Shock Compression and Chemical

Reaction of Multifunctional Energetic

Structural Materials Xianfeng Zhang
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Shock Compression and Chemical
Reaction of Multifunctional
Energetic Structural Materials
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Elsevier Series in Mechanics of Advanced
Materials

Shock Compression
and Chemical Reaction
of Multifunctional
Energetic Structural
Materials

Xianfeng Zhang and Wei Xiong

School of Mechanical Engineering,
Nanjing University of Science and Technology,
Nanjing, China

Editor-in-Chief
Vadim V. Silberschmidt
Elsevier
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Notices
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broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment
may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating
and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such
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Contents

Preface ix
Acknowledgments xi

1 Preparation and microstructures of MESMs 1

Introduction 1
Static pressing 1
Explosive consolidation 7
Casting and curing 10
Cold rolling 12
Physical vapor deposition 16
References 20

2 Hugoniot equation of state (EOS) for MESMs 23

Basic principles of shock waves 23
Hugoniot EOS for solid materials 25
Hugoniot EOS for solid multicomponent mixtures 26
Hugoniot EOS for multicomponent mixtures with porosity 32
Shock temperature of MESMs 37
References 41

3 Thermochemical modeling on shock-induced chemical

reaction of MESMs 43
Introduction 43
Mechanism of shock reaction of MESMs 44
Thermochemical model 48
Hugoniot EOS for reaction of MESMs 52
Discussion 59
References 60

4 Mesoscale modeling of shock compression of MESMs 63

Introduction 63
Mesoscale characters of MESMs 64
Mesoscale modeling of shock compression of MESMs 75
Mesoscale characters of MESMs under shock compression 80
References 94
viii Contents

5 Multiscale modeling on shock-induced reaction of MESMs 97

Introduction 97
Mass transport mechanism 98
Multiscale models based on the infinite-transport-rate assumption 101
Multiscale simulation with limited transport rate 116
Multiscale simulation with limited transport rate considering
the effects of temperature and states of stress 122
References 132

6 Mechanical testing of MESMs 135

Introduction 135
Quasistatic compression tests 135
Split-Hopkinson pressure bar (SHPB) compression experiments 140
Flyer plate impact experiments 147
References 158

7 Experimental studies on chemical reaction of MESMs 161

Introduction 161
DTA and DSC analysis 162
Flyer plate impact experiments 165
Two-step impact initiation experiment 166
Other experimental methods 182
References 189

8 Application of MESMs 193

Introduction 193
Reactive shaped charge liners 193
RM-enhanced warhead casing 204
Reactive fragments 222
RM-enhanced projectile used in penetration munition 223
Space debris shield structure using MESMs 225
References 231

Index 233
Preface

This book is the outcome of the authors’ more than 15 years of research on multifunctional
energetic structural materials (MESMs), which are evolving as a class of materials that
integrate desirable characteristics of high energy density and rapid energy release prop-
erties along with an ideal combination of both mechanical properties. The purpose of the
book is to provide a systematic overview of both shock compression and shock-induced
reaction of MESMs, including preparation, mechanical properties, mathematical model-
ing, and numerical simulations as well as experiments and applications of MESMs. This
book serves as a systematic reference resource by providing readers with a brief introduc-
tion to the special functions of MESMs to further specific research methods. It contains
the most existing methods and related samples on solving shock-induced chemical reac-
tion problems. The book will not only assist researchers in this area in identifying theo-
retical, numerical, and experimental methods, but it will also serve as a comprehensive
guide for new learners who are interested in this field.
Following are the contents of the book, which are described in short and presented
in logical order so as to assist the readers.
Chapter 1 introduces the main preparation methods for MESMs, which correspond
to different types and microstructures of MESMs. Following this, theoretical models
for the equation of state and shock temperature in solid or porous MESM mixtures
subjected to shock compression are introduced in Chapter 2. The calculated temper-
ature owing to shock compression serves as an important input for the thermochemical
model to calculate the chemical reaction efficiency (Chapter 3). In addition, the micro-
structures, including particle sizes, shapes, and distributions, have significant effects
on the shock wave propagation and energy release capacity of MESMs. Therefore,
Chapters 4 and 5 propose typical mesoscale modeling or multiscale modeling methods
to calculate the dynamic response and shock-induced reaction behaviors of MESMs.
Experimental and measuring methods to test the two important properties, namely
mechanical properties and energy release characteristics, under elevated strain rates
are proposed in Chapters 6 and 7. Finally, Chapter 8 is devoted to the application
of MESMs, including the structures, action principles, and experimental methods
to evaluate capacities.
The authors hope that this book will serve as a useful reference resource for readers
by providing a systematic summary of MESMs from existing research studies. Any
constructive suggestion or feedback from readers about the contents of this book is
welcome.
Xianfeng Zhang
Wei Xiong
School of Mechanical Engineering, Nanjing University of Science
and Technology, Nanjing, China
This page intentionally left blank
Acknowledgments

It took us more than 3 years to complete this book; however, it has been more than
10 years to put forward the conception of the book. We thank all the organizations
and individuals who supported us during this period.
We also thank the Nanjing University of Science and Technology (NJUST) for
offering us excellent academic resources and research platforms to refer to literature
studies, to establish theoretical or simulation models, to carry out experiments, and to
conclude the research results.
Furthermore, we thank the National Natural Science Foundation of China for
supporting us with several projects (No. 12141202, No. 12002170, and No.
10902053) to investigate the shock reaction mechanism of MESMs and to explore
their applications.
We are very grateful to the following people for offering their research support and
assistance on this book: Dr. Liang Qiao (Beijing Institute of Space Long March Vehi-
cle/China), Mr. Anshun Shi (No. 52 Institute of China North Industries Group/China),
Mr. Jiang Zhang (Ningbo Branch of China Academy of Ordnance Science/China), Dr.
Mengting Tan (NJUST, China), Dr. Chuang Liu (NJUST, China), Prof. Zhongwei
Guan (University of Liverpool, United Kingdom), Dr. Ning Du (Shenyang Ligong
University/China), Ms. Xianwei Hou (NJUST, China), Dr. Jiajie Deng (Shanghai
Institute of Ceramics, Chinese Academy of Sciences/China), Dr. Fei Gao (NJUST,
China), Dr. Haihua Chen (Shanghai Electro-Mechanical Engineering Institute/China),
Dr. Kuo Bao (NJUST, China), Mr. Bingyu Huang (NJUST, China), Mr. Haiyang Wei
(NJUST, China), Mr. Junwei Liu (NJUST, China), Mr. Pengcheng Li (NJUST,
China), Mr. Guoqing Han (NJUST, China), Mr. Yizhou Fang (NJUST, China), Mr.
Chaoping Zhang (NJUST, China), Mr. Jiamin Wang (NJUST, China), Mr. Weijing
Sun (NJUST, China), Mr. Yuxuan Deng (NJUST, China), Mr. Pengpeng Ge (NJUST,
China), and Ms. Yi Li (NJUST, China). We also thank all the editors of this book for
their generous help.
Finally, thanks are also due to the family members of the authors—Yu Leng, Hao
Zhou, Honghao Zhang, Hongjin Leng, and Mo Zhou—for their love and continuous
support in overcoming difficulties and finishing this book successfully.

