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Mechanics of Materials in Modern
Manufacturing Methods and
Processing Techniques
Mechanics of Advanced Materials Series
The Mechanics of Advanced Materials book series focuses on materials- and mechanics-related issues around the
behavior of advanced materials, including the mechanical characterization, mathematical modeling, and numerical
simulations of material response to mechanical loads, various environmental factors (temperature changes,
electromagnetic fields, etc.), as well as novel applications of advanced materials and structures.
Volumes in the series cover advanced materials topics and numerical analysis of their behavior, bringing together
knowledge of material behavior and the tools of mechanics that can be used to better understand, and predict materials
behavior. It presents new trends in experimental, theoretical, and numerical results concerning advanced materials and
provides regular reviews to aid readers in identifying the main trends in research in order to facilitate the adoption of
these new and advanced materials in a broad range of applications.
Series editor-in-chief: Vadim V. Silberschmidt
Vadim V. Silberschmidt is Chair of Mechanics of Materials and Head of the Mechanics of Advanced Materials
Research Group, Loughborough University, United Kingdom. He was appointed to the Chair of Mechanics of Materials
at the Wolfson School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering at Loughborough University, United Kingdom in
2000. Prior to this, he was a Senior Researcher at the Institute A for Mechanics at Technische Universität München in
Germany. Educated in the USSR, he worked at the Institute of Continuous Media Mechanics and Institute for
Geosciences [both—the USSR (later—Russian) Academy of Sciences]. In 199394, he worked as a visiting researcher,
Fellow of the Alexander-von-Humboldt Foundation at Institute for Structure Mechanics DLR (German Aerospace
Association), Braunschweig, Germany. In 201114, he was Associate Dean (Research). He is a Charted Engineer,
Fellow of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers and Institute of Physics, where he also chaired Applied Mechanics
Group in 200811. He serves as Editor-in-Chief (EiC) of the Elsevier book series on Mechanics of Advanced
Materials. He is also EiC, associate editor, and/or serves on the board of a number of renowned journals. He has
coauthored four research monographs and over 550 peer-reviewed scientific papers on mechanics and micromechanics
of deformation, damage, and fracture in advanced materials under various conditions.
Series editor: Thomas Böhlke
Thomas Böhlke is Professor and Chair of Continuum Mechanics at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT),
Germany. He previously held professorial positions at the University of Kassel and at the Otto-von-Guericke
University, Magdeburg, Germany. His research interests include FE-based multiscale methods, homogenization of
elastic, brittle-elastic, and visco-plastic material properties, mathematical description of microstructures, and
localization and failure mechanisms. He has authored over 130 peer-reviewed papers and has authored or coauthored
two monographs.
Series editor: David L. McDowell
David L. McDowell is Regents’ Professor and Carter N. Paden, Jr. Distinguished Chair in Metals Processing at Georgia
Tech University, United States. He joined Georgia Tech in 1983 and holds a dual appointment in the GWW School of
Mechanical Engineering and the School of Materials Science and Engineering. He served as the Director of the
Mechanical Properties Research Laboratory from 1992 to 2012. In 2012 he was named Founding Director of the
Institute for Materials (IMat), one of Georgia Tech’s Interdisciplinary Research Institutes charged with fostering an
innovation ecosystem for research and education. He has served as Executive Director of IMat since 2013. His research
focuses on nonlinear constitutive models for engineering materials, including cellular metallic materials, nonlinear and
time-dependent fracture mechanics, finite strain inelasticity and defect field mechanics, distributed damage evolution,
constitutive relations, and microstructure-sensitive computational approaches to deformation and damage of
heterogeneous alloys, combined computational and experimental strategies for modeling high cycle fatigue in advanced
engineering alloys, atomistic simulations of dislocation nucleation and mediation at grain boundaries, multiscale
computational mechanics of materials ranging from atomistics to continuum, and system-based computational materials
design. A Fellow of SES, ASM International, ASME, and AAM, he is the recipient of the 1997 ASME Materials
Division Nadai Award for career achievement and the 2008 Khan International Medal for lifelong contributions to the
field of metal plasticity. He currently serves on the editorial boards of several journals and is coeditor of the
International Journal of Fatigue.
Series editor: Zhong Chen
Zhong Chen is a Professor in the School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University,
Singapore. In March 2000, he joined Nanyang Technological University (NTU), Singapore as an Assistant Professor
and has since been promoted to Associate Professor and Professor in the School of Materials Science and Engineering.
Since joining NTU, he has graduated 30 PhD students and 5 MEng students. He has also supervised over 200
undergraduate research projects (FYP, URECA, etc.). His research interest includes (1) coatings and engineered
nanostructures for clean energy, environmental, microelectronic, and other functional surface applications and (2)
mechanical behavior of materials, encompassing mechanics and fracture mechanics of bulk, composite and thin film
materials, materials joining, and experimental and computational mechanics of materials. He has served as an editor/
editorial board member for eight academic journals. He has also served as a reviewer for more than 70 journals and a
number of research funding agencies including the European Research Council (ERC). He is an author of over 300
peer-reviewed journal papers.
Elsevier Series in Mechanics of Advanced
Materials
Mechanics of Materials in
Modern Manufacturing
Methods and Processing
Techniques
Edited by
Vadim V. Silberschmidt
Wolfson School of Mechanical,
Electrical and Manufacturing Engineering,
Loughborough University,
Loughborough, United Kingdom
Elsevier
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ISBN: 978-0-12-818232-1
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Publisher: Matthew Deans

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Typeset by MPS Limited, Chennai, India
Contents
List of contributors xiii

About the Series editors xvii
1 Modeling of metal forming: a review 1

Uday Shanker Dixit
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Modeling issues in various metal forming processes 2
1.2.1 Forging 2
1.2.2 Rolling 4
1.2.3 Wire drawing 6
1.2.4 Extrusion 7
1.2.5 Deep drawing 10
1.2.6 Bending 11
1.3 Various modeling techniques 13
1.3.1 Slab method 13
1.3.2 Slip-line field method 13
1.3.3 Visioplasticity 14
1.3.4 Upper bound method 14
1.3.5 Finite difference method 15
1.3.6 Finite element method 15
1.3.7 Meshless method 17
1.3.8 Molecular dynamics simulation 18
1.3.9 Soft computing 18
1.4 Inverse modeling 19
1.5 Modeling of microstructure and surface integrity 20
1.6 A note on multiscale modeling of metal forming 22
1.7 Challenging issues 23
1.8 Conclusion 24
References 25
2 Finite element method modeling of hydraulic and thermal

autofrettage processes 31
Uday Shanker Dixit and Rajkumar Shufen
2.1 Introduction 31
2.1.1 Hydraulic autofrettage 32
2.1.2 Swage autofrettage 33
2.1.3 Explosive autofrettage 34
vi Contents
2.1.4 Thermal autofrettage 35

2.1.5 Rotational autofrettage 35
2.2 Numerical modeling of elasticplastic problems 37
2.2.1 Yield criteria and hardening behavior of the material 38
2.2.2 Approaches for numerical modeling of elasticplastic
problems 42
2.3 FEM formulation using updated Lagrangian method 44
2.3.1 Derivation of the weak form of the equilibrium
equation 44
2.3.2 Formulation of elemental equations 46
2.3.3 Solution method 50
2.4 Typical results of FEM modeling of hydraulic and thermal
autofrettage 52
2.4.1 Results of hydraulic autofrettage 53
2.4.2 Results of thermal autofrettage 58
2.5 Conclusion 66
References 67
3 Mechanics of hydroforming 71
Christoph Hartl
3.1 Introduction 71
3.2 Modeling of plastic deformation in tube hydroforming 74
3.2.1 Rotationally symmetrical tube expansion 74
3.2.2 Hydroforming of polygonal cross sections 81
3.2.3 Hydroforming of tube branches 85
3.3 Determination of forming limits in tube hydroforming 89
3.3.1 Necking and bursting 89
3.3.2 Wrinkling and buckling 95
3.4 Design of loading paths 98
3.5 Conclusion 101
References 102
4 Electromagnetic pulse forming 111

Verena Psyk, Maik Linnemann and Gerd Sebastiani
4.1 Process classification 111
4.2 Process principle and major process variants 112
4.2.1 General setup and process principle 112
4.2.2 Major process variants 113
4.3 Calculation of the process mechanics 123
4.3.1 Analytical calculation of the acting loads 123
4.3.2 Numerical calculation of the process 126
4.4 Advantages and application fields of electromagnetic
pulse forming 131
4.4.1 Shaping 132
4.4.2 Joining 136
4.4.3 Cutting 138
Contents vii
4.5 Prospects for future developments 139

References 139
5 Damage in advanced processing technologies 143

Zhutao Shao, Jun Jiang and Jianguo Lin
5.1 Introduction 143
5.1.1 Concepts of damage and damage variables 143
5.1.2 Damage mechanisms 143
5.1.3 Advanced manufacturing technology: hot stamping 144
5.1.4 Concept and features of forming limit diagram 145
5.2 Overview of formability evaluation 146
5.2.1 Forming limit prediction 146
5.2.2 Experimental methods for determining forming limits 147
5.2.3 Requirements for hot stamping applications 149
5.2.4 Advanced testing system for hot stamping applications 150
5.3 Modeling of damage evolution 151
5.3.1 Constitutive equations 151
5.3.2 Advanced damage models 153
5.3.3 A set of unified constitutive equations for hot stamping 155
5.3.4 Modeling of forming limit diagrams 156
5.4 Damage calibration techniques 158
5.4.1 Overview of damage calibration techniques 158
5.4.2 An example of using thermomechanical uniaxial test data 159
5.4.3 Examples of using thermomechanical multiaxial
tensile test data 160
5.5 Applications of damage modeling technique for hot stamping 162
5.5.1 Plane stressbased continuum damage mechanics
material model 162
5.5.2 Principal strainbased continuum damage mechanics
material model 165
5.5.3 Prediction of formability in hot forming 170
5.6 Conclusion 171
References 171
6 Numerical modeling of the mechanics of pultrusion 173

