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Signals and Systems
Analysis Using Transform Methods and MATLAB®
Third Edition

Michael J. Roberts
Professor Emeritus, Department of Electrical and Computer
Engineering University of Tennessee
SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS: ANALYSIS USING TRANSFORM METHODS AND MATLAB®,
THIRD EDITION

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Roberts, Michael J., Dr.

Signals and systems : analysis using transform methods and MATLAB /
Michael J. Roberts, professor, Department of Electrical and Computer
Engineering, University of Tennessee.
Third edition. | New York, NY : McGraw-Hill Education, [2018] |
Includes bibliographical references (p. 786–787) and index.
LCCN 2016043890 | ISBN 9780078028120 (alk. paper)
LCSH: Signal processing. | System analysis. | MATLAB.
LCC TK5102.9 .R63 2018 | DDC 621.382/2—dc23 LC record
available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016043890
The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a website
does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill Education, and McGraw-Hill Education
does not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites.
mheducation.com/highered
 To my wife Barbara for giving me the time and space to complete this effort
and to the memory of my parents, Bertie Ellen Pinkerton and Jesse Watts Roberts,
for their early emphasis on the importance of education.
CONTENTS

Preface, xii Time Scaling, 39

Simultaneous Shifting and Scaling, 43
Chapter 1 2.6 Differentiation and Integration, 47
Introduction, 1 2.7 Even and Odd Signals, 49
Combinations of Even and Odd Signals, 51
1.1 Signals and Systems Defined, 1
Derivatives and Integrals of Even and
1.2 Types of Signals, 3 Odd Signals, 53
1.3 Examples of Systems, 8 2.8 Periodic Signals, 53
A Mechanical System, 9
2.9 Signal Energy and Power, 56
A Fluid System, 9
Signal Energy, 56
A Discrete-Time System, 11
Signal Power, 58
Feedback Systems, 12
2.10 Summary of Important Points, 60
1.4 A Familiar Signal and System Example, 14
Exercises, 61
1.5 Use of MATLAB®, 18
Exercises with Answers, 61
Signal Functions, 61
Chapter 2 Shifting and Scaling, 62
Mathematical Description of Continuous-Time Derivatives and Integrals of Functions, 66
Signals, 19 Generalized Derivative, 67
2.1 Introduction and Goals, 19 Even and Odd Functions, 67
2.2 Functional Notation, 20 Periodic Signals, 69
2.3 Continuous-Time Signal Functions, 20 Signal Energy and Power of Signals, 70
Complex Exponentials and Sinusoids, 21 Exercises without Answers, 71
Functions with Discontinuities, 23 Signal Functions, 71
The Signum Function, 24 Scaling and Shifting, 71
The Unit-Step Function, 24 Generalized Derivative, 76
The Unit-Ramp Function, 26 Derivatives and Integrals of Functions, 76
The Unit Impulse, 27 Even and Odd Functions, 76
The Impulse, the Unit Step, and Periodic Functions, 77
Generalized Derivatives, 29 Signal Energy and Power of Signals, 77
The Equivalence Property of the Impulse, 30
The Sampling Property of the Impulse, 31 Chapter 3
The Scaling Property of the Impulse, 31 Discrete-Time Signal Description, 79
The Unit Periodic Impulse or Impulse
Train, 32 3.1 Introduction and Goals, 79
A Coordinated Notation for Singularity 3.2 Sampling and Discrete Time, 80
Functions, 33 3.3 Sinusoids and Exponentials, 82
The Unit-Rectangle Function, 33 Sinusoids, 82
2.4 Combinations of Functions, 34 Exponentials, 85
2.5 Shifting and Scaling, 36 3.4 Singularity Functions, 86
Amplitude Scaling, 36 The Unit-Impulse Function, 86
Time Shifting, 37 The Unit-Sequence Function, 87
iv

The Signum Function, 87
The Unit-Ramp Function, 88
The Unit Periodic Impulse Function
or Impulse Train, 88
3.5 Shifting and Scaling, 89
Amplitude Scaling, 89
Time Shifting, 89
Time Scaling, 89
Time Compression, 90
Time Expansion, 90
3.6 Differencing and Accumulation, 94
3.7 Even and Odd Signals, 98
Combinations of Even and Odd
Signals, 100
Symmetrical Finite Summation of Even
and Odd Signals, 100
3.8 Periodic Signals, 101
3.9 Signal Energy and Power, 102
Signal Energy, 102
Signal Power, 103
3.10 Summary of Important Points, 105
Exercises, 105
Exercises with Answers, 105
Functions, 105
Scaling and Shifting Functions, 107
Differencing and Accumulation, 109
Even and Odd Functions, 110
Periodic Functions, 111
Signal Energy and Power, 112
Exercises without Answers, 113
Signal Functions, 113
Shifting and Scaling Functions, 113
Differencing and Accumulation, 114
Even and Odd Functions, 114
Periodic Signals, 115
Signal Energy and Power, 116
Chapter 4
Description of Systems, 118
4.1 Introduction and Goals, 118
4.2 Continuous-Time Systems, 119
System Modeling, 119
Differential Equations, 120
Block Diagrams, 124
System Properties, 127
Introductory Example, 127
Contents v
Homogeneity, 131
Time Invariance, 132
Additivity, 133
Linearity and Superposition, 134
LTI Systems, 134
Stability, 138
Causality, 139
Memory, 139
Static Nonlinearity, 140
Invertibility, 142
Dynamics of Second-Order Systems, 143
Complex Sinusoid Excitation, 145
4.3 Discrete-Time Systems, 145
System Modeling, 145
Block Diagrams, 145
Difference Equations, 146
System Properties, 152
4.4 Summary of Important Points, 155
Exercises, 156
Exercises with Answers, 156
System Models, 156
Block Diagrams, 157
System Properties, 158
Exercises without Answers, 160
System Models, 160
System Properties, 162
Chapter 5
Time-Domain System Analysis, 164
5.1 Introduction and Goals, 164
5.2 Continuous Time, 164
Impulse Response, 164
Continuous-Time Convolution, 169
Derivation, 169
Graphical and Analytical Examples of
Convolution, 173
Convolution Properties, 178
System Connections, 181
Step Response and Impulse Response, 181
Stability and Impulse Response, 181
Complex Exponential Excitation and the
Transfer Function, 182
Frequency Response, 184
5.3 Discrete Time, 186
Impulse Response, 186
Discrete-Time Convolution, 189
vi Contents

Derivation, 189 Discontinuous Signals, 240

Graphical and Analytical Examples Minimum Error of Fourier-Series Partial Sums, 242
of Convolution, 192 The Fourier Series of Even and Odd Periodic
Convolution Properties, 196 Functions, 243
Numerical Convolution, 196 Fourier-Series Tables and Properties, 244
Discrete-Time Numerical Convolution, 196 Numerical Computation of the Fourier Series, 248
Continuous-Time Numerical Convolution, 198 6.3 The Continuous-Time Fourier Transform, 255
Stability and Impulse Response, 200 Extending the Fourier Series to Aperiodic
System Connections, 200 Signals, 255
Unit-Sequence Response and Impulse The Generalized Fourier Transform, 260
Response, 201 Fourier Transform Properties, 265
Complex Exponential Excitation and the Transfer Numerical Computation of the Fourier
Function, 203 Transform, 273
Frequency Response, 204 6.4 Summary of Important Points, 281
5.4 Summary of Important Points, 207 Exercises, 281
Exercises, 207 Exercises with Answers, 281
Exercises with Answers, 207 Fourier Series, 281
Continuous Time, 207 Orthogonality, 282
Impulse Response, 207 Forward and Inverse Fourier Transforms, 286
Convolution, 209 Relation of CTFS to CTFT, 293
Stability, 213 Numerical CTFT, 294
Frequency Response, 214 System Response, 294
Discrete Time, 214 Exercises without Answers, 294
Impulse Response, 214 Fourier Series, 294
Convolution, 215 Forward and Inverse Fourier Transforms, 300
Stability, 219 System Response, 305
Exercises without Answers, 221 Relation of CTFS to CTFT, 306
Continuous Time, 221
Impulse Response, 221
Convolution, 222 Chapter 7
Stability, 224 Discrete-Time Fourier Methods, 307
Discrete Time, 225
7.1 Introduction and Goals, 307
Impulse Response, 225
Convolution, 225
7.2 The Discrete-Time Fourier Series
and the Discrete Fourier Transform, 307
Stability, 228
Linearity and Complex-Exponential Excitation, 307
Orthogonality and the Harmonic Function, 311
Chapter 6 Discrete Fourier Transform Properties, 315
Continuous-Time Fourier Methods, 229 The Fast Fourier Transform, 321
6.1 Introduction and Goals, 229 7.3 The Discrete-Time Fourier Transform, 323
Extending the Discrete Fourier Transform to Aperiodic
6.2 The Continuous-Time Fourier Series, 230
Signals, 323
Conceptual Basis, 230
Derivation and Definition, 324
Orthogonality and the Harmonic Function, 234
The Generalized DTFT, 326
The Compact Trigonometric Fourier Series, 237
Convergence of the Discrete-Time Fourier
Convergence, 239 Transform, 327
Continuous Signals, 239 DTFT Properties, 327

