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SPENCER A RATHUS
CDEV 2
CDEV 2
CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT
CDEV2
CHAPTER
History, Theories, and Methods
CHAPTER
Heredity and Conception
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SPENCER A. RATHUS
CDEV 2 BRIEF CONTENTS
1 History, Theories, and Methods 2

2 Heredity 24
3 Conception and Prenatal Development 36
4 Birth and the Newborn Baby: In the New World 54
5 Infancy: Physical Development 74
6 Infancy: Cognitive Development 94
7 Infancy: Social and Emotional Development 114
8 Early Childhood: Physical Development 134
9 Early Childhood: Cognitive Development 146
10 Early Childhood: Social and Emotional Development 162
11 Middle Childhood: Physical Development 180
12 Middle Childhood: Cognitive Development 190
13 Middle Childhood: Social and Emotional Development 212
14 Adolescence: Physical Development 232
15 Adolescence: Cognitive Development 248
16 Adolescence: Social and Emotional Development 262
Answers to Study Tools Questions 280

References 282
Name Index 304
Subject Index 309
Comstock/Stockbyte/Getty Images, plherrera/E+/Getty Images
iii
CONTENTS
Image Source/Alamy Stock Photo
iStockphoto.com/Sdavidi
1 History, Theories, 4 Birth and the Newborn Baby:
and Methods 2 In the New World 54
1-1 The Development of the Study of Child Countdown … 55
Development 3 4-1 The Stages of Childbirth 56
1-2 Theories of Development 4 4-2 Methods of Childbirth 58
1-3 Controversies in Development 15 4-3 Birth Problems 60
1-4 How do we Study Development? 17 4-4 The Postpartum Period 61
4-5 Characteristics of Neonates 66
2 Heredity 24
2-1 Heredity: The Basics 25
2-2 Chromosomal and Genetic Abnormalities 29
5 Infancy: Physical
Development 74
2-3 Genetic Counseling and Prenatal Testing 31
5-1 Physical Growth and Development 75
2-4 Heredity and the Environment 33
5-2 Development of the Brain and Nervous System 79
3 Conception and Prenatal

5-3 Motor Development 83
5-4 Sensory and Perceptual Development 85
Development 36
3-1 Conception: Against all Odds 37
3-2 Infertility and Alternate ways of Becoming Parents 39
6 Infancy: Cognitive
3-3 Stages of Prenatal Development 41
Development 94
3-4 Environmental Influences on Prenatal 6-1 Cognitive Development: Jean Piaget 95
Development 44 6-2 Information Processing 99
iv CONTENTS
6-3 Individual Differences in Cognitive Functioning 9-4 Development of Memory 154
among Infants 101 9-5 Language Development: Why “Daddy Goed
6-4 Language Development 103 Away” 155
7 Infancy: Social and Emotional 10 Early Childhood: Social and

Development 114 Emotional Development 162
7-1 Attachment: Bonds that Endure 115 10-1 Dimensions of Child Rearing 163
7-2 When Attachment Fails 119 10-2 Social Behaviors 166
7-3 Day Care 124 10-3 Personality and Emotional Development 172
7-4 Emotional Development 126 10-4 Development of Gender Roles and Gender
7-5 Personality Development 128 Differences 174
11 Middle Childhood: Physical

Development 180
11-1 Growth Patterns 181
11-2 Weight 181
11-3 Childhood Asthma 183
11-4 Motor Development 184
11-5 Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) 185
Joakim Leroy/E+/Getty Images
11-6 Learning Disorders 186
12 Middle Childhood: Cognitive

Development 190
12-1 Piaget: The Concrete-Operational Stage 191
12-2 Moral Development: The Child as Judge 193
8 Early Childhood: Physical 12-3 Information Processing: Learning, Remembering,
Problem Solving 195
Development 134 12-4 Intellectual Development, Creativity, and
8-1 Growth Patterns 135 Achievement 200
8-2 Motor Development 137 12-5 Language Development and Literacy 208
8-3 Health and Illness 140
8-4 Sleep 142
8-5 Elimination Disorders 143 13 Middle Childhood: Social and
Emotional Development 212
9 Early Childhood: Cognitive 13-1 Theories of Social and Emotional Development
in Middle Childhood 213
Development 146 13-2 The Family 216
9-1 Jean Piaget’s Preoperational Stage 147 13-3 Peer Relationships 218
9-2 Factors in Cognitive Development 152 13-4 The School 221
9-3 Theory of Mind 153 13-5 Social and Emotional Problems 224
CONTENTS v
15 Adolescence: Cognitive
Development 248
15-1 Piaget’s Stage of Formal Operations 249
15-2 Gender Differences in Cognitive Abilities 251
15-3 Moral Development 252
15-4 The Adolescent in School 254
15-5 Adolescents in the Workforce 255
rubberball/Getty Images
16 Adolescence: Social and

Emotional Development 262
16-1 Development of Identity: “Who am I?” 263
16-2 Relationships with Parents and Peers 266
14 Adolescence: Physical 16-3 Sexuality 269

16-4 Juvenile Delinquency 275
Development 232
16-5 Suicide: When the Adolescent has Nothing—Except
14-1 Puberty: The Biological Eruption 233 Everything—to Lose 275
14-2 Emerging Sexuality and the Risks of Sexually
Transmitted Infections 238 Answers to Study Tools Questions 280
14-3 Health in Adolescence 240 References 282
14-4 Eating Disorders 241 Name Index 304
14-5 Substance Use and Substance Use Disorders 242 Subject Index 309
vi CONTENTS
YOUR
FEEDBACK
MATTERS.
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1 History, Theories, and Methods
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LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this chapter, you will be able to…
1-1 Relate the history of the study of child 1-3 Enumerate key controversies in child
After you finish
development development this chapter, go
1-2 Compare and contrast theories of child 1-4 Describe ways in which researchers study to PAGE 21 for
development child development
STUDY TOOLS
2 PART ONE: Introduction
T his book has a story to tell. An important,
remarkable story—your story. It is about the
amazing journey you have already taken through
You are unique, and
things will happen to
childhood, and about the unfolding of your adult
you, and because of
life. Billions of people have made this journey
before. You have much in common with them. Yet
you, that have never
you are unique, and things will happen to you, and happened before.
because of you, that have never happened before.
1-1 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE STUDY nuclear unit of mother, father, and children rather than
the extended family. Children became more visible, fos-
OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT tering awareness of childhood as a special time of life.
Still, children often labored in factories from dawn to
Developmental psychology is the discipline that stud- dusk through the early years of the 20th century.
ies the physical, cognitive, social, and emotional develop- In the 20th century, laws were passed to protect chil-
ment of humans. It focuses on the many influences on dren from strenuous labor, to require that they attend
behavior, including the effects of the person’s physical, school until a certain age, and to prevent them from get-
social, and cultural environment, and how these factors ting married or being sexually exploited. Whereas chil-
interact to influence the developments that occur over time. dren were once considered the property of parents, laws
Scientific inquiry into human development has now protect children from abuse by parents and other
existed for little more than a century. In ancient times adults. Juvenile courts see that children who break the
and in the Middle Ages, children often were viewed as law receive treatment in the criminal justice system.
innately evil and discipline was harsh. Legally, medieval Various thoughts about child development coalesced
children were treated as property and servants. They into a field of scientific study in the 19th and early 20th cen-
could be sent to the monastery, married without consulta- turies. G. Stanley Hall
tion, or convicted of crimes. Children were nurtured until (1844–1924) is credited
with founding child devel- developmental psychology
they were seven years old, which was considered the “age the discipline that studies the
of reason.” Then they were expected to work alongside opment as an academic physical, cognitive, social, and
adults in the home and in the field. discipline and bringing emotional development of humans.
The transition to modern thinking about children is scientific attention to
marked by the writings of philosophers such as John Locke
and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Englishman John Locke
(1632–1704) believed that the child came into the world
as a tabula rasa—a “blank tablet” or clean slate—that was
written on by experience. Locke did not believe that inborn
predispositions toward good or evil played an important
role in the conduct of the child. Instead, he focused on the WHAT DO YOU THINK? FOLKLORE, COMMON SENSE, OR NONSENSE? SELECT
role of the environment or of experience. Locke believed T FOR “TRUTH” OR F FOR “FICTION,” AND CHECK THE ACCURACY OF YOUR ANSWERS AS
that social approval and disapproval are powerful shapers of YOU READ THROUGH THE CHAPTER.
behavior. But Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778), a Swiss- T F During the Middle Ages, children were often treated as miniature adults.
French philosopher, argued that children are inherently T F Nail biting and smoking cigarettes are signs of conflict experienced
good and that, if allowed to express their natural impulses, during early childhood.
they will develop into generous and moral individuals. T F Research with monkeys has helped psychologists understand the
During the Industrial Revolution—a period from formation of attachment in humans.
the late 18th century through the 19th century when T F To learn how a person develops over a lifetime, researchers have
machine-based production replaced much manual tracked some individuals for more than 50 years.
labor—family life came to be defined in terms of the
CHAPTER 1: History, Theories, and Methods 3
focus on the period of adolescence. French psychologist
Alfred Binet (1857–1911), along with Theodore Simon Developmental psychologists and educators
(1872–1961), developed the first standardized intelligence attempt to sort out the influences of heredity
test near the beginning of the 20th century. Binet’s purpose (maturation) and the environment
(experience) in development. John
was to identify public school children who were at risk
Watson would have argued
of falling behind their peers in academic achievement.
that this girl’s preferences
Tetra Images/Alamy Stock Photo

By the start of the 20th century, child development and skills are shaped by
had emerged as a scientific field of study. Soon major experience. Arnold Gesell
theories of the developing child were proposed might have preferred to focus on
by theorists such as Arnold Gesell, Sigmund the expression of her inborn ability.
Freud, John B. Watson, and Jean Piaget.
1-1a WHY DO RESEARCHERS
STUDY CHILD
DEVELOPMENT? thief, regardless of their talents, penchants,
tendencies, abilities, vocations, and the
Curiosity and love of children are two key race of their ancestors.
motives for studying child development. —John B. Watson (1924, p. 82)
There are other motives as well:
▸▸ To gain insight into the nature of
human nature—whether children are
aggressive or loving, whether children are conscious
and self-aware, whether they have a natural curiosity T F During the Middle Ages, children were often treated
that demands to unravel the mysteries of the uni- as miniature adults.
verse, or whether they merely react mechanically to
environmental stimulation. It is true that during the Middle Ages,
children were often treated as miniature
▸▸ To gain insight into the origins of adult behavior—
adults. This does not mean that they
the origins of empathy, of antisocial behavior, of spe-
cial talents in writing, music, athletics, and math?
were given more privileges, however.
Instead, more was expected of them.
▸▸ To gain insight into the origins of gender roles and
gender differences.
▸▸ To gain insight into the origins, prevention, and Theories are formulations of apparent relationships
treatment of developmental problems such as fetal among observed events. They allow us to derive expla-
alcohol syndrome, PKU, SIDS, Down syndrome, nations and predictions. Many psychological theories
autism, hyperactivity, dyslexia, and child abuse. combine statements about behavior (such as reflexes),
▸▸ To optimize conditions for development in areas such mental processes (such as whether a reflex is intentional
as nutrition, immunizations, parent–child interaction, or not), and biological processes (such as maturation of
and education. the nervous system). A satisfactory theory allows us to
predict behavior. For example, a theory about a reflex
should allow us to predict the age at which it will drop out
1-2 THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT or be replaced by intentional behavior. John B. Watson
(1878–1958), the founder of American behaviorism,
Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and viewed development in terms of learning theory. He
my own specified world to bring them up in, and I’ll generally agreed with Locke that children’s ideas, pref-
guarantee to train them erences, and skills are shaped by experience. There has
behaviorism Watson’s view to become any type of been a long-standing nature–nurture debate in the study
that science must study observable specialist I might sug- of children. In his theoretical approach to understanding
behavior only and investigate gest—doctor, lawyer, children, Watson came down on the side of nurture—the
relationships between stimuli
merchant, chief, and, importance of the physical and social environments—as
and responses.
yes, even beggar and found, for example, in parental training and approval.
Arnold Gesell expressed child’s experiences during early
the opposing idea that biological stages affect the child’s emo-
Courtesy of the Ferdinand Hamburger Archives of The Johns Hopkins University