Michael Sandberg, Onur Yuksel, Raphae¨l Benjamin Comminal, Mads
Rostgaard Sonne, Masoud Jabbari, Martin Larsen, Filip Bo Salling,
Ismet Baran, Jon Spangenberg and Jesper H. Hattel
6.1.1 Pultrusion 173
6.1.2 Overview and motivation of the chapter 175
6.2 Resin impregnation 175
6.2.1 Saturated pressure-driven flow 176
6.2.2 Resin viscosity 177
6.2.3 Permeability of fiber reinforcements 177
6.2.4 Unsaturated impregnation flow 178
viii Contents
6.3 Thermochemical modeling 180

6.3.1 Heat transfer 180
6.3.2 Cure kinetics and differential scanning calorimetry 181
6.3.3 Modeling considerations: simple models and state-of-the-art 182
6.4 Thermochemicalmechanical modeling and residual
stress formation 183
6.4.1 The evolution of material properties 183
6.4.2 Mechanical modeling strategies 184
6.4.3 Assessment of the resultant residual stress fields
and the verification 186
6.5 Pulling force 189
6.5.1 Before die-entrance, A0 189
6.5.2 Die-entrance to flow front location, A1 189
6.5.3 Through liquid and gel states, A2 190
6.5.4 Solid state and detachment from die wall, A3 191
6.6 Conclusion 191
References 192
7 Modeling of machining processes 197

Jürgen Leopold
Nomenclature 197
7.2 Closed-loop principle of modeling 198
7.3 Modeling and simulation techniques 199
7.3.1 Slip-line method 199
7.3.2 Finite element modeling (finite element method) 203
7.3.3 Complementary methods 209
7.4 Modeling and simulation in the industry—selected examples 213
7.4.1 Cutting tool optimization 213
7.4.2 High-speed cutting or high-performance cutting 213
7.4.3 Dry machining 213
7.4.4 Burr formation and clean manufacturing 213
7.4.5 Cryogenic machining 215
7.5 Open issues 216
7.5.1 Hybrid modeling and closed-loop design 216
7.5.2 Multiscale modeling in machining 218
7.5.3 Multiscale modeling in coating-substrate simulation 220
7.6 Summary 222
References 222
Further reading 226
8 Mechanics of ultrasonically assisted drilling 229

Anish Roy and Vadim V. Silberschmidt
8.2 Drilling: theory and modeling 230
Contents ix
8.2.1 Kinematic modeling 230

8.2.2 Finite-element modeling 232
8.3 Ultrasonically assisted drilling 235
8.3.1 Experimental setup and instrumentation 235
8.3.2 Case study: drilling in composites 237
8.4 Conclusion and outlook 240
References 241
9 Machining in monocrystals 243

Anish Roy, Qiang Liu, Ka Ho Pang and Vadim V. Silberschmidt
9.2 Mechanics of single-crystal machining 245
9.2.1 Single-crystal-plasticity theory 245
9.2.2 Computational implementation 247
9.2.3 Criteria of material-removal modeling 248
9.3 Machining of single-crystal metal 248
9.3.1 Experimental procedure 248
9.3.2 Finite-element model and material parameters 249
9.3.3 Simulation and results 250
9.3.4 Discussion 254
9.4 Machining of single-crystal ceramic material 258
9.4.1 Experimental procedure 258
9.4.2 Computational modeling 259
9.4.3 Results and discussion 262
9.5 Concluding remarks 264
References 265
10 Microstructural changes in machining 269

W. Bai, R. Sun, J. Xu and Vadim V. Silberschmidt
10.2 Microstructural evolution in machining 270
10.2.1 Microstructural evolution in machined surface 270
10.2.2 Microstructural evolution in chip 273
10.3 Microstructural models for machining 275
10.3.1 Mechanism models of microstructural evolution 275
10.3.2 Calculation of microstructural evolution 278
10.4 Microstructural evolution in ultrasonically assisted cutting 279
10.4.1 Microstructural evolution in machined surface with
ultrasonically assisted cutting 283
10.4.2 Microstructural evolution in chip with ultrasonically
assisted cutting 288
10.5 Conclusion 294
Acknowledgments 294
References 294
x Contents
11 Residual stresses in machining 297

J.C. Outeiro
11.2 Fundamentals of machining and residual stresses 298
11.2.1 Metal-cutting definition and energy considerations 298
11.2.2 Definition and origins of residual stresses 301
11.2.3 Techniques for measuring residual stress 301
11.3 Residual stresses in machining operations 303
11.3.1 Origin of residual stresses in metal cutting 303
11.3.2 Residual stresses in difficult-to-cut materials 305
11.3.3 Effect of relative tool sharpness on residual stresses 319
11.3.4 Control of residual stresses in machining 322
11.4 Modeling and simulation of residual stresses 324
11.4.1 Modeling and simulation considerations 324
11.4.2 Relevance of constitutive and contact models in
residual- stress prediction 326
11.4.3 Simulation of residual stresses for several
work materials 335
11.4.4 Procedure for comparing predicted and measured
residual stresses 341
11.4.5 Optimization of cutting conditions for improved
residual stresses and surface roughness in machined
components 344
11.5 Influence of residual stress on product sustainability 346
11.5.1 Introduction 346
11.5.2 Corrosion resistance 348
11.5.3 Fatigue strength 352
11.6 Conclusion 353
References 354
12 Microstructural changes in materials under shock and high

strain rate processes: recent updates 361
Satyam Suwas, Anuj Bisht and Gopalan Jagadeesh
12.2 Shock wave and parameters 363
12.3 Experimental methods for investigation of shock waves 365
12.3.1 Taylor’s impact test 365
12.3.2 Explosive loading of materials 366
12.3.3 Flyer plate impact test 366
12.3.4 Split-Hopkinson pressure bar 367
12.3.5 Shock impact in a shock tube 367
12.3.6 Laser-induced shock generation 368
12.4 Parameters influencing material response to shock exposure 369
12.4.1 Types of shock-generated defects 369
12.4.2 Effect of material parameters 371
Contents xi
12.4.3 Effect of shock parameters 376

12.4.4 Other factors: residual strain 378
12.5 Theory of defect generation under shock: past theories and
new perspectives 380
12.6 Conclusion 384
References 384
13 Thermomechanics of friction stir welding 393

Mads Rostgaard Sonne and Jesper H. Hattel
13.2 Thermal behavior 396
13.3 Microstructural evolution 399
13.4 Residual stresses and distortions 400
13.5 Material flow 403
13.6 Conclusion 410
References 410
14 Modeling of friction in manufacturing processes 415

Uday Shanker Dixit, V. Yadav, P.M. Pandey, Anish Roy
and Vadim V. Silberschmidt
14.2 History of friction modeling 416
14.3 Some popular friction models 418
14.3.1 AmontonsCoulomb’s model 419
14.3.2 Constant-friction model 419
14.3.3 Wanheim and Bay’s model 420
14.3.4 Asperity-based friction model 421
14.3.5 Plowing model 434
14.4 Friction in machining 435
14.5 Friction models in metal forming 437
14.6 Friction in solid-state welding 438
14.7 Friction models for micromanufacturing 439
14.8 Challenging issues and directions for future research 439
14.9 Conclusion 440
Acknowledgment 441
References 441
Further reading 444
Index 445
This page intentionally left blank
List of contributors
W. Bai Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, P.R. China
Ismet Baran Faculty of Engineering Technology, University of Twente, Enschede,

The Netherlands
Anuj Bisht Department of Materials Engineering, Indian Institute of Science,

Bangalore, India
Raphaël Benjamin Comminal Department of Mechanical Engineering, Section of

Manufacturing Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
Uday Shanker Dixit Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of

Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, India
Christoph Hartl TH Köln - Faculty of Automotive Systems and Production,

University of Applied Sciences, Cologne, Germany
Jesper H. Hattel Department of Mechanical Engineering, Section of

Masoud Jabbari School of Mechanical, Aerospace & Civil Engineering, The

University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
Gopalan Jagadeesh Department of Aerospace Engineering, Indian Institute of

Science, Bangalore, India
Jun Jiang Department of Mechanical Engineering, Imperial College London,

London, United Kingdom
Martin Larsen Fiberline Composites A/S, Middelfart, Denmark
Jürgen Leopold TBZ-PARIV GmbH, Chemnitz, Germany
Jianguo Lin Department of Mechanical Engineering, Imperial College London,

xiv List of contributors
Maik Linnemann Fraunhofer Institute for Machine Tools and Forming Technology,
Chemnitz, Germany
Qiang Liu Department of Materials Engineering, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
J.C. Outeiro Arts & Metiers Institute of Technology, Campus of Cluny, Cluny,
France
P.M. Pandey Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of

Technology Delhi, New Delhi, India
Ka Ho Pang Wolfson School of Mechanical, Electrical and Manufacturing

Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough, United Kingdom
Verena Psyk Fraunhofer Institute for Machine Tools and Forming Technology,
Chemnitz, Germany
Anish Roy Wolfson School of Mechanical, Electrical and Manufacturing

Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough, United Kingdom
Filip Bo Salling Department of Mechanical Engineering, Section of Manufacturing

Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
Michael Sandberg Department of Mechanical Engineering, Section of

Gerd Sebastiani imk automotive GmbH, Chemnitz, Germany
Zhutao Shao Department of Mechanical Engineering, Imperial College London,

Rajkumar Shufen Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of

Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, India
Vadim V. Silberschmidt Wolfson School of Mechanical, Electrical and

Manufacturing Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough, United
Kingdom
Mads Rostgaard Sonne Department of Mechanical Engineering, Section of

Jon Spangenberg Department of Mechanical Engineering, Section of

R. Sun Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, P.R. China

List of contributors xv
Satyam Suwas Department of Materials Engineering, Indian Institute of Science,

Bangalore, India
J. Xu Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, P.R. China
V. Yadav Department of Mechanical Engineering, Maulana Azad National

Institute of Technology Bhopal, Bhopal, India
Onur Yuksel Faculty of Engineering Technology, University of Twente,

Enschede, The Netherlands
This page intentionally left blank
About the Series editors
Editor-in-Chief
Vadim V. Silberschmidt is Chair of Mechanics of Materials and Head of the
Mechanics of Advanced Materials Research Group, Loughborough University,
United Kingdom. He was appointed to the Chair of Mechanics of Materials at the
Wolfson School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering at Loughborough
University, United Kingdom in 2000. Prior to this, he was a Senior Researcher at
the Institute A for Mechanics at Technische Universität München in Germany.
Educated in the USSR, he worked at the Institute of Continuous Media Mechanics
and Institute for Geosciences [both—the USSR (later—Russian) Academy of
Sciences]. In 199394, he worked as a visiting researcher, Fellow of the
Alexander-von-Humboldt Foundation at Institute for Structure Mechanics DLR
(German Aerospace Association), Braunschweig, Germany. In 201114, he was
Associate Dean (Research). He is a Charted Engineer, Fellow of the Institution of
Mechanical Engineers and Institute of Physics, where he also chaired Applied
Mechanics Group in 200811. He serves as Editor-in-Chief (EiC) of the Elsevier
book series on Mechanics of Advanced Materials. He is also EiC, associate editor,
and/or serves on the board of a number of renowned journals. He has coauthored
four research monographs and over 550 peer-reviewed scientific papers on mechan-
ics and micromechanics of deformation, damage, and fracture in advanced materials
under various conditions.
Series editors
David L. McDowell is Regents’ Professor and Carter N. Paden, Jr. Distinguished
Chair in Metals Processing at Georgia Tech University, United States. He joined
Georgia Tech in 1983 and holds a dual appointment in the GWW School of
Mechanical Engineering and the School of Materials Science and Engineering. He
served as the Director of the Mechanical Properties Research Laboratory from 1992
to 2012. In 2012 he was named Founding Director of the Institute for Materials
(IMat), one of Georgia Tech’s Interdisciplinary Research Institutes charged with
fostering an innovation ecosystem for research and education. He has served as
Executive Director of IMat since 2013. His research focuses on nonlinear constitu-
tive models for engineering materials, including cellular metallic materials, nonlin-
ear and time-dependent fracture mechanics, finite strain inelasticity and defect field
mechanics, distributed damage evolution, constitutive relations, and microstructure-
sensitive computational approaches to deformation and damage of heterogeneous
alloys, combined computational and experimental strategies for modeling high
xviii About the Series editors
cycle fatigue in advanced engineering alloys, atomistic simulations of dislocation

nucleation and mediation at grain boundaries, multiscale computational mechanics
of materials ranging from atomistics to continuum, and system-based computational
materials design. A Fellow of SES, ASM International, ASME, and AAM, he is the
recipient of the 1997 ASME Materials Division Nadai Award for career achieve-
ment and the 2008 Khan International Medal for lifelong contributions to the field
of metal plasticity. He currently serves on the editorial boards of several journals
and is coeditor of the International Journal of Fatigue.
Thomas Böhlke is Professor and Chair of Continuum Mechanics at the Karlsruhe

Institute of Technology (KIT), Germany. He previously held professorial positions
at the University of Kassel and at the Otto-von-Guericke University, Magdeburg,
Germany. His research interests include FE-based multiscale methods, homogeniza-
tion of elastic, brittle-elastic, and visco-plastic material properties, mathematical
description of microstructures, and localization and failure mechanisms. He has
authored over 130 peer-reviewed papers and has authored or coauthored two
monographs.
Zhong Chen is a Professor in the School of Materials Science and Engineering,
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. In March 2000, he joined Nanyang
Technological University (NTU), Singapore as an Assistant Professor and has since
been promoted to Associate Professor and Professor in the School of Materials
Science and Engineering. Since joining NTU, he has graduated 30 PhD students
and 5 MEng students. He has also supervised over 200 undergraduate research pro-
jects (FYP, URECA, etc.). His research interest includes (1) coatings and engi-
neered nanostructures for clean energy, environmental, microelectronic, and other
functional surface applications and (2) mechanical behavior of materials, encom-
passing mechanics and fracture mechanics of bulk, composite and thin film materi-
als, materials joining, and experimental and computational mechanics of materials.
He has served as an editor/editorial board member for eight academic journals. He
has also served as a reviewer for more than 70 journals and a number of research
funding agencies including the European Research Council (ERC). He is an author
of over 300 peer-reviewed journal papers.
Modeling of metal forming:
a review 1
Uday Shanker Dixit
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati,
Guwahati, India
1.1 Introduction
Manufacturing of a product by plastic deformation of metals has been performed
for ages. Plastic deformation can be accomplished with or without heating the
metal. Accordingly, two broad categories of metal forming processes are hot metal-
working and cold metalworking. A more refined classification includes warm met-
alworking in between hot and cold metalworking. In most of the metal forming
processes, deformation is carried out by the application of a mechanical load; the
role of heat is limited to reducing the flow stress (required to start the plastic defor-
mation of the metal). However, there are processes, where the plastic deformation
is achieved by the heat alone; an example is laser bending, where a sheet is bent by
laser irradiation that creates a sufficient amount of thermal stresses to bend the
sheet [1].
Based on raw material, desired final product and metal flow pattern, the metal
forming processes are classified into bulk and sheet metal forming processes. Bulk
metal forming processes deform high volume-to-surface area ratio raw materials
resulting in a change of surface area. In the sheet metal forming processes, the raw
material has a low volume-to-surface area ratio, and material deformation does not
intend to change the surface area implying that the sheet thickness remains more or
less unaltered. Recently, another category, namely, sheet-bulk metal forming has
been introduced [2]. In sheet-bulk metal forming processes, the bulk deformation of
sheet is carried out that invariably brings out the intended changes in the thickness
as well. Some examples of bulk metal forming are forging, rolling, extrusion, and
wire drawing. Sheet metal forming processes include deep drawing, bending, and
spinning [3]. Coining, flow forming, and ironing are examples of sheet-bulk metal
forming.
Modeling of metal forming started since the beginning of the 20th century [4].
Initial attempts were directed to estimate the load required for plastic deformation.
Prominent methods were slip-line field method, slab method, and upper bound
method. These methods involved several assumptions and were incapable of provid-
ing detailed information about stressstrain distribution in the material. The tech-
nique of visioplasticity was introduced in the late 1950s to get detailed information
about the deformation. In a visioplasticity method a time-dependent velocity field is
Mechanics of Materials in Modern Manufacturing Methods and Processing Techniques.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818232-1.00001-1
Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 Mechanics of Materials in Modern Manufacturing Methods and Processing Techniques
calculated based on a series of photographs of a grid pattern on the metal being pro-
cessed. Analytical and/or numerical techniques are used to estimate the stress
strain distribution and other derivative information. The decade 195060 saw the
emergence of finite element method (FEM). A number of articles were published in
the 1970s and 1980s on the modeling of metal forming processes. These methods
were perfected in the 1990s, and nowadays, there are several commercial FEM
packages dedicated to modeling of metal forming processes. Since the last two dec-
ades, there have been attempts to develop advanced FEM techniques and several
meshless methods. However, the requirement of huge computational time is a hin-
drance in the popularization of these methods.
Some developments have taken place in carrying out microstructural modeling
of metal forming processes. Classical plasticity theory could account for distinct
material behavior based on microstructural features. Molecular dynamics simula-
tions (MDSs) and crystal plasticity are two recently developed methods for realistic
simulation of metal forming processes, particularly for modeling of microforming.
However, these methods are still at a nascent stage of development for solving
metal forming problems, and there are several computational difficulties to be
overcome.
This chapter provides an overview of modeling of well-known metal forming
processes. Capabilities and limitations of various modeling techniques are
highlighted. Finally, the directions for further research are provided.
1.2 Modeling issues in various metal forming processes