Numerical Computation of the Discrete-Time
Fourier Transform, 334
7.4 Fourier Method Comparisons, 340
7.5 Summary of Important Points, 341
Exercises, 342
Exercises with Answers, 342
Orthogonality, 342
Discrete Fourier Transform, 342
Discrete-Time Fourier Transform
Definition, 344
Forward and Inverse Discrete-Time Fourier
Transforms, 345
Exercises without Answers, 348
Discrete Fourier Transform, 348
Forward and Inverse Discrete-Time Fourier
Transforms, 352
Chapter 8
The Laplace Transform, 354
8.1 Introduction and Goals, 354
8.2 Development of the Laplace
Transform, 355
Generalizing the Fourier Transform, 355
Complex Exponential Excitation and
Response, 357
8.3 The Transfer Function, 358
8.4 Cascade-Connected Systems, 358
8.5 Direct Form II Realization, 359
8.6 The Inverse Laplace Transform, 360
8.7 Existence of the Laplace Transform, 360
Time-Limited Signals, 361
Right- and Left-Sided Signals, 361
8.8 Laplace-Transform Pairs, 362
8.9 Partial-Fraction Expansion, 367
8.10 Laplace-Transform Properties, 377
8.11 The Unilateral Laplace Transform, 379
Definition, 379
Properties Unique to the Unilateral Laplace
Transform, 381
Solution of Differential Equations
with Initial Conditions, 383
8.12 Pole-Zero Diagrams and Frequency
Response, 385
8.13 MATLAB System Objects, 393
8.14 Summary of Important Points, 395
Contents vii
Exercises, 395
Exercises with Answers, 395
Laplace-Transform Definition, 395
Direct Form II System Realization, 396
Forward and Inverse Laplace Transforms, 396
Unilateral Laplace-Transform Integral, 399
Solving Differential Equations, 399
Exercises without Answers, 400
Region of Convergence, 400
Existence of the Laplace Transform, 400
Direct Form II System Realization, 400
Forward and Inverse Laplace Transforms, 401
Solution of Differential Equations, 403
Pole-Zero Diagrams and Frequency Response, 403
Chapter 9
The z Transform, 406
9.1 Introduction and Goals, 406
9.2 Generalizing the Discrete-Time
Fourier Transform, 407
9.3 Complex Exponential Excitation
and Response, 408
9.4 The Transfer Function, 408
9.5 Cascade-Connected Systems, 408
9.6 Direct Form II System Realization, 409
9.7 The Inverse z Transform, 410
9.8 Existence of the z Transform, 410
Time-Limited Signals, 410
Right- and Left-Sided Signals, 411
9.9 z-Transform Pairs, 413
9.10 z-Transform Properties, 416
9.11 Inverse z-Transform Methods, 417
Synthetic Division, 417
Partial-Fraction Expansion, 418
Examples of Forward and Inverse z Transforms, 418
9.12 The Unilateral z Transform, 423
Properties Unique to the Unilateral z Transform, 423
Solution of Difference Equations, 424
9.13 Pole-Zero Diagrams and Frequency
Response, 425
9.14 MATLAB System Objects, 428
In MATLAB, 429
9.15 Transform Method Comparisons, 430
9.16 Summary of Important Points, 434
viii Contents

Exercises, 435 Discrete-Time Convolution with the DFT, 479

Exercises with Answers, 435 Aperiodic Convolution, 479
Direct-Form II System Realization, 435 Periodic Convolution, 479
Existence of the z Transform, 435 Summary of Signal Processing Using
Forward and Inverse z Transforms, 435 the DFT, 480
Unilateral z-Transform Properties, 438 10.3 Discrete-Time Sampling, 481
Solution of Difference Equations, 438 Periodic-Impulse Sampling, 481
Pole-Zero Diagrams and Frequency Response, 439 Interpolation, 483
Exercises without Answers, 441 10.4 Summary of Important Points, 486
Direct Form II System Realization, 441 Exercises, 487
Existence of the z Transform, 441 Exercises with Answers, 487
Forward and Inverse z-Transforms, 441 Pulse Amplitude Modulation, 487
Pole-Zero Diagrams and Frequency Response, 443 Sampling, 487
Impulse Sampling, 489
Nyquist Rates, 491
Chapter 10
Time-Limited and Bandlimited Signals, 492
Sampling and Signal Processing, 446 Interpolation, 493
10.1 Introduction and Goals, 446 Aliasing, 495
10.2 Continuous-Time Sampling, 447 Bandlimited Periodic Signals, 495
Sampling Methods, 447 CTFT-CTFS-DFT Relationships, 495
The Sampling Theorem, 449 Windows, 497
Qualitative Concepts, 449 DFT, 497
Sampling Theorem Derivation, 451 Exercises without Answers, 500
Aliasing, 454 Sampling, 500
Time-limited and Bandlimited Signals, 457 Impulse Sampling, 502
Interpolation, 458 Nyquist Rates, 504
Ideal Interpolation, 458 Aliasing, 505
Practical Interpolation, 459 Practical Sampling, 505
Zero-Order Hold, 460 Bandlimited Periodic Signals, 505
First-Order Hold, 460 DFT, 506
Sampling Bandpass Signals, 461 Discrete-Time Sampling, 508
Sampling a Sinusoid, 464
Bandlimited Periodic Signals, 467 Chapter 11
Signal Processing Using the DFT, 470
Frequency Response Analysis, 509
CTFT-DFT Relationship, 470
CTFT-DTFT Relationship, 471 11.1 Introduction and Goals, 509
Sampling and Periodic-Repetition Relationship, 474 11.2 Frequency Response, 509
Computing the CTFS Harmonic Function 11.3 Continuous-Time Filters, 510
with the DFT, 478 Examples of Filters, 510
Approximating the CTFT with the DFT, 478 Ideal Filters, 515
Forward CTFT, 478 Distortion, 515
Inverse CTFT, 479 Filter Classifications, 516
Approximating the DTFT with the DFT, 479 Ideal Filter Frequency Responses, 516
Approximating Continuous-Time Convolution Impulse Responses and Causality, 517
with the DFT, 479 The Power Spectrum, 520
Aperiodic Convolution, 479 Noise Removal, 520
Periodic Convolution, 479 Bode Diagrams, 521

The Decibel, 521
The One-Real-Pole System, 525
The One-Real-Zero System, 526
Integrators and Differentiators, 527
Frequency-Independent Gain, 527
Complex Pole and Zero Pairs, 530
Practical Filters, 532
Passive Filters, 532
The Lowpass Filter, 532
The Bandpass Filter, 535
Active Filters, 536
Operational Amplifiers, 537
The Integrator, 538
The Lowpass Filter, 538
11.4 Discrete-Time Filters, 546
Notation, 546
Ideal Filters, 547
Distortion, 547
Filter Classifications, 548
Frequency Responses, 548
Impulse Responses and Causality, 548
Filtering Images, 549
Practical Filters, 554
Comparison with Continuous-Time Filters, 554
Highpass, Bandpass, and Bandstop Filters, 556
The Moving Average Filter, 560
The Almost Ideal Lowpass Filter, 564
Advantages Compared to Continuous-Time
Filters, 566
11.5 Summary of Important Points, 566
Exercises, 567
Exercises with Answers, 567
Continuous-Time Frequency Response, 567
Continuous-Time Ideal Filters, 567
Continuous-Time Causality, 567
Logarithmic Graphs, Bode Diagrams, and
Decibels, 568
Continuous-Time Practical Passive Filters, 570
Continuous-Time Practical Active Filters, 574
Discrete-Time Frequency Response, 575
Discrete-Time Ideal Filters, 576
Discrete-Time Causality, 576
Discrete-Time Practical Filters, 577
Exercises without Answers, 579
Continuous-Time Frequency Response, 579
Continuous-Time Ideal Filters, 579
Continuous-Time Causality, 579
Contents ix
Bode Diagrams, 580
Continuous-Time Practical Passive Filters, 580
Continuous-Time Filters, 582
Continuous-Time Practical Active Filters, 582
Discrete-Time Causality, 586
Discrete-Time Filters, 587
Chapter 12
Laplace System Analysis, 592
12.1 Introduction and Goals, 592
12.2 System Representations, 592
12.3 System Stability, 596
12.4 System Connections, 599
Cascade and Parallel Connections, 599
The Feedback Connection, 599
Terminology and Basic Relationships, 599
Feedback Effects on Stability, 600
Beneficial Effects of Feedback, 601
Instability Caused by Feedback, 604
Stable Oscillation Using Feedback, 608
The Root-Locus Method, 612
Tracking Errors in Unity-Gain Feedback
Systems, 618
12.5 System Analysis Using MATLAB, 621
12.6 System Responses to Standard Signals, 623
Unit-Step Response, 624
Sinusoid Response, 627
12.7 Standard Realizations of Systems, 630
Cascade Realization, 630
Parallel Realization, 632
12.8 Summary of Important Points, 632
Exercises, 633
Exercises with Answers, 633
Transfer Functions, 633
Stability, 634
Parallel, Cascade, and Feedback
Connections, 635
Root Locus, 637
Tracking Errors in Unity-Gain Feedback
Systems, 639
System Responses to Standard Signals, 640
System Realization, 641
Exercises without Answers, 642
Stability, 642
Transfer Functions, 642
Stability, 643
x Contents

