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Textbook Cognitive Neuroscience of Aging Linking Cognitive and Cerebral Aging Second Edition Cabeza Ebook All Chapter PDF
Textbook Cognitive Neuroscience of Aging Linking Cognitive and Cerebral Aging Second Edition Cabeza Ebook All Chapter PDF
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i
COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE
OF AGING
ii
iii
COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE
OF AGING
Edited by
Roberto Cabeza
Lars Nyberg
Denise C. Park
1
iv
1
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers
the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education
by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University
Press in the UK and certain other countries.
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Printed by Sheridan Books, Inc., United States of America
╇ v
Contents
Introduction â•… 1
I Methods and€Issues
4 Age Differences in Functional Connectivity at Rest and During Cognitive Tasks â•… 105
Cheryl L. Grady
vi Contents
II Cognitive Processes
Index 529
vii
Contributors
vii
viii
viii Contributors
Contributors ix
(A)
Neurovascular
coupling
Metabolites
MRI
• Blood volume ↑ scan
Stimulus • Blood flow ↑
• Blood oxygenation ↑
Neuronal Vessel size
activity fMRI
Astrocytes BOLD
signal
Neurotransmitters
(B) (C) 3
–2
0 100 200 300
time Time (s)
Figure 1.4 Illustration of BOLD fMRI. (A) Illustration of the neurovascular coupling pathway that leads to the observa-
tion of fMRI signal change due to a stimulus. (B) Example of task-fMRI stimulus paradigm. (C) Corresponding BOLD
signal in visual cortex from an fMRI scan using the paradigm in (b). Red bars indicate stimulus periods.
Control-Label
Figure 1.6 The principle of ASL MRI. In the control scan, the magnetization of the blood is unchanged; whereas in the
label scan, the magnetization of the blood is inverted when passing through the labeling plane. Note that the RF pulse train
is still played out during the control scan, but it is essentially a zero-degree RF pulse. The purpose of this is to equate the
magnetization transfer effects between the label and control images. After a time delay which allows the labeled blood to
arrive at the imaging slice, a control image and a labeled image are acquired. The subtraction of control and labeled images
can cancel the static tissue signal and the resulting difference image provides an estimation of CBF to the brain.
2
(A) Glucose metabolism (18F-FDG) (B) Amyloid burden (11C-PIB) (C) Tau burden (18F-T807)
Normal metabolism Regional hypometabolism Low amyloid High amyloid Low tau High tau
SUVR DVR DVR
0 1.2 0 1.5 0 2.0
Figure 2.1 A) Example images for FDG-PET standardized uptake values (SUVR) for two clinically healthy older adults (age > 70). The person on the left shows typical cortical FDG
signal, the person on the right has evidence of temporo-parietal hypometabolism. B and C) Example images for clinically healthy older adults showing evidence for low and high amyloid
burden as measured with 11C-PIB (B) and tau burden as measured with 18F-T807 (C). PET signal for all tracers is standardized with respect to the cerebellum.
Figure 2.4 Example PET images for three common PET ligands of the dopamine system. An example image for a young person (20-30 years) and a clinically normal older adult (>
65 years) is shown for each ligand. Loss of striatal signal for the old person can be seen for all ligands. Images are voxelwise Distribution Volume Ratio images (DVR, Logan et al.
1990) with reference region cerebellum.
3
λ2
λ3
(D) (E)
FA = 0.01
FA = 0.8
(F) (G)
A B C
White Matter Voxels
Diffusion Tensors
Figure 3.1 Contributions to tract anisotropy. (A) Water diffuses more easily along the axis of a fiber bundle than it does
across the axis of the bundle, due to the presence of barriers such as membranes and myelin. (B) Typically, multiple dif-
ferent diffusion-weighted images are acquired, with each one sensitized to diffusion along a different direction in space.