Why do we model metal forming processes? What is expected out of a model? In
general, modeling is expected to improve the efficiency of overall manufacturing
system and reduce the dependence on costly hit and trial experiments. Modeling
can provide the following valuable information: (1) required deformation load;
(2) energy consumption in the process; (3) stresses on the dies and tools; (4) defects
in the process; (5) quality of the product, particularly in terms of dimensional accu-
racy and surface integrity; (6) properties of the product; (7) stress, strain, strain
rate, and temperature distribution in the product as well as tooling; and (8) life
assessment of the tooling and machine. Adequate modeling can help in the design
and optimization of metal forming process, machines, and tooling. In the sequel,
salient modeling issues of popular metal forming processes are discussed.
1.2.1 Forging
Forging is a process of plastically deforming the metal by pressing and hammering.
It may be performed in cold, warm, or hot state of the metal. There are mainly two
types of forging processes: (1) open die or free forging and (2) closed die or
impression die forging. Open die forging is the process of deforming the metal
between multiple dies that do not completely enclose the material. It is often
Modeling of metal forming: a review 3
employed to preform material for subsequent metal forming. There are several dif-
ferent types of open die forging processes. Fig. 1.1 shows schematic diagrams of
three types of open die forging—upset forging or upsetting, cogging, and orbital or
rotary forging. In upsetting the complete or partial portion of the workpiece is com-
pressed between a fixed die and moving ram in order to increase the cross section
of the desired portion. In Fig. 1.1A, a rod is being upset forged to make a head. In
Fig. 1.1B, cogging process is being carried out in order to make a stepped bar. It is
basically an incremental forming; a portion of the workpiece is compressed between
the dies, dies retract, and the workpiece is advanced axially for next compression
operation. Fig. 1.1C depicts upsetting of a workpiece by orbital forging. Here the
lower die is fixed. The upper die rotates about an axis slightly inclined to work-
piece-axis; hence, at a time it compresses only a small portion of the workpiece.
This is also an incremental forming and load requirement gets reduced.
In the closed die forging or impression die forging, metal is compressed in the
enclosed dies. In this process the metal is fully compacted to acquire the shape gov-
erned by the die cavities. Excess material comes out as flash and is trimmed.
Die
Force
Ram
Workpiece
Gripping die Workpiece Force
(A) (B)
2° Upper die
Workpiece
Lower die
(C)
Figure 1.1 Open die forging: (A) upsetting, (B) cogging, (C) orbital forging.
Force
Moving die
Flash
Workpiece
Fixed die
Figure 1.2 Closed die forging.
Usually, the mass of flash can be as much as 20%. Fig. 1.2 shows a schematic of
closed die forging with flash generation. Flash-less forging is also possible but
requires a careful tooling design.
In forging process, strain rate may lie in the range 10231022 s21, depending
on whether it is press forging or hammer forging. In the cold forging the effective
Coulomb’s coefficient of friction ranges from 0.05 to 0.15 and 0.1 to 0.5 in hot
forging. In most of the cases, Coulomb’s friction model is inappropriate. Frictional
behavior may change from sticking to sliding while moving outwardly from center
in a direction normal to the load.
Estimation of forging load has been the focus of attention in forging. Another
interest is to find outflow patterns in order to design dies. Forging process suffers
from various defects that need to be controlled. Surface cracking may occur due to
thermomechanical effects. Poor material flow may cause folding or overlapping of
one region of metal onto another causing cold shut. It may also result in underfill-
ing of die cavities. Surface may get roughened due to the deformation of coarse
grains, which is called orange peel defect. Although forging load estimation techni-
ques are sufficiently refined, prediction of defects is still a challenging task.
The simplest open die forging, namely upsetting is often used as a benchmark test
for studying the material and friction behavior. In a typical compression test the spec-
imen is compressed between two lubricated platens to find out the deformation
behavior of metals. In a ring compression test a hollow cylinder specimen is com-
pressed between two plates and friction is estimated based on the change in the hole
diameter. In the cylindrical specimen of a ring compression test, typically the hole
diameter is half of the outer diameter and height is one-third the outer diameter.
1.2.2 Rolling
Rolling shapes materials by passing it between counterrotating rolls. It has been in
wide use since the 14th century. In this process, slabs, billets, blooms, or rods are
Back tension
Front tension
Strip
Work-roll
Backup-roll
Figure 1.3 A tandem rolling mill.
rolled into plates, sheets, strips, rods, and tubes. The profiles can also be produced
by rolling. Because of the limitation of the maximum possible reduction in one
pass, usually multipass rolls with a number of stands in series are employed. This is
called tandem rolling and is schematically depicted in Fig. 1.3. It has three stands;
in each stand, there are two work-rolls and two backup rolls to prevent work-roll
deflection. Rolling can be employed with or without front and back tensions.
Rolling process looks deceptively simple. However, a realistic simulation needs
to focus on the following three complex tasks:
1. proper elasticplastic modeling of the material to be processed,
2. modeling of friction behavior with a proper assessment of neutral zone in which the direc-
tion of frictional stresses changes from facilitating the movement of the material to oppos-
ing it, and
3. application of elasticity theory for estimating the roll flattening and roll deflection.
A proper model of rolling process estimates the roll torque, roll separating force,
and roll pressure distribution accurately. The common defects in rolling process are
edge cracking, wavy edge, central burst, and alligatoring. Edge cracking refers to
cracking at the edges of the rolled products and occurs because of nonhomogeneous
deformation due to wrong design of rolls or improper management of friction.
Wavy edge occurs mainly because of roll deflection. Due to nonuniform roll gap,
edges tend to elongate more than the center. To maintain continuity, edges get com-
pressed and produce a wavy pattern. Central burst is a ductile fracture that initiates
from a void at the center. In alligatoring a crack forms along the central plane and
splits the ends. Excessive front or back tension may cause the tearing of the sheet.
Many times, rolling process is employed for improving the material properties.
Asymmetric sheet rolling, in which the surface speed of rolls or friction differs on
the two sides of the sheet, has been used to improve the microstructure [5,6]. In
temper or skin-pass rolling, 0.5%4% reduction in the sheet thickness is carried
out to provide a degree of hardening to sheet, to prevent stretcher strains or Lüders
band, and to improve the surface integrity of the sheet [7]. Accumulative roll bond-
ing is a severe deformation process [8]. In this process a sheet is passed between
two counterrotating cylinders to impart 50% reduction to it. Elongated sheet is cut
into two pieces of equal length and stacked together to make it of same dimension
as the original sheet. It is further passed through the roll to impart 50% reduction.
The procedure is repeated several times, which results in properly bonded thin
stacked sheets with a large accumulated strain. With this procedure, grain size gets
reformed, and strength gets improved.
1.2.3 Wire drawing

Wire drawing process pulls a wire through a die to reduce its cross section. It can
be carried out in the presence of a back tension that helps in reducing the die pres-
sure and providing dimensional stability. Theoretically maximum possible reduction
in one pass is 63%, but a practical limit is 45%. Hence, for getting higher reduction,
multistage wire drawing is employed. Fig. 1.4 depicts a schematic of two-stage
wire drawing process to reduce the cross-sectional area of wire from Ai to Af. Wire
drawing is usually carried out at room temperature, but occasionally warm wire
drawing is also performed.
Rod drawing is similar to wire drawing. Here instead of a wire (diameter less
than about 6 mm), a rod is pulled through dies. In case of tube drawing, a tube is
drawn over a mandrel. In tube, sinking no mandrel is used and outer diameter
reduced with increase in length; tube thickness may reduce or increase depending
on the process parameters.
Die design is very important in wire or rod drawing. Most of the researchers
have optimized the die shape with an objective of minimizing energy. However, the
shape of die has a large bearing on the quality of the product. Certain die shapes,
although may increase the required power, reduce the defects and improve the
mechanical properties such as tensile strength and hardness of the drawn wire/rod.
There are several types of defects in a wire/rod drawing process. Some defects such
as scabs (irregularly shaped flattened protrusions) occur due to defective raw mate-
rial. Some defects occur due to faulty design of die and process. For example, a
combination of large die angle and small reduction results in the narrowing of plas-
tic zone in the vicinity of centerline and enhances the chance of central burst [9].
Friction is undesirable in wire drawing and usually the Coulomb’s coefficient of
friction ranges from 0.01 to 0.1 with proper lubrication. In the dry wire drawing the
Back tension Drawing force
Af
Ai Die
Figure 1.4 A two-stage wire drawing.

lubricant is coated on the wire before entering the die. In the wet drawing, die and
wire are submerged in the lubricants. It is also important to control the residual
stresses in the wire by proper design of the die and process. Recently dieless draw-
ing of wires and tubes is also gaining importance [10].
1.2.4 Extrusion
In extrusion process the raw material is compressed through a die to reduce the
cross-sectional area of the material or to generate special profile of the cross sec-
tion. Theoretically, there is no limit to the maximum possible reduction in extru-
sion. The extrusion can be performed in cold, warm, or hot state of the metal.
There are a lot of variants of the extrusion process. In the forward or direct
extrusion the metal flows in the direction of ram motion. Fig. 1.5 shows a sche-
matic diagram of the process. To avoid sticking of ram with raw material, a dummy
block is inserted in between. Movement of material through the container causes a
lot of friction between the container wall and raw material. To alleviate this prob-
lem, backward or indirect extrusion is used, in which the ram and extruded material
move in different directions as shown in Fig. 1.6; however, the ram needs to be hol-
low, which weakens it. In lateral extrusion, material flows sideways, usually per-
pendicular to ram motion; it helps to reduce the frictional losses. A schematic
diagram is shown in Fig. 1.7, where lateral extrusion is taking place from both
sides, but it can take place from one side as well. In impact extrusion, material is
extruded with the impact force of the ram. Fig. 1.8 shows a schematic of impact
extrusion used to make a thin-walled tube open at one end. In hydrostatic extrusion
(Fig. 1.9) the raw material is placed in a sealed chamber containing liquid and a
moving ram pressurizes the liquid; the raw material is forward extruded by the pres-
sure of the liquid. Hydrostatic extrusion reduces the friction and also enhances the
ductility of the raw material. In the multi-hole extrusion (Fig. 1.10) the die has
more than one opening, causing more than one product to be extruded
Container Flow lines

Ram
Force
Extruded rod
Dummy block Workpiece
Figure 1.5 Direct or forward extrusion.