Parallel, Cascade, and Feedback Connections, 643 Chapter 14

Root Locus, 646 Filter Analysis and Design, 680
Tracking Errors in Unity-Gain Feedback Systems, 647
14.1 Introduction and Goals, 680
Response to Standard Signals, 647
System Realization, 649
14.2 Analog Filters, 680
Butterworth Filters, 681
Normalized Butterworth Filters, 681
Chapter 13
Filter Transformations, 682
z-Transform System Analysis, 650
MATLAB Design Tools, 684
13.1 Introduction and Goals, 650 Chebyshev, Elliptic, and Bessel
13.2 System Models, 650 Filters, 686
Difference Equations, 650 14.3 Digital Filters, 689
Block Diagrams, 651 Simulation of Analog Filters, 689
13.3 System Stability, 651 Filter Design Techniques, 689
13.4 System Connections, 652 IIR Filter Design, 689
13.5 System Responses to Standard Signals, 654 Time-Domain Methods, 689
Unit-Sequence Response, 654 Impulse-Invariant Design, 689
Response to a Causal Sinusoid, 657 Step-Invariant Design, 696
13.6 Simulating Continuous-Time Systems with Finite-Difference Design, 698
Discrete-Time Systems, 660 Frequency-Domain Methods, 704
z-Transform-Laplace-Transform Relationships, 660 The Bilinear Method, 706
Impulse Invariance, 662 FIR Filter Design, 713
Sampled-Data Systems, 664 Truncated Ideal Impulse Response, 713
13.7 Standard Realizations of Systems, 670 Optimal FIR Filter Design, 723
Cascade Realization, 670 MATLAB Design Tools, 725
Parallel Realization, 670 14.4 Summary of Important Points, 727
13.8 Summary of Important Points, 671 Exercises, 727
Exercises, 672 Exercises with Answers, 727
Exercises with Answers, 672 Continuous-Time Filters, 727
Stability, 672 Finite-Difference Filter Design, 728
Parallel, Cascade, and Feedback Connections, 672 Matched-z Transform and Direct Substitution
Filter Design, 729
Response to Standard Signals, 673
Bilinear z-Transform Filter Design, 730
Root Locus, 674
FIR Filter Design, 730
Laplace-Transform-z-Transform Relationship, 675
Digital Filter Design Method Comparison, 731
Sampled-Data Systems, 675
System Realization, 676
Exercises without Answers, 731
Analog Filter Design, 731
Exercises without Answers, 677
Impulse-Invariant and Step-Invariant
Stability, 677
Filter Design, 732
Root Locus, 677
Finite-Difference Filter Design, 733
Parallel, Cascade, and Feedback Connections, 677
Matched z-Transform and Direct Substitution Filter
Response to Standard Signals, 677 Design, 733
Laplace-Transform-z-Transform Relationship, 679 Bilinear z-Transform Filter Design, 733
Sampled-Data Systems, 679 FIR Filter Design, 733
System Realization, 679 Digital Filter Design Method
General, 679 Comparison, 734
 Contents xi

Appendix I Useful Mathematical Relations, A-1     V Discrete-Time Fourier Transform

    II Continuous-Time Fourier Series Pairs, A-17
Pairs, A-4     VI Tables of Laplace Transform Pairs, A-22
    III Discrete Fourier Transform     VII z-Transform Pairs, A-24
Pairs, A-7
Bibliography, B-1
    IV Continuous-Time Fourier Transform
Pairs, A-10 Index, I-1
PREFACE

MOTIVATION
I wrote the first and second editions because I love the mathematical beauty of
signal and system analysis. That has not changed. The motivation for the third edi-
tion is to further refine the book structure in light of reviewers, comments, correct
a few errors from the second edition and significantly rework the exercises.

AUDIENCE
This book is intended to cover a two-semester course sequence in the basics of
signal and system analysis during the junior or senior year. It can also be used (as
I have used it) as a book for a quick one-semester Master’s-level review of trans-
form methods as applied to linear systems.

CHANGES FROM THE SECOND EDITION

1. In response to reviewers, comments, two chapters from the second edition have
been omitted: Communication Systems and State-Space Analysis. There seemed
to be very little if any coverage of these topics in actual classes.
2. The second edition had 550 end-of-chapter exercises in 16 chapters. The third
edition has 710 end-of-chapter exercises in 14 chapters.

OVERVIEW
Except for the omission of two chapters, the third edition structure is very similar to
the second edition. The book begins with mathematical methods for describing signals
and systems, in both continuous and discrete time. I introduce the idea of a transform
with the continuous-time Fourier series, and from that base move to the Fourier trans-
form as an extension of the Fourier series to aperiodic signals. Then I do the same for
discrete-time signals. I introduce the Laplace transform both as a generalization of the
continuous-time Fourier transform for unbounded signals and unstable systems and
as a powerful tool in system analysis because of its very close association with the ei-
genvalues and eigenfunctions of continuous-time linear systems. I take a similar path
for discrete-time systems using the z transform. Then I address sampling, the relation
between continuous and discrete time. The rest of the book is devoted to applications
in frequency-response analysis, feedback systems, analog and digital filters. Through-
out the book I present examples and introduce MATLAB functions and operations to
implement the methods presented. A chapter-by-chapter summary follows.

CHAPTER SUMMARIES
CHAPTER 1
Chapter 1 is an introduction to the general concepts involved in signal and system
analysis without any mathematical rigor. It is intended to motivate the student by
xii
 Preface xiii

demonstrating the ubiquity of signals and systems in everyday life and the impor-
tance of understanding them.

CHAPTER 2
Chapter 2 is an exploration of methods of mathematically describing continuous-
time signals of various kinds. It begins with familiar functions, sinusoids and
exponentials and then extends the range of signal-describing functions to include
continuous-time singularity functions (switching functions). Like most, if not all,
signals and systems textbooks, I define the unit-step, the signum, the unit-impulse
and the unit-ramp functions. In addition to these I define a unit rectangle and a
unit periodic impulse function. The unit periodic impulse function, along with
convolution, provides an especially compact way of mathematically describing
arbitrary periodic signals.
After introducing the new continuous-time signal functions, I cover the
common types of signal transformations, amplitude scaling, time shifting, time
scaling, differentiation and integration and apply them to the signal functions.
Then I cover some characteristics of signals that make them invariant to certain
transformations, evenness, oddness and periodicity, and some of the implications
of these signal characteristics in signal analysis. The last section is on signal
energy and power.

CHAPTER 3
Chapter 3 follows a path similar to Chapter 2 except applied to discrete-time
signals instead of continuous-time signals. I introduce the discrete-time sinu-
soid and exponential and comment on the problems of determining period of a
discrete-time sinusoid. This is the first exposure of the student to some of the
implications of sampling. I define some discrete-time signal functions analo-
gous to continuous-time singularity functions. Then I explore amplitude scaling,
time shifting, time scaling, differencing and accumulation for discrete-time signal
functions pointing out the unique implications and problems that occur, especially
when time scaling discrete-time functions. The chapter ends with definitions and
discussion of signal energy and power for discrete-time signals.

CHAPTER 4
This chapter addresses the mathematical description of systems. First I cover
the most common forms of classification of systems, homogeneity, additivity,
linearity, time invariance, causality, memory, static nonlinearity and invertibility.
By example I present various types of systems that have, or do not have, these
properties and how to prove various properties from the mathematical description
of the system.

CHAPTER 5
This chapter introduces the concepts of impulse response and convolution as
components in the systematic analysis of the response of linear, time-invariant
systems. I present the mathematical properties of continuous-time convolution
and a graphical method of understanding what the convolution integral says. I
also show how the properties of convolution can be used to combine subsystems
that are connected in cascade or parallel into one system and what the impulse
response of the overall system must be. Then I introduce the idea of a transfer
xiv Preface

function by finding the response of an LTI system to complex sinusoidal exci-

tation. This section is followed by an analogous coverage of discrete-time impulse
response and convolution.

