Download ebook The Nalco Water Handbook Pdf full chapter pdf

The Nalco water handbook - eBook PDF
Visit to download the full and correct content document:

https://ebooksecure.com/download/the-nalco-water-handbook-ebook-pdf/
The Nalco
Water
Handbook
00_Nalco_FM_i-xxviii.indd 1 04/10/17 3:59 pm

About Nalco Water, an Ecolab Company
Nalco Water, an Ecolab company is the global leader in
water, hygiene, and energy technologies and services
that protect people and vital resources. Ecolab delivers
comprehensive solutions and on-site service to ensure
safe food, maintain clean environments, optimize
water and energy use, and improve operational effi-
ciencies for customers in the food, healthcare, energy,
hospitality, and industrial markets in more than 170
countries around the world.

The Nalco
Water
Handbook
Nalco Water, an Ecolab Company
Daniel J. Flynn Editor
Fourth Edition
New York Chicago San Francisco

Athens London Madrid
Mexico City Milan New Delhi
Singapore Sydney Toronto

Copyright © 2018 by McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Except as permitted under the United
States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any
means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher.
ISBN: 978-1-25-986098-0
MHID: 1-25-986098-1
The material in this eBook also appears in the print version of this title: ISBN: 978-1-25-986097-3,
MHID: 1-25-986097-3.
eBook conversion by codeMantra

Version 1.0
All trademarks are trademarks of their respective owners. Rather than put a trademark symbol after every occur-
rence of a trademarked name, we use names in an editorial fashion only, and to the benefit of the trademark owner,
with no intention of infringement of the trademark. Where such designations appear in this book, they have been
printed with initial caps.
McGraw-Hill Education eBooks are available at special quantity discounts to use as premiums and sales promo-
tions or for use in corporate training programs. To contact a representative, please visit the Contact Ues page at
www.mhprofessional.com.
Information contained in this work has been obtained by McGraw-Hill Education from sources believed to be
reliable. However, neither McGraw-Hill Education nor its authors guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any
information published herein, and neither McGraw-Hill Education nor its authors shall be responsible for any er-
rors, omissions, or damages arising out of use of this information. This work is published with the understanding
that McGraw-Hill Education and its authors are supplying information but are not attempting to render engineer-
ing or other professional services. If such services are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional
should be sought.
TERMS OF USE
This is a copyrighted work and McGraw-Hill Education and its licensors reserve all rights in and to the work. Use
of this work is subject to these terms. Except as permitted under the Copyright Act of 1976 and the right to store
and retrieve one copy of the work, you may not decompile, disassemble, reverse engineer, reproduce, modify,
create derivative works based upon, transmit, distribute, disseminate, sell, publish or sublicense the work or any
part of it without McGraw-Hill Education’s prior consent. You may use the work for your own noncommercial
and personal use; any other use of the work is strictly prohibited. Your right to use the work may be terminated if
you fail to comply with these terms.
THE WORK IS PROVIDED “AS IS.” McGRAW-HILL EDUCATION AND ITS LICENSORS MAKE NO
GUARANTEES OR WARRANTIES AS TO THE ACCURACY, ADEQUACY OR COMPLETENESS OF
OR RESULTS TO BE OBTAINED FROM USING THE WORK, INCLUDING ANY INFORMATION THAT
CAN BE ACCESSED THROUGH THE WORK VIA HYPERLINK OR OTHERWISE, AND EXPRESSLY
DISCLAIM ANY WARRANTY, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO IMPLIED
WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. McGraw-Hill
Education and its licensors do not warrant or guarantee that the functions contained in the work will meet your
requirements or that its operation will be uninterrupted or error free. Neither McGraw-Hill Education nor its
licensors shall be liable to you or anyone else for any inaccuracy, error or omission, regardless of cause, in the
work or for any damages resulting therefrom. McGraw-Hill Education has no responsibility for the content of any
information accessed through the work. Under no circumstances shall McGraw-Hill Education and/or its licen-
sors be liable for any indirect, incidental, special, punitive, consequential or similar damages that result from the
use of or inability to use the work, even if any of them has been advised of the possibility of such damages. This
limitation of liability shall apply to any claim or cause whatsoever whether such claim or cause arises in contract,
tort or otherwise.
Contents
Foreword. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiii
Preface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxv
Acknowledgments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxvii
Section 1 Introduction
1 The Business Case for Managing Water. . . . . . . . 1.3
Global Trends Affecting Water Supply. . . . . . . . . . 1.4
The Impact of Climate Change on
Glacial Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4
Impact of Population Trends on Surface
and Groundwater. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5
Sustainability as a Business Driver. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6
Sustainability Reporting and Regulations. . . 1.7
Making the Business Case for Managing Water. . . 1.9
Calculate the Full Value of Water . . . . . . . . 1.10
Perform a Total Plant Assessment of
Water Use. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.12
Value and Prioritize. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.12
Water Risk Monetizer Case Studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.13
Business Expansion Projects. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.14
Existing Facility Water Improvement
Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.14
2 Water Sources and Stressors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1
Water Sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1
Surface Water—Rivers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3
Surface Water—Lakes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.8
Groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.16
Connate Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.17
Desalination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.17
Recycled Wastewater. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.19
Stress on Water Sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.21
Groundwater Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.21
Surface Water Stress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.24
3 Water Quality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1
Natural Factors Affecting Water Quality. . . . . . . . 3.1
Seasonal Changes That Affect Water Quality . . . 3.4
Impact of Dams on River Water Quality . . . 3.4

vi Contents
Water Quality When River Meets Ocean. . . 3.6

Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7
Impact of Water and Process Treatment. . . . . . . . . 3.11
Boiler Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.12
Cooling Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.13
Wastewater. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.15
Focus on Total System Performance . . . . . . 3.15
Section 2 Basic Water Chemistry

4 Water Chemistry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3
Atoms, Molecules, Ions, and Compounds. . . . . . . 4.3
Atoms and Molecules. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4
Bonding in Compounds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5
The Water Molecule. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7
Solubility of Matter in Water . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.8
Hydrogen Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.9
Other Properties of Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.10
Basics of Water Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.12
Impurities in Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.13
Electrolytes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.14
Electromotive Series. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.16
Colloidal Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.16
Solubility of Gases in Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.18
Organic Compounds and Solubility in
Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.19
Solubility Product Constants. . . . . . . . . . . . 4.19
Equilibrium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.22
Solid Reactants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.24
Complexing Agents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.26
Application of Water Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.29
Hardness and Analysis of Water. . . . . . . . . 4.29
Alkalinity and pH Relationships. . . . . . . . . 4.31
Practical Aspects of Mineral Solubility. . . . 4.41
CaCO3 Stability Indexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.44
Oxidation/Reduction Reactions . . . . . . . . . 4.46
5 Impurities in Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1

Characteristics of Water Sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2
Classes of Impurities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6
Dissolved Substances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6
Suspended Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.19
Organic Matter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.20
Biological Organisms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.24

Contents vii
Macrofouling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.27
Dissolved Gases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.30
Water Reuse and Recycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.31
Section 3.1 Applications—Impurity Removal

6 Raw Water Clarification and Filtration. . . . . . . . . 6.3
Coagulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5
Contaminants Removed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6
Zeta Potential. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.9
Flocculation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.11
Coagulation and Flocculation Chemicals. . . . . . . . 6.14
Tailoring Polyelectrolytes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.16
Activated Silica. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.18
Coagulation and Flocculation Applications. . . . . . 6.18
Color Removal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.23
Plant Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.25
Filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.29
Filtration Mechanisms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.30
Granular Media Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.32
Granular Media Filter Beds . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.35
Filter Backwashing Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.37
Filter Appurtenances. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.39
Service Operating Parameters. . . . . . . . . . . 6.40
Water Quality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.41
Chemical Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.43
Direct Filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.44
7 Ion Exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1
Ion Exchange Resins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1
Ion Affinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3
Resin Bead Structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3
Particle Size and Size Distribution . . . . . . . 7.5
Resin Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.7
Resin Regeneration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.11
Backwash. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.11
Regenerant Addition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.13
Slow Rinse. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.14
Fast Rinse. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.14
Counter-Current Regeneration . . . . . . . . . . 7.14
Resin Types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16
Strong Acid Cation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16
Weak Acid Cation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.22
Strong Base Anion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.26
Weak Base Anion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.30

viii Contents
Resin Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.34

Expected Length of Service. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.34
Annual Resin Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.39
Annual Regeneration Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.46
Monitoring Service Performance. . . . . . . . . 7.47
Chemical Cleaning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.51
Resin Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.52
Ion Exchange Equipment Configurations . . . . . . . 7.53
Softening. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.53
Dealkalizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.53
Primary Demineralizing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.61
Mixed-Bed Demineralizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.65
Packed Bed Units. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.67
Water Use Optimization Strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.69
System Optimization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.69
Water Recovery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.70
8 Membrane Separation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1
Pressure-Driven Membrane Separation
Technologies: Microfiltration, Ultrafiltration,
Nanofiltration, Reverse Osmosis . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2
Filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2
Basic Membrane Terminology. . . . . . . . . . . 8.4
Membrane Modules. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.7
Microfiltration and Ultrafiltration. . . . . . . . 8.14
Reverse Osmosis and Nanofiltration . . . . . 8.25
Electrochemically-Driven Membrane Separation
Process: Electrodeionization/Continuous
Electrodeionization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.55
Theory of Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.56
Membrane Modules. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.58
Pretreatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.60
Cleaning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.61
Monitoring and Troubleshooting. . . . . . . . . 8.61
Section 3.2 Applications—Steam Generation

9 Boiler Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3
Steam Generation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3
Condensate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.5
Steam or Condensate Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.6
Makeup. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.6
Concentration by Evaporation. . . . . . . . . . . 9.6
Blowdown. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.7
Feedwater. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.8

Contents ix
Mathematical Relationships. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.9