(C) One can fit a mathematical model to the measurements in order to estimate certain model parameters that describe
diffusion behavior within each voxel. The most commonly used model, the diffusion tensor model, fits the measurements
to a tensor, or ellipsoid, which is fully characterized by its three orthogonal eigenvectors and their associated lengths, or
eigenvalues (k1, k2, k3). (D) In cerebral spinal fluid (CSF), water diffuses freely in all directions and so FA is close to zero;
in white matter, diffusion is directionally dependent and so FA is closer to one. (E) The long axis of the diffusion tensor
corresponds to the principal diffusion direction. Within a coherent fiber bundle this aligns with the fiber direction. (F) By
following these voxel-wise estimates of principal diffusion directions it is possible to perform diffusion tractography, and
reconstruct estimates of fiber pathways. (G) Variations in diffusion parameters along tracts during normative development
are likely a combination of tract-specific (e.g. myelin content, axonal characteristics) and local environment contributions.
Voxel 1 contains a tract of interest (yellow) as well as a crossing tract (gray), resulting in low anisotropy measurements at
this point. Voxel 2 contains only the tract of interest and exhibits high anisotropy. Within voxel 3 axons from nearby gray
matter join the tract and some axons break off heading toward gray matter targets. The result would be a drop in anisotropy
measurements at this point in the tract. The figure is reproduced with permission from (Walhovd et al., 2014).
Figure 3.2 Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) tractography. (A) Seed and target regions. (B) Estimated fibers in the
genu of the corpus callosum. (C) Estimated stream tube. (D) Estimated stream tube with age group differences in
fractional anisotropy (FA) color coded; warm colors representing age-related decline. Modified and reproduced
with permission from Davis et al. (2009).
4
Fractional anisotropy (FA) Axial (principal) diffusion (AD) Radial diffusion (RD) Mean diffusion (MD)
4 4 –4 –4
2 2 –2 –2
z-score
0 0 0 0
–2 2 2 –2
–4 4 4 –4
–6 6 6 –6
5 25 45 65 85 5 25 45 65 85 5 25 45 65 85 5 25 45 65 85
Years Years Years Years
Age-effects on (FA) White matter volume Cortical myelin content Cortical volume
4 4 4
2 2 2
0 0 0
–2 –2 –2
–4 –4 –4
–6 –6 –6
Quadratic age-effect 5 25 45 65 85 5 25 45 65 85 5 25 45 65 85
No quadratic age-effect Years Years Years
Figure 3.3 Multimodal imaging of white matter through the lifespan. Results are based on 430 well-screened healthy participants between 8 and 85 years (mean 41.6 years). Values in the scatter-
plots are expressed in z-scores (standard deviations) to ease comparison between metrics. Values represent for FA, axial, radial and mean diffusion the mean of all voxels that were included in the
left superior longitudinal fasciculus. The tract-based spatial statistics skeleton represents the middle of the tract for all participants (red and green voxels in the lower left brain image). White matter
volume represents the total volume of all cerebral white matter, and cortical volume represents the volume of all cortical gray matter, in both cases corrected for total intracranial volume. Cortical
myelin content is based on the ratio between T1-and T2-weighted MR images in an overlapping sample (n = 339, age 8–83 years), sampled 0.2 mm from the white matter/gray matter boundary into
the gray matter in the superior frontal cortex. Data modified from (Grydeland et al., 2013) and reproduced with permission from (Walhovd et al., 2014).
