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Irrigation Engineering
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Edition: 2021

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Contents
Irrigation Engineering
Chapter 1
Introduction to Irrigation,
Methods of Irrigation.................................................1
1.1 Definition of Irrigation....................................................................... 1
1.2 Main Concerns in Irrigation............................................................. 1
1.3 Advantages of Irrigation................................................................... 1
1.4 Disadvantages of Irrigation............................................................. 2
1.5 Systems of Irrigation.......................................................................... 2
1.6 Surface and Sub Surface Irrigation............................................... 2
1.6.1 Surface Irrigation.................................................................... 2
1.6.2 Subsurface Irrigation............................................................. 3
1.7 Methods of Irrigation ........................................................................ 3
1.7.1 Uncontrolled Flooding........................................................ 4
1.7.2 Border Flooding...................................................................... 4
1.7.3 Check Flooding........................................................................ 5
1.7.4 Basin Flooding......................................................................... 6
1.7.5 Furrow Method........................................................................ 6
1.7.6 Subsurface Irrigation............................................................. 6
1.7.7 Sprinkler Irrigation Method................................................ 7
1.7.8 Drip Irrigation Method (Trickle irrigation)..................... 8
1.8 Irrigation Project Survey................................................................... 9
1.9 Important Irrigation Projects in India.......................................... 9
Objective Brain Teasers.........................................................10
Conventional Practice Questions.......................................11
Chapter 2
Water Logging,
Quality of Irrigation Water................................12
2.1 Water Logging....................................................................................12
2.2 Causes of Water Logging................................................................12
2.3 Effects of Water Logging................................................................12
2.4 Remedial Measures Adopted for
Controlling Water Logging............................................................12
(iii)
2.5 Losses in Canal...................................................................................13
2.6 Leaching...............................................................................................13
2.6.1 Leaching Requirement of Soil..........................................14
2.7 Land Drainage....................................................................................14
2.7.1 Surface Drainage...................................................................14
2.7.2 Sub Surface Drainage............................................................15
2.7.3 Design and Maintenance of Open Drain......................16
2.7.4 Relationship to Predict the Spacing between
Tile Drains if Discharge is Unknown...............................17
2.8 Standard of Irrigation Water..........................................................19
Objective Brain Teasers.....................................................................21
Conventional Practice Questions...................................................22
Chapter 3
Water Requirement for Crops.......................23
3.1 Introduction........................................................................................23
3.2 Cropping Seasons in India.............................................................23
3.2.1 Rabi............................................................................................23
3.2.2 Kharif.........................................................................................23
3.2.3 Zaid............................................................................................23
3.3 Duty and Delta...................................................................................24
3.3.1 Duty...........................................................................................24
3.3.2 Delta..........................................................................................24
3.4 Crop Period and Base Period.........................................................24
3.5 Relation between Duty and Delta...............................................25
3.5.1 Derivation................................................................................25
3.6 Important Definition Linked with
Water Requirements of Crops.......................................................25
3.7 Brief Understanding.........................................................................27
3.8 Water Holding Capacity of the Soil.............................................27
3.9 Capillary Pores and Non-Capillary Pores..................................27
3.10 Classification of Soil Water.............................................................28
3.11 Soil Moisture Tension (SMT)..........................................................28
3.12 Soil Moisture Stresses (SMS)..........................................................28
3.12.1 Osmotic Pressure..................................................................29
3.12.2 Leaching...................................................................................29
3.13 Soil Moisture Constants...................................................................29
3.14 Formula for Depth of Water Stored
in the Root Zone of the Soil...........................................................30
3.15 Irrigation Efficiencies.......................................................................33
3.15.1 Various Types of Irrigation Efficiencies..........................34
3.16 Irrigation Requirements of Crops................................................35
3.16.1 Consumptive Irrigation Requirement (CIR).................36
3.16.2 Net Irrigation Requirement (NIR)....................................36
3.16.3 Field Irrigation Requirement (FIR)...................................36
3.16.4 Gross Irrigation Requirement (GIR)................................36
3.17 Consumptive Use (Cu) or Evapotranspiration (ET)...............38
3.17.1 Transpiration..........................................................................38
