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EFFECTIVE STUDY ON SOLAR POND AND ITS VARIOUS PERFORMANCES

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3rd International Conference on Innovative Research in Engineering and Technology (iCIRET2015), April 9-11, 2015

EFFECTIVE STUDY ON SOLAR POND AND ITS VARIOUS PERFORMANCES

Sathish D
Sri Ramakrishna Engineering College,Anna University,
Department of Thermal Engineering
saDhirash@gmail.com
Sathish Kumar T R
Sri Ramakrishna Engineering College,Anna University,
Department of Thermal Engineering
prof.trs@gmail.com

Abstract — Solar energy was used from the ancient period itself. In the past, researches have been done about solar but it is not
considered in a desirable manner. After the remarkable hike in oil prices numerous countries began to do an extensive research
and development to utilize solar energy. There are many methods to trap solar energy, but an effective one was by using solar
pond. Solar pond is an unnaturally constructed pond in which large temperature can be maintained in the lower convective zone
by the way of higher salt concentration and by preventing natural convection so these ponds are called ―Salt Gradient Solar
Pond‖. Salinity-gradient solar pond were not invented, they were first discovered in Transylvania in the early 1900. They are
large-scale energy collectors with integral heat storage for supplying thermal energy. Solar ponds are long-term sensible heat
energy storage and can provide consistent thermal energy at a temperature ranges from 50°C to 120°C.In recent years the usage of
solar ponds are in an increasing manner due to more temperature can be obtained with minimal loss and have been constructed of
varying in size from a few hundred to a few thousand square meters of surface area. And also many small solar ponds have been
built for many applications. The review paper brings about the categories of solar pond, performance of several salts,
construction, several parameter measurements, factors affecting performance, method of heat extraction, economic analysis, and
applications.

Index Terms—Salt concentration, Salt gradient solar pond, Solar applications, Solar energy, Temperature
.
1 INTRODUCTION
Lack of drinking water is a major challenge facing the world. The most sustainable source of water is the sea, but it is too salty; the
process of removing salt from seawater and producing fresh potable water is desalination. Among the various desalination technologies
is thermal desalination, which is the leading desalination technique. Desalination is an energy-intensive process, requiring an average of
about 150 kilojoules of primary energy per kilogram of desalted water. There is a general coexistence correlation between areas of fresh
water shortage (and hence desalination requirement) and abundant of solar irradiation. This should make the use of solar-powered
desalination technologies an attractive option in arid and semi-arid regions. During the last thirty years, extensive research has been done
on solar desalination, from which the solar pond seems to be one of the most promising techniques. Kalecsinsky observed Medve Lake
in Transylvania, Hungary in 1902 wrote the first report on a natural solar lake. This lake had a temperature of 70°C at a depth of 1.32m
at the end of the summer; even in the early spring, the minimum temperature recorded was about 26°C.Although this report was
followed by a number of studies on the same natural lake, there were no attempts to construct solar ponds for the collection and
utilization of solar energy until the middle of the twentieth century. But after 1970 a desirable research was bone on solar pond. Solar
ponds were generally designed for electricity production, but they were not cost-competitive. During the past three decades, there has
been increased interest in solar ponds, and they have been studied in
many countries such as Chile, USSR and India. Solar ponds have now been established all over the world, and one of the most famous is
El Paso Solar Pond, which was initiated in 1983 in

Texas, USA as a research development and demonstration project operated by the University of Texas. This pond has been operational
since 1985, and in that year, it was considered as the first solar pond designed for electrical power generation the USA. In 1987, it served
as the first pond for desalination purposes in the USA (solar pond technology is a relatively new method for thermal desalination). The
measurements taken at El Paso Solar Pond recorded temperatures reaching about 90°C but soon after that, the gradient layers were
destroyed as a result of heat rising to the saline water boiling temperature. The pond gradient was rebuilt and the system was improved to
avoid such problems in the future. Recently, El Paso research has focused on coupling solar ponds with thermal desalination techniques.
In the Gulf, a small pond with an area of was constructed during the mid-1980s, and temperatures of more than 80°C were reported in