Xianfeng Zhang
Wei Xiong
School of Mechanical Engineering, Nanjing University of Science
and Technology, Nanjing, China
This page intentionally left blank
Preparation and microstructures
of MESMs 1
Introduction
Multifunctional energetic structural materials (MESMs) are a special category of
energetic materials that integrate desirable characteristics of a high energy density
and rapid energy release properties along with at least one other designed functional-
ity, for example, mechanical strength. These materials can be combinations of ther-
mites, intermetallics, metal-polymer mixtures, metastable intermolecular composites
(MICs), matrix materials, and hydrides (Thadhani, 1994). Such mixtures are inert
under ambient conditions, and the traditional initiation methods such as flame initi-
ation are not sufficient to sustain a reaction; however, they will be triggered into reac-
tions in the case of energy supplied by the passage of sufficiently strong shock waves
(Reding & Hanagud, 2009). Therefore, one of the key technical issues on application
of MESMs is to ensure them with the two typical characteristics after preparation: one
is to ensure them with enough strength to realize specific structural functions and the
other is to give them energy release capacity.
This chapter gives detailed introduction on five main preparation methods for
MESMs, namely, static pressing, explosive consolidation, casting and curing, cold
rolling, and physical vapor deposition (PVD). The first three methods are used to fab-
ricate powder composites of MESMs, and the other two methods are used to fabricate
multilayered composites of MESMs. The fabrication process, machines, and typical
microstructures of MESMs are described in this chapter.

Static pressing
Static pressing, in other words, compression molding, is one of the most commonly
methods to prepare MESMs. With this method, multicomponent MESM powder mixtures
are pressed into entities with specific densities, which are often with porosity. The prep-
aration process is shown in Fig. 1.1. Static pressing takes advantage of a less expensive and
simple process, which is applicable for most of MESMs with different reaction types.
The fabrication process of MESMs by means of static pressing can be described as
follows:

Raw powder preparation

The constituents of MESMs are essentially chosen according to their properties,
including both the mechanical properties and energy release characteristics. Further-
more, some polymer or metal additives such as magnesium (Mg), tungsten (W),
Shock Compression and Chemical Reaction of Multifunctional Energetic Structural Materials.
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-819520-8.00007-2
Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 Shock Compression and Chemical Reaction of Multifunctional Energetic Structural Materials

Fig. 1.1 Schematic diagram of static pressing.

No Permission Required.

Fig. 1.2 Photograph of typical raw powders.

No Permission Required.

copper (Cu), Teflon, and epoxy polymer binders are usually used to improve one or
both of the properties. All the raw powders should have a purity exceeding 99%.
Fig. 1.2 shows the photograph of typical raw powders, and Fig. 1.3 gives the initial
morphology of each metal component visualized by scanning electron microscopy
(SEM). The Al particles have relatively homogeneous (spherical) shapes and smooth
surfaces, whereas the Ni and Cu particles have arbitrary (dendritic) shapes and rougher
surfaces that may be attributed to the electrolysis production method. The Al particle
size is less than 23μm, whereas Ni and Cu particles have a size less than 75 μm.

Mixing of the powders

The raw powders were mixed with a specific mass or volume ratio. Dry powder mix-
tures were first placed in a container and then milled at room temperature in a blender.
Then, the mixture powders can be dried again at 57°C on a conductive tray for approx-
imately 24 h.
Xiong et al. (2015) fabricated three composites, namely, Al/Ni, Al/Ni/poly-
tetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), and Al/Ni/Cu with volumetric ratios of 50:50,
Preparation and microstructures of MESMs 3

Fig. 1.3 SEM of typical metal components.

From Xiong, W., Zhang, X., Wu, Y., He, Y., Wang, C., & Guo, L. (2015). Influence of additives
on microstructures, mechanical properties and shock-induced reaction characteristics of Al/Ni
composites. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 648, 540–549. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jallcom.2015.07.004.

45:45:10, and 45:45:10, respectively. The SEM images of the three powder mixtures
are shown in Fig. 1.4A–C, whereas the optical microscopy (OM) image of Al/Ni/Cu
powder mixtures is shown in Fig. 1.4D. In the three mixtures, Al particles are easy to
be identified because of their smooth surface and relatively darker phase. The reddish-
brown phase shown in Fig. 1.4D is Cu, the black phase is Ni, and the white smaller
phase is Al. All the images in Fig. 1.4 show a uniform distribution of particles after
mixing.

Quasistatic pressing
The powder mixtures are then pressed into samples of a specific size using compres-
sors, as shown in Fig. 1.5. The powder mixture is measured out and then added into a
die. The weight of the powder is decided by the desired volume and density of the
sample. The pressing cycle included pressing for at least 1min at a given pressure
and then releasing.
Fig. 1.4 SEM micrographs of the powder mixtures: (A) Al/Ni, (B) Al/Ni/PTFE, and (C) Al/Ni/
Cu and OM micrographs of (D) Al/Ni/Cu powder.
From Xiong, W., Zhang, X., Wu, Y., He, Y., Wang, C., & Guo, L. (2015). Influence of additives
on microstructures, mechanical properties and shock-induced reaction characteristics of Al/Ni
composites. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 648, 540–549. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jallcom.2015.07.004.

Fig. 1.5 Typical compressors: A four-column hydraulic press (left) and the universal testing
machine (right).
Preparation and microstructures of MESMs 5

Fig. 1.6 Initial power mixtures (left) and pressed samples (right): (A) Al/Ni, (B) Al/Ni/PTFE,
and (C) Al/Ni/Cu.
From Xiong, W., Zhang, X., Wu, Y., He, Y., Wang, C., & Guo, L. (2015). Influence of additives
on microstructures, mechanical properties and shock-induced reaction characteristics of Al/Ni
composites. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 648, 540–549. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jallcom.2015.07.004.

The powder mixtures and the pressed samples of the three Al/Ni composites fab-
ricated by Xiong et al. (2015) are shown in Fig. 1.6. The fabricated samples have
94.3% to 98.5% theoretical material densities by the static pressing method.
The microstructure images of the corresponding pressed samples are shown in the
SEM micrographs in Fig. 1.7A–C and the OM micrograph in Fig. 1.7D, respectively.
Similarly, the smoother and darker phases shown in SEM images are Al. All the
images reveal that the spherical Al particles are surrounded by a continuous Ni matrix.
This phenomenon existing in the microstructure of the pressed sample can be
explained by the morphology of the initial powders (Wei et al., 2012). The Ni powders
are dendritic and agglomerated in the pressed samples. The Ni powders plastically
deformed and became interconnected as a continuous phase and thus surrounded
and enveloped the Al particles during static pressing. The additive PTFE was histioid
after pressing and tended to adhere to Al particles. In the case of Cu as an additive, the
continuous Ni phase was partly broken and reconnected with similar-shape Cu
particles.

Sintering
Because of the reaction characteristics, most MESMs are assembled without sintering
and melting, which are related to high temperatures. However, the sintering process is
also applied, especially for low-strength MESMs such as fluorine polymer matrix
materials, to improve their mechanical properties.
Zhang et al. (2013) fabricated Al/W/PTFE granular composites with the mass
ratios of 24:0:76, 12:50:38, and 5.5:77:17.5, respectively. The specimens from the last
step (Fig. 1.8) were relaxed at ambient pressure and temperature prior to sintering to
remove entrapped air and to remove residual stress. A relaxation dwell time of about
4 h was thought to be satisfactory for our experiments. The pressed specimens were
then inserted into a vacuum sintering oven with the temperature set at 380°C. The
sintering furnace and the temperature history in the sintering cycle are shown in
Fig. 1.9. The oven temperature was ramped up to 380°C at a rate of about 50°C/h.
6 Shock Compression and Chemical Reaction of Multifunctional Energetic Structural Materials

Fig. 1.7 SEM micrographs of the pressed samples: (A) Al/Ni, (B) Al/Ni/PTFE, and (C) Al/Ni/
Cu and OM micrographs of (D) Al/Ni/Cu sample.
From Xiong, W., Zhang, X., Wu, Y., He, Y., Wang, C., & Guo, L. (2015). Influence of additives
on microstructures, mechanical properties and shock-induced reaction characteristics of Al/Ni
composites. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 648, 540–549. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jallcom.2015.07.004.