Blowdown and Makeup. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.9
Cycles of Concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.11
Mass Balance Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.12
Optimizing the Water Balance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.13
Thermodynamic Properties of Steam. . . . . . . . . . . 9.14
Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.15
Boilers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.16
Boiler Classifications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.17
Boiler Types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.18
Boiler Ratings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.37
Boiler Circulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.39
10 Oxygen Removal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1
Corrosion Mechanisms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1
Mechanical Deaeration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.3
Ionization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.3
Relative Partial Pressure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.4
Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.6
Agitation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.6
Gas Removal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.7
Pressure Deaerators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.7
Primary Preheating Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.8
Basic Principles of Mechanical Deaeration Using
Pressure Deaerators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.9
Spray Deaerator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.9
Tray Deaerator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.11
Atomizing Deaerator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.13
Operating Considerations for Pressure
Deaerators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.14
Deaerating Heater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.15
Proper Venting of Pressure
Deaerators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.15
Mixing Condensate and Makeup . . . . . . . . 10.16
Pressure Deaerator Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . 10.17
Vacuum Deaerators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.18
Deaerating Condensers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.19
Feedwater Tanks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.20
Gas Transfer Membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.23
Activated Carbon Catalysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.25
Ion Exchange Resin Catalysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.27
Chemical Oxygen Scavengers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.27
Sodium Sulfite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.29
Hydrazine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.31
Carbohydrazide. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.32

x Contents
Erythorbate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.33
Diethylhydroxylamine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.34
Methylethylketoxime. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.35
Hydroquinone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.37
Monitoring and Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.37
Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.39
Monitoring and Control Tools. . . . . . . . . . . 10.40
At-Temperature ORP Monitoring. . . . . . . . 10.42
11 Boiler Feedwater Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1
Hardness Scale. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.3
Silica Scale. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.4
Iron Deposits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.6
The Problem with Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.7
Iron Deposition Mechanism. . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.7
Sources of Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.9
Polymers and Iron Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.12
Iron Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.13
Effects of Boiler Scale. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.16
Internal Chemical Treatment Programs. . . . . . . . . 11.20
Phosphate Residual Programs—Low
Pressure Industrial Systems. . . . . . . . . . . 11.21
Phosphate-Polymer Programs. . . . . . . . . . . 11.25
Phosphate Programs—High Pressure
Industrial Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.28
Chelates and Chelate-Polymer
Programs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.33
All-Polymer Programs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.37
12 Turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.1
Turbine Mechanics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.1
Turbine Problem Areas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.6
13 Condensate Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.1

Causes of Condensate System Corrosion. . . . . . . . 13.2
Carbon Dioxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.2
Estimating the Amount of Carbon Dioxide
in Steam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.5
Oxygen. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.5
Carbon Dioxide Plus Oxygen. . . . . . . . . . . . 13.7
Ammonia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.8
Sulfur Dioxide and Hydrogen Sulfide . . . . 13.9
Process Contamination and Organic
Acids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.10
Methods of Condensate Corrosion
Inhibition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.10

Contents xi
Neutralizing Amines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.11

Filming Amines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.19
Oxygen Scavengers/Metal Passivators . . . 13.20
Minimizing the Effect of Contaminated
Condensate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.20
System Design and Maintenance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.22
Evaluating Results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.23
Why Treat Condensate? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.24
Section 3.3 Applications—Cooling Water Systems

14 Cooling System Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.3
Mechanical-Operational-Chemical Survey
Concepts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.3
Survey Data Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.3
Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.5
Heat Exchangers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.6
Calculations and Measurements. . . . . . . . . 14.13
Effects of Corrosion and Deposits. . . . . . . . 14.20
Types of Cooling Water Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.22
Once-through Cooling Water Systems. . . . 14.23
Closed Recirculating Systems . . . . . . . . . . . 14.28
Open Recirculating Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.30
15 Cooling Water Deposition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.1
Consequences of Deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.3
The Scale Formation Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.7
Solubility Is an Equilibrium Process. . . . . . 15.7
Nucleation and Scale Formation. . . . . . . . . 15.8
Factors Affecting Scale Formation. . . . . . . . 15.13
Predicting Scale Formation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.17
Fouling Deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.20
Suspended Particle Interactions. . . . . . . . . . 15.21
Suspended Solids Deposition Processes. . . 15.23
Cooling Systems Deposits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.23
Calcium Carbonate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.23
Calcium Sulfate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.25
Silica and Silicates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.25
Calcium Phosphate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.29
Zinc Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.30
Calcium Polyphosphates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.31
Calcium Phosphonates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.33
Iron. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.34
Silt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.35
Manganese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.36

xii Contents
16 Cooling System Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.1

Corrosion of Materials in Cooling Systems. . . . . . 16.2
Carbon Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.2
Copper Alloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.3
Stainless Steel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.3
Galvanized Steel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.4
Nonmetallic Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.5
The Corrosion Process in Cooling Systems . . . . . . 16.6
The Local Cell Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.6
Anodic Reactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.8
Cathodic Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.8
Secondary Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.9
Galvanic or Electrochemical Series. . . . . . . 16.10
The Role of Oxygen in Corrosion . . . . . . . . 16.12
Polarization and Corrosion Rates . . . . . . . . 16.13
Passivity and Immunity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.14
Factors Influencing Corrosion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.15
Water Chemistry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.15
Dissolved Gases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.17
Halogens and Other Oxidizers . . . . . . . . . . 16.18
Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.18
Flow Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.19
System or Spatial Configuration Factors. . . 16.20
Deposits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.20
Types of Corrosion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.20
Uniform Corrosion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.21
Pitting Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.21
Localized Corrosion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.22
Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion. . . 16.27
Stress Corrosion Cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.30
17 Cooling Water Biology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.1
Sources of Biological Problems in Cooling Water
Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.1
Consequences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.2
Microorganisms Found in Cooling Systems . . . . . 17.4
Bacteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.4
Algae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.11
Protozoa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.12
Fungi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.12
Factors Affecting Microbial Growth. . . . . . . . . . . . 17.13
Suitable Conditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.14
Biofilms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.15
Formation and Growth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.15
Biofilm Advantages to the Microbes . . . . . 17.17
Problems Associated with Biofilms. . . . . . . 17.17

Contents xiii
Determining the Bacterial Population of

Cooling Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.19
18 Cooling Water Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.1
Deposition Monitoring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.1
Heated Tube Deposit Monitors . . . . . . . . . . 18.1
Pressure Drop Microbial Fouling Monitors. . . 18.2
Real-Time Deposit Monitoring. . . . . . . . . . . 18.2
Corrosion Monitoring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.4
Corrosion Coupons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.4
Electrochemical Corrosion
Monitoring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.10
Corrosion Product Monitoring. . . . . . . . . . . 18.11
Biological Growth Monitoring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.12
Lab Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.12
Field Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.13
Online Biological Monitoring. . . . . . . . . . . . 18.17
19 Cooling Water Treatment and Control . . . . . . . . . 19.1
Deposit Control Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.1
Deposit Inhibitor Mechanisms. . . . . . . . . . . 19.2
Examples of Deposit Inhibitors. . . . . . . . . . 19.5
Corrosion Control Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.9
Corrosion Inhibitor Mechanisms. . . . . . . . . 19.9
Examples of Corrosion Inhibitors. . . . . . . . 19.13
Biological Control Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.16
Oxidizing Biocides. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.17
Nonoxidizing Biocides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.22
Biodispersants and Biodetergents. . . . . . . . 19.24
Macrofouling Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.25
Cooling Water Treatment Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.26
Stabilized Phosphate Programs. . . . . . . . . . 19.26
All-Organic Programs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.27
Alkaline Zinc Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.27
Alkaline Phosphate Programs. . . . . . . . . . . 19.28
Molybdate Programs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.28
Non-Phosphorous Programs. . . . . . . . . . . . 19.28
Nonchemical Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.29
Section 3.4 Applications—Water Safety for Building

Water Systems
20 Legionella and Legionellosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.3
The Disease. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.4
Legionnaires’ Disease Symptoms . . . . . . . . 20.5
Susceptibility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.5
Pontiac Fever Variant. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.6

xiv Contents
First Identified Outbreak. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.6

Other Outbreaks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.7
The Bacteria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.9
Occurrence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.10
Conditions for Growth and Proliferation. . . 20.10
Sources of Risk. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.14
Risk of Disease. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.15
21 Water Management Programs for Engineered
Water Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.1
Managing the Risk: Regulatory Position and
Global Guidance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.3
General Management Considerations . . . . . . . . . . 21.5
Assessment of Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.6
Growth Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.7
Aerosol Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.11
Human Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.12
Manage the Risk: Water Management
Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.12
Water Management Program for
Cooling Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.12
Control Scheme for Hot and Cold
Potable Water Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.16
Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.22
Other Risk Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.23
Consequence of Outbreak. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.24
Training. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.24
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.24
Section 3.5 Applications—Post-Treatment

22 Primary Effluent Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.3
Clarification by Sedimentation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.3
Forms of Solids in Effluent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.4
Sedimentation Phenomena. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.5
Mass Loading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.9
Clarifier Hydraulic Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.11
Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.13
Clarifier Operating Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.13
Sludge Bed Depth Measurement. . . . . . . . . 22.15
Influent Flow Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.15
Chemical Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.16
Types of Sedimentation Clarifiers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.16
Circular Clarifiers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.17
Rectangular Clarifiers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.18
Parallel Plate and Tube Clarifiers. . . . . . . . . 22.21

Contents xv
Drag Separator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.26

Oil/Water Separators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.26
Flotation Clarification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.30
The Dissolved Air Flotation System. . . . . . 22.31
Types of DAF Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.32
Operating Parameters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.34
Pressurization Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.37
Flotation Cell. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.39
Float Removal Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.40
Plant Flows. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.41
Induced Air Flotation (IAF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.41
23 Secondary Effluent Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.1
General Principles of Secondary Treatment. . . . . . 23.1
Basic Methods of Secondary Treatment. . . 23.2
Principles of Biological Waste Treatment. . . . . . . . 23.5
Important Microorganisms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.5
Bacterial Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.8
Biological Treatment Control Parameters. . . 23.11
Activated Sludge Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.17
Activated Sludge Process Equipment. . . . . 23.18
Activated Sludge Process Control
Concepts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.25
Nutrient Removal in Activated Sludge. . . . 23.32
Aerated Lagoons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.34
Significant Operational Control
Parameters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.34
Stabilization Ponds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.36
Pond Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.36
Rotating Biological Contactors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.36
Trickling Filters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.38
Principles of Operation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.39
Sludge Reduction Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.40
Anaerobic Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.42
Anaerobic Sludge Digestion. . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.42
Anaerobic Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.42
Membrane Bioreactors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.45
MBR Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.45
MBR Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.48
Microbial Foulants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.48
24 Tertiary Effluent Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.1
Disinfection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.2
Chlorination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.2
Chlorination Processes in Effluent
Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.3

xvi Contents
Dechlorination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.3
Disinfection By-products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.4
Solids Removal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.4
Ammonia Reduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.4
Ammonia Stripping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.5
Selective Ion Exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.5
Breakpoint Chlorination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.6
Phosphate Removal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.6
Aluminum Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.6
Iron Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.7
Calcium Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.8
Organics Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.8
25 Heavy Metal Removal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.1
Regulatory Issues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.1
Sources of Metals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.2
Chemistry of Metals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.3
Ionic Strength. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.5
Chelation Effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.6
Metal Removal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.9
Operational Factors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.9
Equipment Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.10
Chemical Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.15
Associated Pretreatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.22
26 Sludge Manipulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.1
Sludge Thickening. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.3
Gravity Thickening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.3
Flotation Thickening. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.5
Rotary Drum Thickener . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.6
Gravity Table Thickeners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.7
Centrifugal Thickening. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.8
Sludge Dewatering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.10
Nature of Sludge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.10
Belt Filter Press. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.11
Centrifugation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.11
Vacuum Filters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.12
Screw Presses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.13
Plate-and-Frame Filter Presses. . . . . . . . . . . 26.15
Drying Beds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.18
27 Emulsion Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.1
Theory of Emulsions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.2
Oily Waste. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.4
Waste Oil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.5
Emulsion Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.5