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3rd International Conference on Innovative Research in Engineering and Technology (iCIRET2015), April 9-11, 2015

the summer. In India Bhuj solar pond is the most famous one which located in Gujarat and a temperature of about more than 90˚C were
obtained. The salt gradient solar ponds (SGSP) are considered to be one of the most viable solar energy conversion and storage systems.
It is a convenient and effective means which collect solar radiation and stores it thermal energy for a relatively longer period of time.
Generally a solar pond is a natural or an artificial tank under sunlight illumination, which has heat absorption and energy storage
capabilities. A solar pond is a large body of saline water whose salinity increases with depth. Solar pond is not only a solar heat
utilization system by collecting, but also storage solar energy. It uses radiation from sun to heat water, stores sensible heat in dense
saline water. Solar pond exists naturally in many areas, but first naturally discovered in Eastern Europe at the beginning of the
20thcentury in Transylvania. Salts like magnesium chloride, sodium chloride or sodium nitrate is dissolved in the water with the
concentration varying from 20% to 30% at the bottom to almost zero at the top.

2 Categories of Solar Pond

Solar ponds represent one of the simplest methods for directly collecting solar irradiation and converting it to thermal energy. Moreover,
it is a solar power collector and a thermal storing unit at the same time. All natural ponds and lakes convert solar radiation into heat
although most of that energy is lost to the atmosphere mainly as a result of convection and evaporation. The principle of the salinity
gradient solar pond, on the other hand, is to prevent vertical convection and/or evaporation (according to the type of solar pond).
Based on the convection behavior of the saline solution in solar ponds, they may be classified into two main categories: non-convecting
and convecting solar ponds [2].

Figure1 Classification of Solar Pond

2.1 Convecting Solar Ponds

A convecting solar pond is usually a horizontal solar collector that normally consists of one homogenous liquid layer with a transparent
cover on the pond‘s surface. This transparent cover reduces heat loss by impeding evaporation and convection/conduction. The cover
can also prevent external effects such as wind shear, dust, falling impurities, etc. Convecting solar ponds have classified in varying ways,
for example, Kreider and Kreith categorized these ponds according to depth, differentiating between shallow and deep salt less solar
ponds. Other researchers consider all convecting solar ponds to be shallow solar ponds and, therefore, have classified these ponds on the
basis of operational modes, relating to batch and continuous shallow pond systems
2.2 Shallow Solar Pond (SSP)
The shallow solar pond is a large solar energy collector that consists of a plastic envelope containing water. As the name of the
convective shallow pond suggests, the depth of water is relatively small, usually between 4 and 15cm, and the layer is

Figure2 The schematic of Shallow solar pond

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3rd International Conference on Innovative Research in Engineering and Technology (iCIRET2015), April 9-11, 2015

homogeneous. The concept underpinning the SSP has been known since the beginning of the twentieth century, when Willsie and Boyle
used the idea to produce shaft power. They tried various designs of solar pond and one of these was composed of a wooden tank lined
with tar paper and covered with a double glass window, while each side and bottom were insulated with hay. The water level in the tank
was 7.5cm. Other designs included asphalt and sand for insulation; however, the latter could not be kept dry, so the heat loss from the
base was high. In 1906 and 1908, Willsie and Boyle succeeded in raising the temperature from 38˚C to 80˚C by using dual stages, and
single and double glass covers (of 110m2); 11kW of peak power was obtained. Also in the beginning of the twentieth century, Shuman
ran a steam engine on the same system used by Willsie and Boyle. In the latter center, the SSP was involved in a large-scale project of
solar energy and good experimental results were delivered.
.
2.3 Non-convecting Solar Ponds
The non-convecting solar ponds are named because of their non-convecting zone (NCZ) which is formed between the upper convective
zone (UCZ) and the heat storage zone (HSZ). This type of pond suppresses heat loss by preventing convection currents from developing
within the liquid body. They usually consist of three saline water layers, where the salt concentration is highest in the bottom layer and
lowest in the shallow surface layer. The concept of this technique is based on collecting and storing the solar radiation as heat in a
relatively small pond in order to raise the water temperature. In nature, when the sun‘s rays fall on surface of a lake or pond, the water
molecules absorb the heat and the temperature then rises accordingly. Therefore, the water in the bottom becomes warmer then it rises to
the surface and loses its heat to the atmosphere, this phenomenon is called convection. However, the solar pond technology in hibits this
phenomenon by dissolving salt into the bottom layer of the pond, making the molecules too heavy to rise to the surface, even when hot.
Thus the temperature gain in the bottom layer is cumulative, and this can increase the temperature there to more than 100°C. Once a high
temperature is obtained, the bottom layer can be used as a heat source to provide continuous heat through an internal or external heat
exchanger at any time of the year, regardless of season. Non-convective solar ponds can be sub-divided into two main types: salinity
gradient and Viscosity Stabilized.
2.4 Salinity Gradient Solar Pond (SGSP)
Non-convective solar ponds are simple in design and can be constructed at reasonable cost; they can provide heat for domestic,
agricultural, industrial and desalination purposes and they can also generate power. A typical salinity-gradient solar