Flow lines
Die
Ram
Workpiece
Container
Figure 1.6 Indirect or backward extrusion.
Load
Ram
Dummy block
Container
Workpiece
Die hoder
Extruded part
Figure 1.7 Lateral extrusion.
simultaneously. Multihole extrusion reduces the extrusion force, but improper die
design can lead to poor mechanical properties [11].
Prominent defects in extrusion are piping, surface cracking, and internal crack-
ing. In the piping defect, also known as fishtailing, tailpipe, or extrusion defect,
metal flow tends to draw surface oxide and impurities toward the center of the
product like a funnel. It occurs at the end of the extruded product and can be elimi-
nated by controlling the flow pattern or using a proper dummy block. Surface
cracking occurs due to thermal stresses and friction. Internal cracks are in the form
Load
Workpiece
Ram
Die
Figure 1.8 Impact extrusion.
Container Die
Force
Ram
Extruded part
Fluid Workpiece
Figure 1.9 Hydrostatic extrusion.
of chevron cracking or central burst; high die angles and low reduction promote
this defect [12].
Apart from forming a desired shape, extrusion is also used for improving the
microstructure and mechanical properties of the product. Equal-channel angular
extrusion (ECAE), invented by Segal in 1972, is widely used for producing ultra-
fine grained structures due to dynamic recrystallization (DRX) [1315]. Other
names for ECAE are equal-channel angular forging and equal-channel angular
pressing. Fig. 1.11 depicts a schematic of ECAE. Here a billet is passed through
two equal sized channels intersecting at an angle ϕ, which induces a lot of shear in
the billet; however, the final size of the billet remains the same as before. The billet
again passes through the cannels to undergo further straining. After several passes
through the channels, the billet gets heavily strained, and its grain sized is
Load
Ram
Dummy Block
Workpiece
Container
Multiple-hole die
Die holder
Extruded
product
Figure 1.10 Multi-hole extrusion.
Force
Billet
Die
j
Figure 1.11 Equal-channel angular pressing.
significantly refined resulting in the enhancement of its strength and sometimes the
ductility as well.
1.2.5 Deep drawing

Deep drawing process manufactures cup- or boxlike products by pushing a flat
sheet through a die with the help of a punch while holding the sheet in a blank
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BOOK III
FAR, FAR AT SEA
CHAPTER I
“NAE POSSIBLE!” SAID TIBBIE

Sorrow does not hold the young heart long enthralled. It is as well it
should be so. It is for the old to feel sad, unless they can see in imagination
the bright and gladsome light that shines behind the pall of Death. But the
young—no, sorrow ought to be neither kith nor kin to them.
Back again, then, at the dear old farm of Kilbuie, with Willie as his
constant companion, for the lad had come to spend a long holiday, with
frequent visits to the house of his best of friends, Mackenzie the minister,
with many a little fishing excursion, in company with little Maggie May
and happy-go-lucky Tyro the collie—excursions that somehow always
ended in a kind of picnic—Sandie began to forget the sad and gloomsome
ending to his fishing experiences.
But the corn was now changing in patches from green to yellow. Soon it
would be all ablaze, and then there would be but little time to spend in
picnics or in fishing.
Willie had declared himself determined to assist at harvest work. He
could bind the sheaves if he could do nothing else, and he could carry and
stook them, that is, set them up together, that they might get dry and more
thoroughly ripe in the sunshine.
He had provided himself with a wonderful canvas apron, that quite
enveloped all his person in front, from chin to ankles.
“I daresay,” said Willie, as he saw Jeannie—Mrs. Duncan, we ought now
to call her—smiling, “I daresay I look a bit of a guy, but I don’t mind,
because it will save my clothes. Do you see, Mrs. Jeannie?”
“I see,” said Jeannie, “you’re a thrifty lad.”
. . . . . .
In another week harvest had begun. Jamie Duncan drove the reaping-
machine. The new second horseman and Sandie wielded a scythe each.
And it was near and around them that all the blitheness and the fun
radiated. A reaping-machine is a very good invention, it must be admitted,
but at the same time it must be granted that there is no poetry, no romance
about it.
But listen to the musical swish swish of the curved and flashing scythe,
wielded by the brown bare arms of the sturdy reaper. Note how the golden
grain lies in its long straight swaths, till made into sheaves by the merry girl
gatherers, who are coming closely up behind. Note, too, the friendly rivalry
of the two scythemen, who work close at each other’s heels, pausing at last,
panting and perspiring, when the “bout” is finished, and chatting and
laughing and joking as they walk slowly to the other end of the field, there
to sharpen scythes, to swallow a draught of table-beer, butter-milk or whey,
and begin again once more.
A strong sturdy lass of about seventeen, with a complexion like
strawberries smothered in cream, acted as gatherer to the new second
horseman, while Jeannie herself followed Sandie. Then behind these came
Geordie Black the orra man, and Willie himself, with his immense apron,
doing duty as binders and stookers.
A word of digression, indulgent reader, which you may skip if you are so
minded; but I have often remarked the great difference that exists between
the reapers in an English and those in a Scotch harvest-field. In England
you will never, scarcely, hear a joke, certainly never a song; the men and
women look soddened, stupid, fat-headed, and that is precisely how they
feel. And it is all owing to the frequent applications they make to the jars of
beer, without which they would refuse to work. In Scottish harvest-fields it
is entirely different. Nothing stronger than butter-milk, whey, or “sma’ ale”
is taken, and the result is, that they are merry, lightsome, witty, and you may
hear them laughing, joking, and singing long before you come near the
field.
Pardon the digression, though I can’t say I feel sorry I have made it.
And Sandie, with his friend Willie, was the life of the cornfields.
Dear me! how their tongues did rattle on, to be sure; and dear me! how
young Tibbie Morrison, she with the pretty complexion, did laugh. Why, it
came to pass after a little time that Willie had only to look at her to set her
off again; and when she laughed Geordie Black’s laugh was ready chorus.
Geordie was no beauty to look at, but he had a good heart of his own,
nevertheless. That is, I should say, he had had, until—well, it is always best
to speak the truth—until it was lost and won by bonnie Tibbie Morrison.
Jeannie herself remarked more than once, that all the time Geordie was
working he couldn’t take his eyes off Tibbie.
But I think that Geordie must have been hardly hit, and I will tell you
why. Going into the stable on the evening of the second day, Sandie was
surprised to find Geordie sitting with his back to the dusty cobwebby
window, and a slate in his hand.
He was so thoroughly absorbed, that he neither saw our hero nor heard
his footsteps.
So Sandie made bold to peep over Geordie’s shoulder, and, to his intense
surprise, he found he was writing verses. That they possessed but little
literary merit, the following specimen will prove:—
BONNIE TIBBIE MORRISON.
O Tibbie, Tibbie Morrison,

I lo’e ye as my life,
And I would range the warld o’er
To mak’ ye my guid wife.
When ye are near, my Tibbie dear,

The sun seems shinin’ bright;
When Tibbie’s far awa’ frae me,
’Tis blackest, darkest night.
A ploughman lad is all my rank,

Sma’, sma’s my penny fee,
But I would gie it a’ awa’
For a love blink frae your e’e.
Tibbie, Tibbie! Tibbie!! TIBBIE!!!