Contents xvii
Separation Equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.7

Oil-in-Water Emulsions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.7
Water-in-Oil Emulsions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.18
28 Wet Gas Scrubbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.1
Particle Collection Concepts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.1
Particulate Emissions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.2
Principles of Operation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.4
Categorizing Wet Scrubbers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.6
Gas Absorption Scrubbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.6
Wet Particle Scrubbers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.9
Wet Electrostatic Precipitators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.15
Waterside Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.15
Waste Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.17
Auxiliary Equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.17
Selected Gas Scrubbing Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.18
SOx Removal from Flue Gas. . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.18
Section 4 Energy in Water Systems

29 Energy Use in Effluent Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29.3
Energy Utilization in Effluent Treatment. . . . . . . . 29.4
Motors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29.8
Variable Control Devices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29.9
Aeration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29.9
Aeration Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29.11
Aeration Control and Monitoring. . . . . . . . 29.14
Preliminary and Primary Effluent Treatment . . . . 29.16
Secondary Effluent Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29.17
Suspended Growth Processes . . . . . . . . . . . 29.18
Fixed Film. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29.19
Tertiary Effluent Treatment Processes. . . . . . . . . . . 29.20
30 Energy in Cooling Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30.1
Financial Impact of Inefficient Heat Rejection. . . . 30.1
Cooling Tower Thermal Performance or
Thermal Capability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30.3
Cooling Tower Performance Problems. . . . . . . . . . 30.7
Air-Side Thermal Performance Issues. . . . . 30.8
Water-Side Thermal Performance
Issues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30.13
Cooling Tower Energy Balance . . . . . . . . . . 30.15
Reliability Issues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30.17
Cooling Tower Performance Testing. . . . . . . . . . . . 30.19
Cooling Tower Acceptance Testing. . . . . . . 30.20
Cooling Tower Performance Audit. . . . . . . 30.20

xviii Contents
31 Energy in Steam Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.1

Energy Basics for Steam Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.1
Enthalpy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.2
Steam Quality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.3
Boiler Efficiency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.3
Definitions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.6
Input–Output or Direct Method . . . . . . . . . 31.9
Heat Loss or Indirect Method . . . . . . . . . . . 31.10
Comparison of Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.12
Heat Transfer Surfaces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.13
Multiple Boilers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.16
Alternate Fuels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.16
Reduce Steam Demand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.16
Reduce Boiler Blowdown. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.19
Recover Blowdown Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.20
Flash Tank. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.21
Optimize Condensate Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.23
Reduce System Pressure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.23
Optimize Turbine Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.24
Section 5 Industries
32 The Paper Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.3
Industry Profile. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.6
Virgin Fiber Production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.8
Wood Yard Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.8
Groundwood Pulping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.11
Thermomechanical Pulping. . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.12
Chemical Pulping—Kraft Process. . . . . . . . 32.13
Chemical Pulping—Non Kraft. . . . . . . . . . . 32.25
Recycled Pulp Production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.26
Deinking and Secondary Fiber Use. . . . . . . 32.26
Pulp Bleaching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.29
Stock Preparation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.33
Paper Machine Operations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.35
Paper Machine Headbox. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.35
Paper Machine Wet End. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.36
Paper Machine Press Section. . . . . . . . . . . . 32.38
Paper Machine Dryer Section. . . . . . . . . . . . 32.39
33 The Power Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33.1
Energy Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33.2
The Power Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33.3
Water: The Working Fluid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33.7

Contents xix
Factors Affecting Chemical Treatment. . . . . . . . . . 33.11

Water Chemistry in Fossil-Fuel Plants—
Liquid Phase. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33.14
Steam Phase Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33.26
Water Chemistry in Nuclear Plants. . . . . . . . . . . . . 33.28
Blowdown Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33.32
Condenser Cooling Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33.35
Ash Handling Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33.43
Flue Gas Desulfurization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33.45
Wastewater and Discharge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33.46
34 The Oil Field Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.1
Theory of Oil Formation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.1
A Few Basics about Petroleum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.2
Accumulations of Petroleum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.3
Oil Sands and Heavy Oil Reserves. . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.5
Petroleum Production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.5
Oil Dehydration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.6
Improved Recovery Techniques. . . . . . . . . . 34.8
Hydraulic Fracturing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.16
Oil Shale. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.16
Bitumen Recovery from Surface
Mining. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.17
Upgrading Bitumen and Heavy Oil to
Produce Synthetic Fuels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.18
The Nature of Oilfield Waters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.18
Total Dissolved Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.18
Suspended Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.19
Dissolved Gases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.20
Problem-Causing Bacteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.20
Residual Oil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.21
Mineral Scales. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.21
Mineral Scales in Water Injection
Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.22
Mineral Scales in Steam Injection/
Thermal Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.24
Corrosion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.27
Water Injection Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.27
Steam Injection/Thermal Systems. . . . . . . . 34.29
Bacteria Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.30
Raw Water, Utility, and Cooling Water
Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.31
Automation and Control of System
Chemistry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.31

xx Contents
Recycle and Reuse. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.31

Produced Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.31
Transportation and Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.33
35 The Refining Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35.1

Refining. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35.1
Process Operations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35.3
Utility Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35.17
Cooling Water Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35.19
Waste Treatment Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35.19
36 The Chemical Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36.1

Process Cooling Is a Major Water User. . . . . . . . . . 36.3
Process Flow Sheets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36.10
Ammonia and Fertilizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36.13
Environmental Effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36.15
37 The Aluminum Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37.1

Mining. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37.1
Bauxite Processing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37.2
Many Uses for Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37.3
Aluminum Reduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37.5
Frequent Feeding Necessary . . . . . . . . . . . . 37.6
Exhaust Gases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37.6
Metal Fabrication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37.8
38 The Steel Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.1

Blast Furnace Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.2
Exhaust Gas Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.3
Steel Production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.6
Basic Oxygen Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.6
Electric Arc Furnace Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.8
Open-Hearth Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.8
Direct Reduction Processes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.8
Continuous Casting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.12
Hot Mill Rolling Operation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.14
Cold Rolling Mills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.16
Recirculating System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.16
Once-Through System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.16
Heat Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.16
Sintering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.18
Acid Pickling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.18
Slag Plant. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.20
Utilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.21

Contents xxi
39 The Institutional and Commercial Sectors . . . . . 39.1

Heating Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39.2
Steam Boilers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39.3
Hot Water Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39.7
Cogeneration Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39.8
Heating System Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39.8
Air Conditioning Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39.10
Vapor-Compression Units. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39.11
Steam-Absorption Units. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39.13
Unique Chiller Design and Operating
Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39.17
Cooling System Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39.21
Cooling System Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39.21
Thermal Energy Storage Systems . . . . . . . . 39.23
Data Centers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39.26
40 The Food and Beverage Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.1

Regulatory Review. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.3
Fruit and Vegetable Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.3
General Process Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.4
Thermal Processing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.5
Water Treatment Objectives. . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.12
Meat and Poultry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.14
Water Needs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.14
The Beverage Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.17
The Sugar Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.21
The Grain, Oil Processing, and Biofuels Industry. . . 40.23
Corn Wet Milling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.25
Wheat Processing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.27
Oil Processing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.28
Biofuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.30
The Dairy Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.36
Fluid Milk. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.36
Cheese. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.38
Specialty Dairy—Concentrated Milk,
Dry Milk, Yogurt, and Ice Cream . . . . . . 40.38
Dairy Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.42
Dairy Sweetwater. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.42
Dairy COW Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.43
Foam Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.44
41 The Microelectronics Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.1

Ultrapure Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.1
Process Cooling Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.5

xxii Contents
Cooling Towers and Chillers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.6

Wet Scrubber Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.7
42 The Building Materials Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42.1
Fiber Cement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42.1
Fiberglass Mat. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42.4
43 The Automotive Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43.1
Foundry Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43.1
Machining. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43.5
Parts Cleaning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43.6
Utilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43.7
Paint Spray Booths. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43.8
Detackifying Paint. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43.11
Stamping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43.12
Plating Wastes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43.13
Assembly Plants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43.14
44 The Municipal Sector. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44.1
Disinfection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44.2
Chlorination By-Products. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44.3
Fluoridation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44.5
U.S. Regulatory History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44.5
Cryptosporidium and Giardia . . . . . . . . . . . 44.7
Raw Water Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44.9
Corrosion and Scale. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44.9
Typical Treatment Schemes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44.14
Case History—Lake Bluff, IL. . . . . . . . . . . . 44.17
Membrane Filtration in Drinking Water
Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44.19
Sludge Production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44.22
Municipal Sewage Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44.24
Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44.25
Wastewater Treatment Methods . . . . . . . . . 44.27
Water Reuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44.29
Membrane Bioreactors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44.31
Solid Waste Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44.32
Dewatering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44.34
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B.1
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I.1

Foreword
B
usiness and industry are increasingly identifying water scarcity
as a business constraint and risk. By the year 2030, the World
Economic Forum estimates that the global demand for fresh-
water will exceed supply by about 40%. The ever-increasing demand
for freshwater is causing us to consider the potential outcomes, where
water stressors start to inhibit our ability to meet the critical needs of
our customers around the world. Yet the risk is not equitable across
the globe. Each watershed is different. There are acute shortages in
some places and not in others. We also find that universally water is
underpriced, and the prices are inverse to the risk.
Our conversation is changing. We are reframing our discussion
and vocabulary around water to reflect the challenges, the risk to
business, and the true cost of the resource. We are finding ourselves
at an inflection point. We have obtained the knowledge and sophisti-
cation to make the case for water strategies in our facilities that make
good business sense, and enable growth in an environmentally
sustainable and socially equitable manner. Implementing water
strategies within plants needs to make good economic sense and be
accomplished in a manner that allows the business a fundamental
license to grow.
Our fourth edition of The Nalco Water Handbook opens up the
discussion on water scarcity, stressors, and the business case for
managing water. The content throughout the book will assist you in
maintaining clean heat transfer surfaces as well as addressing water
management needs through the lens of reduction, reuse between
applications, and recycle. As you read through the book, look for the
items that can become actionable in your facility and not just protect
your assets, but that can help your water management strategies
as well.
Christophe Beck
President, Nalco Water
Executive Vice President, Ecolab
xxiii