Fig. 1.8 Mixture powders and pressed samples of Al/W/PTFE granular composites. (A) Al/W/
PTFE ¼ 24:0:76, (B) Al/W/PTFE ¼ 12:50:38, and (C) Al/W/PTFE ¼ 5.5:77:17.5.
From Zhang, X. F., Zhang, J., Qiao, L., Shi, A. S., Zhang, Y. G., He, Y., et al. (2013).
Experimental study of the compression properties of Al/W/PTFE granular composites under
elevated strain rates. Materials Science and Engineering: A, 581, 48–55. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.msea.2013.05.063.
Preparation and microstructures of MESMs 7

400

320

Temperature (°C)
240

160

80

0
0 6 12 18 24
Time (hrs)
(a) The sintering furnace (b) The temperature history of a sintering cycle
Fig. 1.9 Sintering device and the temperature history.
From Zhang, X. F., Zhang, J., Qiao, L., Shi, A. S., Zhang, Y. G., He, Y., et al. (2013).
Experimental study of the compression properties of Al/W/PTFE granular composites under
elevated strain rates. Materials Science and Engineering: A, 581, 48–55. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.msea.2013.05.063.

The pressed specimens were held at about 380°C for 6 h; then, the temperature was
reduced to 310°C at a rate of 50°C/h and held for 4 h. The specimens were further
cooled to ambient temperature at an average cooling rate of 50°C/h.

Explosive consolidation
Explosive consolidation is a technique that employs shock waves to compress pow-
ders to form components under high temperature and high pressure instantaneously
and is the idiographic application of shock wave physics in engineering (Wang
et al., 2014). It should be noted that because of the high peak pressures, these powder
mixture compacts might have certain amounts of intermetallics and preexisting cracks
after shock consolidation. These intermetallics and preexisting defects may influence
the mechanical properties of the shock-consolidated powder mixtures significantly
(Wei, 2011). Therefore, explosion consolidation is rarely used in fabricating MESMs.
Wei et al. (Wei, 2011; Wei et al., 2012) prepared metal-Al powder composites by
using double-tube explosive shock consolidation. The double-tube explosive consol-
idation system is shown in Fig. 1.10, which was developed by Meyers and Wang
(1988). This setup had a cylindrical geometry with two co-axial tubes. An outer cyl-
inder isolated the inner cylinder of the inner tube, and the powder mixture was placed
in the inner tube that surrounded the Al mandrel, which helped to prevent the Mach
stem (Meyers & Wang, 1988). The inner tube containing the powder mixture was
enclosed by ammonium nitrate/fuel oil, which detonated and obtained the explosive
velocity of 2.6 km/s. The peak pressure was in the range of 4–7 GPa throughout the
entire explosive consolidation process (Du et al., 2009).
8 Shock Compression and Chemical Reaction of Multifunctional Energetic Structural Materials

ANFO

Inner AI
cylinder mandrel

Powder

Gap

Outer
cylinder
End cap

Fig. 1.10 Double-tube explosive consolidation setup.

From Wei, C. T., Vitali, E., Jiang, F., Du, S. W., Benson, D. J., Vecchio, K. S., et al. (2012).
Quasi-static and dynamic response of explosively consolidated metal–aluminum powder
mixtures. Acta Materialia, 60(3), 1418–1432. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2011.10.027.

The process of explosion consolidation can be concluded as the following steps

(Wei et al., 2012):

Raw material preparation

This process is introduced in detail in “Raw powder preparation” in "Static pressing"
section. Six metal powders, namely, Al, Ni, Nb, W, Mo, and Ta, were employed for
producing metal-Al composites by Wei et al. (2012). The initial particle morphologies
of the five metals are shown in Fig. 1.11. The Ni, Al, and W powders (Fig. 1.11A, B,
and E) have relatively homogeneous shapes and particle sizes of 30–80 μm diameters.
On the other hand, Nb, Ta, and Mo (Fig. 1.11C, D, and F) have arbitrary shapes and
sizes (in a range of less than 1–50 μm diameter).

Mixing of the powders

This process is introduced in detail in “Mixing of the powders” in "Static pressing"
section.

Explosion consolidation
The powder mixtures are measured out and assembled into an explosion consolidation
device. Once the explosive is initiated, a combustion wave will load on the powder
mixtures and produce the powder compaction.
Preparation and microstructures of MESMs 9

Fig. 1.11 SEM images of original (A) Ni, (B) Al, (C) Nb, (D) Ta, (E) W, and (F) Mo powders.
From Wei, C. T., Vitali, E., Jiang, F., Du, S. W., Benson, D. J., Vecchio, K. S., et al. (2012).
Quasi-static and dynamic response of explosively consolidated metal–aluminum powder
mixtures. Acta Materialia, 60(3), 1418–1432. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2011.10.027.

In Wei’s research (Wei et al., 2012), the five powder mixtures, Nb/Al, Ni/Al, Mo/
Al, W/Al, and Ta/Al, with equivolumetric ratios were placed into the inner tube of the
double-tube explosive consolidation system. By using the double-tube explosive con-
solidation, these compacts could reach very high densities, which are about 99%
theoretcical material density (TMD). These highly dense compacts had the mechan-
ical properties close to the fully densified bulk materials. The cross-sectional SEM
micrographs of the five powder compactions are shown in Fig. 1.12, which will be
described in detail in Chapter 4.
10 Shock Compression and Chemical Reaction of Multifunctional Energetic Structural Materials

Fig. 1.12 Cross-sectional SEM micrographs of consolidated mixtures: (A) Ni/Al, (B) W/Al,
(C) Mo/Al, (D) Nb/Al, and (E) Ta/Al (the darker areas represent aluminum).
From Wei, C. T., Vitali, E., Jiang, F., Du, S. W., Benson, D. J., Vecchio, K. S., et al. (2012).
Quasi-static and dynamic response of explosively consolidated metal–aluminum powder
mixtures. Acta Materialia, 60(3), 1418–1432. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2011.10.027.

Specimen processing
After consolidation, the powder compactions are machined into desired sizes for
experimental or application use. For example, cylindrical rods with a diameter of
3 mm were machined to conduct the mechanical property test from the middle part
of compacts, parallel to the tube axis.

Casting and curing

Casting and curing are manufacturing processes in which a liquid material is usually
poured into a mold, which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then
allowed to solidify. This method is commonly used in fabrication of reinforced
polymer composite materials. Fig. 1.13 gives an example for the die and product
by casting and curing.
Martin (2005) fabricated Ni/Al composites by means of epoxy casting and curing.
The fabricated process from Martin (2005) can be concluded as follows:

Raw material preparation

This process is introduced in detail in “Raw powder preparation” in "Static pressing"
section.
Preparation and microstructures of MESMs 11

Fig. 1.13 An example of casting and curing: (A) Top view cross section of the die and
(B) illustration of a casting that was produced.
From Hamasaiid, A., Dargusch, M. S., & Dour, G. (2019). The impact of the casting thickness
on the interfacial heat transfer and solidification of the casting during permanent mold casting of
an A356 alloy. Journal of Manufacturing Processes, 47, 229–237.