Figure3 The schematic of salinity gradient solar pond

pond consists of three main zones a- The Upper Convecting Zone (UCZ); this part is sometimes called the surface layer. This involves
the least cost, has the lowest level of salinity, and its temperature is close to ambient temperature. The thickness of this zone is typically
0.3m should be kept as shallow as possible. The cost of constructing the UCZ is usually neglected, as it can be constructed and
operationally maintained through the use of any low-salinity water such as fresh, brackish water or seawater. This layer is essential for
preventing the lower layers from being exposed to evaporation, wind effects and falling impurities- The Non-Convecting Zone (NCZ);
this region can be also called the gradient zone or the middle layer. It is located between the upper and the lower zones of the pond. As
the temperature and salinity increase with depth, this layer is not homogeneous. the salinity gradient is large enough; the NCZ exhibits a
convection phenomenon. c- The Lower Convecting or Storage Zone (LCZ); this is a homogenous layer and has considerably high
salinity and high temperature. Heat is stored in this zone and it can be exchanged in or out of the pond. As the LCZ‘s depth increases, the
heat storage unit increases and the temperature variation decrease. The gradient layer consists of multi sup-layers in which each sup-
layer is heavier and hotter than the ones above it. This stratification can make the saline molecules heavy enough to not obey to the
convection phenomenon. In other words, the whole gradient zone cab be established to prevent the convection from taking place inside
the pond's body and, as a result, the heat loss from the lower zone to the upper zone may occur by conduction but not convection. By this
manner, the middle acts as an insulator layer to reduce the lower zone upward heat loss significantly.
2.5 Viscosity Stabilized Solar Ponds
In this type the same procedure is followed except a gel is used to make the water thicker which hinders convection losses. The
requirements for such a gel are quite high as it should be thickening enough to avoid convection but also retain its temperature resistance

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3rd International Conference on Innovative Research in Engineering and Technology (iCIRET2015), April 9-11, 2015

and above all, still have a satisfying transmittance for solar radiation. Additionally, it should have a good physical resistance to withstand
precipitation.

3 Performance of various salts

A typical salt for a gradient pond must have the following essential features to enhance the pond‘s performance and stability: The salt
solubility value must be high enough to meet the highest level of solution density required. The salt solubility should not change
significantly with solar pond temperature variations. When the salt is dissolved in water, the solution must be sufficiently transparent to
permit solar irradiation to the bottom of the pond. It must be environmentally friendly. It must not cause any contamination to the ground
water. For cost considerations, it should be cheap and abundant, and near to the pond‘s location. The salt molecular diffusivity Ks should
be low. Sodium chloride is the most effective salt by far for filling and operating solar ponds all over the world. Sodium chloride also
represents the largest proportion (77%) of sea and ocean water, salts and it is one of the most stable salts with temperature variation.
Moreover, the transparency of sodium chloride brine is appreciably high, and it is one of the cheapest salts in the world. This salt has the
ability to be dissolved in water up to 27-30% before reaching saturation, which is relatively low. The density of NaCl can be improved
up to 1250Kg/m3. NaCl salt needs 30-60% of the initial investment for the preliminary charge the vast majority of the SGSPs has been
using sodium chloride.