Will ever ye be mine?
Will e’er I hold ye to my heart,
My wife and valentine?
“Why, Geordie, man!” cried Sandie, “is it as bad as that with you?”
Geordie sprang up as if shot, and grew as red as a beet. He tried to hide
the slate.
“Don’t trouble, Geordie; I’ve read it all, and really there is an anguish
displayed in the first line of that last verse that is quite touching.
‘Oh, Tibbie, Tibbie! Tibbie!! Tibbie!!!’
You come to a splendid climax with that last Tibbie. Shall I show it to
my friend Willie?”
“Losh! man, no!”
“Or to Tibbie herself?”
“Loshie me! man, what can ye be thinkin’ o’?”
“But, Geordie, you don’t mean to say that verses containing so much
sweetness and pathos as these are going to waste their sweetness in the
desert air? I question if Bobbie Burns himself would have written anything
like them.”
Geordie blushed again, and after much persuasion he agreed to write
them out—when Sabbath came round—and permit Sandie to present them.
“Of course,” said Sandie, somewhat mischievously, “when I give Tibbie
the poem, I will just brush the dew from her lips.”
“Oh, weel,” said Geordie resignedly, “I canna help that. You’ll do as you
like about it.”
The dinner-hour in the hairst (harvest) field was the most delightful of
all. The somewhat weary workers lay on the ground, or leant their backs
against the stocks. Mrs. M‘Crae herself, with Elsie and Geordie, brought the
dinner, and there was no want of appetite. The milk was of the creamiest,
the mashed potatoes like snow, the oatcakes crisp and delicious, and the
herrings done to a turn. Then there was curds and cream by way of dessert,
to say nothing of “swack” cheese, and potato-scones to finish up with.
The happy harvesters felt like giants refreshed, and there would still be
half-an-hour to rest.
That half-hour, however, was not spent in drowsy listlessness or sleep
itself. No, for the laugh and the joke went round; then Willie or Sandie
would always raise a song, a song with a chorus, and it was sweet to hear
the girlish voices of Tibbie and Jeannie chiming musically in with this
chorus.
Willie would have been nobody if he couldn’t have indulged in his joke,
and there was one song he sang, the chorus of which, it will be admitted,
was very witty indeed—that is, if brevity be the soul of wit.
Every line ended with the words—
“And the wind blew the bonnie lassie’s plaidie awa’!”
Then “Chorus,” Sandie would shout.
Chorus—“Plaidie awa!”
But the song made everybody laugh all the same, and so some
considerable good was accomplished by it.
. . . . . .
As far as the weather was concerned, the harvest was a delightful one,
for the sun shone brightly every day, and there blew a gentle breeze to help
to dry and “win” the corn.
As a crop, too, the yield was average, so Farmer M‘Crae was hopeful
and happy.
Then came the day when “kliack” would be taken, that is, when the last
or kliack sheaf would be cut.
As they neared the last “bout” cried Sandie, “Look out now, Geordie, for
the kliack hare!”
It is very strange, but true, that a hare very frequently starts off from the
last “bout” of corn that is cut on the harvest-field. This time was no
exception.
A splendid long brown-legged beast darted off for the woods.
Up to his shoulder went Geordie’s old gun.
Bang!
The echo rang back from the woods, and went reverberating away
among the rocky hills, but puss was intact. She gave her heels an extra kick,
took to the forest, and was seen no more.
So the hare was declared to be a witch, and no more was said about it.
But now comes Elsie herself, and Willie runs to meet her and lead her
forward by the hand. Right bonnie she looks in her dress of silken green
with poppies in her hair.
She has come to cut the kliack sheaf. Right deftly she does it too, and
binds it also with her own fair fingers.
Then cheers arise, three times three, that seem to make the welkin ring.
Harvest is done, kliack is taken, and every heart rejoices.
By-and-bye, when the stooking is quite finished, all march merrily
home.
Now, mark you this, reader, no vinous stimulant of any kind has been
used while harvest work was in progress.
But now, in the kitchen, all hands, each with a spoon, surround a big
table on which stands an immense basin of what is called meal and ale. I
will tell you its composition: about half a gallon of oatmeal, mixed with
good ale, sweetened with syrup, and fortified with a pint of the best Scotch
whisky.
And hark! somewhere in that dish was Mrs. M‘Crae’s marriage-ring. So
every mouthful had to be carefully examined by the tongue previous to
swallowing, and the person who was lucky enough to find that ring would
be married before the year was out.
When all this strange dish of brose was finished, and everybody averred
he or she had seen nothing of the ring, everybody began to cast suspicious
glances at everybody else.
But at long and last, noticing a strange light in Geordie’s eyes, Sandie
jumped up, and seizing him by one ear, pulled it till the rustic poet’s eyes
began to water.
“You’ve got it, Geordie! You’ve got it!”
Then, blushing like a beggar at a “bap” or a bun, Geordie confessed.
Everybody shook hands with him, and he felt the happiest man in all the
parish.
But greater happiness still was in store for Geordie.
After the meal and ale, in some sly way or other, Sandie succeeded in
obtaining private audience of winsome Tibbie.
“I’ve something to show you, Tibbie,” said Sandie.
“Nae possible!” said the artless lassie.
“Ah! but it’s fact. Geordie Black is in love with you, and he wrote you
these beautiful verses. Come nearer and I’ll read them.”
“Nae possible!” said Tibbie.
While he slowly, and with much emotion, read these verses, Sandie
encircled Tibbie’s waist with one arm.
I am not quite certain that this was necessary.
Tibbie blushed as Sandie read.
“Now,” said Sandie, “I’ll let you have them to keep for a kiss.”
“Nae possible!” said Tibbie. But the bargain was concluded all the same.
Next evening all the lads and lasses in the countryside gathered at
Kilbuie to the kliack-ball, and if Geordie danced once that evening with
artless Tibbie, he danced with her fifty times.
Geordie was in the third heaven.
Tibbie was kind.
CHAPTER II
“REMEMBER, REMEMBER THIS FIFTH OF

NOVEMBER”—MACLEAN’S ROOMS
Classes were once more up. The session had opened, and once again the
streets of Aberdeen were gay with the crimson togas of the students.
Everybody was glad to see everybody else, and the several professors
professed themselves rejoiced to meet again their pupils in the old and
classic halls of the University. They hoped work would now go on apace, so
that in after years of their lives the students would be able to look back with
pleasure to the time they spent so profitably within the embrace of their
beloved alma mater.
A week or two passed by, then came the never-forgotten 5th of
November.
Now, I do not believe that such a scene, as I fear I shall now all too
inadequately describe, is possible in the Aberdeen of to-day. I can only
premise that it is painted from the life.
Castlegate, let me tell you, is a large square formed at the junctions of
those splendid pearly-walled thoroughfares, Union and King Streets. It has
a granite statue of the Duke of Gordon, a fine old cross similar to that in
Chichester, and some other ancient cities, also a few pieces of cannon
captured from the Russians at Sebastopol.
In a line with King Street, and from the other side of the square, runs
Marischal Street, which is very steep, and leads direct to the quay, where lie
the ships. This is all I wish you to remember.
On this particular 5th of November, it did not appear that there would be
any greater excitement than usual.
“Only a bit of fun and a few fireworks,” Willie explained to Sandie, and
thus induced him to come along.
But by nine o’clock, not only was the square densely thronged by a mob
bent on merriment and mischief, but all the streets leading thereto.
About half-past nine the fun waxed fast and furious. Even had they tried,
the police force would have been powerless to clear the Castlegate. They
would have but infuriated the mob, and an Aberdeen mob, if it loses its
temper, is very terrible indeed, as witness the meal-mobs and the Chartist
riots.
The discharge of fireworks was incessant and marvellous. Pyrotechny
was there in every form. Rockets, Roman candles, St. Catherine wheels,
even dangerous maroons; while as for squibs, the deft young fellows stuck
them in pistols, lit them, and fired them in the air, or in through open first-
floor windows, much to the terror of those leaning over to gaze at the
pandemonium going on beneath.
Nearly everybody had their jackets closely buttoned up, but crackers and
squibs were lit and thrust into every available pocket that could be seen.
Many thus had their clothes burned and ruined.
A little after ten o’clock, policemen and watchmen, full ninety strong,
made their appearance in marching order, and attempted to clear the square.
They had no truncheons, only simply their sticks. Their endeavours,
however, were utterly unsuccessful. If the crowd disappeared before them at
one place, it was only to bank up in double force in another.
The police were good-natured.
“Gang hame noo, like good bairns,” was about all they said.
But the action of one townsman—I am glad to say he was no student—
precipitated a crisis at last. He was foolish enough to seize a watchman and
attempt to throw him. Both men came heavily to the ground, then others
took the townsman’s part, and in less time than it takes me to write it,
truncheons on the one side, and heavy bludgeons on the other were drawn,
and blood flowed like water. Ninety men opposed to about two thousand
have little chance, despite the fact that they have law on their side, so the
upshot of the collision was that in twenty minutes’ time the Bobbies and
Charlies were beaten back, and had to take refuge behind the Town Hall.
“Hadn’t we better get home now?” said Sandie. “If I am found or
captured in this crowd I shall lose my bursary, and that means ruin.”
“Father,” said Willie exultantly, “will be out before long to read the Riot
Act. After that you know the soldiers will come. We shall make a move just
before that.”
But now the riot entered upon a new phase. Some one raised the cry “A
boat! a boat!” and in a moment it spread like wildfire through all that vast
determined mob.
Sandie and Willie had only time to back into an entry, when the crowd
went surging past them, one vast human river, flowing down Marischal
Street towards the harbour.
They seemed to have been gone no time when they were back again,
singing and yelling and shouting triumphantly, as they dragged a boat
along.
Where, I wonder, did the hammers come from? I cannot answer, but here
they were.
Bang, bang, smash, smash, and in a very few minutes the broken timbers
of the boat were piled in a heap in the middle of the square.
Where did that bucket of tar come from? I cannot even answer that. But
it was poured upon the woodwork, and the bucket itself was left on top.
Then a light was set to the pile, and in a few minutes the flames were
ascending sky-high. Every house around stood out in bold and fiery relief,
and the Duke’s monument looked like a martyr at the stake.
“Hurrah! hurrah!” shouted the frantic mob. Then in a huge circle they
joined hands and danced around the blazing fire, just as many a time since
have I seen savages in Central Africa do.
How they yelled! How they shouted! How they sang!
But the fire began to burn dull and low at last, and just about this time
there arose a shout of alarm: the Provost in his robes was coming in an open
carriage to read the Riot Act.
“Come now, Sandie,” cried Willie, “we’ve had enough fun for one night.
Father musn’t see me here.”
Nor did he.
Indeed, he saw but very few.
For the mob had no wish to have a collision with the soldiers—“the
gallant Forty-twa,” so they melted away like snowflakes in a river, and truly
speaking, the Act was read to the dying embers of the fire.
One large party of students had still a little fun left in them, however.
They formed fours-deep, and went marching off down King Street, singing
“The Land o’the Leal.”
“We’re wearin’ awa’, Jean,
Like snaw-wreaths in thaw, Jean,
We’re wearin’ awa’—a’—a’
To the Land o’the Leal.”
For the life of him the douce Provost could not help laughing, as they
went filing past his carriage.
Willie went with Sandie to his attic, and Sandie’s little busybody of a
landlady placed before them a delicious supper of mashed potatoes, stewed
tripe, and fragrant coffee.
“Glad we’ve got safe home,” said Sandie. “Aren’t you, Willie?”
“Oh, delighted, but I must say I enjoyed myself immensely. That bonfire
was a beauty. I hope my dear old father won’t catch cold. And the soldiers
will have nothing to do, if they do come, but drown out the dying embers of
the fire.”
. . . . . .
The great prize of sixty pounds, tenable for two years, was to be
competed for at the end of the present session. There were in reality two,
one for Greek, the other for higher mathematics, but it was to the latter
Sandie determined to bend all his energies, as he thought the competition
would not here be so great.
Next to Sandie, if not indeed superior in this branch of the curriculum,
was a Highland student of the name of Maclean, with whom I must now
make the reader better acquainted.
Sandie, by the way, had made quite enough at the herring-fishing to
render him independent of his dunderheaded pupil for one session at least;
and for this he felt he could not be too thankful.
Maclean and he one day, while sauntering arm-in-arm along Union
Street, deep in the mysteries of x + y, entered into a compact to study
together. One evening it was to be in Sandie’s garret, and the next in
Maclean’s diggings, as he termed his lodgings.
The first grind took place in our hero’s attic. At one o’clock, when both
parted for the night, they each agreed that the evening had been most
profitably spent.
Next night, at eight o’clock, Sandie, after some difficulty, found his way
to Maclean’s door. The house in which the lodgings were was a somewhat
cheap and unsavoury thoroughfare off George Street.
The stairs were sadly rickety, the house itself was not a sweet one. From
a room on the ground-floor issued the scraping of a vile old fiddle,
accompanied by the scuffling of feet, and every now and then an eldritch
shriek of laughter. But Sandie went onwards and upwards, and on the top
floor of all a door was suddenly thrown open, and Maclean held out his
hand to welcome him in.
A great oil lamp was burning on a table at one end of the long room.
This lamp served for heat and light both, for there was no fire. In fact, these
students—of whom there were four in all living in this one room—could
not afford fire except to cook.
“You are right welcome, Mr. M‘Crae,” said Maclean.
Then he pointed to another young man who sat book in hand by the
table.
“My brother,” he said; “he is at the grammar-school, but he won’t disturb
us. Now,” he continued, “look around you, and I’ll put you up to our
domestic economy and household arrangements. To begin with, you know
we are all as poor as rats, though all bursars, and we all mean to study for
the Church, or to be teachers at least. Yonder, in that bed, are the brothers
Macleod. They come from our parish. Well, you see, they go to bed—we
only have one—at seven and sleep till one. My brother and I study till one,
then we have the bed and they begin their studies, though often enough they
curl up in their plaids and have a few more hours on the floor.”
“Yes, I understand, and I don’t blame them.”
“Well, we have no landlady. The few sticks of furniture you see are all
hired, except the frying-pan and other cooking utensils. These we bought.
We are not going to invite you to dinner, Mr. M‘Crae, because our fare is
far too meagre.
“You see those barrels? Well, two contain herrings, salt and red, one
contains nice oatmeal, and the small one pease-flour. And with the addition
of milk that is brought to us every morning, and now and then an egg, and a
bit of butter, with always a nice sheep’s head and trotters on Sunday, I can
assure you we live like fighting-cocks. Don’t we, Donal?”
“That we do,” said Donal, looking smilingly up from Xenophon’s
Anabasis.
And poor though an Englishman would consider fare like this, it must be
confessed that the two Macleans were as hard and brown as hazel-nuts upon
it.
“And now then, my friend, if you are ready, let us begin the grind.”
And the “grind” was commenced accordingly. And hardly did those
earnest plodding students lift head except to address each other in low
monotones, till forth from the great steeple of the East Church peeled the
solemn stroke of one.
Then Maclean closed his books with a bang and jumped joyfully up.
“Turn out the Macleods,” he shouted as loud as he could. “One o’clock,
my hearties. Turn out! Turn out! There, Donal! pull the blankets off them
while I see Mr. M‘Crae safely down the rickety old stairs.”
He lit match after match for this purpose.
“Don’t lean on the bannisters,” he said, “else over you go.”
Sandie was safe in the street at last, and bade his friend good-night, just
as every watchman in the city with stentorian lungs was bawling—
“Past one! Pa-a-ast one-n-n,” with a long ringing musical emphasis on
the “n” of the one.
Sandie went homewards happy enough, and just a little tired and sleepy,
but he had found out one truth, namely, that poor though he himself might
be, he was not, by a long way, the poorest student at the great Northern
University.
Sandie and his friend Maclean kept up their mathematical studies
together in the most friendly way till the very last day. Everybody knew that
the prize lay between these two hard-working students, and it came to pass
that when the day of competition arrived at last, and Sandie and Maclean
found their way to the class-room where the papers were to be given out,
they only found two other opponents there, and both left within an hour
without handing in a paper.
The Professor looked up from his desk and smiled.
“When Greek meets Greek,” he said, “then comes the tug of war.”
CHAPTER III
“WE HAVE BEEN AS BROTHERS: WE ARE BROTHERS