Mixing and drying of powders

The powder constituents are mixed according to their mass or volume ratio. Then,
the powder mixtures are heated in an open container in a 120°C furnace for several
hours, which is an important step to eliminate the moisture of the powder mixtures.
After heating, the desired amount of powder mixture was measured out and placed in
a plastic container.

Heating of the polymer and mixing with powder mixtures

In order to decrease the viscosity of the polymer, the heating process should be carried
out on it. Martin (2005) heated Epon Resin 826 at 120°C and then added the desired
amount of the resin to the powder mixture. The resin and powder were mixed for about
3min using a mixing blade mounted on a drill. The mixture was then placed back into
the 120°C furnace (Fisher Oven) for about 15min to aid the mixing by decreasing the
viscosity of epoxy.

Mixing with a hardener and solvent

After the resin and powders were fully mixed, the diethanolamine hardener (7.7 wt%
of epoxy) was added to the mixture and blended using a homemade mixing device.
The mixture was again placed in the furnace for about 15min. If this mixture was
not fluid enough that it could be poured out of the container, a small amount of toluene
anhydrous 99.8% was added as a solvent and evaporated later. After the addition of
toluene, the mixture was placed back in the furnace for an additional 15min.
12 Shock Compression and Chemical Reaction of Multifunctional Energetic Structural Materials

Next, the mixture was degassed in a desiccator for about 5min (until a pressure of
1–2 Torr was achieved) to remove air bubbles, and then, it was placed back in the
furnace for about 30min, taking care not to stir it and introduce new air bubbles.

Curing in the molds

Finally, the mixture was poured into molds (coated with grease on the inside) of a 0.600
diameter and a 600 length, and placed in a 70–80°C furnace for 48 h to cure. After the
samples had cured, they were removed from the molds. The samples were then cut and
machined into various sized rods for testing.

Cold rolling
The three above methods are all used to fabricate powder compaction of MESMs. In
recent years, the multilayered composites of MESMs have attracted widespread atten-
tion ( Ji et al., 2017; Specht, Thadhani, & Weihs, 2012; Specht, Weihs, & Thadhani,
2016). Cold rolling (Specht et al., 2012, 2016) and PVD (Kelly & Thadhani, 2016;
Knepper et al., 2009) are common methods to manufacture multilayered composites
of MESMs. Cold rolling is a process by which a metal is passed through rollers at
temperatures below its recrystallization temperature. The metal is compressed and
squeezed, increasing the yield strength and hardness of the metal. The microstructure
of the multilayered MESMs mainly depends on the manufacturing method and
manufacturing process. In most studies of multilayered composites, the bilayer spac-
ing (Knepper et al., 2009), in other words, the reactant spacing referring to the total
thickness of the two layers, is an important parameter.
Studies on the energy releasing aspect of multilayered MESMs mainly focused on
the self-propagating high-temperature synthesis (SHS) via differential scanning
calorimetry (DSC) at normal heating rates (20–40°C/min) (Gavens, Van Heerden,
Mann, Reiss, & Weihs, 2000; Knepper et al., 2009; Kuk, Yu, & Ryu, 2015; Ma,
Thompson, Clevenger, & Tu, 1990). Ji (Hugus, Sheridan, & Brooks, 2012) studied
the shock-induced chemical reaction (SICR) characteristics of Al/Ni multilayered
composites with 4 rolling passes via two-step impact initiation experiments and ana-
lyzed the relationship between the released energy and the impact velocity. The shock
wave propagation in multilayered composites is affected by the orientation of the
material interfaces, the interfacial strength, and the bilayer spacing, according to
the mesoscale simulation by Specht et al. (Kelly & Thadhani, 2016; Knepper et al.,
2009). These simulations showed that the interfaces between component layers would
cause the dispersion and dissipation of the shock waves when the impact direction is
parallel to them.
Xiong et al. (2019) investigated the microstructural effects on the SICR behaviors
of Al/Ni composites with different manufacturing methods, namely, powder compac-
tion and cold rolling with 3–5 passes, by mesoscale simulation and two-step impact
initiation experiments. The fabrication process is illustrated in Fig. 1.14, which can be
described as follows:
Preparation and microstructures of MESMs 13

Fig. 1.14 Schematic diagram for the cold rolling process.

No Permission Required.

Original foil preparation

The stoichiometric ratio of Al to Ni in the specimens was designed nearly to 1:1 in
order to obtain the greatest chemical release capability (Wei, 2011). Al 1060 and
Ni with sizes of 200  30  0.8 mm and 200  30  0.5 mm shown in Fig. 1.15 were
chosen to fabricate the cold-rolled specimens, respectively.

First rolling pass

The initial Al and Ni foils were assembled alternately with nine layers and eight
layers, respectively. Then, the assembly was rolled to achieve sufficient deformation
by the two-roll reversible rolling mill as shown in Fig. 1.16. In order to eliminate the
residual stress during the rolling pass, the rolled composites were annealed in an inert
atmosphere at a temperature of 550°C by the box resistance furnace as shown in
Fig. 1.17. This process is referred to as one rolling pass.

Fig. 1.15 Photograph of the original foils.

No Permission Required.
14 Shock Compression and Chemical Reaction of Multifunctional Energetic Structural Materials

Fig. 1.16 Two-roll reversible rolling mill.

No Permission Required.

Fig. 1.17 Box resistance furnace.

No Permission Required.

Successive rolling
The deformed sheet was cut into two pieces and stacked by repeating the above pro-
cess. Al/Ni multilayered composites with 3–5 rolling passes were obtained to study
their SICR behaviors. The specimens were obtained by wire-electrode cutting from
the rolled foils, which are shown in Fig. 1.18. The cutting direction is perpendicular
to the surface of the foils to avoid delaminating. The average TMD % values of all the
Al/Ni composites are within a narrow range from 92.0% to 94.2%.
Fig. 1.19 shows the microstructures of Al/Ni multilayered composites man-
ufactured by cold rolling with 2–5 passes. With successive rolling passes, the Ni foils
Preparation and microstructures of MESMs 15

Fig. 1.18 Rolled multilayered composites and the specimens.

No Permission Required.

Fig. 1.19 Microstructures of Al/Ni multilayered composites manufactured by cold rolling with
2–5 passes.
No Permission Required.

were fractured into small pieces and surrounded by a continuous Al matrix. The Al/Ni
multilayered composites with 2–5 rolling passes showed a similar microstructure with
parallel Al and Ni layers. The typical layer thickness of Ni and the bilayer spacing
were measured, and the dimensions indicate that the thickness of the constituents
was reduced during the rolling passes.
Wei (2011) manufactured two kinds of Al/Ni multilayered composites by cold
rolling; one was made of a 25 μm thick Al sheet and an 18 μm thick Ni sheet, and
the other was made of a 178 μm Al sheet and a 127 μm Ni sheet. These two Ni/Al
16 Shock Compression and Chemical Reaction of Multifunctional Energetic Structural Materials

Fig. 1.20 Cross-sections of two different laminates have three distinct morphologies: The
nonuniform multilayered composite in the thicker bilayer sample (top-left inset) and the wave
form layers with isolated Ni fragments in the Al matrix in the thicker bilayer sample.
From Wei, C. T., Maddox, B. R., Stover, A. K., Weihs, T. P., Nesterenko, V. F., & Meyers,
M. A. (2011). Reaction in Ni–Al laminates by laser-shock compression and spalling.
Acta Materialia, 59(13), 5276–5287.

multilayered composites had bilayer thicknesses of 5 and 30 μm, respectively. Fig. 1.20
shows morphologies of the cross-sections of the Ni-Al multilayered composites. Because
of the high strain caused by the cold rolling process, the multilayered composites had dis-
tinguishable morphologies depending on the rolling direction, the dimension, and the
mechanical properties of the materials. The thicker bilayer samples have two different
morphologies of the cross-sections. The nonuniform multilayered structure was along
with the cold-rolling direction, and the wavy layer structure was perpendicular to the
rolling direction in the multilayered composites with a 30μm bilayer thickness. However,
for the sample with a thinner bilayer thickness (Fig. 1.19 lower insets), the micromorphol-
ogy showed only the localized homogeneous distribution of the Ni-Al binary phase.

