELECTRICAL POWER TRIANGLE
5.1 Introduction
The three circuit elements which make up the electrical power
consumed in an AC circuit can be represented by the three sides of a
right angled triangle, known commonly as a power triangle.
That AC circuits which contain resistance and capacitance or
resistance and inductance, or both, also contain real power and
reactive power. So in order for us to calculate the total power
consumed, we need to know the phase difference between the
sinusoidal waveforms of the voltage and current.
In an AC circuit, the voltage and current waveforms are sinusoidal so
their amplitudes are constantly changing over time. Since we know
that power is voltage times the current (P = V×I), maximum power
will occur when the two voltage and current waveforms are lined up
with each other. That is, their peaks and zero crossover points occur at
the same time. When this happens the two waveforms are said to be
“in-phase”.
The three main components in an AC circuit which can affect the
relationship between the voltage and current waveforms, and
therefore their phase difference, by defining the total impedance of
the circuit are the resistor, the capacitor and the inductor.
The impedance, (Z) of an AC circuit is equivalent to the resistance
calculated in DC circuits, with impedance given in ohms. For AC
circuits, impedance is generally defined as the ratio of the voltage and
current phasor’s produced by a circuit component. Phasor’s are

91
straight lines drawn in such a way as to represents a voltage or current
amplitude by its length and its phase difference with respect to other
phasor lines by its angular position relative to the other phasor’s.
AC circuits contain both resistance and reactance that are combined
together to give a total impedance (Z) that limits current flow around
the circuit. But an AC circuits impedance is not equal to the algebraic
sum of the resistive and reactive ohmic values as a pure resistance and
pure reactance are 90o out-of-phase with each other. But we can use
this 90o phase difference as the sides of a right angled triangle, called
an impedance triangle, with the impedance being the hypotenuse as
determined by Pythagoras theorem.
This geometric relationship between resistance, reactance and
impedance can be represented visually by the use of an impedance
triangle as shown.
5.2 Impedance triangle

Note that impedance, which is the vector sum of the resistance and
reactance, has not only a magnitude (Z) but it also has a phase angle
(θ), which represents the phase difference between the resistance and
the reactance. Also note that the triangle will change shape due to
variations in reactance, (X) as the frequency changes. Of course,
resistance (R) will always remain constant.

92
We can take this idea one step further by converting the impedance
triangle into a power triangle representing the three elements of power
in an AC circuit. Ohms Law tells us that in a DC circuit, power (P), in
watts, is equal to the current squared (I2) times the resistance (R). So
we can multiply the three sides of our impedance triangle above
by I2 to obtain the corresponding power triangle as:
Real Power P = I2R Watts, (W)
Reactive Power Q = I2X Volt-amperes Reactive, (VAr)
Apparent Power S = I2Z Volt-amperes, (VA)
Mathematically, S2 = P2 + Q2 and electrical power factor is active
power / apparent power.
Reactive power (Q), (sometimes called watt less power) is the power
consumed in an AC circuit that does not perform any useful work but
has a big effect on the phase shift between the voltage and current
waveforms. Reactive power is linked to the reactance produced by
inductors and capacitors and counteracts the effects of real power.
Reactive power does not exist in DC circuits.

Unlike real power (P) which does all the work, reactive power (Q)
takes power away from a circuit due to the creation and reduction of
both inductive magnetic fields and capacitive electrostatic fields,

93
thereby making it harder for the true power to supply power directly
to a circuit or load.
The power stored by an inductor in its magnetic field tries to control
the current, while the power stored by a capacitors electrostatic field
tries to control the voltage. The result is that capacitors “generate”
reactive power and inductors “consume” reactive power. This means
that they both consume and return power to the source so none of the
real power is consumed.
To find reactive power, the rms voltage and current values are
multiplied by the sine of the phase angle, θ as shown.
Reactive Power Q = I2X = V×I×sin(θ) volt-amperes
reactive, (VAr’s)
As there is a 90o phase difference between the voltage and the current
waveforms in a pure reactance (either inductive or capacitive),
multiplying V×I by sin(θ) gives a vertical component that is 90 o out-
of-phase with each other, so:
Reactive Power in an AC Circuit
Q = Vrms × Irms × sinθ
Sin(900) = 1
Q = Vrms × Irms × 1
Q = Vrms × Irms (VAr)
Where reactive power (Q) is in volt-amperes reactive, voltage (V) is
in rms volts and current (I) is in rms amperes.

94
Then reactive power represents the product of volts and amperes that
are 90o out-of-phase with each other, but in general, there can be any
phase angle, θ between the voltage and the current.
Thus reactive power is the I2X reactive element that has units in volt-
amperes reactive (VAr), Kilovolt-amperes reactive (kVAr), and
Megavolt-amperes reactive (MVAr).
Normally in day today life load used is inductive hence because of
that power factor of the system becomes poor so to improve the
power factor it is necessary to provide reactive power in to the
system. This will be done by FACTS devices it is common experience
that electric power of poor quality has savior effects on health of
different equipment and systems. Unbalance is a common type of
power quality problem. It occurs due to the deviation of Phase
voltages and phase currents from their rated values with respect to
magnitude and phase. During unbalance in three phase system
sequence components occur. For this reason unbalance is important
for the sequence components present in the system. In this paper, we
however, discuss fundamental load compensation techniques for
unbalanced linear loads such as combination of resistance, inductance
and capacitance and their combinations. Here load compensation is
nothing but the providing anti parallel load to maintain the power
factor. Reactive power balance can be obtained by the connective
FACT device in shunt with the system. Main reasons for using the
FACT device is
Low power loss.