CHAPTER 6
This is the beginning of the student’s exposure to transform methods. I begin
by graphically introducing the concept that any continuous-time periodic
signal with engineering usefulness can be expressed by a linear combination of
continuous-time sinusoids, real or complex. Then I formally derive the Fourier
series using the concept of orthogonality to show where the signal description as
a function of discrete harmonic number (the harmonic function) comes from. I
mention the Dirichlet conditions to let the student know that the continuous-time
Fourier series applies to all practical continuous-time signals, but not to all
imaginable continuous-time signals.
Then I explore the properties of the Fourier series. I have tried to make the
Fourier series notation and properties as similar as possible and analogous to the
Fourier transform, which comes later. The harmonic function forms a “Fourier
series pair” with the time function. In the first edition I used a notation for har-
monic function in which lower-case letters were used for time-domain quantities
and upper-case letters for their harmonic functions. This unfortunately caused
some confusion because continuous- and discrete-time harmonic functions
looked the same. In this edition I have changed the harmonic function notation
for continuous-time signals to make it easily distinguishable. I also have a section
on the convergence of the Fourier series illustrating the Gibb’s phenomenon at
function discontinuities. I encourage students to use tables and properties to find
harmonic functions and this practice prepares them for a similar process in find-
ing Fourier transforms and later Laplace and z transforms.
The next major section of Chapter 6 extends the Fourier series to the
Fourier transform. I introduce the concept by examining what happens to a
continuous-time Fourier series as the period of the signal approaches infinity
and then define and derive the continuous-time Fourier transform as a gener-
alization of the continuous-time Fourier series. Following that I cover all the
important properties of the continuous-time Fourier transform. I have taken an
“ecumenical” approach to two different notational conventions that are commonly
seen in books on signals and systems, control systems, digital signal processing,
communication systems and other applications of Fourier methods such as image
processing and Fourier optics: the use of either cyclic frequency, f or radian fre-
quency, ω. I use both and emphasize that the two are simply related through a
change of variable. I think this better prepares students for seeing both forms in
other books in their college and professional careers.

CHAPTER 7
This chapter introduces the discrete-time Fourier series (DTFS), the discrete Fou-
rier transform (DFT) and the discrete-time Fourier transform (DTFT), deriving
and defining them in a manner analogous to Chapter 6. The DTFS and the DFT
are almost identical. I concentrate on the DFT because of its very wide use in
digital signal processing. I emphasize the important differences caused by the
differences between continuous- and discrete-time signals, especially the finite
summation range of the DFT as opposed to the (generally) infinite summation
range in the CTFS. I also point out the importance of the fact that the DFT relates
 Preface xv

a finite set of numbers to another finite set of numbers, making it amenable to

direct numerical machine computation. I discuss the fast Fourier transform as a
very efficient algorithm for computing the DFT. As in Chapter 6, I use both cyclic
and radian frequency forms, emphasizing the relationships between them. I use F
and Ω for discrete-time frequencies to distinguish them from f and ω, which were
used in continuous time. Unfortunately, some authors reverse these symbols. My
usage is more consistent with the majority of signals and systems texts. This is
another example of the lack of standardization of notation in this area. The last
major section is a comparison of the four Fourier methods. I emphasize particu-
larly the duality between sampling in one domain and periodic repetition in the
other domain.

CHAPTER 8
This chapter introduces the Laplace transform. I approach the Laplace trans-
form from two points of view, as a generalization of the Fourier transform to a
larger class of signals and as result which naturally follows from the excitation
of a linear, time-invariant system by a complex exponential signal. I begin by
defining the bilateral Laplace transform and discussing significance of the re-
gion of convergence. Then I define the unilateral Laplace transform. I derive all
the important properties of the Laplace transform. I fully explore the method
of partial-fraction expansion for finding inverse transforms and then show
examples of solving differential equations with initial conditions using the uni-
lateral form.

CHAPTER 9
This chapter introduces the z transform. The development parallels the devel-
opment of the Laplace transform except applied to discrete-time signals and
systems. I initially define a bilateral transform and discuss the region of con-
vergence. Then I define a unilateral transform. I derive all the important prop-
erties and demonstrate the inverse transform using partial-fraction expansion
and the solution of difference equations with initial conditions. I also show
the relationship between the Laplace and z transforms, an important idea in
the approximation of continuous-time systems by discrete-time systems in
Chapter 14.

CHAPTER 10
This is the first exploration of the correspondence between a continuous-time
signal and a discrete-time signal formed by sampling it. The first section covers
how sampling is usually done in real systems using a sample-and-hold and an A/D
converter. The second section starts by asking the question of how many samples
are enough to describe a continuous-time signal. Then the question is answered
by deriving the sampling theorem. Then I discuss interpolation methods, theoret-
ical and practical, the special properties of bandlimited periodic signals. I do a
complete development of the relationship between the CTFT of a continuous-time
signal and DFT of a finite-length set of samples taken from it. Then I show how
the DFT can be used to approximate the CTFT of an energy signal or a periodic
signal. The next major section explores the use of the DFT in numerically approx-
imating various common signal-processing operations.
xvi Preface

CHAPTER 11
This chapter covers various aspects of the use of the CTFT and DTFT in fre-
quency response analysis. The major topics are ideal filters, Bode diagrams, prac-
tical passive and active continuous-time filters and basic discrete-time filters.

CHAPTER 12
This chapter is on the application of the Laplace transform including block dia-
gram representation of systems in the complex frequency domain, system stability,
system interconnections, feedback systems including root locus, system responses
to standard signals and lastly standard realizations of continuous-time systems.

CHAPTER 13
This chapter is on the application of the z transform including block diagram
representation of systems in the complex frequency domain, system stability, sys-
tem interconnections, feedback systems including root-locus, system responses to
standard signals, sampled-data systems and standard realizations of discrete-time
systems.

CHAPTER 14
This chapter covers the analysis and design of some of the most common types
of practical analog and digital filters. The analog filter types are Butterworth,
Chebyshev Types 1 and 2 and Elliptic (Cauer) filters. The section on digital filters
covers the most common types of techniques for simulation of analog filters includ-
ing, impulse- and step-invariant, finite difference, matched z transform, direct sub-
stitution, bilinear z transform, truncated impulse response and Parks-McClellan
numerical design.

APPENDICES
There are seven appendices on useful mathematical formulae, tables of the four
Fourier transforms, Laplace transform tables and z transform tables.

CONTINUITY
The book is structured so as to facilitate skipping some topics without loss of
continuity. Continuous-time and discrete-time topics are covered alternately and
continuous-time analysis could be covered without reference to discrete time.
Also, any or all of the last six chapters could be omitted in a shorter course.

REVIEWS AND EDITING

This book owes a lot to the reviewers, especially those who really took time and
criticized and suggested improvements. I am indebted to them. I am also indebted
to the many students who have endured my classes over the years. I believe that
our relationship is more symbiotic than they realize. That is, they learn signal and
system analysis from me and I learn how to teach signal and system analysis from
them. I cannot count the number of times I have been asked a very perceptive
question by a student that revealed not only that the students were not understand-
ing a concept but that I did not understand it as well as I had previously thought.
 Preface xvii

WRITING STYLE
Every author thinks he has found a better way to present material so that students
can grasp it and I am no different. I have taught this material for many years and
through the experience of grading tests have found what students generally do and
do not grasp. I have spent countless hours in my office one-on-one with students
explaining these concepts to them and, through that experience, I have found
out what needs to be said. In my writing I have tried to simply speak directly to
the reader in a straightforward conversational way, trying to avoid off-putting
formality and, to the extent possible, anticipating the usual misconceptions and
revealing the fallacies in them. Transform methods are not an obvious idea and,
at first exposure, students can easily get bogged down in a bewildering morass of
abstractions and lose sight of the goal, which is to analyze a system’s response to
signals. I have tried (as every author does) to find the magic combination of ac-
cessibility and mathematical rigor because both are important. I think my writing
is clear and direct but you, the reader, will be the final judge of whether or not
that is true.

EXERCISES
Each chapter has a group of exercises along with answers and a second group of
exercises without answers. The first group is intended more or less as a set of
“drill” exercises and the second group as a set of more challenging exercises.

CONCLUDING REMARKS
As I indicated in the preface to first and second editions, I welcome any and all
criticism, corrections and suggestions. All comments, including ones I disagree
with and ones which disagree with others, will have a constructive impact on the
next edition because they point out a problem. If something does not seem right
to you, it probably will bother others also and it is my task, as an author, to find
a way to solve that problem. So I encourage you to be direct and clear in any re-
marks about what you believe should be changed and not to hesitate to mention
any errors you may find, from the most trivial to the most significant.
Michael J. Roberts, Professor
Emeritus Electrical and Computer Engineering
University of Tennessee at Knoxville
mjr@utk.edu
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alcohol, red, deeply injected, and “presenting at certain points a
black coloration due to effused blood.” This fact they regard as
worthy of note, because in their experiments the toxic agent was
introduced, not by the mouth, but hypodermically, and they explain it
by the supposition—which appears to me warrantable—that it is due
to elimination by the mucous glands. Hence the congestion,
softening, and hemorrhage.24 These observers also found that the
symptoms were more acute and the lesions more marked when
poisoning was caused by propyl, butyl, or amyl alcohol than when it
was produced by ethyl alcohol.
23 An Experimental Inquiry concerning the Presence of Alcohol in the Ventricles of the
Brain after Poisoning by that Liquid, together with Experiments illustrative of the
Physiological Effects of Alcohol, London, 1839.