Physical vapor deposition

PVD cases
PVD is one of the vacuum coating processes in which the film of the coating material
is usually deposited atom by atom on a substrate by condensation from the vapor phase
to the solid phase. This technology improves durability, and higher surface hardness
and increased service temperatures can be achieved from less expensive processes
(Zalnezhad & Sarhan, 2014).
Vapor deposition for multilayered MESMs, such as sputter deposition, can be used
to precisely control the layer thickness and obtain a uniform multilayered microstruc-
ture but consumes a lot of time and money. As for the vapor-deposited multilayered
composites with nanoscale thick layers, the diffusion distance and interface impurities
in multilayered composites were reduced compared to the powder-compacted
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Dochmius (Ancylostomum) duodenalis, called by Neumann[182]
Uncinaria duodenalis, is one of the most dangerous parasites that
attack man. It lives in the duodenum and jejunum, and the fertilised
eggs leave the body of its host with the excreta, and in damp earth
develop into larvae in the course of a few days. These at first eat
voraciously, but after undergoing several moults they cease to take
food and pass into the resting stage. If now they are swallowed with
drinking water, they come to rest in the small intestine of their host,
and in a few weeks become sexually mature. They cause great harm
by burrowing in the intestinal walls and destroying the capillaries.
They are found by hundreds, and even thousands, in the same host,
and produce profound anaemia, which is frequently fatal to miners,
and was the cause of a great mortality amongst the workers in the
St. Gothard Tunnel some fifteen years ago. This species is very
widely spread over the face of the globe. Dochmius trigonocephala
Rud. and D. stenocephala produce similar diseases in dogs and
cats, and D. cernua Crep. is found in sheep and goats.

The genus Cucullanus exists in the adult form in the intestines of

fishes, and more rarely of reptiles. C. elegans Zed., which live in
fresh-water fish, e.g. the perch, is viviparous; after birth the young
pass into the water and make their way into the alimentary canal of
the small crustacean Cyclops, and thence into its body-cavity. Here
they undergo two moults, accompanied by certain changes in
structure. If this second host be swallowed by a fish the parasites are
set free, and develop generative organs. Ollulanus tricuspis Leuck.,
which in the adult state is found in the cat, chiefly in the intestine but
also in the bronchi and other parts, gives rise to larvae which are of
enormous size compared with the parent; these leave the body, and
if eaten by a mouse encyst in its muscles, and if the mouse be
devoured by a cat, they complete their life-cycle by becoming
sexually mature.

The genus Syngamus infests the trachea and bronchi of birds, more
rarely of mammals. The red- or forked-worm, Syngamus trachealis
Sieb., is common in poultry and game birds, and causes the disease
known as gapes, which is especially common in young birds, and
often gives rise to extensive loss. The peculiarity of this genus is that
the male is permanently attached to the female, its genital bursa
being so closely adherent to the opening of the oviduct that two
specimens cannot be separated without tearing the tissues. The ova
are not laid, but escape from the body with fully-formed embryos in
them, by the decay or rupture of their parent's body. They hatch in
damp earth or water in from one to six weeks according to the
temperature. When swallowed by a fowl they develop into adults,
which reproduce eggs in less than three weeks. No second host is
needed, but the embryos remain alive in the alimentary canal of
earthworms, and these doubtless to some extent serve to spread the
disease.

Fig. 70.—Syngamus trachealis Sieb., natural size and magnified four

diameters. The small ♂ is permanently attached to the female.
(From Warburton.[183])

III. Family Trichotrachelidae.

This family is characterised by the anterior end of the body being

produced into a long whip-like neck. The mouth is small and devoid
of papillae. The oesophagus is very long, and it traverses a peculiar
strand of cells.

Genera: Trichocephalus, Trichina, Trichosoma, and others.

Trichocephalus dispar Rud. (hominis Gmel.) is common in man, and
also occurs in some species of monkey. It does not live freely within
the intestine, but buries its long whip-like anterior end in the mucous
lining of the caecum or colon. The eggs pass out of the body of the
host. The development of the embryo is slow, lasting many months;
whilst still in the egg-shell the embryos are swallowed, and give rise
to the sexually-mature parasite without the intervention of an
intermediate host. They are by no means uncommon. Davaine
calculated that about 50 per cent of the inhabitants of Paris were
infested with them, but they give rise to little disturbance, and only
very occasionally cause serious harm. T. affinis Rud. infests sheep;
T. crenatus Rud. the pig; T. depressiusculus Rud. the dog; and T.
unguiculatus Rud. the hare and rabbit.

Fig. 71.—Trichocephalus dispar Rud., attached to part of the human

colon. × 2.

The genus Trichosoma, with many species, is as a rule found in

birds, but it occurs also in mammals, as T. plica Rud. in the bladder
of the fox and wolf, T. felis cati in the bladder of the cat, T.
aerophilum Duj. in the trachea of the fox and marten. The chief
interest of this genus is that, at any rate in T. crassicauda Bel., which
infests the rat, the dwarf males live two, three, or four at a time within
the uterus of the female, a condition of things which recalls the
similar arrangement found in the Gephyrean Bonellia.
Trichina spiralis is the cause of the well-known disease trichinosis,
which appears in two forms, intestinal and muscular, according to the
habitat of the parasite. The mature forms of both sexes are found in
the intestine of man and many other mammals. They have been
experimentally developed in birds, though in the latter the larval
forms have never been observed. By keeping such cold-blooded
animals as the salamander at a constant temperature, Goujon and
Legros succeeded in infecting them, but the larvae perished as soon
as the artificial heat was withdrawn. Muscular trichinosis is unknown
in fishes, but the sexual form develops in their intestine.

The adult parasites of the intestine are scarcely visible to the naked
eye; the females are 3 to 4 mm. long and more numerous than the
males, which measure 1.4 to 1.6 mm. The eggs are very numerous,
a single female containing at one time 1200, and probably producing
ten times as many during her life. The embryos are hatched out
within the uterus, and the larvae leave the body of the mother
through the generative pore. The minute larvae bore through the
intestinal walls of their host, and then, either burrowing in the tissues
or swept along in the stream of blood or lymph, make their way all
over the body, and come to rest most usually in the muscles, but
occasionally in other parts. When the larva reaches its resting-place,
it either pierces the sarcolemma and establishes itself within the
substance of the muscle-fibre, or it comes to rest between and not in
the fibres. Here its presence sets up the formation of a spindle-
shaped cyst which usually contains but one larva, though any
number up to seven have been found in one cyst. Within this the
larva may remain dormant for years, the walls of the cyst gradually
undergoing a fatty or calcareous degeneration. Almost any muscle
may be affected; those most usually infested being the muscles of
the diaphragm, of the shoulder-blade, and of the lumbar region; the
larvae have also been found in the heart. The ends of the muscles
near their points of attachment are always the most thoroughly
infested.
 Fig. 72.—Trichina spiralis Owen, encysted in muscle. a, Calcareous
deposit. Highly magnified. (From Leuckart.)