This page intentionally left blank

Preface
A
s Nalco Water approaches its 90th year in business, it seems
fitting to release the fourth edition of The Nalco Water Handbook
at the same time. Our first book, Water: The Universal Solvent,
was published in 1977 in observance of the company’s 50th anniver-
sary. Frank N. Kemmer, editor-in-chief and John McCallion, associate
editor of that book, went on to produce the first two editions of The
Nalco Water Handbook and firmly placed Nalco Water well down the
road of knowledge sharing. We at Nalco Water continue to believe
this is as important today, as it was when the first book was published.
Water as a resource is becoming increasingly scarce throughout
much of the world. In this edition of the book, we have restructured
the initial introductory chapters through the lens of water scarcity,
stressors, and business risk. In addition, we have added supplemen-
tary content around water conservation in various processes where
applicable. We have also strengthened the discussions around various
industry processes, impurity removal with membrane technology
and water safety for building water systems. Finally, we have added
additional chapters in the industry section to broaden the scope of the
discussion.
We have made liberal use of tables, illustrations, photographs,
and line drawings to help place the discussion in context. Hundreds
of graphics have been refreshed to assist in clarifying the message
they convey. The changes we have made to the content and the
presentation should make this book valuable across a wide range of
users such as plant operators, engineering departments, process man-
agement, maintenance groups, and plant mangers to name a few.
Daniel J. Flynn
Editor
xxv


Acknowledgments
W
hen we were evaluating the updating, and refreshing of
this text, it became very clear quite early on that we would
be asking a good number of people for contributions of
time, text, photographs, drawings, illustrations, fact checking, and
numerous reviews just to mention a few of the items. As the project
progressed, the numbers grew as we cast our net further into the
many disciplines and departments throughout Nalco Water. We
would like to take this opportunity to acknowledge the participation
and efforts of the individuals involved with the fourth edition of
The Nalco Water Handbook.
The following individuals made significant contributions of
writing, reviewing, fact checking, and generally ensuring the content
of the book remains best in class for this fourth edition, as well as the
previous third edition. It is with great thanks that we acknowledge
their efforts. Alex Glass, Amit Gupta, Andrew Cooper, Andrew Hook,
Anton Banweg, Barbara Moriarty, Ben Riley, Blaine Krause, Bob
Pomeroy, Bonnie Harris, Brad Benz, Brian Jenkins, Carl Rossow,
Carolina Diaz-Rodriguez, Carolyn Will, Christine Staples, Chuck
Foster, Cindy Ojczyk, Daniel Flynn, Daniel Meier, Debbie Bloom,
Dennis Martin, Don Roll, Donald Johnson, Ed Swenson, Emilio
Tenuta, Eric Kangas, Eric Myers, Flora Lu, George Peabody, George
Totura, Greg Coy, Gregg Galbreath, Heidi Olszewski, Howard Barnes,
James Gage, Jane Kucera, Janet Kirkman, Jasbir Gill, Jason Burney,
Jason Van’t Hul, Jeffrey Oloier, Jim Dillon, Jim Haff, John Sparapany,
Jorvic Vital, Ken Fulks, Ken Voytell, Kevin Gehan, Kevin Kaiser, Kirby
Lee, Larry Hill, Leroy Swenson, Melissa Callejo, Michael Lesniak,
Michael Martin, Mike Backode, Mike Vittum, Mita Chattoraj, Nancy
Stan, Patrick Miller, Paul Desch, Paul Williams, Peter Hicks, Peter
TenEyck, Ram Nagarajan, Richard Jacobs, Rick Lyons, Rob Henderson,
Robert Wetegrove, Ronald Kochik, Ronald Tebbetts, Sam Lordo, Scott
McLaughlin, Seth Werlinsky, Sherri Binetti, Steff Vrijhoeven, Steve
Andrick, Steven Kramarczyk, Sue Molloy-Vesley, Tammy Lai, Tim
Keizer, Tom Lindley, Tracey Guddendorf, Walter Schaefer, and so
many others who touched this project in various ways.
Nalco Water and the Nalco Water logo are trademarks of Nalco
Water, an Ecolab Company. All other trademarks are the property of
their respective owners.
Daniel J. Flynn
Editor
xxvii


SECTION 1
Introduction
CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 3
The Business Case Water Quality
for Managing Water
CHAPTER 2
Water Sources and Stressors
01-Flynn_CH01_1.1-1.16.indd 1 09/10/17 7:21 pm

01-Flynn_CH01_1.1-1.16.indd 2 21/09/17 11:38 am

CHAPTER 1
The Business Case
for Managing
Water
W
ater—we take it for granted in much of the world. To be
sure, it comprises fully three-quarters of the surface of the
earth. We build our cities close to it. Vacations are planned
to include it. Water’s domestic use is critical to our survival. It is
fundamental to the portion of our economy that is agrarian in nature.
It is important for much of our industrial processes. With so much of
the earth covered with water and it being fundamental to our industry,
agriculture, and life, humankind has undertaken to utilize water in
many different ways to suit our needs and desires.
Despite our reliance on water, there has been no incentive to value
it for the precious and limited resource that it is. The world is changing.
It is growing, more urban and affluent. These populations are demand-
ing more resource-intensive goods and services. These changing global
dynamics are placing increasing pressure on the world’s diminishing
freshwater supplies. For industry to be sustainable for the long term,
mindsets and practices related to water must change.
While a significant portion of our planet is covered with water,
most of it is not usable in the form we find it. For human use, we look
to break water into two groups, fresh and salt. Human use is centered
on freshwater, which comprises only about 2.5% of all the water
found on earth. The remaining 97.5% is considered sea or saltwater.
Saltwater is not considered suitable for industry, agriculture, or
domestic use.
When we look at the freshwater resources on earth, we find that
an estimated 68.7% of it is locked in ice sheets and glaciers at our
poles, on mountaintops as glaciers and snow pack, and in the ground
as permafrost. These resources are considered out of our reach and
therefore unusable as they sit. This leaves us a very small 1.2% of
1.3
01-Flynn_CH01_1.1-1.16.indd 3 21/09/17 11:38 am

1.4 Introduction
Figure 1.1 Breakdown of earth’s water resources, illustrating freshwater components

by percentage.
the water on earth as usable surface water or groundwater. This

fraction of the earth’s water resources supports all terrestrial life
and powers our industries. This thin 1% sliver of water is our focus
in this book (Fig. 1.1).
Global Trends Affecting Water Supply

The Impact of Climate Change on Glacial Water
Our planet is warming. The effect on weather patterns varies across
the world, but the effect on ice packs and glaciers is known: They are
melting. This melting does not always result in usable freshwater.
Sea icepacks and tidewater glaciers such as those found in the
Antarctic break off and melt directly into oceans (Fig. 1.2).
Figure 1.2 The Hubbard Glacier in Alaska is a tidewater glacier that

terminates in Yakutat Bay in the Gulf of Alaska. (Courtesy of D.J. Flynn.)
01-Flynn_CH01_1.1-1.16.indd 4 21/09/17 11:38 am

The Business Case for Managing Water 1.5
Figure 1.3 The Mendenhall Glacier in Alaska is a valley glacier feeding

Mendenhall Lake and Mendenhall River. (Courtesy of A.C. Van Sistine.)
Mountain or valley glaciers that do not terminate at the ocean

are the headwater sources for many of the earth’s major rivers.
These rivers depend on sufficient snowfall in mountain regions to
maintain the glaciers and provide sufficient melt water for yearlong
river water flow. As these glaciers retreat, the amount of reserve
capacity is decreasing, threatening to turn yearlong rivers into sea-
sonal water sources. Since we rely on these surface waters, the effect
of climate change on glaciers creates water stress to downstream
consumers (Fig. 1.3).
Technology has enabled municipalities and industries to access
underground reservoirs, or groundwater, which constitutes more
than 90% of the total freshwater available for human use. Without
sustainable replenishment, groundwater extraction is a short-term
solution that adds to the stress on those water sources as well.
Impact of Population Trends on Surface and Groundwater

Global trends, including shifts in population growth, and increasing
demand for water, food, and energy are impacting all facets of our
world economy. Here are a few emerging macro trends from the
United Nations and other organizations worth noting:
• The world’s population is predicted to expand to 9.7 billion

by 2050.1
1
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, World population
projected to reach 9.7 billion by 2050, July 29, 2015, http://www.un.org/en/
development/desa/news/population/2015-report.html.
01-Flynn_CH01_1.1-1.16.indd 5 21/09/17 11:38 am

1.6 Introduction
• By 2025, 90% of population growth will be in developing or

emerging markets. Urban populations are expected to rise
from 3.9 to 6.4 billion, accounting for 67% of the world’s pop-
ulation, with nearly 90% of the increase in Asia and Africa.2
• In the next 20 years, there will be three billion more middle-
class consumers, increasing demand for goods and services
and putting unprecedented pressure on the world’s limited
natural resources.3
• Increased pollution from municipal and industrial waste and
the leaching of fertilizers and pesticides used in agriculture
will all contribute to shrinking the world’s potential fresh
water for human and industrial needs.
Climate change and population growth are the two main stressors
on the global freshwater supply. The agriculture, energy, and manu-
facturing sectors will all need to challenge their industries to rethink
their processes in order to reduce water consumption and remain
viable. According to the United Nations World Water Development
Report, reconciling different water uses at the surface and ground-
water level and improving policy coherence nationally and across
borders will be priorities for many years to come.4
Sustainability as a Business Driver

The original definition of sustainability from the Brundtland Report
reads: involving development that meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their
own needs. For businesses, this means achieving sustainable, sound
growth while minimizing risk and natural resource consumption.
Another way to say this is, “doing more with less.”
Companies adopting sustainable business practices understand
that they are most successful when economic and environmental
benefits align. Measuring the link between performance outcomes,
environmental impact, and cost savings demonstrates the value of
operating sustainably and helps make the business case for water-
saving solutions.
2
United Nations, World Urbanization Prospects, The 2014 Revision, United Nations,
New York, 2014, https://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/Publications/Files/WUP2014
-Highlights.pdf.
3
Dobbs, R., Oppenheim, J., Thompson, F., Brinkman, M., Zornes, M., Resource
Revolution: Meeting the World’s Energy, Materials, Food, and Water Needs, McKinsey
Global Institute, November, 2011, http://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/
sustainability-and-resource-productivity/our-insights/resource-revolution.
4
UN-Water, The United Nations World Water Development Report 2015 Water for a
Sustainable World, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization,
Paris, France, 2015, http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002318/231823E.pdf.
01-Flynn_CH01_1.1-1.16.indd 6 21/09/17 11:38 am