maturation was the main prin- tional and social life at the time
ciple of development: “All things and later on.
considered, the inevitability and
SIGMUND FREUD’S THEORY
surety of maturation are the most
OF PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOP-
impressive characteristics of early
MENT Sigmund Freud’s (1856–
development. It is the hereditary
1939) theory of psychosexual
ballast which conserves and sta-
development focused on emo-
bilizes growth of each individual
tional and social development
infant” (Gesell, 1928, p. 378).
and on the origins of psychologi-
Watson was talking about the
cal traits such as dependence,
behavior patterns that children
obsessive neatness, and vanity.
develop, whereas Gesell was focus-
Freud theorized three parts
ing mainly on physical aspects of
of the personality: the id, ego,
growth and development.
and superego. The id is present
Theories such as behavioral According to John B. Watson (1878–1958),
at birth and is unconscious. It
theory and maturational theory the founder of American behaviorism, a
represents biological drives and
help developmentalists explain, theory about a reflex should allow us to
predict the age at which it will drop out or demands instant gratification,
predict, and influence the events
be replaced by intentional behavior. Here as suggested by a baby’s wailing.
they study. Let’s consider theories
Watson is demonstrating the grasp reflex The ego, or the conscious sense
that are popular among develop-
of a newborn infant. of self, begins to develop when
mentalists today. They fall within
children learn to obtain gratifica-
broad perspectives on development.
tion consciously, without scream-
ing or crying. The ego curbs the appetites of the id and
1-2a THE PSYCHOANALYTIC PERSPECTIVE makes plans that are in keeping with social conven-
A number of theories fall within the psychoanalytic tions so that a person can find gratification but avoid
perspective. Each owes its origin to Sigmund Freud social disapproval. The superego develops through-
and views children—and adults—as caught in conflict. out infancy and early childhood. It brings inward
Early in development, the conflict the wishes and morals of
is between the child and the world the child’s caregivers and
outside. The expression of basic
FREUD’S THEORY other members of the com-
drives, such as sex and aggression, OF PSYCHOSEXUAL munity. Throughout the
conflict with parental expectations, DEVELOPMENT remainder of the child’s life,
social rules, moral codes, even laws. Sigmund Freud’s (1856–1939) theory of the superego will monitor
But the external limits—parental psychosexual development focused on the intentions and behavior
demands and social rules—are emotional and social development and of the ego, hand down judg-
brought inside or internalized. Once on the origins of psychological traits such ments of right and wrong,
internalization occurs, the con- as dependence, obsessive neatness, and
flict takes place between opposing vanity. According
inner forces. The child’s observable to Freud, there maturation the unfolding
behavior, thoughts, and feelings are five stages of genetically determined traits,
structures, and functions.
reflect the outcomes of these hid- of psychosexual
den battles. development: psychosexual development
Let’s consider Freud’s theory the process by which libidinal
▸▸ oral
energy is expressed through different
of psychosexual development
▸▸ anal erogenous zones during different
and Erik Erikson’s theory of psy- stages of development.
chosocial development. Each is a ▸▸ phallic
stage theory that sees children ▸▸ latency stage theory a theory of
development characterized by
as developing through distinct peri- ▸▸ genital distinct periods of life.
ods of life. Each suggests that the
and attempt to influence behavior through flooding the sexual activity are immature forms of sexual conduct
person with feelings of guilt and shame when the judg- that reflect fixations at early stages of development.
ment is in the negative. Evaluation Freud’s views about the anal stage have
According to Freud, there are five stages of psycho- influenced child-care workers to recommend that toilet
sexual development: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and geni- training not be started too early or handled punitively.
tal. If a child receives too little or too much gratification His emphasis on the emotional needs of children has
during a stage, the child can become fixated in that stage. influenced educators to be more sensitive to the possible
For example, during the first year of life, which Freud emotional reasons behind a child’s misbehavior. Freud’s
termed the oral stage, “oral” activities such as sucking work has also been criticized. For one thing, Freud
and biting bring pleasure and gratification. If the child developed his theory on the basis of contacts with adult
is weaned early or breast-fed too long, the child may patients (mostly women) (Hergenhahn & Henley, 2014),
become fixated on oral activities such as nail biting or rather than observing children directly. Freud may also
smoking, or even show a “biting wit.” have inadvertently guided patients into expressing ideas
that confirmed his views.
Some of Freud’s own disciples, including Erik
Erikson, believe that Freud placed too much emphasis
on basic instincts and unconscious motives. He argues
T F Nail biting and smoking cigarettes are signs of that people are motivated not only by drives such as sex
conflict experienced during early childhood.
and aggression but also by social relationships and con-
Actually, there is no evidence that nail scious desires to achieve, to have aesthetic experiences,
biting and smoking cigarettes are signs and to help others.
of early childhood conflict. The state- ERIK ERIKSON’S THEORY OF PSYCHOSOCIAL
ment must therefore be considered DEVELOPMENT Erik Erikson (1902–1994) modi-
“fiction.” fied Freud’s theory and extended it through the adult
years. Erikson’s theory, like Freud’s, focuses on the
development of the emotional life and psychological
In the second, or anal, stage, gratification is obtained traits, but Erikson focuses on social relationships rather
through control and elimination of waste products. than sexual or aggressive instincts. Therefore, Erikson
Excessively strict or permissive toilet training can lead speaks of psychosocial development rather than of
to the development of anal-retentive traits, such as per- psychosexual development. Furthermore, Erikson places
fectionism and neatness, or anal-expulsive traits, such as greater emphasis on the ego, or
sloppiness and carelessness. In the third stage, the phal- the sense of self. Erikson (1963)
lic stage, parent–child conflict may develop over mastur- extended Freud’s five stages to
bation, which many parents treat with punishment and eight to include the concerns of
threats. It is normal for children to develop strong sexual
attachments to the parent of the other sex during the
phallic stage and to begin to view the parent of the same
sex as a rival. ERIKSON’S THEORY
By age five or six, Freud believed, children enter OF PSYCHOSOCIAL
a latency stage during which sexual feelings remain DEVELOPMENT
unconscious, children turn to schoolwork, and they Erik Erikson (1902–1994)
typically prefer playmates of their own sex. The final modified Freud’s psycho-
stage of psychosexual development, the genital stage, sexual theory and extended
begins with the biological changes that usher in adoles- it through the adult years. Erikson’s theory,
cence. Adolescents generally desire sexual gratification like Freud’s, focuses on the development of
through intercourse with the emotional life and psychological traits,
psychosocial development a member of the other but Erikson focuses on social relationships
Erikson’s theory, which emphasizes sex. Freud believed that rather than sexual or aggressive instincts. He
the importance of social relationships oral or anal stimulation, expanded Freud’s five stages to eight, to include
and conscious choice throughout
eight stages of development.
masturbation, and male– the stages of adult development.
male or female–female
Evaluation Erikson’s views are appealing in that they
Richard Ransier/Cardinal/Corbis
Erik Erikson was concerned emphasize the importance of human consciousness and
with the development of our choice. They are also appealing in that they portray us
sense of identity—who we
as prosocial and helpful, whereas Freud portrayed us
are and what we stand for.
as selfish and needing to be compelled to comply with
He was especially concerned
social rules. There is also some empirical support for
with the crisis in identity
that affects adolescents the Eriksonian view that positive outcomes of early life
in our culture. How crises help put us on the path to positive development
would you describe this (Gfellner & Armstrong, 2012; Marcia, 2010).
adolescent’s apparent
sense of identity?
1-2b THE LEARNING PERSPECTIVE:
BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL
COGNITIVE THEORIES
adulthood. Rather
than label his stages During the 1930s, psychologists derived an ingenious
after parts of the method for helping five- and six-year-old children over-
body, Erikson labeled come bed-wetting from the behavioral perspective. Most
them after the life crisis that children at this age wake up and go to the bathroom
people might encounter dur- when their bladders are full. Bed wetters, though, sleep
ing that stage. through bladder tension and reflexively urinate in bed.
Erikson proposed that To address this problem, the psychologists placed a spe-
social relationships and physical maturation give each cial pad beneath the sleeping child. Wetness in the pad
stage its character. For example, the parent–child rela- closed an electrical circuit, causing a bell to ring and
tionship and the infant’s dependence and helplessness waking the sleeping child. After several repetitions, most
are responsible for the nature of the earliest stages of children learned to wake up before they wet the pad.
development. How? They learned through a technique called classical
Early experiences affect future developments. With conditioning, which we explain in this section.
parental support, most children resolve early life crises The so-called bell-and-pad method for bed-wetting
productively. Successful resolution of each crisis bolsters is a more complicated example of learning theory being
their sense of identity—of applied to human development. Most
who they are and what they applications of learning theory to devel-
stand for—and their expec- WATSON: THE FOUNDER OF opment are found in simpler, everyday
tation of future success. AMERICAN BEHAVIORISM events. In this section, we consider two
Erikson’s views, like John B. Watson (1878–1958) is considered theories of learning: behaviorism and
Freud’s, have influenced the founder of American behaviorism. social cognitive theory.
child rearing, early child- He was a major force in early 20 century
th
BEHAVIORISM John B. Watson
hood education, and child psychology, arguing that psychologists argued that a scientific approach to
therapy. For example, should study only observable behavior, development must focus on observable
Erikson’s views about an not thoughts, fantasies, and other mental behavior only and not on things like
adolescent identity crisis images. He viewed development thoughts, fantasies, and other
have entered the popular in terms of learning theory. He mental images.
culture and have affected generally agreed with Locke that
the way many parents and children’s ideas, preferences, and
teachers deal with teenag- skills are shaped by experience. life crisis an internal conflict that
ers. Some schools help stu- In the long-standing nature– attends each stage of psychosocial
dents master the crisis by nurture debate in the study development.
means of life-adjustment of children, his theoretical identity crisis according to
courses and study units approach to understanding Erikson, a period of inner conflict
during which one examines one’s
on self-understanding in children comes down on
values and makes decisions about
social studies and literature the side of nurture. one’s life roles.
classes.
Behaviorists argue that much
FIG.1.1 SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
emotional learning is acquired
through classical conditioning.
Before conditioning After conditioning
In operant conditioning (a
Bladder
tension
Bladder different kind of conditioning),
tension
(does not elicit
(CS)
children learn to do something
waking up)
because of its effects. B. F. Skinner
introduced the key concept of
reinforcement . Reinforcers
Bell Waking up Waking up are stimuli that increase the fre-
(UCS) (UCR) (CR)
quency of the behavior they fol-
low. Most children learn to adjust
their behavior to conform to social
Before conditioning, the bell is an unlearned or unconditioned stimulus (UCS) that codes and rules to earn reinforcers
elicits waking up, which is an unlearned or unconditioned response (UCR). Bladder such as the attention and approval
tension does not elicit waking up, which is the problem. During the conditioning
of their parents and teachers.
procedure, bladder tension repeatedly precedes urination, which in turn causes the
bell to ring. After several repetitions, bladder tension has become associated with Other children, ironically, may
the bell, making bladder tension into a learned or conditioned stimulus (CS) that learn to misbehave because mis-
causes the child to awaken. Awakening in response to bladder tension is a learned behavior also draws attention.
or conditioned response (CR). Any stimulus that increases the
frequency of the responses pre-
ceding it serves as a reinforcer.
Classical conditioning is a simple form of learn- Skinner distinguished between positive and negative
ing in which an originally neutral stimulus comes to bring reinforcers. Positive reinforcers increase the fre-
forth, or elicit, the response usually brought forth by a quency of behaviors when they are applied. Food and
second stimulus as a result of being paired repeatedly approval usually serve as positive reinforcers. Negative
with the second stimulus. In the bell-and-pad method reinforcers increase the frequency of behaviors when
for bed-wetting, psychologists repeatedly pair tension they are removed. Fear acts as a negative reinforcer in
in the children’s bladders with a stimulus that awakens that its removal increases the frequency of the behaviors
them (the bell). The chil- preceding it. Figure 1.2 compares positive and negative
classical conditioning a dren learn to respond to reinforcers.
simple form of learning in which one the bladder tension as if Extinction results from repeated performance
stimulus comes to bring forth the
it were a bell; that is, they of operant behavior without reinforcement. After a
response usually brought forth by
a second stimulus by being paired wake up (see Figure 1.1). number of trials, the operant behavior is no longer
repeatedly with the second stimulus. shown. Children’s temper tantrums
operant conditioning a and crying at bedtime can often be
simple form of learning in which SKINNER AND BEHAVIORISM extinguished by parents’ remain-
an organism learns to engage in B.F. Skinner (1904–1990) picked up the ing out of the bedroom after the
behavior that is reinforced. children have been put to bed.
behaviorist mandate from John Watson.
reinforcement the process of Behaviorists argue that much emotional Punishments are aversive events
providing stimuli following responses that suppress or decrease the
that increase the frequency of the
learning is acquired through
conditioning. Skinner introduced frequency of the behavior
responses.
the key concept of positive they follow. (Figure 1.3 com-
positive reinforcer a reinforcer pares negative reinforcers
that, when applied, increases the fre- and negative reinforcement
quency of a response. in operant conditioning. He with punishments.) Many
was interested in popularizing learning theorists agree that
negative reinforcer a punishment is undesirable in
reinforcer that, when removed, his views on psychology and
increases the frequency of a response. wrote a novel, Walden Two, rearing children for reasons such
which supported his views as punishment does not in
extinction the cessation of a itself suggest an alternative
response that is performed in the and achieved a sort of cult
absence of reinforcement. following. acceptable form of behav-
ior; punishment tends
In using time out, children
FIG.1.2 POSITIVE VERSUS NEGATIVE REINFORCERS
are placed in drab, restric-
Procedure Behavior Consequence Change in behavior tive environments for a
specified time period such
as ten minutes when they
Positive reinforcer Frequency behave disruptively.
(teacher approval) of behavior
Use of positive Behavior
reinforcement (studying) is presented increases Operant conditioning is
when student studies
(student studies more)
used every day in the social-
ization of young children.
Parents and peers influ-
Negative reinforcer Frequency ence children to acquire
(teacher disapproval) of behavior behavior patterns they con-
Use of negative Behavior
reinforcement (studying) is removed increases
when student studies sider to be appropriate to
their gender through the
elaborate use of rewards
Reinforcers, by definition, increase the frequency of behavior. In this example, teacher and punishments. Thus,
approval is a positive reinforcer because it increases the frequency of behavior when it boys may ignore other boys
is applied. Teacher disapproval functions as a negative reinforcer because removing it
increases behavior—in this case, studying. But teacher disapproval can backfire when
when they play with dolls
other students show strong approval of a student’s disobeying the teacher. and housekeeping toys but
play with boys when they
use transportation toys.
to suppress behavior only when its delivery is guaran- Many children are thus taught to engage in behavior
teed; and punishment can create feelings of anger and that may please others more than it pleases themselves.
hostility. SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY Behaviorists tend
Research suggests that when teachers praise and to limit their view of learning to conditioning. Social
attend to appropriate behavior and ignore misbehavior, cognitive theorists such as Albert Bandura (1986,
studying and classroom behavior improve while dis- 2011, 2012) have shown that much learning also occurs
ruptive and aggressive behaviors decrease (Coffee & by observing other people, reading, and viewing char-
Kratochwill, 2013; Jenkins et al., 2015). By ignoring mis- acters in the media. People may need practice to refine
behavior or by using time out from positive reinforce- their skills, but they can acquire the basic know-how
ment, we can avoid reinforcing children for misbehavior. through observation.
Observational learn-
ing occurs when children
FIG.1.3 NEGATIVE REINFORCERS VERSUS PUNISHMENTS observe how parents cook,
Procedure Behavior Consequence Change in behavior clean, or repair a broken
appliance. It takes place
when adults watch supervi-
Negative reinforcer Frequency sors sketch out sales strat-
of behavior
Use of negative Behavior (teacher disapproval)
increases
egies on a blackboard or
reinforcement (studying) is removed
when student studies hear them speak a foreign
language. In social cog-
nitive theory, the people
Frequency
of behavior after whom we pattern our
Punishment decreases own behavior are termed
Use of Behavior (detention)
punishment (talking is presented models.
in class) when student talks
in class (student talks
less in class)
social cognitive theory a
Both negative reinforcers and punishments tend to be aversive stimuli. Reinforcers, cognitively oriented learning theory
however, increase the frequency of behavior. Punishments decrease the frequency of that emphasizes observational
learning.
behavior. Negative reinforcers increase the frequency of behavior when they are removed.
advanced by Swiss biologist Jean Piaget (1896–
BANDURA AND SOCIAL 1980) and further developed by many theorists.
COGNITIVE THEORY Another is information-processing theory.
Albert Bandura (b. 1925), a leading COGNITIVE-DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY
social cognitive theorist, emphasized During his adolescence, Jean Piaget studied
the role of social learning—that is, philosophy, logic, and mathematics, but years
learning by observing others—as later he took his Ph.D. in biology. In 1920, he
a key element in learning theory. obtained a job at the Binet Institute in Paris,
He labeled the people after whom where research on intelligence tests was being
we, as children and adults, pattern our
conducted. Through his studies, Piaget realized that
behavior “models.” While behaviorists tend to
when children answered questions incorrectly, their
limit their view of learning to conditioning, social
wrong answers still often reflected consistent—although
cognitive theorists focus on modeling behavior.
illogical—mental processes. Piaget regarded children as
natural physicists who actively intend to learn about and
take intellectual charge of their worlds. In the Piagetian
EVALUATION OF LEARNING THEORIES Learning view, children who squish their food and laugh enthusi-
theories allow us to explain, predict, and influence many
astically are often acting as budding scientists. They are
aspects of behavior. The use of the bell-and-pad method
studying both the texture and consistency of their food,
for bed-wetting would probably not have been derived
as well as their parents’ response.
from any other theoretical approach. Many of the teach-
Piaget used concepts such as schemes, adapta-
ing approaches used in educational TV shows are based
tion, assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration
on learning theory.
to describe and explain cognitive development. Piaget
defines the scheme as a pattern of action or men-
1-2c THE COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE tal structure that is involved in acquiring or organizing
Cognitive theorists focus on people’s mental processes. knowledge. For example, newborn babies might be said to
They investigate the ways in which children perceive have a sucking scheme (others call this a reflex), respond-
and mentally represent the ing to things put in their
world, how they develop mouths as “things I can
PIAGET’S COGNITIVE- suck” versus “things I
thinking, logic, and problem-
solving ability. One cognitive
DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY can’t suck.”
perspective is cognitive- Cognitive theorists investigate the ways in which Adaptation refers
developmental theory, children perceive and mentally represent the world, to the interaction between
how they develop thinking, logic, and problem- the organism and the
solving ability. One cognitive perspective is cognitive- environment. According
cognitive-developmental developmental theory, advanced by Swiss biologist to Piaget, all organisms
theory the stage theory that Jean Piaget (1896–1980). Piaget’s early training as a adapt to their environ-
holds that the child’s abilities to biologist led him to view children as mentally assimilat- ment. Adaptation consists
mentally represent the world and
solve problems unfold as a result of
ing and accommodating aspects of their environment. of assimilation and accom-
the interaction of experience and the Piaget used concepts such as schemes, modation, which occur
maturation of neurological structures. adaptation, assimilation, accommoda- throughout life. Cognitive
scheme an action pattern or tion, and equilibration to describe and assimilation refers
mental structure that is involved in explain cognitive development. In to the process by
the acquisition and organization of 1963, Piaget hypothesized that which someone
knowledge. children’s cognitive processes responds to new
adaptation the interaction develop in an orderly sequence, objects or events
between the organism and or series, of stages. He identified according to exist-
the environment, consisting of
assimilation and accommodation.
four major stages of cognitive ing schemes or
development: sensorimotor, ways of organizing
assimilation the incorporation preoperational, concrete opera- knowledge. Two-
of new events or knowledge into
existing schemes.
tional, and formal operational. year-olds who
refer to horses as
“doggies” are assimilating horses into their dog scheme. Thus, many cognitive psychologists focus on infor-
Sometimes a novel object or event cannot be made to fit mation processing in people—the processes by which
into an existing scheme. In that case, the scheme may be people encode (input) information, store it (in long-term
changed or a new scheme may be created to incorporate memory), retrieve it (place it in short-term memory),
the new event. This process is called accommodation. and manipulate it to solve problems. Our strategies for
Consider the sucking reflex. Infants accommodate by solving problems are sometimes referred to as our men-
rejecting objects that are too large, that taste bad, or that tal programs or software. In this computer metaphor,
are of the wrong texture or temperature. our brains are the hardware that runs our mental pro-
Piaget theorized that when children can assimilate grams. Our brains—containing billions of brain cells
new events into existing schemes, they are in a state of called neurons—become our most “personal” comput-
cognitive harmony, or equilibrium. When something that ers. When psychologists who study information process-
does not fit happens, their state of equilibrium is dis- ing contemplate cognitive development, they are likely
turbed and they may try to accommodate. The process to talk in terms of the size of the person’s short-term
of restoring equilibrium is termed equilibration. Piaget memory and the number of programs she or he can run
believed that the attempt to restore equilibrium lies at simultaneously.
the heart of the natural curiosity of the child. The most obvious applications of information pro-
PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT cessing occur in teaching. For example, information-
Piaget (1963) hypothesized that children’s cognitive processing models alert teachers to the sequence of
processes develop in an orderly sequence, or series, of steps by which children acquire information, commit it
stages. Piaget identified four major stages of cognitive to memory, and retrieve it to solve problems. By under-
development: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete standing this sequence, teachers can provide experiences
operational, and formal operational. These stages are that give students practice with each stage.
discussed in subsequent chapters. We now see that the brain is a sort of biological com-
Because Piaget’s theory focuses on cognitive devel- puter. Let us next see what other aspects of biology can
opment, its applications are primarily in educational set- be connected with development.
tings. Teachers following Piaget’s views actively engage
the child in solving problems. They gear instruction to 1-2d THE BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
the child’s developmental level and offer activities that
The biological perspective directly relates to physical
challenge the child to advance to the next level. For
development: to gains in height and weight; develop-
example, five-year-old children learn primarily through
ment of the brain; and developments connected with
play and direct sensory contact with the environment.
hormones, reproduction, and heredity. Here we consider
Early formal instruction using paper and workbooks may
two biologically oriented theories of development, evolu-
be less effective with this age group.
tionary psychology and ethology.
Evaluation Many researchers, using a variety of meth-
EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY AND ETHOLOGY:
ods, find that Piaget may have underestimated the ages
“DOING WHAT COMES NATURALLY” Evolutionary
when children are capable of doing certain things. It also
psychology and ethology were heavily influenced by the
appears that many cognitive skills may develop gradu-
19th-century work of Charles Darwin and by the work
ally and not in distinct stages. Nevertheless, Piaget has
of 20th-century ethologists Konrad Lorenz and Niko
provided a strong theoretical foundation for researchers
Tinbergen. Ethology is concerned with instinctive, or
concerned with sequences in cognitive development.
inborn, behavior patterns. According to the theory of evo-
INFORMATION-PROCESSING THEORY Another lution, there is a struggle
face of the cognitive perspective is information process- for survival as various spe- accommodation the
ing (Brigham et al., 2011; Calvete & Orue, 2012). Many cies and individuals com- modification of existing schemes
psychologists and educators speak of people as having pete for a limited quantity to permit the incorporation of new
events or knowledge.
working or short-term memory and a more permanent of resources. The com-
long-term memory (storage). If information has been bined genetic instructions equilibration the creation of
an equilibrium, or balance, between
placed in long-term memory, it must be retrieved before from parents lead to varia- assimilation and accommodation.
we can work on it. Retrieving information from our own tions among individuals.
ethology the study of behaviors
long-term memories requires certain cues, without which There are also sharper that are specific to a species.
the information may be lost. differences from parents,
caused by sudden changes in genetic material called female and male sex organs. Most theorists also believe
mutations. Those individuals whose traits are better that in many species, including humans, sex hormones
adapted to their environments are more likely to survive can “masculinize” or “feminize” the embryonic brain
(that is, to be naturally selected). Survival permits them by creating tendencies to behave in stereotypical
to reach sexual maturity, select mates, and reproduce, masculine or feminine ways. Testosterone, the male
thereby transmitting their features or traits to the next sex hormone, seems to be connected with feelings of
generation. What began as a minor variation or a muta- self-confidence, high activity levels, and—the negative
tion becomes embedded in more and more individuals side—aggressiveness (Hines, 2011; Nguyen et al., 2016;
over the generations—if it fosters survival. Rice & Sher, 2013).
The field of evolutionary psychology studies Research into the ethological perspective suggests
the ways in which adaptation and natural selection are that instinct may play a role in human behavior. Two
connected with mental processes and behavior. One questions that ethological research seeks to answer
of the concepts of evolutionary psychology is that not are: What areas of human behavior and development,
only physical traits but also patterns of behavior, includ- if any, involve instincts? How powerful are instincts in
ing social behavior, evolve and are transmitted geneti- people?
cally from generation to generation. In other words,
behavior patterns that help an organism to survive and 1-2e THE ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
reproduce are likely to be transmitted to the next gen-
Ecology is the branch of biology that deals with the
eration. Such behaviors are believed to include aggres-
relationships between living organisms and their envi-
sion, strategies of mate selection, even altruism—that
ronment. The ecological systems theory of devel-
is, self-sacrifice of the individual to help perpetuate the
opment addresses aspects of psychological, social, and
family group. The behavior patterns are termed instinc-
emotional development as well as aspects of biologi-
tive or species-specific because they evolved within cer-
cal development. Ecological systems theorists explain
tain species.
development in terms of the interaction between people
The nervous systems and the settings in which they live (Bronfenbrenner &
evolutionary psychology of most, and perhaps all, Morris, 2006).
the branch of psychology that deals animals are “prewired” According to Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917–2005),
with the ways in which humans’ to respond to some situ-
historical adaptations to the for example, we need to focus on the two-way interac-
environment influence behavior and ations in specific ways. tions between the child and the parents, not just matura-
mental processes, with special focus For example, birds raised tional forces (nature) or child-rearing practices (nurture).
on aggressive behavior and mating in isolation from other Bronfenbrenner suggested that we can view the setting or
strategies. birds build nests during contexts of human development as consisting of multiple
fixed action pattern (FAP) the mating season even systems, each embedded within the next larger context
a stereotyped pattern of behavior
if they have never seen (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006). From narrowest to
that is evoked by a “releasing
stimulus”; an instinct. a nest or seen another widest, these systems are the microsystem, the mesosys-
bird building one. Nest- tem, the exosystem, the macrosystem, and the chrono-
ecology the branch of biology
that deals with the relationships building could not have system (Figure 1.4).
between living organisms and their been learned. Birds The microsystem involves the interactions of the
environment. raised in isolation also child and other people in the immediate setting, such
ecological systems theory sing the songs typical as the home, the school, or the peer group. Initially, the
the view that explains child devel- of their species. These microsystem is small, involving care-giving interactions
opment in terms of the reciprocal
behaviors are built in, with the parents or others, usually at home. As children
influences between children and
environmental settings. or instinctive. They are get older, they do more, with more people, in more
microsystem the immediate also referred to as inborn places.
settings with which the child fixed action patterns The mesosystem involves the interactions of the
interacts, such as the home, the (FAPs). various settings within the microsystem. For instance, the
school, and peers. During prenatal home and the school interact during parent–teacher con-
mesosystem the interlocking development, genes ferences. The school and the larger community interact
settings that influence the child, such and sex hormones are when children are taken on field trips. The ecological sys-
as the interaction of the school and
the larger community.
responsible for the tems approach addresses the joint effect of two or more
physical development of settings on the child.
household, and the family with father as sole
FIG.1.4 THE CONTEXTS OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
breadwinner describe three different macro-
systems. Each has its lifestyle, set of values,
Chronosystem and expectations (Bronfenbrenner & Morris,
Environmental changes that occur over the life course
2006; Lustig, 2011).
Macrosystem
Attitudes and ideologies of the culture The chronosystem considers the
Exosystem changes that occur over time. For example, the
Extended family and neighbors
effects of divorce peak about a year after
Mesosystem
Parents’
Microsystem
School the event, and then children begin to recover.
economic board
situation
Family
The breakup has more of an effect on boys
School than on girls. The ecological approach broad-
ens the strategies for intervention in problems
Health
services
CHILD Peers such as prevention of teenage pregnancy, child
abuse, and juvenile offending, including sub-
Mass
Neighborhood
playground Government stance use disorders (Kaminski & Stormshak,
Religious agencies
media organization Day-care 2007; Latkin et al., 2013).
facility
Social services
1-2f
THE SOCIOCULTURAL
and health care
PERSPECTIVE
The sociocultural perspective teaches
that people are social beings who are
affected by the cultures in which they live.
Developmentalists use the term sociocul-
Psychologists and educators explain social and environmental tural in a couple of different ways. One refers
influences on development in various ways. Urie Bronfenbrenner quite specifically to the sociocultural theory
spoke of the importance of ecological systems, which affect of Russian psychologist Lev Semenovich
development in various ways. The child’s family, peers, and day-care
Vygotsky (1896–1934). The other addresses
facility, for example, are part of the child’s microsystem and exert
enormous influence. But the elements in the microsystem interact with the effect of human diversity on people,
other systems to influence the child. The parents’ economic situation, including such factors as ethnicity and gender.
for example, which is considered part of the child’s exosystem, makes
certain things possible for the child and rules out others. VYGOTSKY’S SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY
Whereas genetics is concerned with the
biological transmission of traits from genera-
The exosystem involves the institutions in which tion to generation, Vygotsky’s (1978) theory is concerned
the child does not directly participate but which exert an with the transmission of information and cognitive skills
indirect influence on the child. For example, the school from generation to generation. The transmission of
board is part of the child’s exosystem because board skills involves teaching and learning, but Vygotsky does
members put together programs for the child’s educa- not view learning in terms of conditioning. Rather, he
tion, determine what textbooks will be acceptable, and focuses on how the child’s social interaction with adults,
so forth. In similar fashion, the parents’ workplaces and largely in the home, organizes a child’s learning experiences
economic situations determine the hours during which in such a way that the
they will be available to the child, and so on (Hong & child can obtain cognitive exosystem community institu-
Eamon, 2012; Tisdale & Pitt-Catsuphes, 2012). When skills—such as computa- tions and settings that indirectly
some parents are unavailable, children may be more tion or reading skills— influence the child, such as the school
board and the parents’ workplaces.
likely to misbehave at home or in school. and use them to acquire
The macrosystem involves the interaction of chil- information. Like Piaget, macrosystem the basic institu-
tions and ideologies that influence
dren with the beliefs, values, expectations, and lifestyles of Vygotsky sees the child’s
the child.
their cultural settings. Cross-cultural studies examine chil- functioning as adaptive,
dren’s interactions with their macrosystem. Macrosystems and the child adapts to his chronosystem the environmen-
tal changes that occur over time and
exist within a particular culture. In the United States, or her social and cultural have an effect on the child.
the dual-earner family, the low-income single-parent interactions.
simple calculations. Eventually, the
VYGOTSKY’S SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY scaffolding is removed and the cogni-
Lev Semenovich Vygotsky (1896–1934) was mainly concerned with tive structures stand alone.
the transmission of information from one generation to another. He
explained the social influences on children’s development of 1-2g HUMAN DIVERSITY
knowledge and skills in terms of their zone of proximal The sociocultural perspective asserts
development and scaffolding. that we cannot understand individu-
The zone of proximal development (ZPD) refers to a als without awareness of the rich-
range of tasks that a child can carry out with the help of ness of their diversity (Markus,
someone who is more skilled, as in an apprenticeship. 2016; Russo et al., 2012). For
A scaffold is a temporary skeletal structure that example, people differ in their
enables workers to fabricate a building or other more ethnicity (cultural heritage,
permanent structure. In Vygotsky’s theory, teachers race, language, and common
and parents provide children with problem-solving history), their gender, and
methods that serve as cognitive scaffolding while the their socioeconomic status.
child gains the ability to function independently. Population shifts are under
way in the United States as a
result of reproductive patterns and
Key concepts in Vygotsky’s theory include the zone immigration. The numbers of African Americans and
of proximal development and scaffolding. The zone of Latin Americans (who may be White, Black, or Native
proximal development (ZPD) refers to a range of American in racial origin) are growing more rapidly than
tasks that a child can carry out with the help of some- those of European Americans (United States Census
one who is more skilled, as in an apprenticeship. When Bureau. (2015). QuickFacts, United States. http://
learning with other people, children internalize—or www.census.gov/quickfacts/table/PST045215/00). The
bring inward—the conversations and explanations that cultural heritages, languages, and histories of ethnic
help them gain the necessary skills (Vygotsky, 1962; minority groups are thus likely to have an increasing
Poehner, 2012; Thompson et al., 2016). effect on the cultural life of the United States, yet it
A scaffold is a temporary skeletal struc- turns out that the dominant culture in the United States
ture that enables workers to fabricate has often disparaged the traditions and languages of
a building or other more permanent people from ethnic minority groups. For example, it has
structure. In Vygotsky’s theory, teach- been considered harmful to rear children bilingually,
ers and parents provide children although research suggests that bilingualism broad-
with problem-solving methods that ens children’s knowledge of the various peoples of the
serve as cognitive scaffolding world.
while the child gains the ability Studying diversity is also important so that stu-
to function independently. dents have appropriate educational experiences. To
For example, children may teach students and guide their learning, educators
Brand X Pictures /Jupiter Images; Len Rubenstein/Photolibrary/Getty Images
be offered scaffolding that need to understand children’s family values and