The number of the encapsuled larvae in one host is enormous.

Leuckart counted between 12,000 and 15,000 in a gramme of
muscle, which would give a total of thirty to forty million parasites in
one host; other estimates place the total even higher.

When trichinised meat is eaten, unless it has been thoroughly

cooked, the cysts are dissolved and the larvae are set free. Within
three or four days they become sexually mature and their ova begin
to segment. The males after a time leave the body with the excreta
and perish, whilst the larvae of the new brood make their way into
the tissues of the host.

Man usually acquires trichinosis by eating uncooked or improperly-

cooked pork, and the disease is so widely spread and of such a
serious nature that most civilised countries have adopted rigorous
methods for the detection of trichinised meat. The pigs either acquire
the disease by eating uncooked swine's flesh, which is frequently
given them in the form of offal, or by devouring rats, which are very
susceptible to the disease.

IV. Family Filariidae.

Mouth with two lips, or without lips. Six oral papillae often present,
and sometimes a horny oral capsule. Four pre-anal pairs of papillae,
and sometimes an unpaired one as well. Two unequal spicula or a
single one.

Genera: Filaria, Ichthyonema, Hystrichis, Spiroptera, Dispharagus,

and others.
The genus Filaria is a very large one. Like Ascaris, it is confined to
Vertebrates, but usually lives in the tissues of the body and not in the
intestines. F. (Dracunculus) medinensis Gmel., the guinea-worm, is
well known as a human parasite in hot countries; it also occurs in the
horse and dog. The female has an average length of 50 to 80 cm.,
but gigantic forms with a length of 4 metres have been described.
The alimentary canal is degenerate. In adult females the body is
completely occupied by a uterus crowded with eggs and embryos,
which can only escape by the rupture of the mother's body, as the
genital ducts have disappeared. Its original home is tropical Asia and
Africa, but it has been introduced into South America with the
negroes.

The female lives coiled up in the subcutaneous tissues, usually in

those of the legs. Its presence gives rise to painful tumours. When
these break the female protrudes, and may be withdrawn from the
body by very carefully rolling it round a stick or pencil. This must be
done very slowly, a few inches a day, as the rupture of the body sets
free the contained embryos, and may result in the death of the host.
The embryos normally bore their way into the body of the fresh-water
Cyclops, and are re-introduced into their Vertebrate hosts with the
drinking-water. It is usually stated that the female alone is known,
and that it is uncertain whether it is hermaphrodite or whether both
sexes are present in the Cyclops. Recently Dr. Charles[184] has
described a specimen found in the mesentery of a human subject,
from an orifice in the middle of whose body he was able to draw a
much smaller specimen, and he thinks this may be the long-sought-
for male.
 Fig. 73.—A, View of the heart of a dog infested with Filaria immitis[185]
Leidy; the right ventricle and base of the pulmonary artery have
been opened. a, Aorta; b, pulmonary artery; c, vena cava; d, right
ventricle; e, appendix of left auricle; f, appendix of right auricle. B,
A female F. immitis removed from the heart to show its length.
Natural size.

Filaria immitis Leidy, the cruel worm, is common in dogs in China

and the East generally. It is not unknown in America and Europe. It
occurs in such large clusters in the right ventricle that it is difficult to
see how the circulation can proceed. The intermediate host is
unknown, but from the prevalence of the disease in marshy country it
is probably some aquatic animal. The larvae are said by Manson to
disappear from the peripheral circulation of the dog during the day,
but not to such a marked extent as do the F. sanguinis hominis Lew.,
var. nocturna Man. They were found by Galeb and Pourquier in the
foetus of an infested bitch, a fact which establishes the transmission
of such parasites through the placenta.

Filaria sanguinis hominis nocturna.—The female of this parasite has

been described as living in the lymphatic glands of man. The
embryos escape from it into the lymph, and thus reach the blood.
According to Manson the intermediate host is the mosquito, in whose
stomach the embryos undergo their larval changes. When the
mosquito dies the larvae escape into the water, and then make their
way into the alimentary canal of man, where they are believed to
pair, and whence the female makes its way to the lymphatics. The
presence of this Filaria causes great functional disturbance. One of
the most remarkable features of it is that the larvae, which are very
numerous in the blood during the night, disappear during the day,
and are not to be found. Recently Manson[186] has described two
new varieties: F. san. hom. diurna, in which the conditions of things
are reversed, the larvae being found by day and not by night; and F.
san. hom. perstans, in which the larvae occur both by day and by
night. The larvae are long-lived, and were found by Manson in the
blood of a negro who had not been in Africa, where it is endemic, for
six years. The same observer is inclined to associate the presence
of F. san. hom. perstans with the fatal disease known as "sleeping
sickness." He also suggests that the mature form of the variety
diurna is the F. loa, which is not uncommon in the eyes of negroes,
and that its intermediate host may be one of the blood-sucking flies
so common on the west coast of Africa.

The genus Ichthyonema is confined to fishes. The male is very

minute and the female partly degenerate. It has no anus and no
external opening to its generative organs. The uterus fills up almost
the whole of the body-cavity. I. sanguineum Rud. is found
encapsuled in the peritoneum of many fish.

Hystrichis and Dispharagus are confined to birds, where they occur

in the oesophagus and stomach. Spiroptera reticulata Crep. occurs
in horses, twisted in a spiral round tendons and muscles, forming
tumours which require to be opened.

V. Family Mermithidae.

Nematodes without anus and with six mouth papillae. Two spicules
in the males and three rows of numerous papillae.

Genera: Mermis, Bradynema, Atractonema, Allantonema,

Sphaerularia, and others.
As a rule the Nematoda show but little trace of their parasitic mode
of life, but in this family there is considerable degeneration, and in
extreme cases the body of the female is reduced to a simple sac
crowded with eggs. They are exclusively parasitic in insects. In some
respects their structure shows a transition towards Nectonema and
the Gordiidae; especially is this the case in the structure of their
ventral nerve-cord.

The sexual form of Mermis nigrescens Duj.[187] lives in damp earth,

and after storms and in the early morning is sometimes found in
such numbers crawling up the stalks of plants, as to give rise to the
popular idea that there has been a shower of worms. The male is
unknown; the female lays her eggs in the ground, and there they
hatch out. It is not known exactly how the larvae make their way into
the grasshoppers in whose body-cavity they live, but in an allied
species, M. albicans v. Sieb., the larvae have been observed boring
their way into small caterpillars through their skin, and it seems
probable that the larvae of M. nigrescens burrow in a similar way into
young Orthoptera.

Bradynema rigidum Leuck.[188] is found in the adult stage living

freely in the body-cavity of a small beetle Aphodius fimetarius, one of
the Scarabeidae, from two to three to as many as thirty being found
in one host, which does not seem much injured by their presence.
The parasite is without mouth, anus, or excretory pore. The eggs
hatch out in the uterus of the mother, and the larvae are male and
female; they make their way into the body-cavity of the host, and
here they pass an unusually long time, five months, soaking in
osmotically the nutriment contained in the blood of the insect.
Eventually they burrow through the walls of the intestine, and leaving
the body of their host through the anus, find their way to the earth.
Here, according to zur Strassen, the females die without playing any
part in the perpetuation of the species. The males, on the other
hand, having developed spermatozoa whilst in the larval stage
(paedogenesis), afterwards form ova, and are in fact protandrous
hermaphrodites, and become the mature parasites of the beetle,
though how they enter the body of the host is unknown.