Progressive companies are setting more and more aggressive

sustainability goals and publicly reporting progress against those
goals. These commitments are good for both business and society.
For more than a decade, the United Nations (UN) Global Compact-
Accenture Strategy have compiled research from leading CEOs
around the world and across a diverse set of industries as they are
called to take action on their sustainability goals. A UN Global
Compact-Accenture Strategy CEO Study of more than 1000 CEOs
conducted in 2016 reports that 89% of industry leaders said their
commitment to sustainability is translating into real impact in their
industries.5 In this same study, 59% report their company is able to
accurately quantify the business value of their sustainability initia-
tives, up from 38% in 2013. The report further states that business
leaders are still looking for additional ways to measure, track, and
communicate the impact of sustainability on metrics of business suc-
cess, and demonstrate their impact on corporate sustainability goals.
Growing pressure from consumers, investors, and reporting agencies
is starting to mobilize the business world, with increasing urgency
and conviction.
Sustainability Reporting and Regulations

In response, a new trend has emerged: increased proactive, voluntary
reporting on water and energy use and other sustainability metrics.
Table 1.1 includes some of the leading globally recognized reporting
standards through which businesses are able to demonstrate their
sustainable performance. They are also utilized to hold businesses
accountable for reporting on their sustainable performance.
Companies committed to public reporting recognize that benefits
can include increased share value and investor confidence; increased
stakeholder engagement, support and patronage; increased staff
motivation, confidence, and productivity; innovation in new prod-
ucts and market development; and increased profitability through
cost reductions consequent on consuming fewer resources, creating
less waste for disposal, reduced emissions, and better management
of cash flow. Many companies are now positioning their business on
a platform of sustainable development that visibly proclaims what
they stand for and how they are contributing to their own and their
customers’ sustainability goals.
Companies around the world are also facing increasing regula-
tions in the form of legislation and controls that govern their opera-
tions and how they impact the environment and society. For example,
where wastewater was an inexpensive output of industry in the past,
5
Accenture Strategy, Agenda 2030: A Window of Opportunity, The UN Global Compact-
Accenture Strategy CEO Study 2016, https://www.accenture.com/us-en/
insight-un-global-compact-ceo-study.
01-Flynn_CH01_1.1-1.16.indd 7 21/09/17 11:38 am

1.8 Introduction
Reporting Standard Organization Summary

GRI G4 Sustainability Global Reporting Globally accepted
Reporting Guidelines Initiative framework for reporting
sustainability metrics
CDP Water Program CDP Framework for reporting
water usage information
UN Global Compact United Nations Framework for
Communication on reporting sustainability
Progress (COP) performance as it aligns
with UNGC Ten Principles
Dow Jones S&P Dow Jones Family of indices
Sustainability Index Indices and evaluating the
RobecoSAM sustainability
performance of largest
2,500 companies listed
on Dow Jones Global
Total Stock Market Index
Corporate Organization Platform used
Sustainability by organizations
Reports to communicate
sustainability
performance and impacts
Table 1.1 Globally Recognized Reporting Standards for Sustainability

Metrics
more stringent regulations are resulting in increasing costs to clean

water for discharge back to the environment.
Within the European Union (EU), legislation such as the Integrated
Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC) regulations; the Biocidal
Products Directive; and the Registration, Evaluation, Authorization,
and restriction of Chemicals regulations (REACH) have demonstrated
a strong commitment to control how companies are expected to pro-
tect the environment and human health. Availability of data has revo-
lutionized ways in which regulations are applied and monitored.
For example, the Toxic Release Inventory (TRI) operated by the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is a public database listing
by company, containing the known releases of chemicals to the envi-
ronment. The European Pollutant Release and Transfer Register
(E-PRTR) have now joined the EPA in making pollution and emission
data freely available to all citizens. The Pennsylvania Department of
Environmental Protection (PADEP) has mapped all the waterways in
the U.S. state of Pennsylvania. The PADEP uses the Pennsylvania
Single Discharge Waste Load Allocation Program for Toxics and
Other Substances (PENTOXSD) water quality analysis application to
01-Flynn_CH01_1.1-1.16.indd 8 21/09/17 11:38 am

determine permit limits for toxics and certain other substances. In

addition, enforcement agencies in many countries around the world
publish data on emissions that affect their specific territories.
Industrialized western countries generally led the way with regu-
lations on waste discharge. Today, emerging countries around the
world are following suit and beginning to regulate or enforce laws
around waste discharge back to surface waterways. Increased regula-
tion will start to reduce the pollutant load on surface waterways and
help ensure that water continues to remain usable downstream from
discharge points. This means there will be an increased need for equip-
ment and chemistry to treat waste streams and make water suitable for
discharge. Countries like China, India, and many of the countries in
Eastern Europe are beginning to strengthen discharge requirements
for municipal and industrial processes. China, for example, launched
a new environmental protection law (EPL) in 2015 with details on
harsh penalties for environmental offenses and provisions for tackling
pollution and raising public awareness about offenders.
Making the Business Case for Managing Water

The future of freshwater availability is uncertain. According to the
World Economic Forum, global water crises are a threat of highest
concern for the next 10 years.6 As stated earlier, only a very small
percentage of the world’s freshwater supply is readily accessible for
direct human use. Implications for businesses, communities, and
individuals are real, and supplies are limited. The following statistics
frame this era of freshwater scarcity:
• 36 countries face extremely high levels of baseline water

stress, whereby more than 80% of available water is with-
drawn annually.7
• By 2025, water withdrawals are predicted to increase by 50%
in developing countries and 18% in developed countries.8
• 47% of the world’s population will be living in areas of high
water stress by 2030.9
6
Ganter, C., Water crises are a top global risk, World Economic Forum, Jan 16, 2016
https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2015/01/why-world-water-crises-are-a
-top-global-risk/.
7
Reig, P., Maddocks, A., Gassert, F., World’s 36 Most Water-Stressed Countries,
World Resources Institute, Dec 12, 2013, http://www.wri.org/blog/2013/12/
world%E2%80%99s-36-most-water-stressed-countries.
8
Un-Water, Statistics detail, The United Nations Inter-Agency Mechanism on all
Freshwater Related Issues, Including Sanitation, http://www.unwater.org/
statistics/statistics-detail/en/c/211816/.
9
Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development, OECD Environmental
Outlook to 2030, OECD 2008, http://www.oecd.org/env/indicators-modelling
-outlooks/40200582.pdf.
01-Flynn_CH01_1.1-1.16.indd 9 21/09/17 11:38 am

1.10 Introduction
• By 2030, global water demand is set to overshoot supply

by 40%.10
Policymakers and regulators have been reacting to increasing

water scarcity by placing restrictions on water use in high-stress
areas, as happened in 2015 in the U.S. state of California, where busi-
nesses and residents were under a mandate by the governor to reduce
water consumption by 25%.
It is uncertain how much control businesses will have in the
future over their ability to access the water required for their opera-
tions as water demand grows and areas of water stress expand.
Limited availability or a compromise in quality can significantly
disrupt operations, threaten revenue and investor confidence, curtail
growth, and result in stranded assets. Businesses in water stressed
areas may also face reputational risks from communities and citi-
zens concerned about unsustainable and inequitable use of water.
Businesses stand to lose control of their futures if they do not proac-
tively manage water.
Calculate the Full Value of Water

Very few business leaders know how much water it takes to generate
an hour of operation at their business. Water is typically viewed as a
readily available commodity associated with an annual water bill,
not a resource that is material to operation. Water conservation is
low on the list of priorities for many companies because water is
underpriced compared to its full value to the business, defined based
on real and future risks that water scarcity poses to operations at a
local level. The disconnect between the market price for water and a
business’s inherent water-related risks makes it hard to prioritize
water in business decisions.
The first step to making the business case for water manage-
ment and investment in water solutions involves assessing and
monetizing water scarcity and water quality risk over time at the
enterprise and facility level. One way to assess water scarcity risk
is to consult with water basin maps. The Aqueduct tool by World
Resources Institute (WRI) identifies overall water risk around
the world through an aggregated measure of selected indicators
to reflect long-term conditions (http://www.wri.org/our-work/
project/aqueduct).
Another publicly available tool, the Water Risk Monetizer
(WRM), uses scientific models developed by Trucost, WRI data,
and site-specific data from a facility to quantify the impact of water
World Economic Forum, Part 1—Global Risks 2015: Environment—High Concern,

10
Little Progress, World Economic Forum, http://reports.weforum.org/global-risks-2015/

part-1-global-risks-2015/environment-high-concern-little-progress/.
01-Flynn_CH01_1.1-1.16.indd 10 21/09/17 11:38 am

scarcity and quality risk in monetary terms. It calculates a water

risk premium by considering the amount of water available at a
specific location, the amount of water used by a facility, incoming
and outgoing water quality, projected water use over time, addi-
tional demands on the supply of water from population and GDP
(gross domestic product) forecasts, and the impact of a facility’s
water use on the watershed. The water risk premium, when added
to the local price a business pays for water, quantifies the full value
a business should place on water based on real and future risk. The
WRM also provides a “revenue at risk” likelihood score by estimat-
ing the value of the revenue that could potentially be lost at a facility
due to the impact of water scarcity and declining water quality on
operations.
Both the water risk premium and potential revenue at risk met-
rics are financial indicators which companies can use to inform busi-
ness decisions that address water-related constraints to growth. The
WRM tool provides water users with the full value of the water to an
operation to help:
• Determine the water risk premium at each facility in an enter-

prise to understand those facilities most at risk: identify sites
where water is most undervalued by calculating a risk-
adjusted water price.
• Budget, plan, and develop strategies when considering return
on capital expenditure and operating expenditure invest-
ments in existing facilities: facilities with the greatest gap
between current price and risk-adjusted price should be
prioritized.
• Calculate internal rate of return (IRR) for a site-specific water
efficiency investment: by using a risk-adjusted water price
instead of water costs, a company can calculate the value-
based return on investment to make the case for water-saving
solutions.
• Determine preferred locations for expansion projects and
manage expansion into high risk areas: assess current and
future water-related risks.
• Evaluate the impact on investments when considering expan-
sion in new locations by leveraging a water risk premium in
financial models [weighted average cost of capital (WACC)
in new construction projects].
Monetized risk can help companies align water use with avail-
ability and evaluate new infrastructure investments, procurement
strategies, innovation, and product portfolios to make business deci-
sions that are sustainable in the long term (http://waterriskmonetizer
.com/about/).
01-Flynn_CH01_1.1-1.16.indd 11 21/09/17 11:38 am