95
Voltage stability and voltage regulation.
Load ability of transmission line.
Dynamic and transient stability improvement.
Improves quality of power.
Facts devices are those devices that can be inserted into the system by
in manner of series or shunt. Putting this device in shunt is beneficial
than series. There are many types of FACT devices.

FACTS

SERIES- SERIES-
SERIES SHUNT
SERIES SHUNT

SSSC SVC STATCOM

TSSC FC-TCR IPFC UPFC

TCSC TSC-TCR

Capabilities of different FACTS controllers

The various functions achievable by different FACTS controllers
described in this are listed on table 1. A specific task can be
performed by several FACTS controllers, so their effectiveness in
achieving the same tasks can vary substantially.

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 Table 17.Capabilities of different FACTS controllers

Controller Voltage Transient Damping Reactive power Power flow

control stability power compensation control
oscillation

STATCOM     -

FC-TCR     

TCSC    - 

TSSC    - 
UPFC     

5.3 Comparison of different reactive compensators

Table 18.Comparison of different reactive compensators

Feature Synchronous SR FC-TCR TSC TSC-TCR MSC-TCR

condenser
Control Inductive & Inductive & Inductive & Capacitive Inductive & Inductive &
range Capacitive Capacitive(with Capacitive Capacitive Capacitive
FC)
Nature of Continuous, Continuous, Continuous, Discrete, Continuous, Continuous,
control Active inherent Active active Active Active
Response Slow Fast Fast Fast Fast Medium
time
Voltage Good Limited Good Limited Good Good
control
Auxiliary Limited No Good No Good Good
stabilizing
signals
Individual Limited Limited Good Limited Good Good
phase
control
Harmonic None Very Low Low None Low (filters Low (filters
generation needed) needed)

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Overvoltage Very good Good (Limited Moderate None Limited Limited
limitation by slope
correction
capacitor)
Direct EHV No No Yes No No Yes
connection
Energization Slow Fast & direct : Fast with Fast with Fast with Fast with
some transients control control control control
action : action : action : action :
minimal some some some
transients transients transients transients

5.4 Power Factor Improvement

The term power factor comes into the picture in AC circuits only.
Mathematically it is the cosine of the phase difference between the
source voltage and current. It refers to the fraction of total power
(apparent power) which is utilized to do the useful work called active
power.

Cos Ø =

Need for Power Factor Improvement

Real power is given by P = VIcosφ. The electrical current is inversely
proportional to cosφ for transferring a given amount of power at a
certain voltage. Hence higher the pf lower will be the current flowing.
A small current flow requires a less cross-sectional area of
conductors, and thus it saves conductors and money.

From the above relation, we see having poor power factor increases
the current flowing in a conductor and thus copper loss increases. A

98
large voltage drop occurs in the alternator, electrical transformer and
transmission and distribution lines – which gives very poor voltage
regulation.

The KVA rating of machines is also reduced by having higher power

factor, as per the formula:
Hence, the size and cost of the machine is also reduced.
This is why electrical power factor should be maintained close to
unity – it is significantly cheaper.

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 ELECTRICAL LAW
Ohm's Law
The current flowing between any two points of a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference across them, provided that
physical conditions do not change.
I=V/R or V = IR or R = V/I
I = Current (Amperes) (amps)
V = Voltage (Volts)
R = Resistance (ohms)
1 Ohm = resistance of a conductor when a potential difference of one
volt produces a current of one amp through the conductor.
Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL)
The total current or charge entering a junction or node is exactly equal
to the charge leaving the node as it has no other place to go except to
leave, as no charge is lost within the node. In other words, the
algebraic sum of ALL the currents entering and leaving a node must
be equal to zero.
Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL)
In any closed loop network, the total voltage around the loop is equal
to the sum of all the voltage drops within the same loop, which is also
equal to zero. In other words, the algebraic sum of all voltages within
the loop must be equal to zero.
Faraday's Law first law
Whenever a conductor cuts across the magnetic flux, an e.m.f. is
always induced in that conductor.

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Faraday’s second law
The magnitude of induced e.m.f in a coil is directly proportional to
the rate of change of flux linkages or to the product of number of
turns and the rate of change of flux linking the coil.

E=

Fleming's Left Hand Rule and Right Hand Rule

When a current-carrying conductor is placed under a magnetic field, a
force acts on the conductor. The direction of this force can be
identified using Fleming’s Left Hand Rule. Likewise, if a moving
conductor is brought under a magnetic field, electric current will be
induced in that conductor. The direction of the induced current can be
found using Fleming’s Right Hand Rule.
Right Hand Rule
“Hold the right hand for finger, middle finger and the thumb at right
angles to each other. If the forefinger represents the direction of the
magnetic field, the thumb points in the direction of motion or applied
force, then the middle finger points in the direction of the induced
current.”
Left Hand Rule
“Hold out your left hand with the forefinger, second finger and thumb
perpendicular to each other. If the forefinger represents the direction
of the field and the second finger represents that of the current, then
thumb gives the direction of the force.”