5
A
R L
P
FA 0.6
0.5
FA
0.4
25 50 75 100 125
Milliseconds
AD 1350
1300
1250
AD
1200
1150
1100
25 50 75 100 125
Milliseconds
RD
750
700
650
RD
600
550
500
450
25 50 75 100 125
Milliseconds
MD 900
850
MD
800
750
700
25 50 75 100 125
Milliseconds
Figure 3.5 Age-related differences in the relation between reaction time standard deviation (sdRT) and measures of
microstructural integrity. Voxels showing a significant age x sdRT interaction on diffusion characteristics are displayed
(age, sex, mRT, and sdRT were used as covariates). The effects are corrected for multiple comparisons across space by
threshold-free cluster enhancement at p < 0.05. The results are smoothed to ease visualization of effects, and displayed
on top of the WM skeleton (red on green skeleton, FA; copper on green skeleton, AD; blue on green skeleton, RD; green
on red skeleton, MD). Right, Scatterplots illustrating the relationship between sdRT in milliseconds (x-axis) and diffusion
characteristics (y-axis) across all voxels showing a significant relationship between sdRT and diffusion. As can be seen,
weak relationships exist in the younger half of the sample (age < 52 years), while stronger relationships are seen in the
older half (age ≥ 52 years). Reaction time data drawn from the less-demanding (congruent) condition of the Eriksen flanker
task. The more attentionally demanding (incongruent) condition yielded a similar, though spatially less extensive, pattern.
Figure reproduced with permission from Fjell et al. (2011).
6
(A)
Younger Middle Older
L L L
(B)
L L L
1 19
Figure 3.6 White matter lesion (WML) volume. Panel A: White matter lesions for individual adults 20, 48, and 65 years
of age, in T2-weighted FLAIR images. Participants were healthy, community-dwelling individuals without any sign
of cognitive impairment on neuropsychological testing or history of cardiovascular disease (other than hypertension).
Lesions, as identified from a semi-automated program separating lesions from normal white matter appear in red. Panel
B: Voxelwise lesion maps for 23 younger adults (19-39 years of age), 19 middle-aged adults (40-59 years of age), and 16
older adults (60-79 years of age). Color scale represents the number of individuals within each group exhibiting a lesion,
per voxel, overlaid on a T1-weighted template. Authors’ data.
vPCC
0.3
0.2 Young
Older
0.1
0
vPCC MTL dPCC
dPCC
Figure 4.1 Age differences in FC within DMN subsystems are shown. The images on the left show the patterns of FC
with the ventral PCC (vPCC subsystem), the left parahippocampal gyrus (MTL subsystem) and the dorsal PCC (dPCC
subsystem) that were identified in both age groups. The graph at the right shows that the strength of seed correlation with
these FC patterns differs with age. The mean correlation (across a resting state run) between seed activity and activity in
the relevant brain regions for younger and older adults is plotted. Age differences are indicated by asterisks. Data are from
Campbell et al (2013).
7
(A)
(B) 1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
Correlations
0.20
Older
–0.00
Young
–0.20
–0.40
–0.60
–0.80
–1.00
RFG LFG medOFC RT ACC
Figure 4.3 (A) The colored brain regions represent a set of areas active in young and older adults during a face-matching task. (B) The graph shows the correlations between activity in the
regions in (a) and activity in right fusiform, left fusiform, medial orbitofrontal cortex (medOFC). Correlations between activity in the regions seen in (a) and behaviour also are shown (reaction
time, RT; accuracy, acc). Young adults show correlations between right and left fusiform and the regions seen in (a), but not with medOFC or behaviour. In contrast, older adults show reliable
positive correlations between the pattern of activity, right fusiform activity, and accuracy on the task, indicating age differences in FC as well as how the FC pattern relates to performance. Error
bars denote 95% confidence intervals for the correlations. Data are from Burianova et al (2013).
8
Figure 6.4 Cross-sectional estimates of age-related decline in hippocampal activity during episodic memory encoding.
The sample comprised 292 individuals aged 20-80 years, divided into 8 age groups. The blue clusters show the main effect
of encoding across the sample, whereas the age-effect is shown in red. Reproduced with data from Salami et al., 2012,
Journal of Neuroscience.
(A)
(B) (C)
0.6
0.2
Beta change 2003–2008
0 0.4
–0.2
Beta values
0.2
–0.4
0
–0.6
–0.2
–0.8
–0.4
45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85
Age Age
Figure 6.6 Discrepancy between longitudinal (panel A) and cross-sectional (panel B) age-effects on activity in the right dorso-
lateral frontal cortex. Reproduced with permission from Nyberg et al., 2010, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
of the United States of America.