enables them to use their cultural expectations.
fingers or their toes to do Issues that affect peo-
ple from various ethnic
groups include bilin-
zone of proximal develop- gualism, ethnic differ-
ment (ZPD) Vygotsky’s term for
the situation in which a child carries ences in intelligence
out tasks with the help of someone test scores, the preva-
who is more skilled. lence of suicide among
scaffolding Vygotsky’s term for members of different
temporary cognitive structures or
According to Vygotsky’s theory, teachers and parents provide backgrounds, and pat-
methods of solving problems that terns of child rearing
help the child as he or she learns to
children with problem-solving methods that serve as cognitive
function independently. scaffolding. among parents of vari-
ous groups.
Gender is another
aspect of human diver- Contemporary
sity. Gender is the psy- psychologists
chological state of being and educators
recognize
male or being female, as
that we cannot
influenced by cultural con-
understand the
cepts of gender-appropriate
development of
behavior. Expectations of individuals without
Derek Latta/Getty Images

females and males are often reference to their diversity—for
polarized by cultural expectations. example, their cultural heritage,
Males may differ from females in some race, language, common history, gender,
respects, but history has created and socioeconomic status.
more burdens for women than
men as a result. Historically,
females have been discouraged from careers
in the sciences, politics, and business. Recent research, cultural and family backgrounds, and opportunities to
however, shows that females are as capable as males of learn about the world, including cognitive stimulation
performing in so-called STEM fields (science, technol- during early childhood and formal education.
ogy, engineering, and math) (e.g., Brown & Lent, 2016). Some theorists (e.g., cognitive-developmental and
Women today are making inroads into academic and biological theorists) lean heavily toward natural expla-
vocational spheres—such as medicine, law, engineer- nations of development, whereas others (e.g., learning
ing, and the military—that were traditionally male pre- theorists) lean more heavily toward environmental expla-
serves. Today, most college students in the United States nations. Today, though, nearly all researchers agree that
are female, but there remain many parts of the world in nature and nurture play important roles in nearly every
which women are prevented from obtaining an education area of development. Consider the development of lan-
(Yousafazi & Lamb, 2013). guage. Language is based in structures found in certain
Table 1.1 summarizes the theoretical perspectives on areas of the brain. Thus, biology (nature) plays a vital
development. role. Children also come to speak the languages spoken
by their caretakers. Parent–child similarities in accent
and vocabulary provide additional evidence for the role
1-3 CONTROVERSIES IN DEVELOPMENT of learning (nurture) in language development.
The discussion of theories of development reveals that 1-3b

THE CONTINUITY–DISCONTINUITY
developmentalists can see things in very different ways. CONTROVERSY
Let us consider how they react to three of the most
Some developmentalists view human development as a
important debates in the field.
continuous process in which the effects of learning mount
gradually, with no major sudden qualitative changes. In
1-3a
THE NATURE–NURTURE CONTROVERSY
contrast, other theorists believe that a number of rapid
Researchers are continually trying to sort out the qualitative changes usher in new stages of development.
extent to which human behavior is the result of nature Maturational theorists point out that the environment,
(heredity) and of nurture (environmental influences). even when enriched, profits us little until we are ready, or
What aspects of behavior originate in our genes and mature enough, to develop in a certain way. For example,
are biologically programmed to unfold as time goes newborn babies will not imitate their parents’ speech, even
on, as long as minimal nutrition and social experience when parents speak clearly and deliberately. Nor does aided
are provided? What aspects of behavior can be traced practice in walking during
largely to such environmental influences as nutrition the first few months after
and learning? birth significantly accel- nature the processes within an
organism that guide it to develop
Scientists seek the natural causes of development in erate the emergence of according to its genetic code.
children’s genetic heritage, the functioning of the ner- independent walking. The
nurture environmental factors
vous system, and in maturation. Scientists seek the envi- babies are not ready to do that influence development.
ronmental causes of development in children’s nutrition, these things.
TABLE 1.1 CHILD DEVELOPMENT PERSPECTIVES AND THEORIES
Is Nature or Nurture More
Perspective Theory Core Concepts Important?
The Psychoanalytic Theory of psychosexual Social codes channel primitive impulses, Interaction of nature and nurture:
Perspective development (Sigmund Freud) resulting in unconscious conflict. Maturation sets the stage for reacting to
social influences.
Theory of psychosocial People undergo life crises that are Interaction of nature and nurture:
development (Erik Erikson) largely based on social relationships, Maturation sets the stage for reacting to
opportunities, and expectations. social influences and opportunities.
The Learning Behaviorism (John B. Watson, Behavior is learned by association, as Nurture: Children are seen almost as blank
Perspective: Ivan Pavlov, B. F. Skinner) in classical and operant conditioning. tablets.
Behavioral and Social
Cognitive Theories
Social cognitive theory Conditioning occurs, but people also Emphasizes nurture but allows for the
(Albert Bandura and others) learn by observing others and choose expression of natural tendencies.
whether to display learned responses.
The Cognitive Cognitive-developmental Children adapt to the environment via Emphasizes nature but allows for
Perspective theory (Jean Piaget) assimilation to existing mental structures influences of experience.
by accommodating to these structures.
Information-processing Human cognitive functioning is compared Interaction of nature and nurture.

theory to that of computers—how they input,
manipulate, store, and output information.
The Biological Ethology and evolution Organisms are biologically “prewired” Emphasizes nature but experience is also
Perspective (Charles Darwin, Konrad Lorenz, to develop certain adaptive responses critical; e.g., imprinting occurs during a
Niko Tinbergen) during sensitive periods. sensitive period but experience determines
the object of imprinting.
The Ecological Ecological systems theory Children’s development occurs within Interaction of nature and nurture:
Perspective (Urie Bronfenbrenner) interlocking systems, and development is Children’s personalities and skills
enhanced by intervening in these systems. contribute to their development.
The Sociocultural Sociocultural theory Children internalize sociocultural dialogues Interaction of nature and nurture: Nurture
Perspective (Lev Vygotsky) in developing problem-solving skills. is discussed in social and cultural terms.
Sociocultural perspective Development is influenced by factors such Nurture.