3.17.2 Evaporation.............................................................................38
3.17.3 Evapotranspiration (ET)......................................................38
3.17.4 Factors Affecting Consumptive Use...............................39
3.17.5 Potential Evapotranspiration (PET)
and Actual Evapotranspiration (AET)............................39
3.17.6 Some Important Definitions Linked with ET...............40
3.17.7 Methods of Determining the
Consumptive Use of Water................................................40
Objective Brain Teasers.........................................................49
Conventional Practice Questions.......................................52
Chapter 4
Canal Irrigation...................................................54
4.1 Canal Irrigation..................................................................................54
4.2 Classification of Irrigation Canals................................................54
4.3 Canal Alignment................................................................................55
4.3.1 Ridge Canal.............................................................................55
4.3.2 Contour Canal........................................................................55
4.3.3 Side Slope Canals..................................................................55
4.4 Warabandhi Method........................................................................56
4.4.1 Primary and Secondary Distribution System..............57
4.5 Layout of an Irrigation Canal Network......................................57
4.5.1 Main Canal...............................................................................57
(iv)
4.5.2 Branch Canal...........................................................................58
4.5.3 Major Distributaries.............................................................58
4.5.4 Minor Distributaries.............................................................58
4.5.5 Water Courses (or field channels)...................................58
4.6 Sediment Transport..........................................................................58
4.6.1 Important Points Linked with Sediment Transport.. 58
4.6.2 Suspended Load...................................................................58
4.6.3 Mechanism of Sediment Transport................................59
4.7 Shield’s Entrainment Method for Design of
Non-scouring Stable Channels.....................................................60
4.7.1 Shield’s Expression...............................................................60
4.7.2 Minimum Size of Bed Material that will
Remain in a Channel............................................................60
4.7.3 Strickler’s Formula................................................................60
4.8 Alluvial Channels and Non-Alluvial Channels.........................64
4.8.1 Alluvial Channels..................................................................64
4.8.2 Non-Alluvial Channels........................................................64
4.9 Design of Alluvial Channels in India...........................................64
4.9.1 Regime Condition.................................................................64
4.10 Kennedy’s Theory..............................................................................64
4.10.1 Critical Velocity in a Channel............................................65
4.10.2 Design Procedure.................................................................65
4.10.3 Drawbacks...............................................................................65
4.11 Lacey’s Regime Theory....................................................................66
4.11.1 Lacey’s Regime Channels...................................................66
4.11.2 Design Procedure.................................................................67
4.11.3 Drawbacks...............................................................................67
4.12 Comparison of Lacey and Kennedy Theories..........................67
4.13 Lining of Canal...................................................................................70
4.13.1 Necessity of Lining of Canal..............................................70
4.13.2 Advantages of Lining of Canal.........................................70
4.13.3 Disadvantages of Lining of Canal...................................70
4.14 Types of Lining of Canal..................................................................71
4.15 Design of Lined Canal......................................................................71
4.15.1 Procedure for Designing a Lined Channel...................71
4.15.2 Indian Standard on Design of Lined Canals................72
4.16 Economics of Canal Lining.............................................................75
4.16.1 Assumption to be followed...............................................75
 4.16.2 Calculation of average annual benefits........................75
4.16.3 Calculation of annual expense or cost..........................76
Objective Brain Teasers.........................................................78
Conventional Practice Questions.......................................82
Chapter 5
Analysis of Gravity Dams...................................84
5.1 Gravity Dams......................................................................................84
5.2 Forces Acting on a Gravity Dam.................................................84
5.2.1 External forces acting on a gravity dam.......................84
5.2.2 Combination of Loading for Design
(USBR Recommendation)..................................................90
5.3 Modes of Failure (Stability Requirements)...............................90
5.4 Stability Analysis (Gravity method or 2D method)...............93
5.5 Elementary Profile of a Gravity Dam..........................................95
Objective Brain Teasers.................................................................. 100
Conventional Practice Questions................................................ 101
Chapter 6
Theories of Seepage.........................................104
6.1 Seepage Theories..................................................................................................104
6.1.1 Bligh’s Creep Theory.............................................................................104
6.1.2 Lane’s Weighted Creep Theory......................................................105
6.1.3 Khosla’s Theory........................................................................................105
6.1.4 Bligh’s Design Criteria..........................................................................107
Objective Brain Teasers...................................................... 109
Conventional Practice Questions.................................... 110
Chapter 7