9
z=8 z = 24 z = 32
(A) (B)
30 20
20 10
Brain score
Brain score
10 0
0
–10
–10
–20
–20
–30
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Age (years) Age (years)
Encoding tasks Recognition tasks
Figure 6.7 Scatter plots indicate significant cross-sectional age-related increases in a brain network comprising medial
frontal gyrus, precuneus, posterior cingulate cortex, cuneus and middle occipital gyrus (yellow/orange clusters), as indi-
cated by higher brain scores. Conversely, younger adults had higher activity in a network comprising middle and inferior
frontal gyrus, caudate nucleus, putamen and fusiform gyrus (blue brain clusters), as indicated by lower brain scores. The
changes are common to various task conditions during memory encoding and retrieval. Reprinted by permission of MIT
Press Journals, from Grady et al., (2006), Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience.
10
(A)
(B)
Figure 8.3 Gray-matter volume. Age-related declines in gray-matter volume are associated with (A) increased distracti-
bility and, (B) deficient neural suppression of sensory cortex activity in older participants. Previously published (Chadick
et al., 2014).
Genu of corpus
callosum
Superior longitudinal
fasciculus
Uncinate
Right fasciculus Left
Splenium of corpus
callosum
Posterior
z = 20 z = 40
P = 0.05 P = 0.01
Figure 8.4 White-matter integrity. Age-related declines in white-matter integrity (fractional anisotropy) are associated
with (A) increased distractibility and, (B) deficient neural suppression of sensory cortex activity in older participants.
Previously published (Chadick et al., 2014).
11
Figure 12.3 Increase in nSMEs as a function of age in several default mode network regions. Reprinted with permission
from Park H, Kennedy KM, Rodrigue KM, Hebrank A, Park DC (2013) An fMRI study of episodic encoding across the
lifespan: Changes in subsequent memory effects are evident by middle-age. Neuropsychologia 51: 448-56.
Figure 12.4 PASA-like effect in functional connectivity. (A) OAs exhibited reduced MTL connectivity with parietal and ret-
rosplenial cortices, but increased connectivity with dorsolateral PFC. Adapted with permission from Daselaar SM, Fleck MS,
Dobbins IG, Madden DJ, Cabeza R (2006) Effects of healthy aging on hippocampal and rhinal memory functions: An event-
related fMRI study. Cereb Cortex 16: 1771-1782. (B) OAs displayed reduced HPC connectivity with OTP regions, but increased
HPC connectivity with PFC regions. Adapted with permission from Dennis NA, Hayes SM, Prince SE, Madden DJ, Huettel SA,
Cabeza R (2008) Effects of aging on the neural correlates of successful item and source memory encoding. J Exp Psychol Learn
34: 791-808. (C) OAs showed reduced amygdala connectivity with HPC, but increased connectivity with dorsolateral PFC.
Adapted with permission from St. Jacques PL, Dolcos F, Cabeza R (2009) Effects of aging on functional connectivity of the
amygdala during subsequent memory for negative pictures: A network analysis of fMRI data. Psychol Sci 20: 74-84.
12
Medial PFC Amygdala Parahippocampus
Figure 13.2 Neuroanatomy of Emotional Memory. The key regions implicated in the formation and retrieval of emotional memories.
13
R Z = 22 mm X = –52 mm
Figure 15.2 B) Increased activation to incongruent trials vs. congruent trials in the left middle temporal, left inferior
parietal, and left supramarginal gyri was seen as vascular risk score increased.