Figure4 Salt Saturation Concentration Viz Temperature

However, another commonly used salt in salinity ponds is magnesium chloride (MgCl2), which is considered the second largest salt
constituent of sea and ocean water, although it is the largest proportion of salt in the Dead Sea. This salt is exceptionally stable during
operation; it also exhibits great solubility in producing brine with high density, as it is able to dissolve between 35 and 40% according to
the solution temperature. This salt has been used in two ponds in Israel, and a large pond in the USA. In comparison with sodium
chloride, magnesium chloride is able to produce higher salinity brine, and is more stable during the solar pond‘s operation. However, it
is much more expensive than sodium chloride. The brine most widely used in Israeli gradient ponds is Dead Sea brine, as it is costless
and can be drawn directly from the Sea. Additional alternatives are potassium chloride (KCl), Calcium chloride (CaCl2), Ammonium
nitrate (NH4NO3), Potassium nitrate (KNO3), Borax (Na2B4O7), Sodium sulphate (Na2SO4) can be used because it is widely available
from the waste product of flue gases produced from coal-fired power plants [6].

4 Construction
The site should be selected by considering the factors, (i). It must be close where thermal is to utilize. (ii). It should be close to the source
of water, thermal conductivity of the soil is not being too high. The concrete pond is circular in shape with some height and thickness the
lower of the concrete body is built into a ground recess to allow easy access to the surface portion of the solar pond. The surface of the
concrete is coated with a layer of epoxy resin to protect the concrete from corrosion and possible chemical reaction between salt and
concrete. A set of dial thermometers are used to indicate the temperature of ambient, top and bottom of the pond as well as diffuser
system where ever needed to set up the gradient. The purpose of observation window is to monitor the clarity of the pond and also for
monitoring the movements of brine shrimps at different levels in the pond. Floating rings, used as wave suppression system, are
distributed over the surface of the pond to reduce the surface mixing caused by wind-driven currents. This is made up of polymeric liner
and they are low density polyethylene (LDPE), high density polyethylene (HDPE), chlorinated polyethylene. The density of HDPE is
less than the density of water. The pond also has a small transparent UCZ box, made of Perspex and located on the east side of the pond,
for observing the thickness of the UCZ. Fresh water is continuously introduced to flush the surface and to compensate for evaporation.
In this pond, bittern, which is a by-product of evaporated saltwater in the manufacture of sodium chloride, was used to build the salinity
gradient. The main benefits of bitterns are that it provides a high-density solution which enables a very stable salinity gradient and is
widely available at low cost. Hydrometer is used to verify the density of saline solution in each zone.

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3rd International Conference on Innovative Research in Engineering and Technology (iCIRET2015), April 9-11, 2015

5 Prospects to improve performance

The solar ponds performance can be improved by adding a layer of coal cinder at bottom of LCZ of solar pond; here coal cinder is the
burning residues of coal. Insulating liner namely polystyrene, polyethylene is used in bottom of it. By using a mesh type flow nets it will
suppress the wave in an upper convective zone. Good brine transparency in solar ponds is essential to achieve good thermal efficiency.
The growth of algae can be controlled by adding bleaching powder and copper sulphate [10]. The performance of circular and square
solar ponds is done and circular solar pond showed a better storage performance in comparison with the square one as more energy is
stored in different parts of circular solar pond. It is attributed to the smaller shading effect of the side wall and also a smaller peripheral
side area for the circular pond in comparison with the square one. To increase the temperature of the LCZ used plane mirror at the top
portion of the mini solar pond. The higher water temperature was obtained when the reflector is adjusted than the adjusting the
orientation angle of the pond. A baffle plate was used to prove that the performance of the pond with the baffle plate is better than that of
the pond without the plate and the thermal conductivity of the baffle plate has no effect on the pond performance and minimize the
losses. In solar ponds, the LCZ plays a dual role. Heat is extracted from solar pond from this zone only. Also, it is acting as a storage
zone. Above the surface of solar pond, two flat plate collectors are placed so that it will absorb more radiation from the sun. The solar
system reuses the waste brine to produce concentrated liquor and distilled water. The pond was covered with plastic sheet before the
strong rainfall came. After the rainfall, the rainwater was pumped out of the sheet to a container and then added the chemicals for the
treatments, including sedimentation, filtration and clarification. The treated rainwater was then injected to the surface of the pond. Thus,
the dust mixed in rainwater and wind was stopped out of the pond