101
Lenz's Law
The direction of induced e.m.f. is such that the induced current
produced by it flows in such direction that the action of the magnetic
field set up by it (induced current) tends to oppose the cause which
produces it.

Coulomb's law
The magnitude of the electrostatic force of attraction between two
point charges is directly proportional to the product of the magnitudes
of charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them.
The force is along the straight line joining them. If the two charges
have the same sign, the electrostatic force between them is repulsive;
if they have different signs, the force between them is attractive.
F = kq1q2/r2
F is the resulting force between the two charges. The distance
between the two charges or radius of separation is r.
The q1 and q2 values represent the amount of charge in each of the
particles. The constant of the equation is k.
Gauss's Law
The total of the electric flux out of a closed surface is equal to the
charge enclosed divided by the permittivity. The electric flux through
an area is defined as the electric field multiplied by the area of the
surface projected in a plane perpendicular to the field.

102
The integral form of Gauss' Law finds application in calculating
electric fields around charged objects. Gauss' law is a powerful tool
for the calculation of electric fields when they originate from charge
distributions of sufficient symmetry to apply it.
ELI the ICE Man
When capacitors or inductors are involved in an AC circuit, the
current and voltage do not peak at the same time. The fraction of a
period difference between the peaks expressed in degrees is said to be
the phase difference.
ELI: Voltage leads current in an inductor. E (Voltage) L (Inductor)
C (Current)
When voltage is applied to an inductor, it resists change in current.
The current builds up more slowly than the voltage, lagging in time
and phase.
ICE: Current leads voltage in a capacitor. I (Current) C (Capacitor)
E (Voltage)
Since the voltage on a capacitor is directly proportional to the charge
on it, the current must lead the voltage in time and phase to conduct
charge to the capacitor plates and raise the voltage. The phase
difference in each case is equal to or less than 90 degrees.

103
 FORMULA
Single phase AC Power

Horsepower =

Watts = Volts×Amperes×PF

Kilowatts =

Kilowatt-hours =

KVA =

Three phase power system

Horsepower =

Watts = Volts×Amperes×PF×

Kilowatts =

Kilowatts- hours =

KVA =

DC Power System

Horsepower =

Watts = Volts × Amperes

Kilowatts =

Kilowatt- hours =

104
Magnetic Field strength
Φ =Kf×If
Φ = Magnetic Field strength
Kf = Magnetic field constant
If = Field current
Voltage Drop
Voltagedrop = I × Z
I = Current in amps
Z = Impedance in ohms
Cylindrical coil inductance

L=

If N = nl

L= = µ0 n2 l π r2 = µ0 n2 l A

L = inductance of cylindrical coil

µ = Permeability of free space
l = length of wire used in coil
N = number of turns in coil
r = radius of coil cross section
A = cross- sectional area of coil

Power Factor =

105
 Standard Electrical Units of Measure
Table 19.

Electrical Measuring Symbol Description

Param Unit
eter
Voltage Volt V or E Unit of Electrical Potential
V=I×R
Current Ampere I or i Unit of Electrical Current
I=V÷R
Resistance Ohm R or Ω Unit of DC Resistance
R=V÷I
Conductance Siemen G or ℧ Reciprocal of Resistance
G=1÷R
Capacitance Farad C Unit of Capacitance
C=Q÷V
Charge Coulomb Q Unit of Electrical Charge
Q=C×V
Inductance Henry L or H Unit of Inductance
VL = -L(di/dt)
Power Watts W Unit of Power
P = V × I or I2 × R
Impedance Ohm Z Unit of AC Resistance
Z2 = R2 + X2
Frequency Hertz Hz Unit of Frequency
ƒ=1÷T

Multiples and Sub-multiples

Table 20.

Prefix Symbol Multiplier Power of Ten

Terra T 1,000,000,000,000 1012
Giga G 1,000,000,000 109
Mega M 1,000,000 106
kilo k 1,000 103
none none 1 100

106
 centi c 1/100 10-2
milli m 1/1,000 10-3
micro µ 1/1,000,000 10-6
nano n 1/1,000,000,000 10-9
pico p 1/1,000,000,000,000 10-12

So to display the units or multiples of units for either Resistance,

Current or Voltage we would use as an example:
1kV = 1 kilo-volt – which is equal to 1,000 Volts.
1mA = 1 mill-amp – which is equal to one thousandths (1/1000) of an
Ampere.
47kΩ = 47 kilo-ohms – which is equal to 47 thousand Ohms.
100uF = 100 micro-farads – which is equal to 100 millionths
(100/1,000,000) of a Farad.
1kW = 1 kilo-watt – which is equal to 1,000 Watts.
1MHz = 1 mega-hertz – which is equal to one million Hertz.

107