STILL”
Yes, Greek had met Greek, and the tug of war had begun.
It really does seem surprising, when we come to consider it, that those
two humble Scottish students, knowing that they were rivals, well aware
that they would have to fight against each other at the great competition,
should have studied side by side, cheek by cheek, for so many weary
months.
But such was the case.
They were very far separated now though, many seats apart, and each
was for himself.
Before he even glanced at the paper, Sandie bent his head over his hands
on the desk and prayed long and fervently, asking a blessing on the work he
was about to do, but reverently adding, “If it be Thy will.”
Do not smile, O thoughtless reader. I myself, the writer of this true story,
have had in my time the most marvellous answers to prayers, and I do not
think I ever prayed for anything fervently, earnestly, without my prayer
being granted.
Sandie soon found that he could do every portion of the exercises,
difficult though they were, except one. That he could not bring out. After
finishing all the rest, he pored and posed over this for one long hour. His
head felt splitting in twain, strange nervous tremors ran along his limbs, and
the cold sweat burst out from every pore.
At last a strange drowsiness stole over him. He put up his feet upon the
seat, leaned his head upon his folded hands, and fell fast asleep.
Now, account for it as you may, reader, account for it if you can, I but
state a fact when I say that in a dream Sandie got out of his difficulty, and
saw the question written plainly out before him.
He was hardly awake when he sprung up and recommenced to write, fast
and faster, and presently the thing was done.
“Hurrah!” he shouted, “Eureka!”
He really could not help it.
The Professor looked a little surprised, but smiled.
“I hope you enjoyed your nap,” he said.
“Did I sleep long?” said Sandie.
“Only two hours.”
“Oh dear, Professor, I am very very sorry, and I see Maclean has gone. It
was cruel of me to keep you.”
“All right, my lad; don’t mention it. Are you ready now?”
“I shall just write a clean copy of this last, then I’m done.”
In fifteen minutes more he had handed in his papers. The Professor
shook him by the hand, and he went away happy and hopeful.
But he did not remain long so, for while at tea, about an hour after, on
looking over his papers he discovered a mistake he had made, which threw
him into the lowest depths of despair.
He had scarcely finished, when there was a modest knock at the door,
and his friend Maclean himself entered, smiling too.
“He is the winner,” said Sandie to himself, when he saw that smile.
“May I come in?”
“Don’t ask such a question; you know you are as welcome as the
primrose in spring!”
Maclean seated himself on the edge of a chair.
“Mr. M‘Crae—Sandie,” he said, “if you don’t win this £60 prize, I will.”
“True!”
“And, Sandie, if I lose, you will win.”
“Naturally!”
“But I haven’t flattered myself I shall win, so don’t think it will keep me
awake at night if I don’t.”
“Bravo! Maclean. Spoken like a true Highlander.”
“But, Sandie——”
“Yes, Mac!”
“I want you to promise me one thing, and the same promise do I now
make to you.”
“Name it, lad.”
“I promise faithfully that whichever way the prize goes, it shall not alter
my friendship for you.”
“And I promise the same, Mac.”
“Shake hands.”
“Will you have a cup of tea? Do.”
“Well, I will, to please you.”
“And now,” said Mac, when tea was finished, “suppose we compare
papers.”
“Right; but, Maclean, I tell you to begin with, that when I handed in my
work, I thought it was sine errore, but only a few minutes ago I discovered
an egregious mistake. So I fear I have little chance.”
The landlady came at Sandie’s summons—there was no bell; he simply
knocked on the floor with the heel of his boot. She cleared the table and
placed thereon cold water and glasses.
Then those two anxious young men drew near, and first Sandie’s papers
were carefully gone over. No mistake but the one could be discovered.
“If you are right,” said Maclean, his hopes going down to zero, “then
I’m very far out of my reckoning in many things.”
And so it really seemed.
Sandie took very great pains, but could not help condemning more than
one of Maclean’s exercises.
Maclean leaned back in his chair at last and heaved a deep sigh.
“What is to be will be,” he said resignedly. “Sandie, you are the lucky
man.”
“Maclean,” said Sandie innocently, “I begin to think I am. Oh, would we
could both get a prize!”
“Maclean,” he said, after a pause, “we have worked and toiled together
all throughout the weary winter. We have been as brothers. We are as
brothers still. We are both poor, but, Mac, you are the poorer. It seems
certain this prize is mine; let me share it with you. I can rub along, God
helping me, with half of it.”
The tears sprang to poor Mac’s eyes.
“Och, and och,” he said, rapidly dashing his hand across his face, “I
never thought the man was living who could bring tears to the eyes of a
Maclean, whose forbears fought and bled at Culloden. Sandie, if anybody
but yourself had made me such an offer, it is wild with the anger I would
have been. But you are like a brother. Promise never to repeat the offer, and
I’ll forgive you. Never will a Maclean touch the copper penny he has not
won or earned. Promise!”
“I promise, and crave your forgiveness—brother.”
. . . . . .
Yes, Sandie was declared victor.
And just an hour afterwards, a little boy with a buff-coloured envelope
appeared at the door of Kilbuie house. Elsie flew to meet him, and went
rushing in with the telegram to her mother.
Mrs. M‘Crae’s hand shook so, she could not open it, so Elsie tore it
open.
Her face sparkled with joy when she read the glad tidings.
About the same time another telegraph-boy put in an appearance at the
manse of Belhaven.
This message was addressed to Maggie May. It was the first telegram
ever she had received in her life. She read it a dozen times over, ay, and
kissed it. Then she went joyfully bounding down the road to meet her
father, who had been paying visits in the pony trap.
“O father, father! what do you think?” she shouted.
“Oh, I can guess.”
“Yes, Sandie has won! Oh, isn’t it nice? oh, isn’t he clever?”
She jumped up beside her father as she spoke, that with his own eyes he
might read the joyful news.
“So glad, so glad!” he said with moistening eyes. “He is our own boy—
so glad!”
. . . . . .
I may state here at once, that both sums of £60 each, that were paid to
Sandie during the next two years, were placed carefully away in the North
of Scotland Bank. They would come in handy later on, when he
commenced the study of Divinity.
Meanwhile, Sandie relaxed no effort to keep well ahead of his classes.
He determined not only to pass his examinations for his Bachelor of Arts
degree, but to pass with honours.
With this end in view, I am bound to say that he studied harder than he
ought to have done.
Sandie was, however, much reinvigorated in health from his herring-
fishing cruises, which he took every summer. But he never sailed again
from Blackhive. The memories of the sad deaths of poor Eppie and her wee
man were far too painful, and he wished rather they should die away than
revive.
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
It is the end of the last session of the curriculum. Sandie and several
others are to be capped and gowned in the great hall, as they have their
degrees conferred upon them.
The ceremony is a very pretty, not to say an impressive one, and the hall
is crowded with lady sight-seers, chiefly the friends and relations of the
young Masters and Bachelors of Arts.
Among these is a young girl of about sixteen, so innocently beautiful
that many an opera-glass is turned towards her by the students—who as a
class are by no means shy. She sits by the side of an elderly clergyman with
mild blue eyes and a pleasant smile. The girl is Maggie May, the gentleman
her father. Next her on the other side is Elsie herself, flanked by Willie
Munro. She too is beautiful, and commands a greater share of attention than
she desires, for more than once the colour suffuses her face, and she feels
anything but happy.
When Sandie was receiving his degree, so great was the silence you
might have heard the proverbial pin drop, especially when the Principal of
the University addressed him in words somewhat as follows:—
“I cannot let this opportunity pass, Mr. M‘Crae, of congratulating you on
the most successful career you have sustained at this University. My brother
Professors all agree with me in saying you have been an honour to the great
Northern University. We all wish you long life and good health. If you have
this latter blessing, we do not fear for your success in life.”
Then every Professor shook Sandie kindly by the hand, while the
cheering of his fellow-students was like thunder itself.
. . . . . .
It was all over now, and it is no wonder that reaction came on, or that
depression succeeded to the long-continued excitement of study.
Sandie was home at Kilbuie, and Willie—merry-hearted Willie, who
never let anything trouble him long—was on an early summer visit to the
farm.
But do what he could, he was unable to rouse Sandie from the seeming
lethargy into which he was sinking.
Sandie was changed too, and changing still. His cheeks and temples had
become more hollow of late; there was a red spot beneath each eye that his
mother did not like; he had lost much of his strength, perspired more easily
than he ought to have done; his voice was weak, and, worst symptom of all,
he sometimes had a hollow cough.
Willie went straight away to Aberdeen one day, and when he returned
next forenoon Dr. Kilgour was with him.
He most carefully examined our ploughboy-student, then he said to him
—
“You’re a sensible youth, so I can speak to you straight. If you can get
away to sunnier climes for a year, including a long sea-voyage in a sailing
ship, you’ll return as hard as a hunter. If you don’t do this, you are booked
for the other side of Jordan.”
The rough but kindly doctor told his mother the same, and she began to
cry.
“Oh,” she moaned, “if my boy goes to sea, I shall never never see him
more!”
“Tuts! woman, don’t be a fool. I tell you it is his only chance. You are
bound to let him go—so there!”
. . . . . .
There was that sum of £120 lying untouched in the bank, and this Sandie
determined to devote to the payment of his expenses. If it pleased God, he
said to himself, to bring him back from sea safe and well, he would be able
by teaching to make enough to pay his divinity classes.
So he commenced at once to get ready his outfit.
There was a hopeful pleasure in even this, and while so engaged Sandie
believed himself getting better already.
The parting from his parents and Elsie, and from Maggie May and the
minister, would, he knew, be painful enough, but then there was Hope to sit
up aloft and breathe the flattering tale.
One day Willie, who had been to Aberdeen, burst into Sandie’s room in a
state of joyful excitement. He was waving aloft a curious-looking
document, which was half printed, half written.
“Hurrah!” he cried. “Now, Sandie, I’m going to astonish you. Better
catch hold of something for fear you fall. Do you know the Tomlisons, the
rich shipowners?”
“By hearsay, Willie.”
“Well, they know you by hearsay. They know all your strange story, and
all your hard struggles, and they have heard about your illness, and even got
Dr. Kilgour’s report, and they have sent you a free pass to Australia, round
by the Horn.”
“Oh, how kind!” cried Sandie. “But, Willie, can I in honour accept?”
“If you didn’t accept, I should look upon you as a pagan, Sandie. Sit
down there at once, and write and thank them.”
And Sandie did.
CHAPTER IV
THE DANGER AND DIFFICULTY WAS TO COME