1.12 Introduction
Perform a Total Plant Assessment of Water Use

Plant operators can assess how water is put to work throughout a
facility to identify opportunities for water conservation. A total plant
assessment should be conducted to help plant operators understand
the water intensity and maximize water use reduction (efficiency).
It is not uncommon for manufacturing facilities to know how much
water comes into the plant and is discharged. Very few, however,
know how water is being utilized or lost throughout the operation.
A total plant assessment provides data and insights to help
align water intensity improvements throughout an operation with
business strategies. It also reveals synergies that are often missed if
solutions are focused solely on individual water saving solutions.
The most common problems uncovered during total plant assess-
ments include:
• Leaking valves
• Tanks running over
• Valves left open over a weekend or on nonproduction days
• Missed opportunities such as not repurposing clean rinse
water into a cooling tower
• Machinery not operating to specification
Undertaking a total plant assessment of water use can also

uncover opportunities to improve energy-related outputs. There is a
very clear link between maintenance of clean heat exchange surfaces
and the amount of fuel required to maintain desired heat transfer,
amount of greenhouse and other gases created, and ultimately costs
incurred. Likewise, the logic can be applied to many other opera-
tions, such as membrane performance and management of heated
water. All of these links can be controlled to best contribute to energy
and water management of the activity involved, as shown in Fig. 1.4.
Value and Prioritize

After the opportunities for water conservation have been identified
and risks have been monetized, businesses can leverage the data to
make the business case for improvements, measure the anticipated
impact, and determine return on investment. Decision making under
the new normal of increasing freshwater scarcity and declining water
quality must prioritize water-saving investments that support
growth. Strategic questioning helps to identify a pathway for deci-
sion making. Some of these questions include:
• What is the percentage of water used per output as a per-

centage of the total? This provides a “big picture” analysis to
index water use based on output for a particular facility.
01-Flynn_CH01_1.1-1.16.indd 12 21/09/17 11:38 am

Figure 1.4 Water treatment and energy use reduction.
Whether it is water use per tons of paper or cases of soft

drink, knowing how much water is required per product unit
will help determine the priorities for water-saving strategies.
• How does water use per output compare to industry norms
or industry benchmarks?
• What is the potential for water scarcity at the facility and
what potential impact it will have on operations? This is a
critical component to the overall assessment because it drives
water reduction strategies for operational resiliency while
also considering product quality.
• What are other businesses in the industry doing to reduce
water consumption?
If water-related risks are not considered in growth strategies or

properly managed, the outcome can be reduced revenues, higher
operating costs, stranded assets, regulatory fines, and lower investor
confidence. All these can restrict access to capital, higher financing
rates, or higher insurance premiums.
Water Risk Monetizer Case Studies

The following examples depict industry-specific case studies using
industry averages for costs and water risk assessments. Results from
the water risk monetizer can guide businesses in their quest to mea-
sure, monetize, and manage water scarcity risks to sustain growth.
01-Flynn_CH01_1.1-1.16.indd 13 28/09/17 3:50 pm

1.14 Introduction
Business Expansion Projects

Scenario 1: Based largely in Southeast Asia, a company is evaluating
a new strategy to increase revenues 17% by 2017. This will require a
32% increase in water use at two existing facilities in India and the
addition of one Greenfield facility to come online in 2015. How do the
water risk premium, other risk factors (scarcity, reputational, and
regulatory), and profitability compare to business as usual?
Scenario 2: A company needs to increase production by 20% to

meet demand. The company is considering two locations in India—
Mumbai and Bengaluru—for a new facility to help meet increased
production needs. Based on the current water risk premium, which
location is preferred? Based on water scarcity risks in 10 years, which
location is preferred?
Scenario 3: A company is looking to expand its operations in a new

region. A water risk assessment determined that the company is tar-
geting a high-risk water basin for its new facility location. How can
the company determine the impact of this location to the company’s
WACC on this investment?
Existing Facility Water Improvement Projects

Scenario 1: A company is considering investing in technology to
improve water use efficiency at its facility in order to reduce regulatory
and reputational risk.
What would be the IRR for a facility investment designed to improve
water efficiency by 27% using a risk-adjusted price of water (current
price plus water risk premium)?
Scenario 2: A company uses the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) Water

Risk Filter and WRI Aqueduct tools to assess and determine which
existing operating facilities are operating in what are considered
water scarce sweet spots. The tools identified three production facili-
ties in a high water stress and scarcity region.
• Which facility should be the highest priority for immediate

investments in water stewardship initiatives to reduce its
impact on the water basin based on risk-adjusted water bills
over a 3-, 5-, and 10-year period?
• What is the water risk premium at each facility and how can
that information be used to prioritize investments to reduce
water use?
Scenario 3: A company has identified five facilities that require

water saving investments and a list of water efficiency improvement
projects for these facilities.
01-Flynn_CH01_1.1-1.16.indd 14 21/09/17 11:38 am

Using a water risk premium, what would be the IRR of these improve-
ments and how should they be prioritized?
Scenario 4: A major production change is proposed at a chemical

plant that will decrease electricity use by 20% while increasing water
use by 15%. The plant is located in a region of China where a carbon
tax of $5 per ton is expected in the next two years.
What is the overall net change in utility cost (electricity, carbon tax,
and risk-adjusted water costs)? What is the water risk and how does
this compare to business as usual?
Understanding the impact—and associated costs—of these risks
at the enterprise and site level, as well as the broader implications
and consequences of business operations to the surrounding com-
munity, enables businesses to make more informed decisions about
their water use.
Subsequent chapters of this book will address the use of water in
various applications, processes, and industries, and how to manage
that water to minimize consumption, lengthen equipment life, maxi-
mize intended work, and ensure proper contaminant removal before
discharge.
01-Flynn_CH01_1.1-1.16.indd 15 21/09/17 11:38 am

01-Flynn_CH01_1.1-1.16.indd 16 21/09/17 11:38 am

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
This clay ware is brought from Nebel, where, since very ancient
times, there has been a manufactory that produces pottery the same
to-day as it was a thousand years ago.
The gateway is deep, and has, as have most gates in this country,
recesses with seats on both sides, always filled by idlers and
beggars. Indeed, it is quite an Eldorado for the blind, halt, and
maimed, as well as for many who have nothing the matter with them.
The whole day they sit there and stretch out their hands for alms.
I placed myself near the corner stone of the gate, where the
shade was cool and pleasant; through the dark archway I could see
the sun blazing on the shore, and the road looking like a bright
streak of light, and, beyond it, the harbour and the beautiful blue sea.
TWO KHRUMIR WOMEN.
In the space of half an hour, at least a hundred little donkeys

passed me, laden with vessels of water or bundles of straw, with
often a man or boy perched behind the load. A solitary rider also
passed, his small but wiry horse going at an amble. Along the
seashore came, picking their way, a herd of goats, most of them
wearing small bells that rang incessantly. The herd settled in the
corner outside the gates between the towers and the town wall. Then
came unveiled Bedouin women, dark-skinned almost as negresses,
but with very fine features. Then other veiled Arab women with black
masks that covered their faces. A number of boys followed these, all
good-looking and black-eyed. One held out his hand; they are
accustomed to European good-nature, and a copper is a foretaste of
Paradise to an Arab boy.
Lastly passed a strange couple. On an ordinary Arab saddle a
veiled woman rode astride, and behind her, on her horse, a little boy;
he held the reins in one hand, and a parasol in the other.
Towards evening it grew cooler. Amongst the shipping lay the Ville
d’Oran, which next morning was to take me south. It was lit up with
numbers of lanterns, and the town was illuminated and hung
everywhere with flags, in honour of the Russian fleet, which that day
was to enter Toulon. Festival was kept, not only all over France, but
also in her colonies. Illustrated editions of French newspapers, with
coloured pictures of Russian and French admirals and of the ships of
both countries, were displayed on the walls of all cafés, tobacco
shops, taverns and drinking booths in Susa.
The light on the Kasba had been lit. The moon rose over the town,
and lanterns gleamed along the seashore and the promenade. The
irregular line of the wall and the Kasba tower showed dark against
the heavens. Mingling with the ripple of the water against the quay, I
heard the Marseillaise played, followed by cheers, and on the
terraces and balconies appeared dark figures, enjoying the cool air
and the music.
CHAPTER III
From Sfax to Gabés
At 9 a.m. on the morning of the 14th October, the Ville d’Oran