and human diversity as cultural heritage, race, language, common
history, gender, and socioeconomic status.
Stage theorists such as Sigmund Freud and Jean 1-3c THE ACTIVE–PASSIVE CONTROVERSY
Piaget saw development as discontinuous. They saw bio-
logical changes as providing the potential for psychological Historical views of children as willful and unruly suggest
changes. Freud focused on the ways in which biological that people have generally seen children as active, even
developments might provide the basis for personality devel- if mischievous (at best) or evil (at worst). John Locke
opment. Piaget believed maturation of the nervous sys- introduced a view of children as passive beings (blank
tem allowed cognitive development. tablets); experience “wrote” features of personality and
Certain aspects of physical development do occur in moral virtue on them.
stages. For example, from the age of two years to the At one extreme, educators who view children as pas-
onset of puberty, children gradually grow larger. Then sive may assume that they must be motivated to learn by
the adolescent growth spurt occurs as rushes of hormones their instructors. Such educators are likely to provide a
cause rapid biological changes in structure and function rigorous traditional curriculum with a powerful system of
(as in the development of the sex organs) and in size. rewards and punishments to promote absorption of the
Psychologists disagree on whether developments in cog- subject matter. At the other extreme, educators who view
nition occur in stages. children as active may assume that they have a natural
on the behavior of children, use interviews or question-
Here we have a clear naires with adults, or study statistics compiled by the
example of the importance government or the United Nations.
of maturation in They also directly observe children
development. Adolescents
in the laboratory, the playground,
undergo a growth spurt
or the classroom. Let us discuss
that disrupts a pattern
two ways of gathering information:
of gradual gains in
height and weight that the naturalistic-observation
persisted throughout method and the case-study
most of childhood. Girls, method.
interestingly, spurt earlier
NATURALISTIC OBSER-
than boys. The girl and boy
VATION Naturalistic-
shown here are actually the
same age, even though the
observation studies are
girl towers over the boy. conducted in the field, that
But her height advantage is is, in the natural, or real-life,
Mark Richard/PhotoEdit
temporary; when he spurts, he settings in which they hap-

will quickly catch up to her and pen. In field studies, inves-
surpass her in height. tigators observe the natural
behavior of children in set-
tings such as homes, play-
grounds, and classrooms and try
love of learning. Such educators are likely to argue for not to interfere with it. Researchers may try to “blend
open education and encourage children to explore and into the woodwork” by sitting quietly in the back of a
pursue their unique likes and talents. classroom or by observing the class through a one-way
These debates are theoretical. Scientists value mirror.
theory for its ability to tie together observations and Naturalistic-observation studies have been done
suggest new areas of investigation, but scientists also with children of different cultures. For example,
follow an empirical approach. That is, they engage in researchers have observed the motor behavior of Native
research methods, such as those described in the next American Hopi children who are strapped to cradle
section, to find evidence for or against various theoreti- boards during their first year. You can read more about
cal positions. this in Chapter 5.
THE CASE STUDY The case study is a carefully
drawn account of the behavior of an individual. Parents
1-4 HOW DO WE STUDY who keep diaries of their children’s activities are
DEVELOPMENT? involved in informal case studies. Case studies them-
selves often use a number of different kinds of informa-
tion. In addition to direct
What is the relationship between intelligence and
observation, case studies
achievement? What are the effects of maternal use of
may include question- empirical based on observation
aspirin and alcohol on the fetus? What are the effects
naires, standardized and experimentation.
of parental divorce on children? What are the effects of
tests , and interviews. naturalistic-observation
early retirement? We may have expressed opinions on
Information gleaned a scientific method in which
such questions at one time or another, but scientists insist organisms are observed in their
from public records may
that such questions be answered by research. Strong natural environments.
be included. Scientists
arguments or reference to authority figures are not evi-
who use the case-study case study a carefully drawn
dence. Scientific evidence is obtained only by gathering biography of the life of an
method try to record all
sound information and conducting research. individual.
relevant factors in a per-
son’s behavior, and they standardized test a test in
1-4a GATHERING INFORMATION which an individual’s score is com-
are cautious in drawing pared to the scores of a group of
Researchers use various methods to gather information. conclusions about what similar individuals.
For example, they may ask teachers or parents to report leads to what.
1-4b
CORRELATION: PUTTING THINGS problems than children in intact families (Daryanani
et al., 2016; Vélez et al., 2011). These studies, however, do
TOGETHER
not show that divorce causes these adjustment problems.
Researchers use the correlational method to determine It could be that the factors that led to divorce—such
whether one behavior or trait being studied is related to, as parental conflict—also led to adjustment problems
or correlated with, another. Consider intelligence and among the children (Hetherington, 2006). To investigate
achievement. These variables are assigned numbers such cause and effect, researchers turn to the experimental
as intelligence test scores and grade point averages. Then method.
the numbers or scores are mathematically related and
expressed as a correlation coefficient—a number that 1-4c THE EXPERIMENT: TRYING THINGS OUT
varies between 11.00 and 21.00.
In general, the higher people score on intelligence The experiment is the preferred method for investigat-
tests, the better their academic performance (or income) ing questions of cause and effect. In the experiment, a
is likely to be. The scores attained on intelligence tests group of research participants receives a treatment and
are positively correlated (about 10.60 to 10.70) another group does not. The subjects are then observed
with overall academic achievement (and income). to determine whether the treatment changes their
There is a negative correlation between adolescents’ behavior. Experiments are usually undertaken to test a
grades and delinquent acts. The higher an adolescent’s hypothesis. For example, a researcher might hypoth-
grades, the less likely he or she is to engage in criminal esize that TV violence will cause aggressive behavior in
behavior. Figure 1.5 illustrates the concepts of positive children.
and negative correlations.
INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES In
LIMITATIONS OF CORRELATIONAL INFORMATION an experiment to determine whether TV violence
Correlational information can reveal relationships causes aggressive behavior, subjects in the experimen-
between variables, but it does not show cause and effect. tal group would be shown a TV program containing vio-
It may seem logical to assume that exposure to violent lence, and its effects on behavior would be measured.
media makes people more aggres-
sive, but it may also be that more
aggressive people choose violent FIG.1.5 EXAMPLES OF POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE CORRELATIONS
media. This research bias is termed
a selection factor. Positive correlation Negative correlation
Similarly, studies report that As one variable increases, As one variable increases,
children (especially boys) in divorced the other variable increases. the other variable decreases.
families tend to show more behavioral
A B
correlation coefficient a number

ranging from 11.00 to 21.00 that expresses
the direction (positive or negative) and
strength of the relationship between two
variables.
positive correlation a relationship Time spent Grades in Frequency of Grades in
between two variables in which one variable studying school delinquent acts school
increases as the other increases.
negative correlation a relationship
between two variables in which one variable When two variables are correlated positively, one increases as the other
increases as the other decreases. increases. Part A shows that there is a positive correlation between the amount
experiment a method of scientific of time studying and one’s grades in school. In contrast, when two variables are
investigation that seeks to discover cause- correlated negatively, one decreases as the other one increases. As in Part B, a
and-effect relationships by introducing teenager’s school grades are likely to decrease as he engages in more delinquent
independent variables and observing their acts. But correlation does not show cause and effect. Do the teenager’s grades
effects on dependent variables. fall off because of his engaging in more delinquent behavior? Do falling grades
lead to more delinquency? Or could another factor explain both falling grades
hypothesis a proposition to be tested. and increased delinquency?
TV violence would be considered an independent No researcher would separate human infants from their
variable, a variable whose presence is manipulated parents to study the effects of isolation on development,
by the experimenters so that its effects can be deter- yet experimenters have deprived monkeys of early
mined. The measured result—in this case, the child’s social experience. Such research has helped psycholo-
behavior—is called a dependent variable. Its pres- gists investigate the formation of parent–child bonds of
ence or level presumably depends on the independent attachment.
variable.
EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS Experiments 1-4d
LONGITUDINAL RESEARCH: STUDYING
use experimental and control groups. Subjects in the DEVELOPMENT OVER TIME
experimental group receive the treatment, whereas
subjects in the control group do not. All other condi- The processes of development occur over time, and
tions are held constant for both groups. Thus, we can researchers have devised different strategies for com-
have confidence that experimental outcomes reflect the paring children of one age with children or adults of other
treatments and not chance factors. ages. In longitudinal research, the same people are
observed repeatedly over time, and changes in develop-
RANDOM ASSIGNMENT Subjects should be assigned ment, such as gains in height or changes in mental abilities,
to experimental or control groups on a chance or ran- are recorded. In cross-sectional research, children of
dom basis. We could not conclude much from an different ages are observed and compared. It is assumed
experiment on the effects of TV violence if the chil- that when a large number of children are chosen at ran-
dren were allowed to choose whether they would be dom, the differences found in the older age groups are
in a group that watched TV violence or in a group a reflection of how the younger children will develop,
that did not. A selection factor rather than the treat- given time.
ment might then be responsible for the results of the
experiment. LONGITUDINAL STUDIES The Terman Studies of
Ethical and practical considerations also prevent Genius, begun in the 1920s, tracked children with high
researchers from doing experiments on the effects of IQ scores for more than 50 years. Male subjects, but not
many life circumstances, such as divorce or different female subjects, went on
patterns of child rearing. We cannot randomly assign to high achievements in
the professional world. independent variable a
some families to divorce or conflict and assign other condition in a scientific study that is
families to “bliss.” Nor can we randomly assign parents Why? Contemporary stud- manipulated so that its effects can
to rearing their children in an authoritarian or permissive ies of women show that be observed.
manner. In some areas of investigation, we must settle for women with high intelli-
dependent variable a
correlational evidence. gence generally match the measure of an assumed effect of
When experiments cannot ethically be performed achievements of men and an independent variable.
on humans, researchers sometimes carry them out with suggest that women of the experimental group a group
animals and try to generalize the findings to humans. earlier era were held back made up of subjects who receive a
by traditional gender-role treatment in an experiment.
expectations. control group a group made
Most longitudinal up of subjects in an experiment who
studies span months or a do not receive the treatment but
for whom all other conditions are
few years, not decades.
comparable to those of subjects in
T F Research with monkeys has helped psychologists For example, briefer lon- the experimental group.
understand the formation of attachment in humans. gitudinal studies have
longitudinal research the
found that the children of
It is true that research with monkeys study of developmental processes
divorced parents undergo by taking repeated measures of
has helped psychologists understand the most severe adjust- the same group of participants at
the formation of attachment in humans. ment problems within a various stages of development.
Researchers have exposed monkeys and few months of the divorce, cross-sectional research
other nonhuman animals to conditions peaking at about a year. the study of developmental
that it would be unethical to use with processes by taking measures of
By two or three years
participants of different age groups
humans. afterward, many children at the same time.
regain their equilibrium,
as indicated by improved academic performance and not likely to have shared similar cultural backgrounds.
social behavior (Hetherington, 2006; Moon, 2011). People who are 80 years old today, for example, grew up
Longitudinal studies have drawbacks. For example, without TV. Today’s children are growing up taking iPods
it can be difficult to enlist volunteers to participate in and the Internet for granted.
a study that will last a lifetime. Many subjects fall out Children of past generations also grew up with dif-
of touch as the years pass; others die. The researchers ferent expectations about gender roles and appropriate
must be patient or arrange to enlist future generations social behavior. Women in the Terman study generally
of researchers. chose motherhood over careers because of the times.
Today’s girls are growing up with female role models who
are astronauts and government officials.
In longitudinal studies, we know that we have the
same individuals as they have developed over 5, 25, even
T F To learn how a person develops over a lifetime, 50 years or more. In cross-sectional research, we can only
researchers have tracked some individuals for more hope that they will be comparable.
than 50 years.
CROSS-SEQUENTIAL RESEARCH Cross-sequential
It is true that researchers have tracked research combines the longitudinal and cross-sectional
some individuals for more than 50 years methods so that many of their individual drawbacks are
to learn how a person develops over overcome. In the cross-sequential study, the full span
a lifetime. The Terman study did just of the ideal longitudinal study is broken up into con-
that. What are the advantages and venient segments (see Figure 1.6). Assume that we
wish to follow the attitudes of children toward gen-
disadvantages of longitudinal research
der roles from the age of 4 through the age of 12.
as compared with cross-sectional
The typical longitudinal study would take eight years.
research? We can, however, divide this eight-year span in half
by attaining two samples of children (a cross-section)
instead of one: four-year-olds and eight-year-olds. We
CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDIES Because of the draw- would then interview, test, and observe each group
backs of longitudinal studies, most research that com- at the beginning of the study (2018) and four years
pares children of different ages is cross-sectional. In later (2022).
other words, most investigators gather data on
what the “typical” six-month-old is doing by
finding children who are six months old today. FIG.1.6 EXAMPLES OF CROSS-SEQUENTIAL RESEARCH
When they expand their research to the behav-
Cross-sectional
ior of typical 12-month-olds, they seek another
Time lag
group of children, and so on.
A major challenge to cross-sectional
research is the cohort effect. A cohort is a
group of people born at about the same time. 2014 Age 4 Age 8 Longitudinal
Year of birth
As a result, they experience cultural and other

events unique to their age group. In other
words, children and adults of different ages are
2010 Age 8 Age 12 Longitudinal
2018 2022
cohort effect similarities in behavior among a group
Year of study
of peers that stem from the fact that group members were
born at the same time in history.
Cross-sequential research combines three methods: cross-sectional,
cross-sequential research an approach that longitudinal, and time lag. The child’s age at the time of testing
combines the longitudinal and cross-sectional methods
appears in the boxes. Vertical columns represent cross-sectional
by following individuals of different ages for abbreviated
comparisons. Horizontal rows represent longitudinal comparisons.
periods of time.
Diagonals represent time-lag comparisons.
An obvious advantage to this collapsed method is ▸▸ Participants may withdraw from the study at any
that the study is completed in four years rather than time, for any reason.
eight years. Still, the testing and retesting of samples pro- ▸▸ Participants should be offered information about the
vides some of the continuity of the longitudinal study. By results of the study.
observing both samples at the age of eight (a time-lag
▸▸ The identities of the participants are to remain
comparison), we can also determine whether they are, in
confidential.
fact, comparable or whether the four-year difference in
their birth date is associated with a cohort effect. ▸▸ Researchers should present their research plans to a
committee of their colleagues and gain the commit-
tee’s approval before proceeding.
1-4e ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
These guidelines present researchers with a number of
Researchers adhere to ethical standards that are intended hurdles to overcome before proceeding with and while
to promote the dignity of the individual, foster human conducting research, but because they protect the wel-
welfare, and maintain scientific integrity. These standards fare of participants, the guidelines are valuable.
also ensure that they do not use methods or treatments In this chapter we have defined developmen-
that harm subjects: tal psychology, discussed its history as a discipline,
▸▸ Researchers are not to use methods that may do explored theories of developmental psychology, and
physical or psychological harm. seen how developmental psychologists and educators
conduct research into human development. In the
▸▸ Participants (and parents, if participants are minors)
next chapter, we return
must be informed of the purposes of the research
to the true beginnings time-lag the study of
and about the research methods. developmental processes by taking
of human development:
measures of participants of the same
▸▸ Participants must provide voluntary consent to heredity and prenatal age group at different times.
participate in the study. development.
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1 ◻ Rip out the chapter review card at the back of the

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terms.
chapter.
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SELF-ASSESSMENTS
Fill-Ins
Answers can be found in the back of the book.
1. ____________ believed that a child came into the world as a tabula rasa.
2. Freud theorized that the personality has three parts: the id, the ego, and the ____________.
3. Erikson emphasized ____________ rather than psychosexual development.
4. In the bell-and-pad method for treating bed-wetting in children, psychologists repeatedly pair tension in the
____________ with a stimulus that awakens them.
5. According to Piaget, ____________ is the process by which a person responds to new objects or events with existing
schemes.
6. According to evolutionary psychologists, organisms can inherit ____________-specific behaviors.
7. According to the ecological perspective, the ____________ involves the institutions in which the person does not
directly participate but which exert an indirect influence on the person.
8. The ____________ Studies of Genius followed children with high IQ scores for more than 50 years.
9. There is usually a(n) ____________ correlation between time spent studying and grades in school.
10. Cross-____________ research combines cross-sectional research, longitudinal research, and time-lag research.
Multiple Choice
1. Which of the following is the correct order for the 7. In a ____________ sample, each member of a pop-
stages of psychosexual development? ulation has an equal chance of being selected to
a. anal, oral, genital, phallic, latency participate.
b. oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital a. random c. stratified
c. genital, phallic, anal, oral, latency b. selection d. free
d. phallic, latency, oral, genital, anal
8. More aggressive people are more likely to watch
2. In operant conditioning, extinction results from violent TV shows. Which of the following is true
repeated performance of operant behavior in the about this statement?
absence of a. It shows that violent TV shows cause aggressive
a. the conditioned c. time out. behavior.
stimulus. d. reinforcement. b. It shows that aggressive behavior leads to a prefer-
b. punishment. ence for violent TV shows.
c. It shows a relationship between aggressive behavior
3. Negative reinforcers differ from punishments in and violent TV shows.
that d. It shows cause and effect involving several
a. negative reinforcers increase the frequency of unknown factors.
behavior when they are removed.
b. punishments increase the frequency of behavior 9. Which of the following is true of all experiments?
when they are removed. a. Participants are blind as to the treatment they have
c. negative reinforcers decrease the frequency of received.
behavior when they are removed. b. Experimenters deceive the participants.
d. punishments decrease the frequency of behavior c. Equal numbers of participants are assigned to the
when they are removed. experimental and control groups.
d. There are independent and dependent variables.
4. According to Bronfenbrenner, the ____________
involves the interactions of the child and other 10. Dr. Liu was interested in testing the effects of
people in the immediate setting, such as the violent television on six-year-old children. She
home, school, or peer group. showed a particularly violent episode of Power
a. mesosystem c. exosystem Rangers to one group and a short nonviolent
b. macrosystem d. microsystem episode of an old Bill Cosby show to another
group. She then observed the groups in the
5. Which of the following kinds of theorists is likely playground and measured their behaviors. What
to view development as continuous? is the dependent variable in this study?
a. a psychoanalytic theorist a. Bill Cosby and his family
b. a behaviorist b. violent or nonviolent TV show
c. a cognitive-developmental theorist c. the behavior on the playground
d. a psychosocial theorist d. the amount of time watching TV
6. Which of the following is an example of develop-