The Boo-boo-boo was a crack Aberdeen clipper barque, of large
dimensions, and though not in the habit of carrying passengers, beautifully
fitted aft, with a saloon like a marble hall, and splendid well-fitted state-
rooms off it.
She was in the Australian trade. Her cargo might best be described by
the American term “notions,” for she carried anything and everything by
which she was likely to turn an honest penny.
The barque was nearly new, having only made three voyages, and
always with pecuniary success to her owners.
She lay in Aberdeen harbour, and was nearly ready for sea.
. . . . . .

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Mechanics of materials in modern

manufacturing methods and

Series editor-in-chief: Vadim V. Silberschmidt

Series editor: Thomas Böhlke

Series editor: David L. McDowell

Series editor: Zhong Chen

For Information on all Elsevier publications

Publisher: Matthew Deans

List of contributors xiii

1 Modeling of metal forming: a review 1

2 Finite element method modeling of hydraulic and thermal

2.1.4 Thermal autofrettage 35

4 Electromagnetic pulse forming 111

4.5 Prospects for future developments 139

5 Damage in advanced processing technologies 143

6 Numerical modeling of the mechanics of pultrusion 173

6.3 Thermochemical modeling 180

7 Modeling of machining processes 197

8 Mechanics of ultrasonically assisted drilling 229

8.2.1 Kinematic modeling 230

9 Machining in monocrystals 243

10 Microstructural changes in machining 269

11 Residual stresses in machining 297

12 Microstructural changes in materials under shock and high

12.4.3 Effect of shock parameters 376

13 Thermomechanics of friction stir welding 393

14 Modeling of friction in manufacturing processes 415

W. Bai Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, P.R. China

Ismet Baran Faculty of Engineering Technology, University of Twente, Enschede,

Anuj Bisht Department of Materials Engineering, Indian Institute of Science,

Raphaël Benjamin Comminal Department of Mechanical Engineering, Section of

Uday Shanker Dixit Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of

Christoph Hartl TH Köln - Faculty of Automotive Systems and Production,

Jesper H. Hattel Department of Mechanical Engineering, Section of

Masoud Jabbari School of Mechanical, Aerospace & Civil Engineering, The

Gopalan Jagadeesh Department of Aerospace Engineering, Indian Institute of

Jun Jiang Department of Mechanical Engineering, Imperial College London,

Martin Larsen Fiberline Composites A/S, Middelfart, Denmark

Jürgen Leopold TBZ-PARIV GmbH, Chemnitz, Germany

Jianguo Lin Department of Mechanical Engineering, Imperial College London,

Qiang Liu Department of Materials Engineering, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium

P.M. Pandey Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of

Ka Ho Pang Wolfson School of Mechanical, Electrical and Manufacturing

Anish Roy Wolfson School of Mechanical, Electrical and Manufacturing

Filip Bo Salling Department of Mechanical Engineering, Section of Manufacturing

Michael Sandberg Department of Mechanical Engineering, Section of

Gerd Sebastiani imk automotive GmbH, Chemnitz, Germany

Zhutao Shao Department of Mechanical Engineering, Imperial College London,

Rajkumar Shufen Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of

Vadim V. Silberschmidt Wolfson School of Mechanical, Electrical and

Mads Rostgaard Sonne Department of Mechanical Engineering, Section of

Jon Spangenberg Department of Mechanical Engineering, Section of

R. Sun Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, P.R. China

Satyam Suwas Department of Materials Engineering, Indian Institute of Science,

J. Xu Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, P.R. China

V. Yadav Department of Mechanical Engineering, Maulana Azad National

Onur Yuksel Faculty of Engineering Technology, University of Twente,

cycle fatigue in advanced engineering alloys, atomistic simulations of dislocation

Thomas Böhlke is Professor and Chair of Continuum Mechanics at the Karlsruhe

1.2 Modeling issues in various metal forming processes

Figure 1.2 Closed die forging.

Figure 1.3 A tandem rolling mill.

1.2.3 Wire drawing