weighed anchor and left the roadstead of Susa in brilliant weather for
Monastir.
Monastir, or Mistir, has a population of nine thousand inhabitants,
of whom one thousand are Europeans. It was originally a
Carthaginian town; later, the “Ruspina” of the Romans. It is now
surrounded by battlemented walls interspersed with towers and
pierced by five gates. Ornamented with coloured tiles, the minarets
of several mosques rise here and there above the houses.
I crossed the town from the south to the opposite side. Here I
found an immense cemetery; grave upon grave grouped about
kubbas. In the very midst of the cemetery is a cistern, which must
supply remarkably good water!
Following along the walls of the town I soon reached the beach,
where before me lay three small islands—Jezirel el Hammam
(Pigeon Island), Jezirel Sid Abd el Fairt el R’dani (so called after a
Marabout whose kubba crowns its summit), and the third island
named Jezirel el Austan (Central Island).
Still following the walls, I passed Moorish women and children
washing clothes on the shore. A number of boats were lying in the
shallow water under the lea of the islands.
At ten o’clock I was again on board, and at eleven we started,
steering for Mehdia, some thirty-six miles farther south.
On the way we passed Cape Diauros, the site of ancient Thapsus.
It was a Carthaginian colony where fought Cæsar Scipio and Cato.
Numerous ruins recall the old times.
In Mehdia harbour we anchored about three o’clock. Mehdia was
once a very important town; now it has only some ten thousand
inhabitants. The Sicilians besieged it in 1147; the Arabs in 1160; the
Duke of Bourbon in 1390; and Charles V. in 1557. The knights of
Malta took part in this last assault, and the grave of one of these
knights is still shown.
Some Europeans carry on a trade here in oil, dried fruits,
sponges, coral, and sardines. In the months of May and June there
are often a couple of hundred boats lying off the shore fishing for
sardines, and generally making good hauls. In one night a single
boat may take even as much as from four to six hundredweight of
fish.
Large vessels do not follow the coast from Mehdia to Sfax, but
make a long circuit round the island of Kirkennah, the water along
the coast being shallow. Along this stretch of sea have been placed
light-buoys to mark the course. These buoys are filled with
compressed oil, and burn incessantly day and night. They are
constructed to burn three months, but are inspected monthly.
Early in the morning of the 15th October we cast anchor about
two miles outside Sfax, of which the white walls glistened in the
morning sun. A steam tug took us ashore. The ebb and flow of the
tide here is very strong, with a possible rise and fall of as much as
eight feet, which accounts for the flatness of the beach.
The only ship in the roadstead was the Fæderlandet from Bergen,
lying-to and discharging timber.
Sfax was taken on the 16th July 1881 by a force under Admiral
Garnault, after a serious bombardment which laid waste a great part
of the ramparts and the town.
The walls enclosing the European quarter, which faces the sea,
have been pulled down lately, and here the French have established
themselves. To the rear lies the Arab town, still surrounded by its
walls and towers.
On landing I met the Vice-Consul for Sweden and Norway, Olaf
Henriksen, a young man who in the course of a few years has made
for himself a good position as partner in the large, and perhaps sole,
firm of timber traders in the place. His office and warehouses are on
the quay. Olsen, his co-partner, is likewise a Northerner. Henriksen is
agent for the United Shipping Co., but it is seldom that Danish
vessels touch here.
AT SFAX.
(From a painting by Mrs. Henriksen.)
After a stroll through the town, Mr. Henriksen led me to his home
and introduced me to his wife, a Norwegian lady from Christiania. I
spent a comfortable and most enjoyable day in their house, which is
outside the town and commands a view of the harbour.
Mrs. Henriksen is a very fair artist. On the walls hung sketches of
her northern home and of Sfax, painted by herself and showing
considerable talent. The tombs of Marabouts, the cemeteries outside
the walls, and the Arab tents in the vicinity were the subjects that
pleased me most. She most amiably promised to be my collaborator,
by allowing me to make use of a couple of her sketches for my book.
Sfax is a large town, with about fifty thousand inhabitants, of
whom the eighth part are Europeans. A considerable trade is carried
on in sponges, oil, and esparto grass, this last being worked by a
Franco-Anglo-Tunisian Company; in addition to these, there is a
trade in fruit and vegetables, more especially cucumbers, called in
Arabic “Sfakus,” from which, no doubt, arises the name of the town.
In the neighbourhood are many villas and gardens, where the
townsfolk take refuge in the hot season, but beyond these is the
sandy desert.
In ancient days the Romans had here a large city, of which many
traces are found. In the covered streets I saw arches, which by their
capitals and columns were of Roman origin, and heard of old Roman
graves and foundations being frequently discovered.
Sfax is a garrison, and amongst the soldiers is a fine body of
Spahis, but at the time of my visit many were absent at the
manœuvres.
During the night we steamed in four hours from the roadstead of
Sfax to Gabés.
A golden strand: in the background some white houses, and to
the right a palm grove. Such is the view of Gabés from the sea.
The landing-place was only a short distance from the European
quarter. I called on the commanding officer, Colonel Gousset of the
Spahis, to whom the Regency at Tunis had recommended me,
directing that he should assist me by word and deed in my journey to
the cave dwellers (troglodytes) of the southern mountains.
It was the hour of muster, and the Colonel introduced me to many
of the officers, one of whom, Captain Montague of the General’s
staff, lent me his horse, and a Spahi was told off as my guide.
“When one wanders towards the Syrtes and ‘Leptis Magna,’ one
finds in the midst of Afric’s sands a town called Tacape; the soil there
is much cultivated and marvellously fruitful. The town extends in all
directions to about three thousand paces. Here is found a fountain
with an abundant supply of water, which is only used at stated times;
and here grows a high palm, and beneath that palm an olive, and
under that a fig tree. Under the fig tree grows a pomegranate, and
beneath that again a vine. Moreover, beneath these last are sown,
first oats, then vegetables or grass, all in the same year. Yes, thus
they grow them, each sheltered by the other.”
Thus wrote Pliny of the oasis near Gabés over eighteen hundred
years ago, and this description can be applied in the main at the
present day.
Of this town, created by the Carthaginians, colonised by the
Romans, and later the seat of an archbishopric, and which stood
nearer the ocean than the existing villages, there remain now only
some crumbled ruins on the hills near Sid Bu’l Baba’s Zauia, now
difficult even to trace.
Remains of cisterns can be seen, built with the imperishable
cement of which the Romans alone understood the preparation. But
the stones have long since been removed to Jara, Menzel, and
Shenini, villages of the oasis, where are still to be found, in the
wretched native buildings, carved capitals and bas-reliefs, side by
side with sun-dried bricks and uncut stones.
But it is long since this old town vanished. The Arab geographers
in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, as also Leo Africanus in the
sixteenth century, mention Gabés as a large town surrounded by
walls and deep trenches, which latter could be flooded with water.
They tell us of a great fortress there, and that the town had a large
population and extensive suburbs. Then the Mohammedan
conquerors laid their iron hand over the country, and the inhabitants
were dispersed and gathered in the villages Jara and Menzel, each
now containing some four thousand inhabitants. Both villages were
situated near the river and close to the market-place, and were
continually fighting amongst themselves for the possession of these;
whilst other villages, of which Shenini is the largest, concealed
themselves amidst their palm groves.
TOWER IN THE VILLAGE OF MENZEL.

JEWESSES AT MENZEL.
To keep these rival villages in subjection, the Turks erected, just

between them, a fort—Borj Jedia (the new fort). It was blown up by
French marines on the 21st July 1881, when they assaulted,
stormed, and seized the villages.
Later there arose by the seashore, huts, taverns, and eating-
houses, and, after the first occupation, these formed a place of resort
for all sorts of adventurers, and was therefore wittily named
“Coquinville” by the soldiers. Out of this has grown quite a little town,
known as the Port of Gabés. This is occupied by the European
colony, consisting of from one to two thousand persons of various
Mediterranean origins. The residence of General Allegro, the Bey’s
governor of El Arad, the most southern district of Tunisia, was
originally the only building on the spot, and here he still resides; but
now in the long streets there are commandants’ houses, officers’
quarters, the Hotel de l’Oasis, and a large number of offices of all
descriptions. Behind the town to the south, lie the barracks for the
garrison of Spahis and infantry. In former days the troops were
quartered farther inland, on a height near the Gabés River, as the
water was better; but now drinking-water has been brought to the
town from a near-lying oasis.
Wad Gabés, or the Gabés River, has its source about a score of
miles inland, and flows over its broad bed, through saline and lime-
charged soil, down to the oasis, wherefore the water contains much
magnesia, and is in consequence most unwholesome, and has
caused the death of many a young colonist and soldier. It is said that
the age of the eldest soldier buried in the churchyard was but five-
and-twenty.
In old times the water must naturally have been as unhealthy as
now, but the Romans, those masters of colonisation, used, on that
account, rain water collected in cisterns. Remains of such tanks are
found everywhere in the south.
The Arab rider, given me as guide, and I rode along the northern
bank of the river so as to cross the Gabés oasis from the sea
towards the interior.
It was the most enjoyable excursion I can remember ever having
made.
The sea roared behind the sand cliffs, while the horses panted
through the deep sand. From behind the cliffs appeared the tops of
palm trees, and presently we were in the shade.
The light gleamed through the palm leaves on lemon, orange, and
pomegranate trees, and on the trailing vines, trained up to the
beloved sun, and stretched from tree to tree in graceful festoons.
In the open spaces between the palms lay the orchards, where
grew all kinds of fruit trees—peaches, apples, pears, plums, apricots,
figs, olives, and many others.
The air was pregnant with the scent from the trees and plants.
Beneath the shade of the thick foliage overhead spread the most
beautiful green sward, intersected by flowing rivulets of water and
small canals, dammed by means of dykes and low banks, as in our
own land irrigation.
ON THE OASIS OF GABÉS.
By small paths and roads we wandered on, following the turns of

the canals, riding sometimes on a narrow track between two banks,
and if we then met Arabs on their little overladen mules it was a
squeeze to pass by them.
There was silence amongst the trees. Only now and then, when
we drew near to tents, or some straw hut concealed amidst the
foliage, could we hear voices and the barking of dogs. Women and
children peeped at us through the branches, and we saw men in
scanty clothing working with hoes in their gardens, or women
weeding the beds and gathering henna in baskets.
Birds flew from branch to branch, or across the open spaces.
Wood pigeons called, and turtle-doves cooed, whilst the chaffinch
fluttered about on the tops of the almond trees, and in the distance
the sound of a shot proclaimed that a sportsman in a clearing on the
borders of the oasis had fired at hare, quail, or partridge. On the
extreme border, by the sea, was the tomb of a Marabout, built from
the ancient remains of the town of olden days, blended with new
materials. The columns supporting the entrance were of new rough
stone, with handsome carved capitals.
We emerged on the barren plain, and saw in the far distance, on
rising ground, other palm groves, but hurried back again into the
fascinating wood, till, by paths and over small stone bridges, beneath
which streams rippled sheltered by the arching palms, we came to a
broader road between high dykes. There it was difficult to advance,
as some artillerymen with baggage carts drawn by mules had stuck
fast in the mud, the waggons being overladen with stone.
The way now turned towards the river. As we left the palm grove
by the miry road to cross the bridge, the grey walls of a village lay
before us on the opposite side. The river bank was crowded with
women and children washing; clothes were hanging to dry on the
bushes, whilst shortly-kilted figures waded into the water, or sat on
the stones by the river side beating clothes with flat boards. Most of
them pretended not to see us, some turned their backs, and a very
few stole roguish glances at us.
WASHERWOMEN AT THE JARA BRIDGE.
The whole scene was worthy of the brush of a good artist. The
grey-yellow water, the yellow shore and green wood under the deep
blue sky, and against this background the many-coloured figures of
women and children. All were in constant movement and chattering
loudly.
We rode through the gate. The village consists of narrow streets
and lanes of wretched low houses. The air was oppressively hot, and
dirt was everywhere. My guide rode in front, pushing people aside
with loud exclamations. They submitted quietly to being hustled;
“Kith to kin is least kind.” Then, again crossing the river, we rode
through the oasis to other villages and as far as the poor huts of
Shenini, then turned again down to the stream, which here ran
between high banks, and after visiting, just at nightfall, some
encampments close by, we hastened on our way back to Gabés.
CHAPTER IV
From Gabés to the Matmata Mountains
Crouched in a wretched hut, which seemed to me then the

perfection of comfort, I sat writing by the light of a flickering candle at
the village of Zaraua, on the top of a mountain of the Matmata range,
south of Gabés.
Outside I could hear my horse munching, as he stood, his well-
earned barley; farther away dogs were barking. The moon sent her
rays through my doorway; and now and then came to my ear the
sound of human voices, but this soon ceased as the sun had long
since set: for in these regions all retire to rest early so as to rise at
daybreak.
The two previous days had sped as in a fairy tale. As I opened my
window at the Hotel de l’Oasis at 4.30 a.m. on the 17th October, it
was still half-dark, but I could distinguish a little way down the street
an Arab horse, saddled, and by its side a white bundle lying on the
footway. It was Hamed, the Arab horseman, whom the bureau de
renseignement had placed at my disposal, and who was now waiting
for five o’clock, the hour fixed for our start. A little later arrived my
brown steed, supplied by the Spahi regiment.
MAP OF SOUTHERN TUNISIA.
(Large-size)
My small travelling kit, photographic apparatus, and breakfast