6 Factors affecting performance

6.1 Water turbidity
The particles present in solar pond prohibits the penetration of light in the water is called turbidity.TheJackson turbid meter is used to
measure turbidity. Unitishelometric turbidity units. After a deep study that high turbidity levels could prevent ponds from storing energy
in the LCZ.
6.2 Wall shading effect
The thermal performance of a solar pond is a function of solar irradiation, heat losses from the sides to the surroundings and from the
LCZ towards the upper layers, ultimate storage capacity, and the effectiveness of the heat exchanger system [8]. In small vertical wall
solar ponds, the shading of walls plays an important role on reducing the sunny area of the pond and its thermal performance.
6.3 Water clarity
The thermal performance of a solar pond largely depends on the nature of the absorption of solar radiation in the layers of the ponds. The
water in the pond needs to be as clear as possible so that the maximum amount of solar radiation reaches the storage zone at the bottom.

Figure5 Water Clarity

The more radiation that gets there, the higher the energy efficiency and operating temperature of the pond will be. In a well-designed and
set up solar pond, upward heat losses from the storage zone are small. Therefore, most of the solar radiation that gets through to the
storage zone is stored there, apart from the small amount lost by conduction to the ground.
6.4 Surface area and Depth
The surface area and depth of the pond determines its operation and performance characteristics. A simple way to estimate the pond
surface area required to meet any particular average annual thermal load is the following. Look up the annual solar energy incident on a
square meter of horizontal surface at the location of the pond (say 7 GJ/m2/year). Calculate the horizontal surface area on which the
incoming solar radiation over a year is equal to the annual load to be supplied. If the annual load was say 2800 GJ, this area would be
400 m2. Then multiply this surface area by a factor of 5 to 10 to estimate the surface area of a solar pond to meet this annual load. So
in our example the solar pond would need to have an area of between 2000 and 4000 m2to supply an annual thermal load of 2800GJ.
6.5 Algae Formation

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3rd International Conference on Innovative Research in Engineering and Technology (iCIRET2015), April 9-11, 2015

The thermal efficiency of a solar pond is strongly dependent upon the clarity of the pond, which is reduced by the presence of algae or
dust. Bits of debris dust or leaves lighter than water float on the surface and can be skimmed off. Dust and debris much lighter than
water will sink to the bottom .The dust accumulated at the bottom of the pond does not adversely affect the absorption of

Figure6 Formation of Algae in SGSP

solar radiation at the bottom of the pond. The dust floating in the gradient zone can be settled by adding alum. The main factor affecting
a solar pond‘s performance in terms of its ability to collect heat energy is heat loss, and among these loss factors, the major thermal loss
occurs due to surface layer evaporation. As the upper layer is appreciably shallow, the heat loss due to conduction is limited, and thus it
can be neglected, while the evaporation, convection and radiation effects can be greatly reduced by covering the solar pond.

7 Parameter Measurements
In order to maintain the density gradient stable the pond clarity and density gradient should be monitored. Some of the major parameters
that need to be monitored on a regular basis include: Weather conditions, temperature measurements, density measurement, pH
measurements, turbiditymeasurements,Figure3.
DissolvedSalt
oxygen measurements
Saturation [13]. Viz Temperature
Concentration
7.1 Weather conditions
The most important parameters which strongly affect pond performance are solar radiation, ambient temperature and wind speed. The
solar radiation received at the pond surface is a major factor in determining the thermal performance of a solar pond. Wind has also an
effect on the pond‘s performance since it produces mixed in the surface region. The weather data acquisition system comprises of a
weather station installed on the roof of the renewable energy laboratory. The data that can be obtained from the weather station system
are solar radiation, wind speed, wind direction, temperatures (dew, ambient and wind), humidity and rainfall. The weather station is
connected to a computer to allow data recording.
7.2 Temperature measurements
The thermal behavior and performance of a SGSP is dependent on the temperature distribution and temperature variation in the pond.
The data acquisition system consists of a set of thermocouples (T type; PVC coated for corrosion protection) installed at various
elevations in the pond. A data logger (data Taker DT500) is used to measure and record the temperatures. The temperature of the brine
water samples at various levels can also be manually measured using the EMT 502 dual channel thermometer.
7.3 Density measurements
The density distribution of a SGSP can be measured by a variety of techniques including sample weighing, a hydrometer, refractometers,
density meters and point electrode conductivity salinometer. Conductivity probes are effective and inexpensive if proper calibration is
maintained. For measuring the densities the Anton Paar DMA 35 N was used. This instrument is a handheld, digital, highly versatile
instrument and works on the harmonic oscillator technology principle. It can give the density, specific gravity or% concentration of the
sample. For density measurements it has an accuracy of 0.001 kg/m3. In order to measure the densities, water samples were collected
from the pond at every 5 cm intervals and the same sample measurement was taken twice for better accuracy.
7.4 Turbidity measurements
Turbidity is widely used as an indicator of water clarity in the water treatment industry. It is used to determine the relative transparency
of pond brines .After light penetrates a body of water that is contaminated with organic and inorganic matters, light absorption and
scattering occurs. The presences of contaminants cause the water to become turbid. At the RMIT solar ponds, the turbidity of the pond
samples was measured by the Nephelometric Turbidity Unit (NTU) method, which is commonly used in the water treatment industry.
This instrument compares the intensity of the light scattered by the sample under defined conditions with the intensity of light scattered
by a standard reference suspension under the same conditions. The turbidity values obtained are directly proportional to the intensity of
the scattered light measured at a 90° angle to the path of the incident beam emitted by the instrument. Besides turbidity measurements,
another practical method for clarity monitoring is visual observation of the brine color, odorand accumulations of dirt deposits on the
pond liner.