ment occurring discontinuously?
a. the adolescent growth spurt
b. scaffolding
c. acquiring social skills
d. learning new vocabulary words
2 Heredity
Avico Ltd/Alamy Stock Photo
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this chapter, you will be able to… 2-3 Discuss methods of prenatal testing for
chromosomal and genetic abnormalities
2-1 Describe the influences of heredity on After you finish
development 2-4 Explain ways in which researchers sort out
the effects of heredity and the environment this chapter, go
2-2 Discuss chromosomal and genetic in development
abnormalities to PAGE 34 for
STUDY TOOLS
P erhaps it comes
as no surprise that
fish cannot learn to
The structures we inherit
physical and cognitive
abilities. Similarly, our
own heredity makes
make our behavior possible
speak French or dance possible all things human
an Irish jig, even if you
and place limits on it. and at the same time
raise them in enriched limits us, for example, by
environments and send them to finishing school. A preventing us from breathing underwater (without
fish’s heredity makes it possible to swim, breathe special equipment) and flying (again, without special
underwater through gills, and do many other equipment). The field of biology that studies heredity
“fishy” things. But the fish’s heredity also limits its is called genetics.
2-1 HEREDITY: THE BASICS (A with T) or cytosine

with guanine (C with G). genetics the branch of biology
The sequence of the rungs that studies heredity.
Genetic influences are fundamental in the transmis- chromosomes rod-shaped
is the genetic code that
sion of physical traits, such as height, hair texture, and structures composed of genes that
will cause the developing
eye color. Heredity appears to be a factor in almost all are found within the nuclei of cells.
organism to grow arms or
aspects of human behavior, personality, and mental pro- gene the basic unit of
wings, skin or scales.
cesses (Plomin & Asbury, 2005; Plomin & Haworth, heredity. Genes are composed of
2009; Stone et al., 2012). Examples include sociability, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
anxiety, social dominance, leadership, effectiveness as a
2-1b
MITOSIS AND polygenic resulting from many
parent, happiness, and even interest in arts and crafts MEIOSIS genes.
(Blum et al., 2009; Ebstein et al., 2010; Sirgy, 2012). deoxyribonucleic acid
We begin life as a sin- (DNA) genetic material that takes
Genetic factors are also involved in psychological prob- gle cell, or zygote, that the form of a double helix composed
lems such as schizophrenia, depression, and dependence d i v i d e s r e p e a t e d l y. of phosphates, sugars, and bases.
on nicotine, alcohol, and other substances (Leonardo & There are two types of mitosis the form of cell division
Hen, 2006; Lewis et al., 2013; Viding et al., 2013). cell division: mitosis and in which each chromosome splits
meiosis. In mitosis , lengthwise to double in number. Half
of each chromosome combines with
2-1a CHROMOSOMES AND GENES strands of DNA break chemicals to retake its original form
apart, or “unzip” (see and then moves to the new cell.
Traits are transmitted by chromosomes and genes. Figure 2.2). The double
Chromosomes are rod-shaped structures found in
cells. Typical human cells contain 46 chromosomes orga-
nized into 23 pairs. Each chromosome contains thousands
of segments called genes. Genes are the biochemical
materials that regulate the development of traits. Some
traits, such as blood type, appear to be transmitted by a
single pair of genes, one of which is derived from each
parent. Other traits are polygenic, that is, determined T F Your father determined whether you are female or male.
by several pairs of genes. T F It isn’t possible for two brown-eyed parents to have a child with
Our heredity is governed by 20,000 to 25,000 genes blue eyes.
(Gonzaga-Jauregui et al., 2012). Genes are segments of T F You can carry the genes for a deadly illness and not become sick
strands of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). DNA takes yourself.
the form of a double spiral, or helix, similar to a twisting T F When identical twins are reared by different families, their intelligence
ladder (see Figure 2.1). The “rungs” of the ladder consist and personality traits become more different as they grow older.
of one of two pairs of bases, either adenine with thymine
CHAPTER 2: Heredity 25
helix then duplicates. The DNA forms two camps on
FIG.2.1 THE DOUBLE HELIX OF DNA
either side of the cell, and then the cell divides. Each
incomplete rung combines with the appropriate “part-
ner” (i.e., G and C, A and T) to form a new complete Cell Nucleus
ladder. The two resulting identical copies of the DNA
A. The nuclei
strand separate when the cell divides; each becomes a
of cells contain
member of a newly formed cell. As a result, the genetic chromosomes.
code is identical in new cells unless mutations occur
through radiation or other environmental influences.
Mutations also occur by chance, but not often.
Sperm and ova (“egg cells”) are produced through
meiosis, or reduction division. In meiosis, the 46 chro-
mosomes within the cell nucleus first line up into 23 pairs.
The DNA ladders then unzip, leaving unpaired halves Chromosomes
of chromosome. When the cell divides, one member of
each pair goes to each newly formed cell. Each new cell B. Chromosomes
nucleus contains only 23 chromosomes, not 46. are made up of
When a sperm cell fertilizes an ovum, we receive DNA.
23 chromosomes from our father’s sperm cell and 23
from our mother’s ovum, and the combined chromo-
somes form 23 pairs (see Figure 2.3). Twenty-two of the
pairs are autosomes—pairs that look alike and possess
genetic information concerning the same set of traits.
From Weiten, Psychology, 8E. © 2011 Cengage Learning.

The 23rd pair are sex chromosomes, which look dif-
DNA
ferent from other chromosomes and determine our sex.
We all receive an X sex chromosome (so called because
of its X shape) from our mothers. The father sup- C. Segments of
plies either a Y or an X sex chromosome. If we receive DNA are made
another X sex chromosome from our fathers, we develop up of genes.
into females, and if a Y (named after its Y shape), males.
2-1c IDENTICAL AND FRATERNAL TWINS

Now and then, a zygote divides into two cells that sepa-
rate so that each develops into an individual with the
Your genetic code determines your species and all those
same genetic makeup. These individuals are identical
traits that can be inherited, from the color of your eyes
twins, or monozygotic (MZ) twins. If the woman to predispositions toward many psychological traits and
abilities, including sociability and musical talent.
mutation a sudden variation in a heritable characteristic, as by an

accident that affects the composition of genes.
meiosis the form of cell division in which each pair of chromosomes
splits so that one member of each pair moves to the new cell. As a result,
each new cell has 23 chromosomes. T F Your father determined whether you are female
autosome a member of a pair of chromosomes (with the exception or male.
of sex chromosomes).
It is true that your father determined
sex chromosome a chromosome in the shape of a Y (male) or X whether you are female or male.
(female) that determines the anatomic sex of the child.
Fathers supply either an X or a Y sex
monozygotic (MZ) twins twins that derive from a single zygote
that has split into two; identical twins. Each MZ twin carries the same
chromosome, which determines whether
genetic code. the baby is female or male.
chances of multiple births by
FIG.2.2 MITOSIS
causing more than one ovum
Bonds break to ripen and be released dur-
ing a woman’s cycle (Fellman,
T
A T
A T A T A T 2013).
T A T A T A T A
C G C G C G C G
2-1d
DOMINANT
A T A T A T A T
AND RECESSIVE
T A T A T A T A
TRAITS
G C G C G C
Traits are determined by pairs
G C
Adenine
of genes. Each member of
C G C G C G C G
Thymine a pair of genes is termed an
C G C G C G C G Cytosine allele . When both of the
Guanine
alleles for a trait, such as hair
a b c color, are the same, the person
is said to be homozygous
(a) A segment of a strand of DNA before mitosis. (b) During mitosis, chromosomal
strands of DNA “unzip.” (c) The double helix is rebuilt in the cell as each incomplete
for that trait. When the alleles
“rung” combines with appropriate molecules. for a trait differ, the person is
heterozygous for that trait.
Some traits result from an
produces two ova in the same month and they are each “averaging” of the genetic instructions carried by the par-
fertilized by different sperm cells, they develop into fra- ents. When the effects of both alleles are shown, there is
ternal twins, or dizygotic (DZ) twins. DZ twins run in said to be incomplete dominance or codominance. When
families. If a woman is a twin, if her mother was a twin, a dominant allele is paired with a recessive allele, the trait
or if she has previously borne twins, the chances rise that determined by the dominant allele appears in the off-
she will bear twins (Fellman, 2013). spring. For example, the offspring from the crossing of
As women reach the end of their childbearing years, brown eyes with blue eyes have brown eyes, suggesting
ovulation becomes less regular, resulting in a num- that brown eyes are a dominant trait and blue eyes are
ber of months when more than one ovum is released. a recessive trait.
Thus, the chances of twins increase with parental If one parent carried genes for only brown eyes
age (Fellman, 2013). Fertility drugs also enhance the and if the other parent carried genes for only blue eyes,
the children would invariably have
brown eyes. But brown-eyed par-
FIG.2.3 THE 23 PAIRS OF HUMAN CHROMOSOMES
ents can also carry recessive genes
dizygotic (DZ) twins twins that derive

1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
from two zygotes; fraternal twins.
ovulation the releasing of an ovum from

6 7 8 9 10 6 7 8 9 10 an ovary.
allele a member of a pair of genes.

11 12 13 14 11 12 13 14 15
15
homozygous having two identical alleles.
CNRI/SPL/Science Source
16 17 18 XY
16 17 18 XX heterozygous having two different alleles.
19 20 21 22
19 20 21 22 dominant trait a trait that is expressed.
Female Male recessive trait a trait that is not
expressed when the gene or genes
People normally have 23 pairs of chromosomes. Females have two X chromo- involved have been paired with
somes, whereas males have an X and a Y sex chromosome. dominant genes.
FIG.2.4 T RANSMISSION OF DOMINANT
AND RECESSIVE TRAITS
Alessandro de Leo/Alamy Stock Photo
B b Brown-eyed B b
parents
Identical twins. Monozygotic twins share 100% of their

genes, whereas dizygotic twins share 50% of their genes. B B B b b B b b
Identical twins are extremely close in appearance and Brown-eyed Brown-eyed Brown-eyed Blue-eyed
child child child child
also tend to share many psychological traits.
Did you know that you can have brown eyes but be carrying
a gene for blue or green eyes? The genes for brown eyes are
for blue eyes, as shown in Figure 2.4. If the recessive dominant—meaning that they are the ones that will be shown,
and the genes for blue eyes are recessive. Here each of the
gene from one parent combines with the recessive
two parents carries a gene for brown eyes (so they both have
gene from the other parent, the recessive trait will be brown eyes) and a gene for blue eyes (which remain recessive,
shown. As suggested by Figure 2.4, approximately or hidden). Their children inherit the genes for brown or blue
25% of the children of brown-eyed parents who carry eyes by chance. Therefore, three out of four of their children
recessive blue eye color will have blue eyes. Table 2.1 will have brown eyes. Of the three, two will have a recessive
shows a number of dominant and recessive traits in gene for blue eyes as well as the gene for brown eyes. Only the
fourth child, who inherits two genes for blue eyes, will actually
humans. have blue eyes.
TABLE 2.1 E XAMPLES OF DOMINANT AND

RECESSIVE TRAITS
Dominant Trait Recessive Trait
T F It isn’t possible for two brown-eyed parents to have a Dark hair Blond hair
child with blue eyes.
Dark hair Red hair
If each parent carries a recessive gene for Curly hair Straight hair
blue eyes, their children have a one in Normal color vision Red-green color blindness
four chance of having blue eyes. Normal vision Myopia (nearsightedness)
Farsightedness Normal vision
Normal pigmentation Deficiency of pigmentation in skin, hair,
People who bear one dominant gene and one reces- and retina (albinism)
sive gene for a trait are said to be carriers of the recessive Normal sensitivity to touch Extremely fragile skin
gene. In the cases of recessive genes that cause illness, Normal hearing Some forms of deafness
Dimples Lack of dimpling
Type A blood Type O blood
carrier a person who carries and transmits characteristics but does Type B blood Type O blood
not exhibit them.
Tolerance of lactose Lactose intolerance
carriers of those genes are fortunate to have dominant and a sloping fold of skin over the inner corners of the
genes that cancel their effects. eyes (see Figure 2.5). They show deficits in cognitive
development and motor development (van Gameren-
Oosterom et al., 2013) and usually die from cardio-
vascular problems by middle age, although modern
medicine has extended life appreciably.
T F You can carry the genes for a deadly illness and not
SEX-LINKED CHROMOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES A
become sick yourself.
number of disorders stem from an abnormal number
If the genes that cause the illness are of sex chromosomes and are therefore called sex-linked
recessive genes, they are not expressed chromosomal abnormalities. Most individuals with
unless the illness is present in both alleles. an abnormal number of sex chromosomes are infer-
tile. Beyond that common finding, there are many dif-
ferences, some of them associated with “maleness” or
“femaleness.”
Approximately 1 male in 700–1,000 has an extra
2-2 CHROMOSOMAL AND GENETIC Y chromosome. The Y chromosome is associated with
ABNORMALITIES maleness, and the extra Y sex chromosome apparently
heightens male secondary sex characteristics. For
example, XYY males are somewhat taller than aver-
Chromosomal or genetic abnormalities can cause health
age and develop heavier beards. For these kinds of
problems. Some chromosomal disorders reflect abnor-
reasons, males with XYY sex chromosomal structure
malities in the 22 pairs of autosomes (such as Down’s
were once called “supermales.” However, XYY “super-
syndrome); others reflect abnormalities in the sex chromo-
males” tend to have more problems than XY males.
somes (e.g., XYY syndrome). Some genetic abnormalities,
For example, they are often mildly delayed in language
such as cystic fibrosis, are caused by a single pair of genes;
others are caused by combinations of genes. Diabetes development.
mellitus, epilepsy, and peptic ulcers are Approximately 1 male
multifactorial problems; they reflect in 500 has Klinefelter
FIG.2.5 DOWN’S SYNDROME syndrome , which is
both a genetic predisposition and environ-
mental contributors. caused by an extra X sex
chromosome (an XXY sex
chromosomal pattern).
2-2a CHROMOSOMAL XXY males produce less
ABNORMALITIES of the male sex hormone
People normally have 46 chromosomes.
Children with more or fewer chromo-
multifactorial problems prob-
somes usually experience health problems that stem from the interaction of
lems or behavioral abnormalities. The heredity and environmental factors.
risk of chromosomal abnormalities rises Down’s syndrome a chromo-
with the age of the parents (Desai et al.,
Michael Greenlar/The Image Works
somal abnormality characterized by

2013; Sandin et al., 2012). intellectual disabilities and caused by
an extra chromosome in the 21st pair.
D OW N ’S S YN D R O M E Down’s
sex-linked chromosomal
syndrome is usually caused by an abnormalities abnormalities
extra chromosome on the 21st pair, that are transmitted from generation
resulting in 47 chromosomes. The to generation and carried by a sex
probability of having a child with chromosome.
Down’s syndrome increases with the People with Down’s syndrome have Klinefelter syndrome a chro-
age of the parents. People with Down’s characteristic features that include a mosomal disorder found among males
rounded face, a protruding tongue, a that is caused by an extra X sex chromo-
syndrome have characteristic fea-
broad, flat nose, and a sloping fold of skin some and that is characterized by infer-
tures that include a rounded face, a tility and mild intellectual disabilities.
over the inner corners of the eyes.
protruding tongue, a broad, flat nose,
testosterone than normal males. As recent events. Development of external
a result, male primary and secondary GENETIC sexual organs appears normal enough,
sex characteristics—such as the testes, ABNORMALITIES although there is increased incidence of
deepening of the voice, musculature, infertility (Lee et al., 2011).
and the male pattern of body hair—do Phenylketonuria
not develop properly. XXY males usu- Huntington’s disease 2-2b GENETIC
ally have enlarged breasts (gyneco- Sickle-cell anemia ABNORMALITIES
© Image ideas/Jupiterimages
mastia) and are usually mildly mentally Tay-Sachs disease
retarded, particularly in language skills A number of disorders have been attrib-
Cystic fibrosis uted to genes.
(Skakkebaek et al., 2014). XXY males
are typically treated with testosterone Hemophilia
PHENYLKETONURIA The enzyme
replacement therapy, which can foster Muscular dystrophy disorder phenylketonuria (PKU)
growth of sex characteristics and elevate is transmitted by a recessive gene and
the mood, but they remain infertile. affects about 1 child in 8,000. Children
Approximately 1 girl in 2,500 has a single X sex with PKU cannot metabolize an amino acid called phe-
chromosome and as a result develops Turner syn- nylalanine, so it builds up in their bodies and impairs the
drome. The external genitals of such girls are nor- functioning of the central nervous system, resulting in
mal, but their ovaries are poorly developed and they
mental retardation, psychological disorders, and physical
produce little estrogen . Girls with this problem
problems. There is no cure for PKU, but children with
are shorter than average and infertile. Researchers
PKU can be placed on diets low in phenylalanine within
have connected a specific pattern of cognitive defi-
three to six weeks of birth and develop normally (Casey,
cits with low estrogen levels: problems in visual–spatial
2013; Dawson et al., 2011).
skills, mathematics, and nonverbal memory (Davenport
et al., 2013). Yet a sample of women with Turner syn- HUNTINGTON’S DISEASE Huntington’s disease
drome who are participating in a National Institutes (HD) is a fatal, progressive degenerative disorder and
of Health (NIH) study found that women with Turner a dominant trait, affecting approximately 1 American
syndrome were more likely to have a in 18,000. Physical symp-
bachelor’s degree and be employed than toms include uncontrol-
their age-mates in the general population lable muscle movements.
(Gould et al., 2013). Psychological symptoms
Approximately 1 girl in 1,000 has an include loss of intellectual
XXX sex chromosomal structure, Triple X functioning and personal-
syndrome. Such girls are normal in appear- ity change (van Dujin et
ance but tend to show lower-than-average al., 2014). Because the
language skills and poorer memory for onset of HD is delayed
until middle adulthood,
many individuals with
testosterone a male sex hormone produced mainly the defect have borne
by the testes. children only to discover
Turner syndrome a chromosomal disorder years later that they and
found among females that is caused by having a single possibly half their off-
X sex chromosome and is characterized by infertility. spring will inevitably
MARKA / Alamy Stock Photo
estrogen a female sex hormone produced mainly develop it. Medicines