Hippocampal activity
60 0.4
50 0.2
0
40
–0.2
30
Val/Val –0.4 Val/Val
20 Any Met Any Met
–0.6
70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 20 40 60 80
Age (in years) Age (in years)
(C) (D)
0.90
6.2
Fractional anisotropy
5.8 0.80
5.4
5.0 0.70
4.6
Val/Val
0.60
4.2 Any Met
3.8 0.00
< 65 ≥ 65 < 65 ≥ 65
0 40 50 60 70 80 90
Val/Val Any Met Age (in years)
Age (in years)
Figure 16.3 Effects of BDNF on (a) longitudinal decline in perceptual speed across 13 years, with steeper decline for
BDNF Met carriers. Perceptual speed is measured using the digit-letter task, which required participants to name letters
associated with a digit, according to a template. The y-axis indicates total number of correct responses after 3 min. Adapted
from Ghisletta et al. (2014). Interaction between age and BDNF, reflecting (b) lower hippocampal activity during retrieval
of episodic memories, (c) smaller hippocampal volumes, and (d) lower white-matter integrity in the splenium for older
BDNF Met carriers. Hippocampal activity in (b) indicates parameter estimates of the BOLD response measured in arbi-
trary units in left hippocampus, which is greater during retrieval relative to a baseline condition. White-matter integrity is
indicated by fractional anisotropy. Adapted from Sambataro et al. (2010), Sanchez et al. (2011), and Kennedy et al. (2009),
respectively.
14
(A) (B)
(C) (D)
Figure 16.4 KIBRA genotype groups show different correlations between increasing age and performance on (A) imme-
diate and (B) 30-minute delayed recall of a story, as measured with the Wechsler Memory Scale. (c, d) KIBRA genotype
group differences in the correlation between age and brain activation during an episodic memory task. (C) The KIBRA CC
group (red) exhibits a negative correlation between age and activity in left hippocampus during encoding, which is not
observed for T allele carriers (blue). (D) The KIBRA CC group (red) exhibits a negative correlation between age and activ-
ity in right hippocampus during retrieval, which is not observed for T allele carriers (blue). Hippocampal activity indicates
parameter estimates of the BOLD response measured in arbitrary units, which is greater during encoding and retrieval
relative to a baseline condition. Adapted from Muse et al. (2014).
15
LEFT HIPPOCAMPUS RIGHT HIPPOCAMPUS
(A) Hippocampus 5.2 5.2
5.1 5.1
5 5
4.9 4.9
4.8 4.8
4.7 4.7
4.6 4.6
Baseline 6 months 1 year Baseline 6 months 1 year
4.8 5.2
4.7 5.1
4.6 5
4.5 4.9
4.4 4.8
Baseline 6 months 1 year Baseline 6 months 1 year
(C) Thalamus THALAMUS
15.00 Exercise
Stretching
14.50
14.00
13.50
13.00
Baseline 6 months 1 year
Figure 17.1 Results from a 12 month exercise intervention in which 120 older adults were randomized to either a walking exercise condition or to a stretching control condition. The results demonstrated
that there were no significant changes in the size of either the thalamus or caudate nucleus with the intervention, but there were significant increases in the size of the hippocampus for the walking exercise
group. Adapted from Erickson et al. (2011).
16
Figure 19.2 The neuropathology of Alzheimer’s disease. A microscopic section from an AD patient autopsy demonstrat-
ing extracellular aggregates of amyloid-beta in a neuritic plaque and intraneuronal aggregates of tau in neurofibrillary
tangles.
Clinically
Normal
Aβ–neg
Clinically
Normal
Aβ–pos
AD
Dementia
Aβ–pos
Figure 19.3 PET Amyloid and Tau imaging. Coronal PET images superimposed on structural Magnetic Resonance) of
PiB Aβ (left) and T807 Tau (right) acquired on 3 participants in the Harvard Aging Brain Study. The top row is a clinically
normal older individual with low PiB retention and minimal T807 binding in the medial temporal lobe (MTL). The middle
row shows a clinically normal older individual with elevated PiB retention and T807 binding extending beyond the MTL
into inferior temporal neocortex. The bottom row shows images from an AD dementia patient with extensive PiB and T807
binding in the neocortex. Images courtesy of Dr. Keith Johnson.