24 Chatin and Gublier have emphasized the fact that certain poisons introduced by
intravenous injection or by absorption through the respiratory tract are eliminated by
the intestines, with the production of the same local symptoms as when administered
by the mouth (Bulletin de l'Académie de Médecine, Séance du 6 Novembre, 1877).

2. Acute Narcotic Poisoning.—Much more common are the cases in

which death is rapidly produced by excessive doses of ordinary
diluted alcohol taken at once or rapidly repeated. This happens
under various circumstances, as when a drunkard avails himself of
some favorable opportunity to gratify to the full a bestial appetite, or
upon a wager drinks a number of glasses of spirits in quick
succession or a given quantity down, or when a man already drunk
is plied by his companions for pure deviltry. Suicide by this means is,
in the ordinary sense of the term, rare, and murder still more so. The
latter crime has, as a rule, been committed upon infants and
children. Blyth25 estimates the fatal dose of absolute alcohol, diluted
in the form of ordinary whiskey, gin, etc., at from one to two
fluidounces for any child below the age of ten or twelve years, and at
from two and a half to five ounces for an adult. In the instance
recorded by Maschka26 two children, aged respectively nine and
eight years, took partly by persuasion, afterward by force, about one-
eighth of a pint of spirits of 67 per cent. strength—about 1.7 ounces
of absolute alcohol. Both vomited somewhat, then lay down.
Stertorous breathing at once came on, and they quickly died. Taylor
relates a case in which a quantity of brandy representing about two
fluidounces of absolute alcohol produced death in a child seven
years old.
25 Poisons, their Effects and Detection, Am. ed., New York, 1885.

26 Cited by Blyth.

The symptoms are uniformly the same. The period of excitement is

transient or absent altogether; occasionally the patient falls at once
to the ground while in the act of drinking or immediately thereafter;
complete coma, interrupted by shuddering convulsions, may
terminate in the course of a short time in death. If the fatal issue be
delayed, there are vomiting and involuntary discharges; the
respiration becomes slow, embarrassed, stertorous; the heart's
action is feeble and irregular, the pulse almost or wholly
imperceptible; the temperature rapidly falls several degrees: 90° F.
has been observed. The pupils are dilated; insensibility and
muscular resolution are complete. The face is bloated, cyanotic; the
surface bathed in a clammy sweat; the mucous membrane of the
mouth often swollen and blanched. Vomiting is usual, but not
constant, and there is occasionally thin mucous diarrhœa, the stools
being mixed with blood. If the patient survives any considerable
length of time, acute superficial gangrene of the parts most exposed
to pressure is liable to take place. Recovery is rare; its possibility is,
however, increased in proportion as the subject is of vigorous
constitution, previous sound health, beyond the period of childhood,
not yet approaching that of physiological decadence, and as
treatment is early instituted and carried out with judgment.

The diagnosis is difficult, almost impossible, in the absence of

witnesses: it is rendered still more obscure by the fact that this, as
other forms of alcoholic coma, may be complicated by cerebral or
meningeal hemorrhage and by cerebral congestion, in themselves
fatal—lesions the onset of which may have been the cause of mental
aberration leading to the commission of impulsive alcoholic
excesses.

The prognosis, in the highest degree unfavorable in all cases, is

rendered yet more so by the occurrence of intense cerebral and
pulmonary congestions.

The lesions found post-mortem are those of acute alcoholism,

already described. As this form of alcoholic poisoning frequently
occurs in the subjects of chronic alcoholism, the lesions of that
condition are often encountered, and must be distinguished from
those due to the lethal dose. Nor must we overlook the fact that in
the action of alcohol just described we have to do with a process
differing from ordinary acute alcoholism in degree rather than in kind
—a consideration which tends to simplify our notions of the
pathology of alcoholism in general.

II. Chronic Alcoholism.

The prolonged abuse of alcohol brings about a series of changes

which affect alike the organism at large and its various structures.
The changes thus brought to pass are of the most varied kind, and
depend upon individual differences too manifold and complex for
enumeration and classification. Among the more important of these
individual peculiarities are those which relate to temperament,
constitution, hereditary predisposition, occupation, social position,
personal habits, tendency to or already-existing disease of particular
organs and systems, and the like. The degree of the pathological
change is determined by the strength and quantity of alcohol
consumed and the duration of habitual excess. The human body is
capable of adapting itself to the habitual consumption of large
quantities of alcohol, just as to other directly acting agents of an
injurious nature, such as foul air, bad drinking-water, and
unwholesome food, or even to the action of substances dangerous
to life, as opium or arsenic, and yet presenting for a considerable
time the appearance at least of health. Degeneration of the tissues
of the body and disorders of its functions are nevertheless surely
produced. These alterations are not the less dangerous to health
and life because they are insidious and remain for a time latent.
Furthermore, like the habit of which they are begotten, they are
progressive, and sooner or later declare themselves in open
disease.

The condition, whether latent or manifest, that is produced by

prolonged habitual alcoholic excess is designated chronic
alcoholism.27
27 The writer, although fully aware of its imperfections, regards the above definition of
the term as more in accordance with the present state of our knowledge of the
subject, and therefore more useful, than any other that he has been able to find. It is
scarcely necessary to repeat here that the restriction of the term chronic alcoholism to
accidental or occasional manifestations of a permanent state is misleading and
unscientific. The same criticism is applicable to the attempt that has been made to
establish this condition as a substantive disease, chronic, progressive, and
characterized anatomically by inflammatory, sclerotic, and steatogenous processes.

The symptoms of this condition, when fully established, differ within

wide ranges in kind and degree. They are the manifestations of
derangements of the viscera, of the nervous system, and of the
mind. Varying among themselves according as the stress of the
pathological action has fallen upon one organ or another, forming
combinations at once curious and inexplicable, developing quietly,
without event, almost imperceptibly at one time, breaking into the
most furious paroxysms at another, they present for our study
perhaps the most complex of chronic morbid conditions. The chronic
alcoholism which is latent is not, therefore, always without
symptoms. They are, however, often slight and escape observation,
or when manifest they are not infrequently ascribed to other causes;
or, again, their etiological relations being concealed or overlooked,
they are exceedingly obscure and puzzling. This is especially the
case in the chronic alcoholism produced by the secret tippling of
otherwise respectable persons, and especially women.
To facilitate description, we shall consider the derangements of the
viscera, the nervous system, and the mind in regular order,
according to the scheme on p. 574. But the reader will observe that
whatever may be the prominence of particular symptoms or groups
of symptoms in any given case, all parts of the organism are
involved, and that there is no such thing as chronic alcoholism
restricted to any particular viscus or group of viscera, to the nervous
system, or to the mind.

A. VISCERAL DERANGEMENTS.—There is nothing specific in the lesions

of chronic alcoholism. The chronic hyperæmia, steatosis, and
sclerosis induced by alcoholic excesses differ in no respect from
those conditions brought about by other causes. That which is
specific is the evolution of a series of morbid changes in the different
structures of the body under the influence of a common and
continuously acting cause. The digestive system is affected, as a
rule, long before the vascular or the nervous system.

1. Local Disorders.—a. Disorders of the Digestive System.—The

Mouth and Throat.—The action of insufficiently diluted alcohol upon
the mucous tissues is that of an irritant. The habitual repetition of this
action causes subacute or chronic catarrhal inflammation. The
condition of the tongue varies with that of the stomach. The mouth in
acute alcoholism is apt to be pasty and foul, the tongue slightly
swollen and coated with a more or less thick yellow fur; there is often
also an increase of saliva; in chronic alcoholism the tongue is usually
small, sometimes red, sometimes pale, often smooth from atrophy of
the papillæ, not rarely deeply fissured. In a word, the condition of this
organ is that seen in the various forms of subacute or chronic
gastritis. The salivary secretion is often notably diminished, the
sense of taste impaired. Relaxation of the throat and uvula and
granular pharyngitis are common. Those who, whilst leading a
sedentary life, are inclined to the pleasures of the table and a free
indulgence in spirituous liquors often suffer from these affections.
Mackenzie28 states that the worst cases of chronic catarrh of the
throat generally arise from the habitual abuse of the stronger forms
of alcohol. The associated influence of tobacco in the causation of
this group of affections is not to be disregarded.
28 Diseases of the Pharynx, Larynx, and Trachea, 1880.

Lancereaux encountered ulceration of the œsophagus, and Bergeret

a case of narrowing of that organ, in chronic alcoholism.29
29 Peeters regards it as probable that the connective-tissue hyperplasia and resulting
stenosis seen in the stomach as a result of the action of alcohol may also occur in the
œsophagus.