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7.5 pH measurements
A complete pH measurement system consists of a pH meter; a combined glass electrode; and calibration buffer solutions of pH 4, 7 and
10. Several brine samples were drawn from different depths and the pH was measured for each sample. After each measurement the pH
electrode was cleaned with fresh water to remove the salt, ready for the next sample.
7.6 Dissolved oxygen measurements
Dissolved oxygen (DO) is a very important parameter for Typical Temperature profile the photosynthetic activity of algae and
microorganisms the concentration of DO in water indicates the ability of the system to support phytoplankton (microscopic plants) and
zooplankton (microscopic animals) and brine shrimps. Where algae are abundant, DO levels can be high during the day but fall at night.
This fluctuation is due to the photosynthesis and respiration cycles of algae. Dissolved oxygen measurements were taken, using a DO
meter, on a fortnightly basis at 5 cm increments. They were taken together with the pH measurements. The acceptable range of dissolved
oxygen for brine shrimp is 2–3 ppm (ppm); below 2 ppm.
8 Method of Heat Extraction
A salinity gradient solar pond can be expected to reach boiling point, particularly in a location with abundant solar irradiation and low
potential for ground heat loss. When a solar pond boils, the gradient zone will be destroyed; vapor bubbles will be present and the
transparency of the solar pond will be impaired. Consequently, a solar pond‘s heat must be immediately removed when the lower layer
temperature reaches just over 100°C; thus, the pond should be constantly monitored. The optimum heat extraction rate is achieved when
the solar irradiation, heat energy input into a solar pond is nearly equal to the heat energy extracted from the pond. Types of Heat
Extraction There are two common heat extraction methods; the submerged heat exchanger and the brine withdrawal method [7].

Figure7 Model for a heat extraction system

8.1 Submerged Heat Exchanger

This internal method for the extraction of heat is designed such that the thermal energy can be deployed for multiple uses. The process
involves circulating water, glycol or any required fluid through pipes into an internal heat exchanger, which is placed at the bottom of
the solar pond. The heated liquid is then passed on to an external heat exchanger placed at a distance (usually 200m), which then
provides heat to an attached application. The choice of pipe material has an impact on the efficiency of this system. For the case of using
metallic pipes, the intensity of the natural convection process would directly influence the rate at which heat can be extracted. On the
other hand, plastic pipes have a higher resistance towards heat extraction amount. This choice of material is driven by both efficiency
and cost considerations and thus is implemented accordingly. A plastic in-pond heat exchanger was successfully used in the ANL solar
pond, and the average rate of heat extraction was close to 100W per m².This method experiences ‗temperature stratification‘.
Temperature stratification is a natural phenomenon where a less dense layers of fluid overlays a denser, colder layer of fluid, which is
not a desired case in a solar pond, as the lower layer should be both denser and hotter. The temperature stratification occurs in the lower
portion of the NZC because it is experiencing loss of temperature through conduction, down towards the heat exchange pipes due to the
temperature difference. This in turn, increases the size of the LCZ; there is an acceptable level of NCZ erosion and the system should
remain stable. Temperature stratification also takes place at the bottom of the LCZ due to natural heat transfer through convectional
currents. The cooler fluid moves towards the bottom and the warmer to the top of the layer, resulting in stratification. This lower-
temperature fluid at the bottom also results in lowering any ground heat losses. Another advantage of this method is that it can be free of
any metallic corrosion problems if a plastic component is used. Temperature stratification can also cause problems if the heat exchanger
is placed at the bottom of the LCZ instead of at the top. This would restrict the heat exchanging capabilities of the system according to
thermal conductivity of the LCZ.
8.2 Brine Withdrawal Method
This method involves pumping hot brine directly from the storage zone by using an extraction diffuser. The brine, once its heat energy
has been extracted, is then returned to the bottom of the pond by using a return diffuser. This is considered more effective than the
method discussed above, and hence it is practiced more often. For greater efficiency in this method and to maintain the solar pond
gradient, the suction diffuser should be at a level just underneath the gradient layer and it is advised that the return stream be injected at