Fig. 74.—Allantonema mirabile Leuck. (From Leuckart.) A, Male

Rhabditis stage, sexually mature, × 100; B, the mature female
parasitic form, × 17, showing at the upper end part of the capsule
richly supplied with the tracheae of the host, a beetle; C, female
Rhabditis stage, sexually mature, × 100; D, the larva developed
from the Rhabditis form, × 102.

The phenomenon presented by the hermaphroditism of Bradynema

is, as far as we know, at present unique, as, though some other
Nematodes are hermaphrodite, in their case the hermaphrodite form
alternates with a bisexual generation. It is further interesting as
showing a means by which hermaphroditism may arise, by the
suppression of the females and the assumption of their functions by
the male. In the case of Rhabdonema nigrovenosum, no females
appear in the alternate generation.
 Fig. 75.—Atractonema gibbosum Leuck. (From Leuckart.) 1, Female
with commencing prolapsus of the uterus and neighbouring parts,
× 130; 2, a further stage, the female being now sexually mature, ×
15; 3, a still older stage, with commencing degeneration of the
body of the female, × 15.

A similar protandry exists in the parasitic forms of Allantonema,[189]

of which there are several species—A. mirabile in Hylobius pini, A.
sylvaticum in Geotrupes sylvatica, A. diplogaster in Tomicus
typographicus; but in their case the male and female forms which
leave their host pair in the damp earth and give rise to larvae which
make their way into the body of the beetle-grubs. Here they undergo
very extensive retrogressive change. The body of the female, which
becomes the shape of a thick sausage, is encapsuled and
surrounded by a curious hypertrophied network of tracheae (Fig. 74).
As is usually the case with the degenerate parasitic forms, there are
practically no organs but the ovary, and this is embedded in a fatty
parenchyma which fills all the space within the skin.
 Fig. 76.—Four stages in the life-history of Sphaerularia bombi Dufour,
♀ . (From Leuckart.) A, Beginning of the protrusion of the uterus
(b), × 66; B, later stage, × 66; C, later stage, × 12; D, the
protrusion is complete, × 6. In each case a represents the
Nematode, and b its protruded uterus.

Atractonema gibbosum, which lives in the body-cavity of the larva of

Cecidomyia pini, has a similar life-history, but the parasitic form has
a structural peculiarity which merits attention (Fig. 75). At the time of
sexual maturity a swelling, which is caused by the prolapsus of the
uterus and vagina, appears at the posterior end of the body; this
swelling increases until it equals the rest of the body of the
Nematode in size. Even this is far surpassed by a similar
protuberance in Sphaerularia bombi, where the evaginated sac
grows with such extreme rapidity that in a few weeks its length
increases from .25 mm. to 15 mm. and its volume 60,000-fold, the
increase being due, according to Leuckart, to the increase in size of
the individual cells and not to their multiplication. The Nematode
which has produced this enormous growth gets relatively smaller
and smaller, and ultimately drops off (Fig. 76). The sexual larvae
which arise from the eggs in this sac leave the body of the bee in
which this species is parasitic by the anus, and may live in damp
earth, moss, etc., for months without taking nourishment, until the
autumn, when they become sexually mature and, according to
Leuckart, pair. The fertilised female is believed to bore her way into
the humble-bee whilst the latter is seeking her underground winter
quarters; this accounts for the fact that only queen bees are infected.
The parasite is widely distributed both in Europe and North America;
it is found in many species of Bombus, but most frequently in B.
lapidarius and B. terrestris. The presence of the Sphaerularia affects
the reproductive organs of the host, and reduces their fertility, so that
an infected queen bee never succeeds in forming a colony.

VI. Family Anguillulidae.

For the most part free living and of small size. The oesophagus has
usually a double swelling or two oesophageal bulbs. The male has
two equal spicula.

Genera: Diplogaster, Mononchus, Rhabditis, Tylenchus, Anguillula,

and many others.

Many species of this family live in humus or decaying matter; others

live on, or are parasitic in, plants; some, such as Anguillula aceti,
which is found in vinegar and in paste, live in organic fluids.

The part played by the presence of these Nematodes in the soil is

not thoroughly understood; sometimes they occur in great numbers,
and even when not directly parasitic in plants, probably do them
much damage. Cobb[190] has recently described from Australia and
Fiji over eighty species, one-half of them new, which occur mostly in
the earth, and many of them among plant roots. They frequently
crawl up on to plants, especially on to seedlings. An instance of this
is given as follows: "The edible part of three bunches of nice-looking
celery bought of a Chinaman in Sydney was cut off as far up as it
was tender, nearly to the first leaflets. It was washed by hand in a tin
dish in tank water, free from Nematodes. The washings gave about
200 to 300 Nematodes, belonging to five different genera."

It is very probable that many of the free-living forms which have

received distinct specific names may ultimately turn out to be but
stages in the life-history of some of the parasitic species. Von
Linstow[191] has pointed out that the free form of A. diplogaster, if
found alone, would be placed in the genus Diplogaster; similarly the
bisexual form of Ascaris nigrovenosa is known as Rhabditis
nigrovenosa.

Those Nematodes which live parasitically in plants, e.g. many of the

genera Tylenchus and Aphelenchus and Heterodera, as well as
those which only pierce the epidermis of the roots (the remaining
species of the above-named genera), are provided with a spine
which works to and fro through the mouth and assists the animal to
bore into the tissues of the plant. Tylenchus devastatrix lives and
reproduces in leaves and stems (never in the roots, except in the
case of hops[192]) of many cultivated plants, such as rye, oats,
onions, etc. "Clover sickness" is probably caused by this Nematode.
The plants become infected by the thread-worms in the soil during
the spring; their presence causes swellings and often kills the plant,
in which case the worms return to the soil or remain in the straw.

Tylenchus tritici Need. is the cause of "ear-cockles" in corn. These

take the form of brown or purple galls, which replace the grains of
corn, and which contain hundreds of minute Nematodes. In these
galls they are motionless, and are capable of surviving in dryness for
at least twenty years; but when moistened,—for instance, by the gall
falling on damp earth,—they resume their vitality and make their way
to the young wheat plants, and then, wriggling up the leaves and
stems, find their way to the ear. Here they pair, and producing a gall-
like growth in the flower, lay numerous eggs, from which arise the
Nematodes of the ear-cockle.

Fig. 77.—A, a, Female Heterodera schachtii Schmidt, breaking through

the epidermis of a root; the head is still embedded in the
parenchyma of the root: B, a, larvae boring their way into a root;
 b, larva of the immobile kind surrounded by the old skin, living as
an ectoparasite on the outside of the root. (From Strubell.)

Heterodera schachtii[193] Schmidt, is the cause of the "beet

sickness," and forms galls or swellings on the roots of many plants,
in England especially on the roots of tomatoes and cucumbers. The
free larvae live in the earth and make their way into the smaller
rootlets; here the female larvae shed their skin, lose their
characteristic Nematode form, and become citron-shaped (Fig. 78,
D). The male larvae undergo a change, and after a period of rest
cast their skin and, leaving the rootlet, seek out the females. The
female does not undergo this second ecdysis, but its generative
organs grow and mature in what is practically a larval stage. The
embryos develop within the body of the mother, and, escaping
through the uterus, ultimately cause her death. They then make their
way into the earth. The cycle of the development takes but four or
five weeks, so that, as in the case of Tylenchus devastatrix, there are
several broods in a year; T. tritici, on the other hand, has but one.