The Stomach.—In addition to functional dyspepsia, which is scarcely

ever absent in chronic alcoholism, all forms of gastritis, from simple
erythematous inflammation of the mucous membrane to sclerosis
and suppurative inflammation of the stomach, are encountered.
Armor30 assigns to the habit of spirit-drinking, especially to the habit
of taking alcohol undiluted on an empty stomach, a high place
among the causes of indigestion. He regards this habit as a
prominent factor in the production of chronic gastric catarrh—a
condition very frequently present in indigestion. This observer also
regards the excessive use of alcohol as the most frequent among
the direct exciting causes of gastric inflammation in this country,
exclusive of acid or corrosive poisons. Next to errors in diet as a
cause of chronic gastritis he places the immoderate use of alcohol,
especially by persons whose general health and digestive powers
are below a healthy standard. The primary lesions are vascular
dilatation and hyperæmia. The mucous membrane is discolored, red
or bluish, in scattered patches of varying size, with occasional
ecchymoses of a bluish hue or spots of pigmentation. These patches
occupy more commonly the region of the cardia and the lesser
curvature. Vascular injection is conspicuous; the veins are dilated,
tortuous; the mucous glands hypertrophied; the surface covered with
thick, ropy, acid-smelling mucus. After a time permanent changes in
the mucous membrane are set up. It undergoes atrophy or softening;
or, again, it becomes hardened, thickened, and contracted, its rugæ
more prominent, its surface mammilated—sclerosis. Grayish-brown
pigmentation, the remains of former blood-extravasations, is seen at
many points. Minute retention-cysts are formed in consequence of
the occlusion of the ducts of certain glands. The submucous
connective tissue and the muscular coat occasionally undergo, in
consequence of prolonged gastritis, local hypertrophy.
30 See this System of Medicine, Vol. II. pp. 446, 464, 470.

Acute suppurative inflammation of the stomach, with purulent

infiltration of, or the formation of abscesses in, the submucous
tissue, has been met with in drunkards. It is extremely rare, and
results from the violent irritant action of large doses of strong alcohol
in subjects debilitated by previous excesses.

Gastric ulcer is much more common. The abuse of alcohol is

regarded as an indirect cause of this lesion by the majority of writers.
In the present state of knowledge alcohol as usually taken can
scarcely be regarded as a direct cause of ulceration. Nevertheless,
gastric ulcer is relatively common in alcoholic subjects. Leudet31
found gastric ulcer in 8 of 26 necropsies of drunkards. Baer and
Lentz also regard the abuse of alcohol as a very common cause of
ulceration. The ulcers are usually superficial, occupy by preference
the neighborhood of the cardia and the lesser curvature, and are apt
to be multiple. In these respects they differ from simple gastric ulcer.
The latter lesion is also probably as frequent, if indeed not more
frequent, in individuals dying of chronic alcoholism than in others.
31 Clinique médicale de l'Hôtel Dieu à Rouen, 1874.

The view formerly entertained that alcohol was an important cause of

cancer of the stomach has been shown by Kubik, Magnus, Huss,
Engel, and others to be untenable. Carcinoma ventriculi is rarely
associated with chronic alcoholism.

The dimensions of the stomach are rarely normal. Dilatation is

usually present in the early stages, and in beer-drinkers throughout;
in the advanced course of alcoholism due to spirit-drinking the organ
undergoes, in consequence of changes secondary to prolonged
inflammation, more or less contraction, which is in many cases
irregular.

Dyspeptic symptoms are common: the appetite is variable, irregular,

and at length wholly lost. There is especially distaste for food in the
morning. This, together with the disordered state of the secretions of
the mouth and a feeling of nervous depression on rising, leads to the
disastrous habit of taking spirits early in the day. Gastric digestion is
performed with difficulty; it is accompanied by sensations of
distension and weight, by flatulence and acid eructations. Heartburn
is a common symptom. The drunkard is not rarely tormented by an
uneasy craving or sense of emptiness in the region of the stomach,
which he temporarily allays by nips and pick-me-ups and morsels of
highly-seasoned foods at odd times, with the result of still further
damage to his digestion and the complete loss of appetite for
wholesome food at regular hours. In the course of time the
characteristic morning sickness of drunkards is established. On
arising there is nausea, accompanied by vomiting—sometimes
without effort or pain, at others attended by distressing retching and
gagging. The matter vomited consists usually of viscid mucus, at first
transparent, then flaky, and at length, if the efforts be violent, of a
green or yellow color from the admixture of bile. These symptoms
ordinarily do not recur until the following day. In other cases vomiting
is more frequent, recurring at irregular periods during the day, and
not uncommonly an hour or two after the ingestion of food. When
gastric ulcer is present, portions of the vomited matter are often dark
and grumous like coffee-grounds or the settlings of beef-tea, and are
found upon microscopic examination to contain blood-corpuscles.
Actual hæmatemesis may also occur under these circumstances,
and be repeated from time to time. The quantity of blood thrown up
is frequently small; at times, however, it is excessive, and
occasionally so great as to cause death.
Common as are the evidences of gastric disturbance in chronic
alcoholism, they are far from being constant, and it is worthy of note
that in proportion to the number of the cases serious gastric
affections are, except in the later stages, relatively infrequent.

The Intestines.—Lesions of the small intestine due to alcoholism are

extremely rare. Even when simple or ulcerative inflammation of the
stomach is localized at, or extends to, the pylorus, it rarely passes
any great distance into the gut. The large intestine is, on the
contrary, frequently the seat of chronic inflammatory processes. Here
we find vascular engorgement, patches of pigmentation, localized
thickening of the mucous and submucous tissues, enlargement of
the solitary glands, and an excessive secretion of viscid mucus. The
tendency to permanent vascular dilatation, which is a characteristic
result of alcoholic habits, constitutes a powerful predisposing
influence in the causation of hemorrhoids, which are common.
Alcohol acts directly upon the hemorrhoidal plexus of veins, and
indirectly by causing permanent congestions of more or less intensity
in the greater number of the abdominal viscera. When a prolonged
course of excesses in alcohol has led to chronic congestion with
hypertrophy, cirrhosis, or other structural change in the liver which is
capable of causing permanent mechanical obstruction of the portal
circulation, hemorrhoids constitute a very common affection in the
group of morbid entities secondary to these conditions.

The symptoms of intestinal derangement are in the beginning, as a

rule, slight and occasional. They consist of uneasy sensations or
colicky pains in the abdomen, a feeling of fulness with or without
tympany, and constipation alternating with diarrhœa: in a word, they
are the symptoms of acute or subacute intestinal indigestion
terminating in an attack of intestinal catarrh. Attacks of this kind
repeat themselves in a considerable proportion of the cases with
variable but increasing frequency, until at length the conditions of
which they are the expression become permanent, and the patient
suffers, among other distressing symptoms hereafter to be
described, from chronic diarrhœa. The stools are now of the most
variable character—occasionally bilious, sometimes containing small
dark scybalous masses, rarely formed, but usually containing more
or less abnormal mucus, too much fluid, and traces of blood. Indeed,
at this stage several causes—among which I may mention visceral
congestions, local inflammation of the intestinal mucous membrane,
dilatation of the hemorrhoidal veins, and structural changes in the
liver—conspire to determine blood toward the interior of the intestinal
tube. Traces of blood in the stools are therefore frequent, and actual
hemorrhage and the appearance of the dark, tarry, and altered blood
formerly described under the term melæna are by no means rare.
Colliquative diarrhœa and dysenteric attacks also occur, and at
length an intense enteritis with uncontrollable diarrhœa may end the
life of the patient. The conditions just described lead to rapid
emaciation, and contribute when present to the establishment of the
cachexia so marked in many cases of chronic alcoholism.

The Glands.—The salivary glands were found by Lancereaux32 to

have undergone softening, with granulo-fatty changes in their
epithelium. If such changes are among the usual effects of alcohol,
they are doubtless productive of alterations in the saliva, which
explain, in part at least, the dryness of the mouth so frequent among
drunkards.
32 Dictionnaire de Médecine, art. “Alcoholism.”

The pancreas is, as the result of interstitial inflammation, the seat of

similar changes. It is sometimes enlarged and softened, sometimes
atrophied, shrivelled, or cirrhotic. In the latter condition its
consistence is firm, its surface uneven, its color deep yellow, brown,
or pale. Hyperplasia of the interacinous connective tissue, with
subsequent contraction and atrophy and destruction of the glandular
tissue, characterizes the more chronic forms of pancreatitis, and the
organ is frequently the seat of scattered minute blood-
extravasations. I have already alluded to the enlargement of the
solitary glands which constitutes a feature of the condition of the
large intestine. The solitary glands and Peyer's patches of the small
intestine are rarely altered.
b. Disorders of the Liver.—Next in order to the stomach, the liver is
more directly exposed to the action of alcohol than any other viscus.
For this reason lesions of the liver are frequent and grave. It is
worthy of note, however, that in a small proportion of cases of
chronic alcoholism terminating fatally, with widespread evidences of
the destructive action of alcohol upon the other organs of the body,
the liver has been found, both in its macroscopic and microscopic
appearances, wholly normal. Absorbed by the gastric vessels,
alcohol passes directly, by way of the portal vein, into the
parenchyma of the liver, there giving rise to various disturbances, the
nature of which is determined by the tendencies of the individual on
the one hand, and on the other hand by the character of the alcohol
consumed. The danger of hepatic disease is in direct proportion to
the amount and the concentration of the alcohol habitually taken.
The steady drinkers of spirits of whatever kind, whether gin, brandy,
whiskey, or rum, present the largest proportion of diseases of the
liver. These affections are far less common among beer-drinkers,
and infrequent among wine-drinkers in wine-growing countries. In
this connection it is to be borne in mind that the presence of food in
the stomach retards to some degree the absorption of the alcohol
ingested, and to a certain extent constitutes a means of dilution.