ISBN-978-8-1924-2185-8/$100 © 2015 Published by the Park College of Engineering and Technology

3rd International Conference on Innovative Research in Engineering and Technology (iCIRET2015), April 9-11, 2015

the opposite side of the extraction line and close to the pond‘s bottom. The advantage of using this circulation method is that it reduces
ground heat losses, as this method ensures that the cooler brine is always at the bottom. However, when a solar pond is relatively large,
both diffusers (return and extraction) can be in close vicinity. This extraction configuration has been successfully applied in Israel, with a
pond size of 210,000m².
9 Economic analysis
Solar pond is not available in all areas because it requires high initial cost. But its cost less compared to flat plate collectors. Its cost is
mainly dependent on the soil excavation and salt. An economic analysis of the SGSP includes three cost estimates, namely Capital Cost,
Energy Cost, and Operations and Maintenance (O&M) Cost. The capital cost refers to the purchased equipment cost. The energy cost is
composed of thermal energy cost and electric power cost. In this study, it is assumed that the construction of the pond, building the salt
gradient zone, and heating the storage zone would take two years. The additional cost resulted from the interest incurred on the capital
during construction and heating up period is treated as capital cost because it is money that must be paid before the pond can become
operational. Since the total life of the pond (which is mainly dependent on the liner) is assumed to be 30 years, the useful life is the
remaining 28 years. The annual operating cost can then be calculated as the pond cost at the beginning of operation amortized over the
useful life time of the pond. The demand for electrical power to operate the circulation pumps is assumed to be 150 kW for the solar
pond and 150 kW for the MSF unit. The unit cost of electricity is assumed to be Rs3.9/kWh. The graph shows the calculated cost of
thermal energy from a solar pond (in Rs/kWh) as a function of storage zone temperature for different salt costs [13].

Figure8 Cost of thermal energy from a solar pond viz.

storage
Zone temperature

The plot shows that the minimum cost of thermal energy occurs in case #1(salt is available at no cost) at an operating storage zone
temperature of 70°C, and It shows that the cost of thermal energy increases with increase in the storage zone temperature. Comparing the
cost of large and small solar pond it‘s quite high for large because the cost for salt is 75% of the total cost of solar pond. The difference
between the high and low cost solar pond options depends on lining and salt costs. Low cost ponds of 2.5 acres and larger are estimated
to produce medium grade, thermal energy (48°C to 98°C) at costs competitive with the current price of delivered heat from natural gas
and significantly below that for oil. In reviewing the economics it appears that there is significant market potential for salinity gradient
solar technologies, not only in the U.S., but also worldwide.
10 Applications
Space heating and absorption cooling systems-As large thermal storage in the lower convection zone of the solar pond, it has best use
for space heating and absorption cooling systems.
Production of Power-A solar pond can be used to generate electricity by driving an organic Rankine cycle engine.
Industrial Process Heat-Industrial process heat is the thermal energy used directly in the preparation and of treatment of materials and
goods manufactured by the industry.
Desalination-The low cost thermal energy can use for desalination or water purification and irrigation. This system will be suitable at
places where portable water is in short supply and brackish water is available [10].
Heating animal housing and drying crops on farms-Low grade heat can be used in many ways on farms, which have enough land for
solar ponds. It has been used to heat greenhouses and livestock buildings.
Aquaculture -Cultivation for aquatic organisms, especially for food in low temperature.