1
Introduction
A s we noted in the first edition of this book ten years ago, although cog-
nitive neuroscience of aging has a long past, only lately has it achieved
the critical mass to be considered an autonomous discipline. In the past, the cognitive
and neural mechanisms of age-related changes in cognition were typically studied
independently of each other. Studies in the domain of cognitive psychology of aging
investigated the effects of aging on behavioral measures of cognition and character-
ized a variety of age-related deficits in memory, attention, etc. In parallel, studies in
the domain of neuroscience of aging investigated the effects of aging on the anat-
omy and physiology of the brain. Even if most scientists agree that cognitive aging
is caused by cerebral aging, the relationships between these two phenomena were
largely unknown. Fortunately, the situation changed with the growing popularity of
studies focusing on the relationships between the effects of aging on cognition and
on the brain. This group of studies originated the new discipline we called cognitive
neuroscience of aging, which we attempted to characterize in the first edition of this
book published in 2004.
Since 2004, cognitive neuroscience of aging has continued to expand at a very
rapid pace. In addition to the multipication of aging studies using fMRI, which has
reached thousands of articles, new methods that were less common ten years ago,
such as diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), have markedly increased in popularity. To
illustrate the growth of the discipline, Figure Introduction.1 shows the number of
articles related to fMRI of aging and cognition since 1998 (the last two years are
not included because databases are still incomplete for these years). Although the
database search used for this figure is inexact, it is fair to say that the number of
articles in cognitive neuroscience of aging published per year has tripled druing the
last ten years. The growth is even more dramatic when looking at citations, which
1
2
100 4,000
50 2,000
0 0
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
Figure Introduction. 1. Publications related to fMRI of aging. The search was neither com-
prehensive or selective. The Web of Science search was (topic: “functional magnetic resonance
imaging” or DTI) AND (topic: aging or elderly or older) NOT (topic: infant or child or adoles-
cent) AND (perception or attention or memory or executive).
show an exponential function. Thus, our discipline is not only alive and well but it
is even more vibrant that it was ten years ago.
The second edition has a similar oganization to the first edition, with a first
section focused on methods, a second section aimed at cognitive processes, and
a third section covering clinical and health-related issues. Many of the chapter
authors in this second edition were also contributors to the first, but there are
many new authors including several young researchers. We hope this second edi-
tion will be as successful as the first, and will also be used by both experts and
by students of the discipline. Below, we briefly describe the chapters in the three
sections of the book.
In our previous volume, we had a section on imaging measures, with focuses on struc-
tural MRI, dopamine imaging with PET, electrophysiological and optical measures in
studies of cognitive aging, and BOLD fMRI and its relation to cognitive changes in
aging. Methods development continues to be a driving force behind new insights into
the cognitive neuroscience of aging. We see several new trends.
One such trend might be labeled expansion of the scope of imaging methods. For
example, today it is common in PET studies of normal aging to examine amyloid and
tau burden, something that a few years ago was more common practice in studies of
dementia. In MRI research, more and more studies focus on issues such as perfusion
and iron accumulation, which clearly is of relevance for the aging brain. Another
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que hará con famosíssimo
renombre
que Hesiodo en sus tiempos
no se nombre.
Recibo un regalado
sentimiento
en la alma de alegría
enternescida,
tan sólo imaginando el gran
contento
que me ha de dar el sabio
Bonavida:
tan gran saber, tan grave
entendimiento
tendrá la gente atónita y
vencida,
y el verso tan sentido y
elegante
se oirá desde Poniente
hasta Levante.
Sextina.
La hermosa, rubicunda y
fresca Aurora
ha de venir tras la importuna
noche;
sucede á la tiniebla el claro
día,
las Nymphas salirán al
verde prado,
y el aire sonará el suave
canto,
y dulce son de cantadoras
aves.