by the ovaries. can help deal with some
phenylketonuria (PKU) a genetic abnormality symptoms.
in which phenylalanine builds up and causes intellec-
tual disabilities. SICKLE-CELL ANEMIA
Huntington’s disease (HD) a fatal genetic Sickle-cell anemia is
neurological disorder whose onset is in middle age. Richard Burton and Elizabeth Taylor, the caused by a recessive
sickle-cell anemia a genetic disorder that co-stars of the movie Cleopatra. Burton gene. Sickle-cell anemia
decreases the blood’s capacity to carry oxygen. was diagnosed with hemophilia. is most common among
African Americans. Nearly
1 African American in 10 and 1 Latin American in 20 is
a carrier. In sickle-cell anemia, red blood cells take on 2-3 GENETIC COUNSELING
the shape of a sickle and clump together, obstructing
small blood vessels and decreasing the oxygen supply.
AND PRENATAL TESTING
The lessened oxygen supply can impair cognitive skills
It is possible to detect genetic abnormalities that are
and academic performance (Smith et al., 2013). Physical
responsible for many diseases. Genetic counselors
problems include painful and swollen joints, jaundice,
compile information about a couple’s genetic heritage
and potentially fatal conditions such as pneumonia,
to explore whether their children might develop genetic
stroke, and heart and kidney failure.
abnormalities. Couples who face a high risk of passing
TAY-SACHS DISEASE Tay-Sachs disease is also along genetic defects to their children sometimes elect
caused by a recessive gene. It causes the central nervous to adopt or not have children rather than conceive their
system to degenerate, resulting in death. The disorder is own. In addition, prenatal testing can indicate whether
most commonly found among children in Jewish fami- the embryo or fetus is carrying genetic abnormalities.
lies of Eastern European background. Approximately Although we discuss amniocentesis and chorionic
1 in 30 Jewish Americans from this background car- villus sampling, it should be noted that their use tends
ries the recessive gene for Tay-Sachs. Children with the to be declining because blood tests and ultrasound are
disorder progressively lose control over their muscles, becoming more sophisticated and used more frequently.
experience sensory losses, develop intellectual disabili- By the time an amniocentesis is normally scheduled, a
ties, become paralyzed, and usually die by about the woman today may have had several blood tests and ultra-
age of five. sounds, which provide evidence of chromosomal as well
as genetic abnormalities, and also provide reasonably
CYSTIC FIBROSIS Cystic fibrosis, also caused by clear pictures of the embryo and fetus.
a recessive gene, is the most common fatal hereditary
disease among European Americans. Approximately 2-3a AMNIOCENTESIS
30,000 Americans have the disorder, but another 10 mil- Amniocentesis is usually performed on the mother at
lion (1 in every 31 people) are carriers (Cystic Fibrosis 14–16 weeks after conception, although many physicians
Foundation, 2014). Children with the disease suffer from now perform the procedure earlier (“early amniocente-
excessive production of thick mucus that clogs the pan- sis”). In this fetal-screening method, the health profes-
creas and lungs. Most victims die of respiratory infections sional uses a syringe (needle) to withdraw fluid from the
in their 20s. amniotic sac. The fluid contains cells that are sloughed
off by the fetus. The cells are separated from the amniotic
SEX-LINKED GENETIC ABNORMALITIES Some
fluid, grown in a culture, and then examined microscopi-
genetic defects, such as hemophilia, are carried on
cally for genetic and chromosomal abnormalities.
only the X sex chromosome. For this reason, they are
referred to as sex-linked genetic abnormalities.
These defects also involve recessive genes. Females, Tay-Sachs disease a fatal genetic neurological disorder.
who have two X sex chromosomes, are less likely than cystic fibrosis a fatal genetic disorder in which mucus obstructs the
males to show sex-linked disorders because the genes lungs and pancreas.
that cause the disorder would have to be present on hemophilia a genetic disorder in which blood does not clot properly.
both of a female’s sex chromosomes for the disorder sex-linked genetic abnormalities abnormalities resulting
from genes that are found on the X sex chromosome. They are more likely
to be expressed. Sex-linked diseases are more likely to
to be shown by male off spring (who do not have an opposing gene from
afflict sons of female carriers because males have only a second X chromosome) than by female offspring.
one X sex chromosome, which they inherit from their muscular dystrophy a chronic disease characterized by a
mothers. progressive wasting away of the muscles.
One form of muscular dystrophy , Duchenne genetic counselors health workers who compile information
muscular dystrophy, is sex-linked. Muscular dystrophy about a couple’s genetic heritage to advise them as to whether their chil-
is characterized by a weakening of the muscles, which dren might develop genetic abnormalities.
can lead to wasting away, inability to walk, and some- prenatal before birth.
times death. Other sex-linked abnormalities include amniocentesis a procedure for drawing and examining fetal cells
sloughed off into amniotic fluid to determine the presence of various
diabetes, color blindness, and some types of night
disorders.
blindness.
Amniocentesis was once rou- FIG.2.6 SONOGRAM
tinely recommended for women
who become pregnant past the age
of 35 because the chances of Down’s
syndrome and other chromosomal
abnormalities increase dramatically as
women—or their mates!—approach or
pass the age of 40. Amniocentesis also
permits parents to learn the sex of their
unborn child through examination of
the sex chromosomes, but most par-
ents learn the sex of their baby earlier
by ultrasound. Amniocentesis carries
OJO Images Ltd / Alamy Stock Photo

some risk of miscarriage, although
the extent of the risk is unclear.
2-3b CHORIONIC VILLUS
SAMPLING
Chorionic villus sampling (CVS)
is similar to amniocentesis but is car- The first baby pictures? In the ultrasound technique, sound waves that are
ried out between the 9th and 12th too high in pitch for the human ear to hear are bounced off the fetus. A
week of pregnancy. A small syringe is computer then assembles the information into a picture that enables health
inserted through the vagina into the professionals to detect various abnormalities. Once the fetus reaches a certain
uterus and sucks out some thread- age, the method also reveals its anatomic sex.
like projections (villi) from the outer
membrane that envelops the amniotic
sac and fetus. Results are available within days. CVS has ear—ultrasound—to obtain information about the
not been used as fre- fetus. Ultrasound waves are reflected by the fetus, and
quently as amniocente- a computer uses the information to generate a picture
miscarriage the expulsion of an sis because CVS carries of the fetus. The picture is termed a sonogram (see
embryo or fetus before it can sustain a slightly greater risk of Figure 2.6).
life on its own, most often due to miscarriage. However, Ultrasound is used to guide the syringe in amniocen-
defective development.
there is controversy as to tesis and CVS by determining the position of the fetus.
chorionic villus sampling how much amniocentesis Ultrasound also is used to track the growth of the fetus,
(CVS) a method for the prenatal
detection of genetic abnormalities
and CVS increase the risk to determine fetal age and sex, and to detect multiple
that samples the membrane of miscarriage, and some pregnancies and structural abnormalities. In the fourth
enveloping the amniotic sac and health professionals assert and fifth months, ultrasound is usually used to perform
fetus. that the risk of these pro- complete anatomical scans of the fetus.
uterus the hollow organ within cedures has been exag-
females in which the embryo and gerated (Akolekar et al.,
fetus develop. 2-3d BLOOD TESTS
2014; Ogilvie & Akolekar,
ultrasound sound waves too high 2013). Check with your Parental blood tests can reveal the presence of genetic
in pitch to be sensed by the human ear. physician for the latest disorders such as sickle-cell anemia, Tay-Sachs disease,
sonogram a procedure for using information. and cystic fibrosis. The alpha-fetoprotein (AFP)
ultrasonic sound waves to create a assay is used to detect neural tube defects such as spina
picture of an embryo or fetus. bifida and certain chromosomal abnormalities. Neural
2.3c ULTRASOUND tube defects cause an elevation in the AFP level in the
alpha-fetoprotein (AFP)
assay a blood test that assesses Health professionals also mother’s blood. Elevated AFP levels also are associated
the mother’s blood level of use sound waves that are with increased risk of fetal death. Blood tests are also now
alpha-fetoprotein, a substance that is
linked with fetal neural tube defects.
too high in frequency to testing for chromosomal abnormalities, and at three to
be heard by the human four months of pregnancy they reveal the sex of the baby.
2-4 HEREDITY AND THE ENVIRONMENT and personality traits (Hur, 2005; McCrae et al., 2000;
Trzaskowski et al., 2013). MZ twins are also more likely
to share psychological disorders such as autism, depres-
In addition to inheritance, the development of our
sion, schizophrenia, and vulnerability to alcoholism
traits is also influenced by nutrition, learning, exercise,
(Belmonte & Carper, 2006; Plomin et al., 2013; Ronald
and—unfortunately—accident and illness. A potential
et al., 2006).
Shakespeare who is reared in poverty and never taught to
But one might ask whether MZ twins resemble each
read or write will not create a Hamlet. Our traits and behav-
other so closely partly because they are often treated so
iors therefore represent the interaction of heredity and envi-
similarly? One way to answer this question is to find and
ronment. The sets of traits that we inherit from our parents
compare MZ twins who were reared apart. Except for
are referred to as our genotypes. The actual sets of traits
the uterine environment, similarities between MZ twins
that we exhibit are called our phenotypes. Our pheno-
reared apart would appear to be a result of heredity. In
types reflect both genetic and environmental influences.
the Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart (McGue &
Researchers have developed a number of strategies
Christensen, 2013), research-
to help sort out the effects of
ers have been measuring the
heredity and the environment
physiological and psychologi-
on development. A potential
cal characteristics of 56 sets of
Shakespeare who is MZ adult twins who were sepa-
2-4a KINSHIP STUDIES reared in poverty rated in infancy and reared in
Researchers study the distri- and never taught to different homes. The MZ twins
bution of a trait or behavior reared apart are about as simi-
among relatives who differ in read or write will lar as MZ twins reared together
degree of genetic closeness. not create a Hamlet. on measures of intelligence,
The more closely people are personality, temperament,
related, the more genes they occupational and leisure-time
have in common. Parents and children have a 50% interests, and social attitudes. Moreover, the similari-
overlap in their genetic endowments, and so do sib- ties persist throughout life (McGue & Christensen,
lings (brothers and sisters). Aunts and uncles have a 2013). These traits would thus appear to have a genetic
25% overlap with nieces and nephews, as do grand- underpinning.
parents with grandchildren. First cousins share 12.5%
of their genetic endowment. If genes are implicated
in a trait, people who are more closely related should
be more likely to share it.
T F When identical twins are reared by different fami-
2-4b
TWIN STUDIES: LOOKING lies, their intelligence and personality traits become
IN THE GENETIC MIRROR more different as they grow older.
MZ twins share 100% of their genes, whereas DZ twins Actually, the similarities in intelligence
have a 50% overlap, just as other siblings do. If MZ twins and personality between MZ twins tend
show greater similarity on some trait or behavior than to persist throughout life.
DZ twins do, a genetic basis for the trait or behavior is
indicated.
MZ twins resemble each other more closely than DZ
twins on a number of physical and psychological traits,
genotype the genetic form or constitution of a person as determined
even when the MZ twins are reared apart and the DZ by heredity.
twins are reared together (Bouchard & Loehlin, 2001).
phenotype the actual form or constitution of a person as determined
MZ twins are more likely to look alike and to be simi- by heredity and environmental factors.
lar in height and weight (Dubois et al., 2012; Plomin
autism a developmental disorder characterized by failure to relate to
et al., 2013). Heredity even affects their preference for others, communication problems, intolerance of change, and ritualistic
coffee or tea (Luciano et al., 2005). MZ twins resemble behavior.
one another more strongly than DZ twins in intelligence
2-4c ADOPTION STUDIES
Adoption studies in which children are separated from natural parents in a trait, a powerful argument is made
their natural parents at an early age and reared by adop- for a genetic role in the appearance of that trait.
tive parents provide special opportunities for sorting out Traits are determined by pairs of genes. One mem-
nature and nurture. When children who are reared by ber of each pair comes from each parent in the process
adoptive parents are nonetheless more similar to their called conception, which we discuss next.
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terms.
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◻◻ Quiz yourself on key concepts.
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SELF-ASSESSMENT
Fill-Ins
Answers can be found in the back of the book.
1. ____________ are the biological materials that regulate the development of traits.
2. We begin life as a single cell, which is called a(n) ____________.
3. Reduction division is also known as ____________.
4. Pairs of chromosomes that look alike and have information about the same set of traits are called ____________.
5. Each member of a pair of genes is known as a(n) ____________.
6. Dizygotic twins share ____________ % of their genes.
7. About ____________ % of children of brown-eyed parents who each carry recessive blue eye color will have
blue eyes.
8. “Supermales” have ____________ sex-chromosomal structure.
9. ____________ -cell anemia is most common among African Americans.
10. When adopted children are more similar to their biological parents in a trait, we suspect that ____________ plays
a major role in the development of the trait.
Multiple Choice
1. Which of the following is accurate about the age 6. Which of the following are least likely to be similar
of the parents and possible health risks for a child? in appearance?
a. Only the mother’s age matters. a. siblings
b. The younger a female is, the greater the chances of b. MZ twins
a positive pregnancy outcome. c. DZ twins
c. Only the father’s age matters. d. children and adoptive parents
d. The age of both the mother and the father can
matter. 7. Which of the following is a developmental dis-
order characterized by failure to relate to other
2. Which of the following is a sex-linked disease? people and intolerance of change?
a. Tay-Sachs disease c. hemophilia a. Klinefelter syndrome c. autism
b. Huntington’s disease d. cystic fibrosis b. muscular dystrophy d. down’s syndrome
3. Girls with which one of the following disorders are 8. Which of the following is a multifactorial problem?
infertile, have poorly developed ovaries, and attain a. diabetes mellitus
shorter than average height?
b. Down’s syndrome
a. Klinefelter syndrome
c. phenylketonuria
b. supermale syndrome
d. Huntington’s disease
c. triple X syndrome
d. Turner syndrome 9. Which of the following disorders can be controlled
by diet?
4. Which of the following is a dominant trait?
a. autism c. Down’s syndrome
a. straight hair c. farsightedness
b. sickle-cell anemia d. phenylketonuria
b. type O blood d. lactose intolerance
10. Which of the following is usually caused by an
5. Which of the following is a fatal, progressive extra chromosome on the 21st pair?
degenerative disorder?
a. triple X syndrome c. cystic fibrosis
a. Turner syndrome c. cystic fibrosis
b. Down’s syndrome d. diabetes mellitus
b. Huntington’s disease d. Tay-Sachs disease
Conception and Prenatal
3 Development
Hill Street Studios/Blend Images/Getty Images
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this chapter, you will be able to…
3-1 Describe the process of conception 3-3 Describe what happens during the three stages of After you finish
prenatal development
3-2 Discuss the causes of infertility and alternate this chapter, go
ways of becoming parents 3-4 Discuss various environmental influences on
prenatal development, including critical periods to PAGE 51 for
of vulnerability
STUDY TOOLS
3-1 CONCEPTION: AGAINST the vagina along with the endometrium that had
formed to support an embryo, in the menstrual flow.
ALL ODDS Ova are much larger than sperm. The chicken
egg and the six-inch ostrich egg are each just one
Conception is the union of an ovum and a sperm cell, although the sperm of these birds are micro-
cell. Conception, from one perspective, is the begin- scopic. Human ova are barely visible to the eye, but
ning of a new human life. From another perspective, their bulk is still thousands of times larger than that of
though, conception is also the end of a fantastic voyage sperm cells.
in which one of several hundred thousand ova pro-
duced by the woman unites with one of hundreds of
millions of sperm produced by the man in the average
ejaculate.
T F Approximately 120 to 150 boys are conceived for