were packed on Hamed’s horse. The revolver I slung on my own
saddle, little realising that the same afternoon I should fire it on a
festive occasion; and we started, wending our way amongst the
showy, newly-built European houses.
Outside the town, the country is somewhat flat; we followed the
road. To our right, towards the north, was Gabés’ winding river, but
invisible to us, as it lies low. On the other side, the palm groves
showed us a dark forest. The villages by the river stood out clearly
against this dark background, and the rising sun shone on the white
kubba to our left of Sid Bu’l Baba.
On the road we met little groups of natives driving camels and tiny
donkeys, all laden with esparto straw. Their houses were many a
mile away over the blue mountains, which were dimly distinguishable
on the horizon, for they came from Hadeij, our destination, to sell
this, about the only product in which they can deal during the hot
summer season.
Now and again we also met small caravans of donkeys carrying
light loads of dry wood.
After a quick trot, that warmed us at this early chilly hour, we
turned to the left in a southerly direction, taking a path that wound
along slightly undulating ground. A brace of partridges rose, and we
heard the quail calling, and saw young larks running on the barren
ground. On a hill to the north-west we spied the camp of Ras el Wad,
erected by General Boulanger in his day. Once and again we
indulged in a quick gallop, but only in short stretches, when the paths
were not muddy or too winding.
Here and there stood a parched olive tree or date palm, on spots
where, in the wet season—if it ever come—a little water would reach
them. We were overtaken by a horseman closely enveloped in a
white burnous, the hood drawn over his head and sticking up in the
air in a peak. It was “Amar” from Hadeij on his slight but wiry pony.
He was acquainted with Hamed, so wished to join us. His hair, beard
and eyes were black, his expression good-natured, with an open
brow, and his teeth milk white.
After two hours’ ride, during which we only once met any people,
we reached the oasis of El Hamdu; near by roamed some miserable
cattle, grazing under the care of an old man; with these were also a
couple of goats.
On the border of the oasis we watered our horses at a fountain
surrounded by palms. Women peeped shyly at us over the walls of
the only stone building of the village that we could make out.
Riding on, we passed several tombs of Marabouts. On our left,
the palms of the oasis seemed drawn up in a long line, and smoke
could be perceived rising heavenwards from huts and tents beneath
the trees. From an encampment on the edge of the oasis the dogs
rushed out barking, the inhabitants standing stiffly, like statues, and
staring at us.
PLOUGHING-GABÉS.
Along a shallow, stony, river bed—rough ground for the horses—

we pursued our way towards our destination in the hills, whilst the
sun burnt so fiercely that our senses were dulled.
After a couple more hours, we again met laden camels, and with
them some travellers on foot, one without a burnous or head-
covering, and clothed only in a shirt confined at the waist by a strap.
He wore his hair in a tuft on the nape of his neck, and carried in his
hand a banner on a pole. Amar told me he was a Marabout from one
of the villages near Gabés.
Of Marabouts there is no lack. This one was very poor, and was
returning from the mountains, where he had been begging for money
which he imagined was due to him. The banner he carried that
everyone might see that a holy man was coming.
I gave him a few coppers, and the young fellow kissed my hand,
and wished me good luck on my journey. It is not everyone who is
wished good luck on their travels by a Marabout. I bought my
blessing cheap.
We now rode some distance amongst small hills, which are
scattered in the foreground of the mountains like islands on a coast-
line. On some eminences were heaps of stones.
“Those were there before our time,” said Amar.
In places where the ground was more or less level it was slightly
scratched round about the dry bushes. This is the arable land, that is
to say, it would be cultivated if rain fell.
We halted beneath some bushes to eat our breakfast. The bread,
butter, and cheese we could all enjoy, but I alone the wine and meat.
A pomegranate supplied our dessert.
Whilst we sat there, five women in blue dresses came by,
preceded by an old man driving half a score of camels. The women
wore bracelets and anklets. They glanced furtively at us and trudged
past. A negress only, who lagged behind, tried to attract our
attention. She was evidently not accustomed to be taken notice of.
Travelling was now easy, the track leading upwards over smooth
calcareous ground. In little watercourses, now dry, were planted
clumps of palm and olive trees, the soil being banked about them to
form dams. On an adjoining slope were numbers of small caves,
inhabited only in harvest time, when watch is kept over the crops.
We ascended higher and higher amongst the mountains, until
suddenly, as I turned in my saddle, I saw the Mediterranean like a
blue streak in the distance. We were at that moment at the highest
point we were to reach that day. At a distance here and there dogs
appeared, barking at us, and occasionally in their vicinity white
figures and rising smoke. Hamed said that these people were cave
dwellers, but were only a small tribe. A little later we were to arrive at
quite a subterranean town.
I halted abruptly on seeing below me a valley with, comparatively
speaking, many trees. On the farther side rose a long range of high
mountains. The valley itself was exactly like a large, old sand or clay
ditch, with sloping sides, pierced by a great number of neglected and
long-disused shafts, but planted with trees—palms, olives, and figs.
“Is that Hadeij?” I asked. Hamed nodded, and I pulled up to take a
photograph.
It was then exactly two o’clock, and we continued on our way,
walking for a time beside our horses. Just as we were about to
remount, a white sheep-dog bounded out of a hole we had not
noticed; it bayed at us in a most dismal fashion, and from the nearest
points of vantage its companions joined in chorus.
I rode up to look at the dogs, and caught sight of a deep pit with
perpendicular sides that had been dug in the ground from the top of
the ascent. Down at the bottom a camel stood resting. Round a
hearth were household chattels and large bins made of rushes,
containing barley, and amongst these a few fowls. Some women and
children looked up on hearing the tramp of my horse, stared at me
for a moment, and then fled into recesses in the walls.
Hamed now suggested that I should not remain standing there,
and I followed his good advice.
A path had been dug into the hillside, and terminated in a large
door or gate. This evidently led to a long underground passage, and
ended in the square yard, open to the air, which I had just seen, and
whence are entered the excavated rooms or caves, used as
dwelling-places, stores, and stables.
On the horizon the straight stems of palms stood out sharply
against the mountains. In the foreground were olive trees, and,
mingled with them, a few palms; beneath one of these was gathered
a group of men, amongst whom, Hamed said, was the great Khalifa.
I therefore drew rein. An old greybeard rose and strode forward,
offering his hand and bidding me welcome, the other men following
his example. They were fine specimens of humanity, with regular
features, black eyes, and straight noses—one saw at once that they
were not of the ordinary Arab type.

Download ebook The Nalco Water Handbook Pdf full chapter pdf

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Download ebook The Nalco Water Handbook Pdf full chapter pdf

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

The Nalco water handbook - eBook PDF

Visit to download the full and correct content document:

00_Nalco_FM_i-xxviii.indd 1 04/10/17 3:59 pm

00_Nalco_FM_i-xxviii.indd 2 04/10/17 3:59 pm

New York Chicago San Francisco

00_Nalco_FM_i-xxviii.indd 3 04/10/17 3:59 pm

eBook conversion by codeMantra

00_Nalco_FM_i-xxviii.indd 5 04/10/17 3:59 pm

Water Quality When River Meets Ocean. . . 3.6

Section 2 Basic Water Chemistry

5 Impurities in Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1

00_Nalco_FM_i-xxviii.indd 6 04/10/17 3:59 pm

Section 3.1 Applications—Impurity Removal

00_Nalco_FM_i-xxviii.indd 7 04/10/17 3:59 pm

Resin Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.34

Section 3.2 Applications—Steam Generation

00_Nalco_FM_i-xxviii.indd 8 04/10/17 3:59 pm

Mathematical Relationships. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.9

00_Nalco_FM_i-xxviii.indd 9 04/10/17 3:59 pm

13 Condensate Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.1

00_Nalco_FM_i-xxviii.indd 10 04/10/17 3:59 pm

Neutralizing Amines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.11

Section 3.3 Applications—Cooling Water Systems

00_Nalco_FM_i-xxviii.indd 11 04/10/17 3:59 pm

16 Cooling System Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.1

00_Nalco_FM_i-xxviii.indd 12 04/10/17 3:59 pm

Determining the Bacterial Population of

Section 3.4 Applications—Water Safety for Building

00_Nalco_FM_i-xxviii.indd 13 04/10/17 3:59 pm

First Identified Outbreak. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.6

Section 3.5 Applications—Post-Treatment

00_Nalco_FM_i-xxviii.indd 14 04/10/17 3:59 pm

Drag Separator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.26

00_Nalco_FM_i-xxviii.indd 15 04/10/17 3:59 pm

00_Nalco_FM_i-xxviii.indd 16 04/10/17 3:59 pm

Separation Equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.7

Section 4 Energy in Water Systems

00_Nalco_FM_i-xxviii.indd 17 04/10/17 3:59 pm

31 Energy in Steam Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.1

00_Nalco_FM_i-xxviii.indd 18 04/10/17 3:59 pm

Factors Affecting Chemical Treatment. . . . . . . . . . 33.11

00_Nalco_FM_i-xxviii.indd 19 04/10/17 3:59 pm

Recycle and Reuse. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.31

35 The Refining Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35.1

36 The Chemical Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36.1

37 The Aluminum Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37.1

38 The Steel Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.1

00_Nalco_FM_i-xxviii.indd 20 04/10/17 3:59 pm

39 The Institutional and Commercial Sectors . . . . . 39.1

40 The Food and Beverage Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.1

41 The Microelectronics Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.1

00_Nalco_FM_i-xxviii.indd 21 04/10/17 3:59 pm

Cooling Towers and Chillers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.6

00_Nalco_FM_i-xxviii.indd 22 04/10/17 3:59 pm

00_Nalco_FM_i-xxviii.indd 23 04/10/17 3:59 pm

00_Nalco_FM_i-xxviii.indd 24 04/10/17 3:59 pm

00_Nalco_FM_i-xxviii.indd 25 04/10/17 3:59 pm

00_Nalco_FM_i-xxviii.indd 26 04/10/17 3:59 pm

00_Nalco_FM_i-xxviii.indd 27 04/10/17 3:59 pm

00_Nalco_FM_i-xxviii.indd 28 04/10/17 3:59 pm

01-Flynn_CH01_1.1-1.16.indd 1 09/10/17 7:21 pm

01-Flynn_CH01_1.1-1.16.indd 2 21/09/17 11:38 am

01-Flynn_CH01_1.1-1.16.indd 3 21/09/17 11:38 am

Figure 1.1 Breakdown of earth’s water resources, illustrating freshwater components

Section 3.4 Applications—Water Safety for Building