Conveyance and Regulating
Structures for Canals........................................111
7.1 Cross Drainage Works................................................................... 111
7.2 Types of CD Works......................................................................... 112
7.3 Features of Design of CD Works................................................ 115
7.4 Methods Used for Designing Channel Transition............... 115
7.5 Introduction..................................................................................... 117
7.6 Canal Fall........................................................................................... 117
7.6.1 Main Reason Behind the
Construction of a Canal Fall........................................... 118
(v)
7.6.2 Factors Deciding Location of Falls............................... 118
7.7 Types of Canal Falls........................................................................ 118
7.7.1 Ogee Falls............................................................................. 118
7.7.2 Rapid Falls............................................................................. 118
7.7.3 Stepped Falls....................................................................... 119
7.7.4 Notch Falls............................................................................ 119
7.7.5 Vertical Drop Fall (Sarda Fall)......................................... 120
7.7.6 Glacis Type Fall.................................................................... 120
7.8 Canal Regulators............................................................................ 121
7.8.1 Purpose of Providing a Canal Head Regulator........ 121
7.8.2 Cross Regulator and Distributary
Head Regulators................................................................. 122
7.9 Canal Escapes.................................................................................. 122
7.10 Types of Canal Escapes................................................................ 123
7.10.1 Based on Structural Design............................................ 123
7.10.2 Based on the Purpose...................................................... 124
7.11 Canal Outlets................................................................................... 124
7.12 Types of Canal Outlets.................................................................. 124
7.13 Parameters for Studying the Behaviour of Outlets............ 125
Objective Brain Teasers.................................................................. 128
Conventional Practice Questions................................................ 130
Chapter 8
River Training Works &
Diversion Headworks.......................................131
8.1 Behaviour of Rivers...............................................................................................131
8.2 Classification of Rivers........................................................................................131
8.2.1 Meandering river, Braided river and Deltaic rivers.............132
8.3 Meandering Phenomena and Meandering Parameter.................133
8.3.1 Meandering..............................................................................................133
8.3.2 Causes of Meandering........................................................................133
8.3.3 Meander Parameters...........................................................................134
8.3.4 Oxbow lake (or Cut off loop)...........................................................134
8.4 River Training, Classification and Objectives.........................................135
8.4.1 Major objectives of river training works...................................135
8.4.2 Classification of river training works...........................................135
8.5 Methods of River Training................................................................................136
8.6 Introduction.............................................................................................................143
 8.6.1 Storage Headworks..............................................................................143
8.6.2 Diversion Headworks..........................................................................143
8.7 Location of Headworks......................................................................................144
8.8 Components Parts of a Diversion Headworks.....................................144
8.8.1 Weir................................................................................................................144
8.8.2 Classification of Weir............................................................................145
8.8.3 Barrage.........................................................................................................146
8.8.4 Undersluices.............................................................................................147
8.8.5 Divide Wall..................................................................................................147
8.8.6 Fish Ladder.................................................................................................147
8.8.7 Silt Regulation Works...........................................................................148
Objective Brain Teasers...................................................... 150
Conventional Practice Questions.................................... 153
(vi)
Chapter 9
Dams Spillways and Energy Dissipaters........154
9.1 Dams and its Classification......................................................... 154
9.1.1 Dams...................................................................................... 154
9.2 Selection of Site for Dam............................................................. 155
9.2.1 Factors Governing Selection of Type of Dam.......... 155
9.2.2 Requirement of Good Site for
Construction of Dams...................................................... 155
9.3 Spillways............................................................................................ 155
9.3.1 Essential Requirement of Spillway.............................. 156
9.3.2 Types of Spillway................................................................ 156
9.3.3 Components of Spillway................................................. 160
9.4 Energy Dissipaters......................................................................... 161
9.4.1 Hydraulic Jump Computations..................................... 161
9.4.2 Relationship between JHC and TWC.......................... 162
9.5 Types of Gates for Spillway Crests............................................ 164
Objective Brain Teasers...................................................... 166
Conventional Practice Questions.................................... 168
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