3-1a Ova every 100 girls.
At birth, women have 300,000 to 400,000 ova in each
It is true that approximately 120 to 150
ovary, although she will only ovulate some 500 of these
during her lifetime (Adhikari & Liu, 2013). The ova,
boys are conceived for every 100 girls.
however, are immature in form. In addition to ova, Sperm with Y sex chromosomes swim
the ovaries also produce the female hormones estro- more rapidly, resulting in the conception
gen and progesterone. At puberty, in response to hor- of more boys than girls.
monal command, some ova begin to mature. Each
month, an egg (occasionally more than one) is released
from its ovarian follicle about midway through the
menstrual cycle and enters a nearby fallopian tube. 3-1b SPERM CELLS
It might take three to four days for an egg to be pro- Sperm cells develop through several stages. They each
pelled by small, hairlike structures called cilia and, per- begin with 46 chromosomes, but after meiosis, each
haps, by contractions in the wall of the tube, along the sperm has 23 chromosomes, half with X sex chromo-
few inches of the fallopian tube to the uterus. Unlike somes and half with Y. Each sperm cell is about 1/500th
sperm, eggs do not propel themselves. If the egg is of an inch long, one of the smallest types of cells in the
not fertilized, it is discharged through the uterus and body. Sperm with Y sex chromosomes appear to swim
faster than sperm with X sex chromosomes. This differ-
ence contributes to the conception of 120 to 150 boys
for every 100 girls. Male fetuses suffer a higher rate of
miscarriage than females, however, often during the first
month of pregnancy. At birth, boys outnumber girls by a
ratio of only 106 to 100. Boys also have a higher incidence
of infant mortality, which further equalizes the numbers
T F Approximately 120 to 150 boys are conceived of girls and boys.
for every 100 girls. The 150 million or so sperm in the ejaculate may
T F Sperm travel randomly inside the woman’s reproductive tract, so seem to be a wasteful investment because only one sperm
reaching the ovum is a matter of luck. can fertilize an ovum, but
T F “Test-tube babies” are grown in a laboratory dish throughout their only 1 in 1,000 sperm will
nine-month gestation period. ever approach an ovum. conception the union of a
Millions deposited in the sperm cell and an ovum that occurs
T F Newly fertilized egg cells survive without any nourishment from the
when the chromosomes of each
mother for more than a week. vagina flow out of the of these cells combine to form
T F Fetuses suck their thumbs, sometimes for hours on end. woman’s body because of 23 new pairs.
T F A father’s age at the time of conception can influence the development gravity. Normal vaginal
endometrium the inner lining
of the fetus. acidity kills many more of the uterus.
sperm. Many surviving
CHAPTER 3: Conception and Prenatal Development 37
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us. The Chief and I were at Sandhurst together, don't you know, and
he'd do anything for me. But he's a busy man, a very busy man; and
I always respect a man's business, pull myself up short, don't you
know, wouldn't waste his time or bore him, on any account."
"They haven't much time to spare in this building, sir," assented
Faunce.
"Of course not. Magnificent building—splendid institution—fine body
of men the police—but there ought to be three times as many of 'em.
Eh, Faunce, that's your opinion, ain't it?"
"No doubt, sir, there ought to be more of them, if it would run to it."
"But it won't, no, of course it won't. Another penny on the income-tax
this year! We shall see it a shilling before we've done with it."
"We should see it half a crown, sir, if everything was done as it ought
to be done."
"True, true, Faunce. A social Utopia, and the taxpayer with hardly
bread to eat. Well, I want to take you straight to my mother-in-law,
who will tell you all about her worthless son—a bad egg, Faunce, a
bitter bad egg, and not worth a ha'porth of the anxiety that poor old
lady has been feeling about him. She lives at Buckingham Gate.
Shall we walk?"
"By all means, sir. May I ask what particular circumstances have
caused this uneasiness on Mrs. Rannock's part—and from what
period her anxiety dates?"
"Well, you see, Faunce, Rannock left England in March—late in
March—to go to Klondyke—a wild-cat scheme, like most of his
schemes—and from that day to this nobody who knows him—so far
as we can discover—has received any communication from him."
"Is that so strange, sir? I shouldn't think that when a man was
digging for gold among a few thousand other adventurers, at the risk
of being frozen to death, or murdered if he was lucky, he would be
likely to trouble himself much about family correspondence?"
"Well, no doubt it's a rough-and-tumble life, but still, I'm told they do
get the mails, and do keep somehow in touch with the civilized world;
and, blackguard as Rannock is, he has been in the habit of writing to
his mother three or four times a year, and oftener. I believe there is a
soft spot in his heart for her. But you'll see the old lady, and she'll tell
you her troubles," concluded Major Towgood, "so I needn't say any
more about it."
In spite of which remark he talked without intermission all the way to
Buckingham Gate.
CHAPTER XV.
"Happy he
With such a mother! faith in womankind
Beats with his blood, and trust in all things high
Comes easy to him, and tho' he trip and fall
He shall not blind his soul with clay."
The Honourable Mrs. Rannock, widow of Captain Rannock, second
son of Lord Kirkmichael, lived in a narrow-fronted Queen Anne
house facing Wellington Barracks. It was one of the smallest houses
to be found in a fashionable quarter, and the rent was the only thing
big about it; but Mrs. Rannock had lived at Court for the greater part
of her life, having begun as a maid-of-honour when she and her
Royal mistress were young, and she could hardly have existed out of
that rarefied atmosphere. Refinement and elegance were as
necessary to her as air and water are to the common herd; she
would have pined to death in a vulgar neighbourhood; her personal
wants were of the smallest, but her surroundings had to be the
surroundings of a lady.
Everything in the house was perfect of its kind. It was furnished with
family relics, Sheraton and Chippendale furniture that had been
made to order by those famous cabinet-makers for the Rannocks of
the eighteenth century, a buhl cabinet that had come straight from
the Faubourg St. Germain in the Red Terror, when Paris was running
with innocent blood, and the ci-devants were flying from ruin and
death.
The street door was painted sky-blue, the hall and staircase were
white, the rich colouring of the wall-papers made a vivid background
to the sober tones of the old furniture, and in the dainty drawing-
room, with its apple-blossom chintz and exquisite Chelsea china, the
daintiest thing was old Mrs. Rannock, with her pink-and-white
complexion, silvery hair, patrician features and bearing, tall and
slender figure, rich brocade gown, and Honiton cap with lappets that
fell almost to her waist.
She was an ideal old lady, grande dame in every detail. She had
been painted by Hayter and sketched by D'Orsay. The semi-
transparent hand, which lay on the arm of her chair, had been
modelled by sculptors of renown, had been carved in marble and in
ivory, when she was the beautiful Mary Rannock.
She was nearly eighty, and had been a widow for a quarter of a
century, drifting placidly down the river of time, with very few
pleasures and not many friends, having outlived most of them, and
with only one trouble, the wrong-doing of the son she adored.
She had hoped so much for him, had burnt with ambition for him,
had destined him for a high place in the world; and he had forfeited
every friendship, missed every chance, disappointed every hope.
And she loved him still, better than she loved her daughter and her
daughter's children; better, perhaps, because his life had been an
ignominious failure; better because of that boundless compassion
which she felt for his ill-fortune.
"My poor Dick has never had any luck," she would say excusingly.
She received Mr. Faunce with pathetic eagerness, like a drowning
man clutching at the first spar that floats within his reach.
"Pray, be seated," she said graciously. And then, turning to her son-
in-law, she said, "I should like to have my talk with Mr. Faunce quite
alone, Harry," at which Major Towgood bounded from his chair with a
snort of vexation.
"But surely, my dear mother, since I know all the circumstances of
the case, and as a man of the world, I can be of some use."
"Not while I am talking to Mr. Faunce, Harry. I want to keep my poor
old head calm and cool."
"Well, dear, you are the best judge, but really——"
"Dear Harry, it will be so kind of you to leave us alone."
"Well, mother, if that's so——" and the impetuous little Major puffed
and blew himself out of the room, and might have been heard fuming
on the landing, before he went downstairs to console himself with a
cigar in the dining-room.
"My son-in-law is an excellent creature, Mr. Faunce, but he talks too
much," said Mrs. Rannock. "No doubt he has told you something of
the circumstances in which I require your help."
"Yes, madam."
"And now ask me as many questions as you like. I will keep nothing
from you. I am too anxious about my son's fate to have any reserve."
"May I ask, madam, in the first place, what reason you have for
being anxious about Colonel Rannock?"
"His silence is a sufficient reason—his silence of nearly ten months.
My son is a very good correspondent. I don't think he has ever
before left me two months without a letter. He is a very good
correspondent," she repeated earnestly, as if she were saying, "He is
a very good son."
"But have you allowed for the rough life at Klondyke, madam, and
the disinclination that a man feels—in a scene of that kind—to sit
down and write a letter, dead beat, perhaps, after a day's toil?"
"Yes, I have allowed for that, but I cannot believe—if my son were
living"—her eyes filled with irrepressible tears in spite of her struggle
to be calm—"and in his right mind, with power to hold a pen—I
cannot believe that he would so neglect me."
"And you have written to him, I conclude, madam?"
"I have written week after week. I have sent letters to the Post Office
at San Francisco and at Dawson City, where my son told me to
address him—letter after letter."
"Have you communicated with Colonel Rannock's late body-
servant?"
"Chater? Yes, naturally. What do you know of Chater?"
"Very little, madam. I happened to hear of him from a gentleman who
had also been making inquiries about your son."
"For what reason?"
"In Lady Perivale's interest. The gentleman has since married Lady
Perivale."
"Mr. Haldane! Yes, I heard of the marriage. I was glad to hear of it.
Lady Perivale had suffered a great injustice from her likeness to that
wretched woman."
"Pardon me, madam. You know the saying—Cherchez la femme. If
you can tell me anything about that woman, and Colonel Rannock's
relations with her, it may help me in my search for him."
"Oh, it is a sad, sad story. My dear son began life so well, in his
grandfather's regiment. There had been Rannocks in the
Lanarkshire ever since Killicrankie. He was a fine soldier, and
distinguished himself in Afghanistan, and it was only after he made
that wretched woman's acquaintance that he began to go wrong—
seriously wrong. He may have been a little wild even before then, but
not more than many other young men. It was that woman and her
surroundings that ruined him."
"I take it that happened about ten years ago."
"Ten years? Yes. How did you know that?"
"I had occasion to look into Miss Delmaine's past life, madam. Pray
tell me all you can about her."
"It was an infatuation on my son's part. He saw her at the theatre,
where people made a great fuss about her on account of her beauty,
though she was no actress. She had a fine house in St. John's
Wood, at the expense of a young man of large means—whom she
ruined, and who died soon after. My son became a frequent visitor at
the house. There were Sunday dinners, and suppers after the
theatre, and my son was always there, madly in love with Miss
Delmaine. Whether she was more to him than an acquaintance in
those days I cannot say. Certainly he had no quarrel with Sir Hubert
Withernsea. But after that unhappy young man's death Kate
Delmaine's influence upon my son wrecked his career. He left the
Army when the Lanarkshire was ordered to Burmah, rather than
leave her, and not daring to take her with him. I don't know what kind
of life he lived after that, although I saw him from time to time; but I
know he was under a cloud, and there were only a few of his father's
old friends who were civil to him, and asked him to their houses."
"Did you know of Colonel Rannock's courtship of Lady Perivale,
madam?"
"Yes, indeed. It was my earnest hope that he would succeed in it."
"Did you know the lady, and know of her likeness to Miss Delmaine?"
"No. I go very little into society. I am an old woman, and only like to
see old friends. And you must understand that I never saw Miss
Delmaine."
"Do you think your son was in love with Lady Perivale?"
"Yes, I believe he was. Or it may be that he only liked her because of
her resemblance to that woman."
"And was he very angry when she refused him?"
"Yes, I know he was wounded—and even angry."
"Do you think that disappointment, and other troubles, might have
induced him to take his own life?"
"No, no, no; I couldn't believe that for one moment. My son has
faced death too often—has risked his life in a good cause, and would
never throw it away like a coward. I know how brave he is, what a
strong will he has—a will strong enough to overcome difficulties. It
was like him to think of Klondyke when he was ruined."
"Did you know that he was in Algiers with Miss Delmaine last
February?"
"Not till I read the report of Lady Perivale's libel suit. I thought he had
broken with her finally two years ago, and I believe at the time he
had. I need not tell you that I did not obtain my knowledge of that
unhappy connection from my son himself. You will understand a
mother's keen anxiety, and that I had other sources of information."
"Yes, madam, I can understand. I do not think I need give you any
further trouble to-day; but if you will oblige me with your son's
photograph—a recent likeness—it may be of use in this matter."
"Yes, I can give you his photograph, taken last year."
Mrs. Rannock opened a velvet case on the table next her chair, and
the wasted white hands trembled ever so faintly as she took out a
cabinet photograph and gave it to Faunce.
"Thank you, madam. I shall wait upon you again directly I have any
fresh information; but I must warn you that an inquiry of this kind is
apt to be very slow; and I fear you can give me no suggestion as to
where to look for Colonel Rannock in the event of his having
changed his mind and not gone to Klondyke."
"No, no; I cannot think that he would change his mind. He was with
me the day before he started, full of hope and excitement. He was
enthusiastic about the wild life in Alaska, and would not listen to my
fears and objections. Oh! Mr. Faunce, if anything evil has happened
to him, these grey hairs will go down in sorrow to the grave."
Again the uncontrollable tears welled into her eyes. She rose, and
Faunce took the movement as his dismissal.
"You may rely upon my most earnest endeavours, madam," he said,
and quietly withdrew, as she stretched a trembling hand to the bell.
"Poor soul! I'm afraid there must be sorrow for those grey hairs
before we come to the end of the story," mused Faunce, as he
walked back to his rooms.
He wrote to Chater, the valet, asking him to call in Essex Street next
morning on particular business concerning Colonel Rannock; and
the valet appeared, with exact punctuality, neatly clad, with well-
brushed hat and slim umbrella, and a little look about the clean-
shaved chin, broad chest, and close-cut hair, that told Faunce he
had once shouldered arms, and swung round to the "Right turn!" in
the white dust of a barrack-yard.
Chater was eminently a man of the world, very easy to get on with,
when he had heard Faunce's credentials, and knew what was
wanted of him, in Mrs. Rannock's interests. He had been Rannock's
soldier-servant in Afghanistan, and had lived with him between
eleven and twelve years.
"And I think you liked him," said Faunce.
"Yes, sir; I liked my master. He was a devil, but he was the kind of
devil I like."
"And I suppose you knew Miss Delmaine?"
"Couldn't help that, sir. She was a devil, and the kind of devil I don't
like. She was the ruin of my master—blue ruin, Mr. Faunce. He might
have kept inside the ropes but for her."
"Did you know anything of his courtship of Lady Perivale?"
"Of course I did, sir. I had to carry the 'cello backwards and forwards
between the Albany and Grosvenor Square."
"Do you think he cared much for Lady Perivale?"
"Well, I believe he did, in a way. He was cuts with Miss Delmaine just
then. She'd been going on a little too bad. There was a prize-fighter,
a man she'd known from her childhood, that was always after her,
and the Colonel wouldn't stand it. Mind you, I don't believe—to give
the devil his due—she ever cared for the fellow, but I think she liked
making my master jealous. She is that kind of aggravating creature
that knows her power over a man, and can't be happy until she's
made him miserable. And then there were rows, and a regular burst
up, and the Colonel swore he'd never see her again."
"And it was after the quarrel that he courted Lady Perivale?"
"Yes, it was after. He was knocked all of a heap the first time he met
her ladyship, on account of her likeness to Kate. 'She's the loveliest
woman I ever saw since Mrs. Randall was at her best,' he said, for
he was always free with me, having lived under canvas together, and
me nursing him through more than one bout of Indian fever—'and
she's an oof-bird,' he said, 'and I shall be on the pig's back if I marry
her.' And I know he meant to marry her, and tried hard—left off cards
and drink, and cut all the young fools that he used to have hanging
about him, and turned over a new leaf. I'd never known him keep
steady so long since we came from India. But when he found it was
all no go, and Lady Perivale wouldn't have him, he was furious. And
when she went off to Italy in the autumn, he took to the cards again,
and drank harder than ever, and went a mucker one way and
another, and by December he had made it up with Kate, and they
went off to Nice together the week before Christmas, with the
intention of crossing over to Ajaccio."
"Why didn't you go with your master?"
"I had business to do for him in town. He wanted to get rid of his
chambers and furniture, and I had to find a purchaser, and he
wanted it all carried through very quietly, for there was a money-
lender who thought he had a bill of sale on the goods."
"You succeeded in that?"
"Yes; I got him a fair price for his lease and furniture. I would give a
good deal to know where he is, and what became of that money."
"Was it much?"
"Six hundred and forty pounds. Three hundred for the lease, which
had only two years to run, and three hundred and forty for the
furniture, at a valuation."
"Did he take all the money with him when he started for America?"
"No; he paid me half a year's wages, on account of a year and a half
due, and he spent a little on himself, but he had five hundred and
fifty pounds in his pocket-book, in bank-notes, when he left
Waterloo."
"In bank-notes. Do you know the figures?"
"Yes; there were two hundred-pound notes, and four fifties, the rest
tens and fives. I wrote a list of the numbers at his dictation."
"Have you kept that list?"
"I believe I have a copy of it among my papers. I copied the figures,
knowing what a careless beggar the Colonel is, and that he was as
likely as not to lose his list."
"Why did he take the money in bank-notes?"
"He had been told that a cheque-book wouldn't be of much use to
him in San Francisco, and no use at all at Dawson City, where he
would have to buy most of his outfit—furs, and mining tools, and a lot
more."
"What put Klondyke into his head, do you think?"
"A pal of his, a Yankee, was going to try his luck there. My master
was always fond of adventure, and never minded roughing it; so the
scheme took his fancy."
"Chater," said Faunce, in a very earnest voice, "do you think Colonel
Rannock ever got as far as Klondyke?—as far as Dawson City?—as
far as 'Frisco?—as far as New York?"
"God knows, sir! I think the case looks—fishy."
"I have reason to know that he wasn't at 'Frisco in time to start for
Vancouver with the pal you talk of, Mr. Bamford—and that Bamford
and another friend sailed without him."
"I know that, sir. Mr. Haldane, the gentleman who came to me for
information, told me the result of his inquiry."
"And this made you rather uneasy, didn't it, Chater?"
"Well, I didn't like to hear it, Mr. Faunce. But my master is a rum sort.
He might change his mind at the last minute. He might go back to
her."
"He didn't do that, Chater. I can answer for him."
"What do you know about her?"
"A good deal. Was she at Waterloo to see your master off by the
boat-train?"
"Not she! They had one of their quarrels in Paris—and he left her
there to find her way home by herself."
"You say home? Had she any house in London?"
"No, she'd never owned a house since the Abbey Road. She was in
lodgings near Cheyne Walk before she went to Nice."
"Decent lodgings?"
"Oh yes, topping."
"And she didn't show up at the boat-train?"
"He didn't travel by the boat-train. He went the night before—by the
Bournemouth express."
"The four-fifty-five?"
"Yes."
"Was he going to stay in Southampton that night?"
"I suppose so. He didn't tell me what was up. He seemed a bit
excited and put out, and hadn't a word to throw at a dog."
"Did he promise to write to you from America?"
"Yes, he was to write to me directly he landed. He had instructions to
give me."
"Do you know of any Southampton friends of Colonel Rannock's?"
"Can't say I do. He has had yachting pals there sometimes in
summer, but there wouldn't be any of that sort in March."
"Mrs. Rannock is alarmed at being without letters from her son since
last March. Do you consider that an alarming circumstance?"
"Yes, Mr. Faunce, I do. My master was fond of his mother, in his way.
He didn't mind victimizing her to the extent of her last sovereign,
poor old lady, when he was hard pushed; but he was attached to her,
in his way. And I don't think he would have made her unhappy by not
writing to her, if it had been in his power to write. I give him that
much credit."
"Well, Chater, we shall have to set the cable at work, and find out
what we can at Dawson City. And now tell me your opinion of Mrs.
Randall, alias Delmaine. You describe her as a bit of a shrew; but do
you know if she was really attached to the Colonel?"
"I believe she worshipped him, in her way. I—well, a letter she wrote
him after their worst quarrel—the row that parted them for over two
years—forced itself on my attention—happening to take it up in a
casual way—and I must say it was a letter to melt a stone; but it
came just when the Colonel was going all he knew for Lady Perivale,
and he took no notice of it."
"And two years after he went back to her. That was weak, wasn't it?"
"I suppose it was, sir. But, after being much with a stuck-up person
like Lady Perivale, a spirited, free and easy creature like Kate
Delmaine would exercise a fascination."
"And you don't think she ever played him false? You don't think she
cared for the prize-fighter? What was his name, by-the-by; Bolisco,
wasn't it?"
"Yes, sir, Jim Bolisco. No, she never cared a straw for him—a great
ugly brute, with a cock-eye. She'd known him when she was a child
—for her people were very low—father kept a small public out
Battersea way; and it ain't easy for a woman to shake off that sort of
friend. Bolisco was took up by Sir Hubert Withernsea, and used to
dine at the Abbey Road sometimes, much to the Colonel's disgust.
No, I don't believe Kate ever had the slightest liking for that man; but
I sometimes used to fancy she was afraid of him."
CHAPTER XVI.
"Later or sooner by a minute then,
So much for the untimeliness of death,—
And as regards the manner that offends,
That rude and rough, I count the same for gain—
Be the act harsh and quick!"
His interview with Chater left John Faunce troubled in mind, and
deeply meditative. Had there been a crime, or was the
disappearance of Colonel Rannock a fact easily accounted for in the
natural course of events? The mother's conviction that some evil had
befallen him was after all founded on an inadequate reason. If he
had gone to Klondyke, as he intended, the whole fabric of his life
would have been changed, and the man who while in the civilized
world corresponded regularly with his mother, might well forget his
filial duty, in the daily toil and hourly dangers, hopes, and
disappointments of the struggle for gold. It was difficult to judge a
man so placed by previous experience or everyday rules. The most
dutiful son might well leave home letters unwritten; or a letter, trusted
to a casual hand, might easily go astray.
Then there was always the possibility that he had changed his plans;
that he had stayed in New York or in San Francisco; that he had
chosen some other portion of the wild West for his hunting ground;
that he had spent the summer fishing in Canada, or the autumn
shooting in the Alleghanies; and, again, that his letters to England
had been lost in transit.
Faunce would not have been disposed to suspect foul play on so
slight a ground as the absence of news from the wanderer, but there
had been that in Mrs. Randall's manner and countenance which had
excited his darkest suspicions, and which had been the cause of his
undiminished interest in her proceedings.
If there had been a crime she knew of it, had been in it, perhaps. He
had watched her and studied her, but he had never questioned her.
The time was not ripe for questioning. He did not want to alarm her
by the lightest hint of his suspicions. She was too important a factor
in the mystery.
He called on her on the evening after his interview with Chater, and
persuaded her to go to a theatre with him. It was the first time he had
assumed the attitude of established friendship, but although she
seemed surprised at the invitation, she accepted it.
"I shall be glad to get out of this hole for a few hours," she said, with
an impatient sigh, as she pinned on her hat before the glass over the
mantelpiece, the little fur toque in which she had charmed the jury.
Faunce took her to see a musical comedy, a roaring farce from start
to finish, in which the most popular low comedian in London gave a
free rein to his eccentricities; and he watched his companion's face
from time to time while the auditorium rocked with laughter at the
wild fun. Not a smile illumined that gloomy countenance. He could
see that she was hardly conscious of the scene, at which she stared
with fixed melancholy eyes. Once she looked round at the people
near her, with a dazed expression, as if she wondered why they
were laughing.
It is recorded of the first Napoleon that he once sat through a broad
farce with an unchanged countenance; but then his shoulders bore
the burden of empire, the lives and fortunes of myriads.
The experience of this evening went far to confirm Faunce's ideas.
He took Mrs. Randall to an oyster shop, and gave her some supper,
and then put her into a cab and sent her back to Selburne Street.
Just at the last, when he had paid the cabman and given her the
man's ticket, her face lighted up for a moment with a forced smile.
"Thank you no end for a jolly evening," she said.
"I'm afraid it hasn't been very jolly for you, Mrs. Randall. You didn't
seem amused."
"Oh, I don't think I'm up to that sort of trash now. I had too much of it
when I was on the boards. And the more comic the show is, the
more I get thinking of other things."
"You shouldn't think too much; it'll spoil your beauty."
"Oh, that's gone," she said, "or, if it ain't, I don't care. I'd as leave be
a nigger as a 'has been,' any day. Good night. Come and see me
soon; and perhaps, if you take me to a tragedy next time, I may
laugh," she added.
"There's something bitter bad behind that," mused Faunce, as he
tramped across the bridge to Waterloo Station for the last Putney
train, "but, for all that, I can't believe she's a murderess."
Faunce spent the next morning in his den in Essex Street poring
over a book to which he had frequent recourse, and of which he was
justly proud, since it was the wife of his bosom who had compiled
this register of passing events for his study and use, a labour of love
on her part, achieved with abnormal slowness, and kept closely up to
date. The book was carried home to Putney on the first of every
month, and Mrs. Faunce's careful hands added such paragraphs
bearing on the scheme of the work, as she had cut out of the
newspapers during the previous four weeks.
It had pleased this good helpmeet to think that she was assisting her
husband in his professional labours, and the gruesome nature of her
researches had never troubled her.
Mrs. Faunce's book was a large folio bound in red levant leather, and
containing newspaper cuttings, pasted in by the lady's careful hands,
and indexed and classified with neatness and intelligence.
The volume was labelled "Not accounted for," and was a record of
exceeding ghastliness.
It contained the reports of coroners' inquests upon all manner of
mysterious deaths, the unexplained cases which might have been
murder, the "found drowned," the nameless corpses discovered in
empty houses, in lodging-house garrets, on desolate heaths and
waste places; a dismal calendar of tragic destinies, the record of
hard fate or of undiscovered crime.
Steadily, carefully, John Faunce searched the spacious pages where
the scraps of newspaper type stood out against a broad margin of
white paper. He began his scrutiny at the date on which Colonel
Rannock was said to have left London, and pursued it without finding
any fact worth his attention till he came to a paragraph dated May
30, and extracted from the Hants Mercury, a popular bi-weekly
newspaper, published in Southampton.
"Strange Discovery at Redbridge.—An inquest was held
yesterday afternoon at the Royal George, Redbridge, on the body of
a man, which had been found the previous day by some workmen
engaged on the repair of the road by the river. Their attention was
attracted by the proceedings of some gulls that were hovering and
screaming over a discarded boat that lay keel upwards in the slime
and weeds of the foreshore, at a spot where the tide must have
washed over it day by day. The timbers were so rotten that they
crumbled under the men's hands as they tried to lift the boat; but
worthless as it was, they found it carefully secured with two strong
stakes which had been thrust between the timbers at stern and bow,
and driven deep into the beach below the soft ooze and shifting mud
that moved with every tide.
"The men pulled up the stakes and turned the keel over, and, almost
buried in the mud, they found the body of a man which had evidently
been lying there for a long time, and of which even the clothing was
so decomposed as to be unrecognizable. The most careful scrutiny
failed to afford any indication of identity, except the name of a well-
known West End tailor on the trousers-buttons, and the fact that the
unknown had been tall and strongly built. The doctor's evidence
showed that the back of the skull had been fractured by some blunt
instrument, and by a single blow of extraordinary violence. Death
must have been almost instantaneous. The inquiry was adjourned in
the hope of further evidence transpiring."
Other notices followed at short intervals, but no further evidence had
"transpired." A verdict of murder by some person or persons
unknown had ended the inquiry.
"Curious," mused Faunce, after reading the report a second time,
and with profound attention, and then he went on with his book till he
came to the last extract from a recent paper, another unknown victim
of an unknown murderer, pasted on to the page a week ago. And of
all those unsavoury records there was only that one of the body
hidden under the discarded boat that engaged his attention.
He knew Redbridge, a village street with its back to the water, a few
scattered houses along the shore, a homely inn, a bridge, and for the
rest a swampy waste where the reeds grew tall and rank, and the
wild duck skimmed. He knew the solitude that could be found along
that shore, not a quarter of a mile from pleasant cottage houses, and
lamplit village shops, and the gossip and movement of the inn. A
likely spot for a murderer to hide his victim; and this was clearly a
case of murder, the stealthy murderer's sudden blow, creeping
noiselessly behind the doomed man's back, with the strong arm lifted
ready to strike.
That single blow of great violence indicated the murderer's strength.
But where and how had the blow been dealt, and what connection
could there be between Colonel Rannock's supposed departure from
Southampton, and the body found on the shore at Redbridge, four
miles away?
The question was one which John Faunce told himself that he had to
answer. The answer, when arrived at, might have no bearing on the
case in hand, but it had to be found. Faunce's science was an
inductive science, and he was always asking himself apparently
futile questions and working hard at the answers.
Mr. Faunce spent the evening in his snug little sitting-room at Putney,
and his sole recreation during those domestic hours was furnished
by Mrs. Randall's discarded blotting-book, which he had not
examined since he obtained it from the little servant in Selburne
Street.
With a clear table and a strong duplex lamp in front of him, Faunce
took the leaves of blotting-paper one by one, and held them between
his eyes and the light, while Mrs. Faunce, reading a novel in her
armchair by the fire, looked up at him every now and then with an
indulgent smile.
"At your old blotting-paper work again, Faunce," she said. "I don't
fancy you'll get much information out of that ragged stuff. There's too
much ink, and too many blots and splotches."
"It's not a very good specimen, Nancy; but I suppose I shall come to
something before I've done. It's finnicking work; but it almost always
pays."
"You're so persevering; and then you love your work."
"If I didn't I should never have stuck to it, Nancy. It's rather trying
work for any man that hasn't a heart like the nether millstone; and I'm
afraid I haven't."
Faunce had been at work nearly two hours, and his wife's interest in
a transcendently lovely heroine and a repulsively plain hero was
beginning to flag, before he came upon a blurred and broken line
that rewarded his patience.
In that splotched and besmeared labyrinth of lines the detective's
trained eye had discovered—
1. A date, March 27.
2. Two words, "meet me——"
3. A line of fragmentary syllables, "Sou—ton—est—o'clock."
4. Three words, "always loved you."
5. "Your—nd——"
6. "ig——"
This much, the inky impression of a heavy hand and a broad-nibbed
pen, Faunce was able to decipher upon two sheets of blotting-paper.
That last item, the letters "ig," with a flourish under the g, was the
most significant part of his discovery.
The letter had been signed with the lady's pet name, "Pig," and
Faunce told himself that to only one man would she have so signed
herself—the lover who had called her by that name at the Mecca
Hotel, and whose playful invention was doubtless responsible for the
endearing sobriquet.
"She told me she did not know whether he sailed from Southampton
or Liverpool," mused Faunce, "yet here, under my hand, is the
evidence that she asked him to meet her at Southampton West."
He went to Southampton next day, and called at the office of the
American Line. If Colonel Rannock had carried out his intention there
must be some record of his passage to New York.
There was such a record, and a startling one, for it proved that he
had not gone to America by the ship in which he meant to sail.
After some difficulty, and being referred from one clerk to another,
Faunce found the young man who had booked Colonel Rannock's
passage in the Boston on Friday, March 29, the evening before she
sailed.
"He came after seven o'clock, when the office was shut," said the
clerk. "I was at work here, and as he made a great point of it I
booked his berth for him. He suffered for having left it till the eleventh
hour, for there were only two berths vacant—the two worst on the
ship. He grumbled a good deal, but took one of them, paid the
passage money, and left his cabin trunk to be sent on board next
morning. And from that day to this we have never heard of him. He
gave us no address, but we have his trunk, and we hold the cash to
his credit, and I suppose he'll claim it from us sooner or later."
"Was he alone?"
"He was alone when he came into the office, but there was some
one waiting for him in a cab outside, and I believe the some one was
a lady. He spoke to her as he came in at the door, and I heard her
answer him. 'Don't be all night about it, Dick,' she said."
"Thank you," said Faunce. "His friends are getting anxious about
him, but, for all that, I dare say he's safe enough, and he'll call upon
you for that passage money before long."
"If he's above ground I should think he would," answered the clerk,
"but I must say it looks rummy that he hasn't claimed the cash and
the trunk before now," and Faunce left the office more and more
concerned about that corpse under the disused boat.
The steamer Boston was to leave the docks late on Saturday
afternoon. Why did Colonel Rannock go to Southampton on Friday,
and how did he propose to spend the intervening hours? More
questions for Faunce to answer.
A woman was with him at Southampton—a woman who had not
travelled with him from Waterloo, since he was alone when Chater
saw the evening express leave the platform. Who was the woman,
and what was her business on the scene? That she had addressed
him by his Christian name showed that she was not the casual
acquaintance of an idle hour.
Faunce believed that he had found the answer to this question in
Mrs. Randall's blotting-book. If the letter that had left its fragmentary
impression on the blotting-paper had been sent to Colonel Rannock,
a letter urging him to meet her at Southampton West, it would
account for his going there the night before the steamer left. From
those scattered words, and that signature, "Your fond Pig," Faunce
concluded that Kate Delmaine had written to the man she loved,
pleading for a parting interview, and that Rannock had responded to
her appeal.
There were other questions for Faunce to answer, and it was in the
quiet pursuit of knowledge that he took himself to the hotel which he
deemed the best in Southampton, engaged a bedroom, and ordered
a dinner in the coffee-room at the old-fashioned hour of six.
Before dining he called upon the coroner, who was also a well-
known family solicitor, and heard all that gentleman could tell him
about the inquest at Redbridge, which was no more than had been
recorded in the local newspaper.
Faunce having revealed himself in his professional capacity, the
coroner expressed his own opinion freely.
"I made up my mind that it was a murder case, and a bad one," he
said; "I've got the tailor's buttons in my criminal museum. Dash,
Savile Row. That stamps the victim as a stranger. We Southampton
people don't get our clothes in Savile Row."