Hepatic disorders due to alcohol may be arranged in two groups:

first, congestion and inflammation; second, fatty infiltration or
steatosis; and the inflammatory process may affect chiefly the
interstitial connective tissue on the one hand, giving rise to sclerosis,
or on the other the glandular substance, constituting a true
parenchymatous inflammation.

Congestion.—Congestion of the liver is an early lesion. It is brought

about by the direct irritant action of the alcohol itself in part, and in
part by the extension of inflammation from the stomach by
continuous mucous tracts. Its development is insidious.
Anatomically, the condition is characterized by vascular dilatation,
moderate tumefaction, slight increase in the consistence of the
organ; the surface is of a deeper red than normal; on section the
color is more intense and the oozing more abundant. At a later
period we have, as the result of chronic congestion, the cyanotic
liver; the color is brownish or violet, mottled, and on section the
surface is granular and the lobules distinct. The organ may now be
somewhat diminished in size, but it lacks the firmness of sclerosis
and the hobnail appearance due to the contraction of the interlobular
connective tissue in that condition.

The symptoms of congestion of the liver are the familiar symptoms of

gastro-hepatic catarrh, varying from the transient disturbance known
as biliousness to serious sickness, characterized by acute gastro-
intestinal phenomena, with vomiting, headache, and other
derangements of the nervous system—constipation, succeeded by
diarrhœa and by more or less distinct jaundice. The graver forms of
hepatic congestion are characterized by intense nausea, frequent
vomiting, pain and soreness in the epigastrium and right
hypogastrium, the physical signs of augmentation of the volume of
the liver, and well-marked yellow discoloration of the conjunctivæ
and skin. These attacks are usually afebrile: the pulse is slow; there
is considerable nervous and mental depression, a tendency to
vertigo, and occasional syncope. The urine is scanty and high-
colored, and presents the reactions of bile-pigment. Muscular tremor,
especially marked in the extremities and tongue, is often present, but
is to be attributed rather to the direct action of alcohol upon the
nervous system than to the condition of the liver.

Hepatitis.—There are two principal forms of inflammation of the liver

induced by alcohol—parenchymatous hepatitis and interstitial
hepatitis or sclerosis.

Several varieties of parenchymatous hepatitis have been described.

The anatomical discrimination of these varieties is attended with less
difficulty than their clinical diagnosis. One of the more serious is
diffused parenchymatous hepatitis or acute yellow atrophy. Alcoholic
excesses appear to constitute a predisposing influence to this grave
disorder (Lentz). In several cases prolonged and repeated excesses
have preceded its development. It is a true parenchymatous
inflammation, in which the glandular elements of the organ undergo
disintegration. The liver is diminished in volume in all its diameters. It
is of a uniform yellow color; its tissue is soft and friable; upon section
the hepatic cells are found to be replaced by a granular detritus
mingled with globules of coloring matter and a greasy, grayish-yellow
liquid exudation.

The symptoms of this affection are those of an acute

parenchymatous hepatitis of the gravest kind. In the early stages
there is intense jaundice, gastro-intestinal disturbance, and fever,
followed by speedy evidences of profound toxæmia. The patient
rapidly falls into the so-called typhoid state, with a tendency to coma.
The prognosis is, in the greater number or cases, a fatal one. So
close is the resemblance between acute yellow atrophy of the liver
and the phenomena of acute phosphorus-poisoning that by many
observers these two conditions are held to be identical.33
33 Consult this System of Medicine, Vol. II., article “Acute Yellow Atrophy of the Liver.”

There is little doubt that the view now generally held, that acute
yellow atrophy is due to the action of some unknown toxic principle,
is correct. Alcoholic excess must therefore be regarded merely in the
light of a predisposing influence. Acute yellow atrophy of the liver is
an exceedingly rare disease.

Suppurative Hepatitis.—Abscess of the liver is in temperate climates

infrequent as the direct result of alcoholic excess. It is frequently
ascribed, however, to improper alcoholic indulgence, especially
when combined with the eating of large quantities of improper food,
in tropical and subtropical climates. A form of hepatitis has been
described by Leudet under the head of chronic interstitial hepatitis
with atrophy. The symptoms are for the most part not very well
marked, and consist chiefly in general malnutrition, which may in fact
be dependent upon the associated gastric disturbance. Chronic
jaundice is usually present.

Interstitial Hepatitis.—Cirrhosis of the liver is in a large proportion of

cases directly attributable to alcoholic excess. In this view the
greater number of observers coincide. But that alcohol is not the sole
cause of chronic interstitial hepatitis has been abundantly
established. As long ago as 1868, Anstie34 wrote as follows:
“Considering the enormous quantities of spirituous liquors which are
drunk by many of the patients who apply for relief from the
consequences of chronic alcoholism, it would be natural for the
reader who holds the usual opinion as to the origin of cirrhosis of the
liver to expect that serious symptoms produced by the latter disorder
must often complicate cases of the former. The case is, however, far
otherwise in my own experience. Of the immense number of patients
in whom the nervous disorder has been clearly identified, I have only
seen thirteen cases in which the symptoms of cirrhotic disease
called for any special treatment, although a certain degree of
cirrhosis was doubtless present in many of the others; and I cannot
avoid the conclusion that some very powerful element over and
above the influence of alcoholic excess is needed to produce the
severe type of that disease.” Formad35 states as the result of his
investigations as coroner's physician of the city of Philadelphia that
cirrhosis of the liver is much less common in alcoholic subjects than
has been generally thought. My own experience during eleven years
as attending physician at the Philadelphia Hospital leads me to
endorse this opinion.
34 A System of Medicine, Reynolds, vol. ii. p. 74.

35 Proceedings of the Pathological Society of Philadelphia, Dec., 1885.

The anatomical lesions of chronic interstitial hepatitis consist

essentially in hyperplasia and hypertrophy of the connective tissue of
the organ. The progress of the affection is insidious and gradual;
some degree of enlargement, due in part to congestion and in part to
interstitial exudation, is followed by gradual diminution, with
retraction of the new connective tissue. When the connective-tissue
new formation is excessive, and retraction fails to take place, the
organ remains permanently enlarged (hypertrophic cirrhosis). During
the first period the volume of the organ is increased, its consistence
is more firm, and its surface is slightly granular. The second period is
characterized by induration, with diminution of the volume of the
organ and alteration of its form. The surface is uneven, deeply
granular, and usually of a mottled yellow color. The tissue is firm,
creaking under the knife. The connective tissue is enormously
increased, the glandular elements being proportionately atrophied.

The contracting connective tissue exercises at the same time a

compressing influence upon the hepatic cells and upon the vascular
supply throughout the organ; the radicals of the portal vein and the
branches of the hepatic artery are alike compressed, and in part
obliterated. The same is true of the bile-ducts. The functional activity
of the liver, at first diminished, is finally, to a considerable extent,
arrested. In consequence of these physical alterations in the
structure of the organ, the symptoms, which are at first insignificant,
become progressively more grave, until at length they constitute
complications of the most serious kind.

It can be no longer asserted that the interstitial hepatitis produced by

alcohol presents specific characters. It nevertheless differs in many
respects from that form due to valvular lesions of the heart, in which
there are induration, usually augmentation in the volume of the
organ, and persistent congestion. Congestion, in truth, is the chief
characteristic of the latter form, in which the surface is smooth and
glistening, of a deep brown or violet hue, and on section yellowish or
brown—a condition which has been well described under the term
cyanotic liver.

Sclerotic changes due to alcohol usually affect the organ throughout.

In this respect alcoholic cirrhosis differs from that form due to syphilis
in which the lesions are irregularly distributed.

The functional disturbances due to cirrhosis are, in the beginning,

obscure in themselves and masked by the concomitant gastric
derangement. Later, ascites constitutes the chief as well as the most
constant symptom. It is rarely altogether absent. Emaciation is also a
prominent symptom. No affection, not even diabetes or phthisis,
produces loss of flesh so rapid, so marked, and so significant as
cirrhosis of the liver in chronic alcoholism. Not only do the adipose
tissues waste, but the muscles themselves undergo rapid atrophy.
This fact is not surprising when we consider that the lesions of the
liver give rise to grave interference with every function of that organ.
In addition to the more common gastric symptoms, there is
constipation, not rarely alternating, without assignable cause, with
serous and sometimes bloody diarrhœa. Epigastric distress,
epistaxis, and hemorrhages from other mucous surfaces are
common, and are due in part to the disturbance of the general
circulation, and in part to alterations in the character of the blood
itself. The physical signs indicate in the early stages increase, and
afterward diminution, in the volume of the liver. Enlargement of the
superficial abdominal veins is a characteristic sign. Cirrhosis of the
liver is a grave affection, the course of which, at first slow, afterward
more rapid, almost invariably leads to a fatal termination.