11 Conclusion
Salt gradient solar pond technology is ideally suited to arid and semi-arid areas where there is an abundance of solar radiation, the
thermal energy from which can then be employed to generate power for desalination purposes. Coupling a solar pond with a desalination
unit provide fresh potable water to the inhabitants. The greatest heat loss from the upper layer is a result of evaporation heat, and
therefore covering the solar pond could significantly reduce this loss and may even improve the solar pond‘s performance. It has been
found that covering an SGSP can raise the average temperature by 30%, i.e. from 76.6˚C to 100˚C. The cleanliness and transparency of a
solar pond is also an extremely important issue, as impurities in the saline solution may scatter the solar radiation, thereby reducing the

ISBN-978-8-1924-2185-8/$100 © 2015 Published by the Park College of Engineering and Technology

3rd International Conference on Innovative Research in Engineering and Technology (iCIRET2015), April 9-11, 2015

efficiency of the storage zone, which is certain to reduce the solar pond‘s performance. Although solar ponds, like all other solar energy
techniques, suffer from variations in the energy source due to weather fluctuations, their unique feature is that they can provide heat for
the majority of months in a year. Natural brine and fertilizer salts are used in the solar pond instead of sodium chloride. This technology
is cost effective for low temperature process heat needs of industry. There are some classifications of ponds, but salt gradient solar pond
is the most effective one.
12 Future works
The following points require further investigations;
The transient model for a salinity gradient solar pond needs to be investigated for both hot and cold climate solar ponds. Covering the
solar pond in different transparent cover materials and the covering effects on the solar pond performance should be studied in details.
The salinity gradient pond works by the concept of preventing the convection inside the pond. Thus, it may be interesting to study the
level of saturation in which the saline solution can be heavy enough to prevent the convection in the whole pond. Due to high salinity
algae formation will arise this will reduce efficiency so to overcome these properties of various salts to be studied [7].

REFERENCES
[1] Benjamin Schubert ―Membrane Stratified Solar ponds‖ June 2010 pp 10-22.
[2] Peter Golding ―SOLAR PONDS‖ pp 2-10.
[3] Naheed Malik, Abhijit Date, Jimmy Leblanc, Aliakbar Akbarzadeh, Barry Meehan ―Monitoring and maintaining the water clarity of
salinity gradient solar ponds‖, pp 3-6.
[4] Ismail Bozkurt, Mehmet Karakilcik ―The daily performance of a solar pond integrated with solar collectors‖, pp 2-7.
[5] K.R. Agha, ―The thermal characteristics and economic analysis of a solar pond coupled low temperature multi stage desalination
plant‖ Renewable Energy and Water Desalination Research Center, pp 4-8.
[6] A.Z.A. Saifullah, A.M. Shahed Iqubal and Anirban Saha ―Solar pond and its application to desalination‖ Asian Transactions on
Science & Technology pp 10-15
[7] Ibrahim Alenezi ― Salinity Gradient Solar Ponds: Theoretical Modelling and Integration with Desalination‖, 2012 pp 79-121
[8] V. Velmurugana, K. Srithar ―Prospects and scopes of solar pond: A detailed review‖ Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews(2008) ,May, 2012 pp 79-121
[9] Hua Wang , Jianing Zou , J.L. Cortina , J. Kizito ―Experimental and theoretical study on temperature distribution of adding coal
cinder to bottom of salt gradient solar pond‖ Solar Energy (2014) pp 4-8
[10] Karkavalasa.Gowtham Chukka Siva Krishna ―Solar pond Technology‖, International journal of Engineering Research and
Science,2013 pp 5-7.
[11] Murthy GRR, Pandey KP ‖Scope of fertilizer solar ponds in Indian agriculture‖, Energy 2002;27:117–26.
[12] Al Hawaj O, Darwish MA, ―Solar pond Assisted multi-effect desalting system‖, Desalination 1994; pp 119-35.
[13] Srinivasan J ―Solar Pond Technology‖ 1993 pp 14-15.

ISBN-978-8-1924-2185-8/$100 © 2015 Published by the Park College of Engineering and Technology

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