Fig. 78.—A, Male Heterodera schachtii strongly magnified; a, head

lappets; b, mouth cavity; c, spine; d, muscle of spine; e, gland; f,
oesophagus; g, bulb; h, nerve-ring; i, excretory pore; j, intestine; k,
testis; l, intestine; m, muscles moving spicule; n, spicule: B, first
motile larva: C, second immovable parasitic larva casting its skin:
D, a female with one half of the body-wall taken away to show the
coiling generative organs; a, boring apparatus; b, oesophageal
bulb; c, excretory pore; d, alimentary canal; e, anus; f, ovary: E, a
male shortly before casting its larval skin.
Vuillemin and Legrain[194] point out that while Heterodera is injurious
to cultivated plants growing in damp soil, its presence is
advantageous to those that grow in deserts. It is very common in the
Sahara, and attacks many plants which are immune from it
elsewhere. It causes the rootlets to swell out, and the bladder-like
extensions thus formed act as reservoirs for water.

Many other species attack plants; Tylenchus millefolii Löw forms

galls on Achillea, T. dipsaci Kühn. on the teazle. They all seem to
have great powers of resisting desiccation. The former species,
when dried and placed in a herbarium in May, gave rise to active
worms when moistened the following October; and the corn eel-
worm is said to survive twenty-seven years in a state of suspended
animation. On the other hand, although these Nematodes like
moisture, they cannot withstand submersion in water for any time.
They can resist a considerable degree of cold, and a species,
Aphelenchus nivalis Auriv.,[195] has been described from
Spitzbergen, where it lives in the snow amongst a small red alga,
Sphaerella nivalis.

VII. Family Enoplidae.

Small, as a rule free-living, usually marine Nematodes, without a

second oesophageal bulb. Eyes and mouth-armature often present.
Fine hairs and bristles sometimes surround the mouth.

Genera: Enoplus, Dorylaimus, Enchelidium, and others.

The genus Enoplus is exclusively marine, living amongst Algae and

Hydroids in shallow water and moving actively about, but never
coiling into spirals. De Man[196] describes Enoplus brevis Bast. as
being attacked by a plant parasite, probably a Bacterium, of a
greenish colour, which infested the muscles and gave them a
peculiar colour.
Numerous other species have been described by De Man from the
coast of Holland. It is probable that some of them are the free stages
of parasitic forms; a brackish water species found in the East Indies
(Dorylaimus palustris) is regarded by Carter as the larva of Filaria
medinensis. Oncholaimus echini Leyd. is parasitic in the intestine of
the sea-urchin Echinus esculentus. Tricoma cincta[197] has a
strongly striated cuticle, which gives it almost the appearance of
segmentation. Fimbria tenuis has numerous hairs on the tail, and the
mouth is surrounded by bristle-bearing papillae.

Here must be mentioned two families closely allied to the true

Nematodes.

(i.) Chaetosomatidae.—This family includes three genera:

Chaetosoma, Rhabdogaster, and Tristicochaeta. According to
Metschnikoff,[198] although they are not true Nematodes, they have a
great likeness to the group. He distinguishes them from the
swimming members of the group as "creeping Nematoda."
Chaetosoma, of which two species are known, C. ophicephalum and
C. claparedii, has a head distinct from the body (Fig. 79). The mouth
is at the anterior end, surrounded by a double semicircle of movable
spicules; the whole body is covered by fine hairs, and on the ventral
surface, just in front of the anus, is a double row of about fifteen
cylindrical projections, by whose agency the animal creeps. The
female C. claparedii is 1.5 mm. long, the male 1.14 mm. They were
found creeping about on sea-weeds in the neighbourhood of
Salerno.
 Fig. 79.—Mature female of Chaetosoma claparedii Metschni., × 57.
(From Metschnikoff.) a, Oesophagus; b, intestine; c, anus; d,
ovary; e, generative pore; f, ventral bristles.

The genus Tristicochaeta[199] differs from the foregoing in having

three rows of locomotor projections instead of two.

Fig. 80.—Tristicochaeta inarimense Panceri, in one of its most usual

positions, showing the triple row of ventral bristles, × 100. (From
Panceri.)

Rhabdogaster has no head distinct from the body, though the

anterior part of the body is swollen. A second swelling occurs, as is
also the case with Chaetosoma, in the region of the opening of the
genital ducts. The female in Rh. cygnoides attains a length of 0.36
mm. In this genus the hairs are confined to the dorsal middle line.
The locomotor projections are hooked, and are much finer than
those of Chaetosoma, and they are situated farther forward than in
the last-named genus. Rhabdogaster occurs in the same
surroundings as Chaetosoma. Ch. ophicephalum is recorded from
the English Channel.

(ii.) Desmoscolecidae.—The members of this family are minute,

and are characterised by the presence of well-marked ridges which
surround the body and give it an appearance of segmentation. The
head, which is somewhat swollen, bears four bristles, and single
pairs are borne by a certain number of the ridges, some on the
dorsal and some on the ventral surface. These hairs can be moved
independently of one another. Two red eye-spots are described
between the fourth and fifth rings. The sexes are distinct, and the
internal organs generally have a marked resemblance to those of the
true Nematoda. The Desmoscolecidae move by looping their bodies
after the manner of the Geometrid caterpillars, as well as by
creeping with their bristles. The genus contains numerous
species[200]: D. minutus Clap. (English Channel), D. nematoides
Greef, D. adelphus Greef, D. chaetogaster Greef, D. elongatus
Panceri, and D. lanuginosa Panceri. They are exclusively marine.

Fig. 81.—Female Desmoscolex elongatus Panceri, ventral view, × 260.

a, Ovary. (From Panceri.)

Trichoderma oxycaudatum Greef[201] is a minute animal, 0.3 mm.

long, which has no head or ventral spines, but whose body is ringed
and covered with long hair-like bristles. The male has two spicules,
and the internal organisation recalls that of other Nematodes; still its
ringed body has induced some authorities to place it near to
Desmoscolex.

The Life-History of Nematodes.

Although, considering the enormous number of species of

Nematodes and the remarkable diversity of the conditions under
which they live, their bodily structure shows a very striking uniformity,
the same is by no means the case with their life-history, which
exhibits an astounding variety. Von Linstow[202] has arranged the
various modifications, which occur under fourteen heads. He
includes in his list the Gordian worms, which we have placed under a
different heading. The following account has been taken from his
paper, with a few alterations:—

1. The embryos develop, with a larval stage and without any change
of medium, directly into the mature sexual forms. They live in fresh,
brackish, or salt water, in plants, in the earth or in decaying organic
matter: examples, Dorylaimus, Enoplus, Plectus, Monhystera.

2. The larvae live in the earth, the sexual forms in plants: examples,
Tylenchus tritici and T. devastatrix, Heterodera schachtii (Figs. 77
and 78).

3. The larvae live in animals, after whose death and decay they are
set free and develop into the sexual animals in the earth: example,
Rhabditis pellio.

4. The bisexual forms live in the earth, and the fertilised females
bore into animals (insects), and here produce embryos: example,
Sphaerularia bombi (Fig. 76).

5. The bisexual forms live in the earth; the females do not develop,
but the males make their way into Insects (Beetles), and becoming
hermaphrodite, develop ova which give rise to the bisexual form:
example, Bradynema rigidum.

6. The larvae live in the earth, the sexual form in Vertebrates:

examples, Dochmius, Strongylus.

7. The Nematode lives as a hermaphrodite in animals, the offspring

of this, by an alternation of generations, become sexual in the earth:
example, Rhabdonema in Frog.