Fatty Degeneration of the Liver.—Steatosis of the liver is of

extremely common occurrence in the advanced stages of
alcoholism. The anatomical changes consist in accumulation of fat-
globules in the liver-cells. French writers distinguish two varieties of
hepatic steatosis: first, that in which the cellular elements undergo no
change beyond that of an accumulation of fat-globules within their
substance; and second, that in which the liver-cells undergo an
actual disintegration, in the course of which fat-granules are formed,
and which is, as a matter of fact, a true fatty degeneration. The first
of these conditions is not incompatible with the functional integrity of
the organ, and is in many instances unattended by symptoms, being
discovered only upon examination after death. Its occurrence is to be
explained by the imperfect oxidation of waste products due to the
constant presence of alcohol in the blood, and by the habitual
excess of fat in the latter fluid. When fatty infiltration is of moderate
amount there are no changes in the volume or the contour of the
organ, and the condition is recognized only on microscopical
examination. At a later stage the organ becomes enlarged,
particularly in its antero-posterior diameter. The surface is now
smooth and glistening, its color yellow or reddish-yellow; upon
section it is anæmic, of a yellowish color, with patches of a reddish
hue, and its consistence is diminished. The indentation caused by
pressure of the finger persists. Under the microscope the hepatic
cells are enlarged, rounded, packed with fat-globules of varying size.
In some of the cells these globules coalesce and form more or less
extensive drops of fat. The bile which is secreted in this condition
presents in most instances the normal characteristics.

Disorders of digestion do not occur in consequence of the fatty

change in the liver until the lesion has reached an advanced stage;
nevertheless, they constitute the earliest symptoms of this condition.
Imperfect digestion, accompanied with flatulence, distension of the
belly, epigastric tenderness, with light-colored stools, and
constipation alternating with diarrhœa, are common symptoms.
There is no pain properly referable to the region of the liver. Whilst
icterus does not occur, there is, nevertheless, a peculiar earthy pallor
of the complexion and persistent greasiness of the skin—conditions,
however, which are not in themselves sufficiently marked to possess,
in the absence of other signs, clinical value.

The second form of fatty degeneration, in which the liver-cells

undergo actual and destructive metamorphosis, accompanied by the
production of fat, is of a much more serious character. It appears to
constitute the stadium ultimum of various forms of interstitial
hepatitis, and is manifested by symptoms of the gravest character, in
many particulars much like those met with in acute yellow atrophy—
namely, visceral congestions, hemorrhages from mucous surfaces,
serous effusions, profound and rapidly developing anæmia, nervous
depression, and coma.

Biliary Catarrh.—The biliary ducts are usually the seat of catarrhal

inflammation, due less perhaps to the direct irritant action of the
alcohol than to the extension of the inflammation of the gastric
mucous membrane in the form of gastro-duodenal catarrh. Gall-
stones are not common in alcoholism.

The spleen is, as a rule, enlarged, soft, and friable; occasionally it is

small and shrivelled. No characteristic changes in its contour and
structure have been recorded.
The great omentum and mesentery are loaded with fat, very often to
an extreme degree. This condition is more marked in the chronic
alcoholism of beer-drinkers than in that of spirit-drinkers. Not
infrequently there are found evidences of chronic peritonitis, which
has been attributed by Lancereaux, in the absence of other
assignable cause, to the effect of alcohol itself. The symptoms of this
condition are usually obscure, consisting of diffused dull pain,
augmented upon pressure, diarrhœa, digestive troubles, and
abdominal distension, sometimes voluminous, often irregular.

c. Disorders of the Respiratory System.—The Larynx.—Catarrhal

inflammation of the mucous membrane of the air-passages is
common in drunkards. Some degree of subacute or chronic laryngitis
is an early symptom of chronic alcoholism. It may result from
repeated attacks of acute alcoholism, or it may be among the first
signs of excesses that are continuous, without at any one time being
extreme. In the production of this local trouble the direct action of
alcohol is reinforced by the foul and smoke-laden air of the
apartments in which tipplers spend much of their time and by
heedless exposure to the vicissitudes of the weather. The anatomical
changes are those of chronic laryngitis in general, hyperæmia of the
mucous membrane with minute ecchymoses, local destruction of
epithelium with superficial ulcerations or granulating surfaces. The
mucus is often thick, opaque, and adherent.

These lesions are accompanied by more or less decided impairment

of function. The voice is hoarse and husky; there is fatiguing
laryngeal cough, usually harsh and grating in character, and
attended by scanty muco-purulent expectoration. This cough is often
paroxysmal; especially is it apt to be so on rising, and it then
provokes the vomiting previously described.

The Bronchi.—After a time similar anatomical changes are brought

to pass in the bronchial tubes. Subacute bronchitis is little by little
transformed into the chronic form, characterized by hyperæmia and
thickening of the mucous membrane, extending to the finer twigs,
with submucous infiltration and implication of the connective-tissue
framework of the lung. The exudation, tough and adherent or fluid
and copious, occasions more or less frequent cough, and interferes
with the function of respiration. Hence it is common to encounter in
the subjects of chronic alcoholism bronchiectasis, pseudo-
hypertrophic emphysema, easily excited or permanent dyspnœa,
asthmatic seizures, and some degree of cyanosis. These local
affections, interfering with the circulation of the blood and its proper
aëration, react unfavorably upon the nutrition of the organism at
large, and largely contribute to the production of the ultimate
dyscrasia.

The Lungs.—Pulmonary congestion and œdema are of common

occurrence. Favored by the action of alcohol upon the vaso-motor
system, they are readily excited by the careless habits and frequent
exposures of the subject. The lesions occupy by preference the
lower and posterior parts of the lungs, and consist in relaxation of the
parenchyma, with vascular dilatation and serous infiltration. The
vesicles are capable of distension, but contain little air. The tissue is
friable, deep-red or brownish in color, and floats upon water. The
symptoms of this condition are sometimes obscure: usually they
consist in a sensation of constriction of the thorax, more or less
dyspnœa, mucous expectoration, sometimes streaked with blood,
and lividity of the countenance and finger-tips. The chief physical
signs are impaired percussion resonance and mucous, subcrepitant,
and occasionally a few scattered crepitant râles.

Pulmonary Apoplexy.—When the congestion is extreme, blood may

escape into the parenchyma of the lung with laceration of its
substance. This lesion is more frequent in intense acute alcoholism
than in the chronic form.

Pneumonia.—Habitual alcohol-drinkers are far more liable to

pneumonia than others. It has even been asserted that alcohol is of
itself capable of acting as an efficient exciting cause. Whilst it is
indisputable that the action of this agent upon the pulmonary blood-
vessels and in favoring pulmonary congestion constitutes a powerful
predisposing influence, it cannot be admitted, regard being had to
the fact that it is largely eliminated by the lungs, that alcohol can, in
the absence of a specific cause, ever produce a specific acute febrile
disease, such as croupous pneumonia. The pneumonia of alcoholic
subjects, like that of aged persons and that occurring in the
convalescence from acute diseases, is apt to be latent. The
exudation is often of limited extent; the symptoms are insidious, and
the striking clinical features of the ordinary frank form of the affection
are not rarely absent altogether. It is no infrequent occurrence that
pneumonia is overlooked in the delirium tremens which it has
induced.

The anatomical changes are those of the ordinary form. The

prognosis is always grave. When recovery occurs resolution is often
tedious and prolonged.

Catarrhal pneumonia is also common. It is marked by its usual

phenomena.

The most striking fact in the pneumonia of alcoholic individuals is the

contrast between the local and the constitutional symptoms. The
former are in the greater number of the cases insignificant and easily
overlooked. Even the physical signs, when sought for, are often
obscure and indeterminate: relative dulness, enfeebled or absent
vesicular murmur, faint scattered crepitation masked by mucous
râles, and a bronchial respiratory sound scarcely appreciable, are all
that can be detected upon physical examination. In strong contrast to
this almost negative picture is that of the constitutional disturbance,
which is commonly of the gravest kind. The prostration is extreme;
there is delirium with tremor, restlessness, sleeplessness, mental
agitation, profuse sweating, feeble action of the heart, gastro-
intestinal irritation, with vomiting and often complete inability to retain
food. The temperature-curve lacks the characters of pneumonia of
the ordinary form. Not seldom is febrile movement absent altogether.

The view that alcohol, independently of and in the absence of other

lesions, occasionally produces changes in the lungs analogous to
the chronic interstitial inflammatory processes of cirrhosis of the liver