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CDEV 2: Child and Adolescent

Development - eBook PDF

History, Theories, and Methods

Heredity and Conception

Reading YOUR Way Studying YOUR Way Learning YOUR Way

www.cengage.com/4LTRPRESS NOW WITH CDEV ONLINE

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Heredity and Conception

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CDEV 2 BRIEF CONTENTS

1 History, Theories, and Methods 2

Answers to Study Tools Questions 280

3 Conception and Prenatal

7 Infancy: Social and Emotional 10 Early Childhood: Social and

11 Middle Childhood: Physical

11-6 Learning Disorders 186

12 Middle Childhood: Cognitive

16 Adolescence: Social and

14 Adolescence: Physical 16-3 Sexuality 269

2 PART ONE: Introduction

Tetra Images/Alamy Stock Photo

Courtesy of the Ferdinand Hamburger Archives of The Johns Hopkins University

CHAPTER 1: History, Theories, and Methods 9

be offered scaffolding that need to understand children’s family values and

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The discussion of theories of development reveals that 1-3b 

Information-processing Human cognitive functioning is compared Interaction of nature and nurture.

Sociocultural perspective Development is influenced by factors such Nurture.

temporary; when he spurts, he settings in which they hap-

correlation coefficient a number

18 PART ONE: Introduction

As a result, they experience cultural and other

20 PART ONE: Introduction

STUDY READY TO STUDY? ONLINE AT CENGAGEBRAIN.COM YOU CAN:

1 ◻ Rip out the chapter review card at the back of the

CHAPTER 1: History, Theories, and Methods 21

22 PART ONE: Introduction

6. Which of the following is an example of develop-

CHAPTER 1: History, Theories, and Methods 23

24 PART ONE: Introduction

2-1 HEREDITY: THE BASICS (A with T) or cytosine

From Weiten, Psychology, 8E. © 2011 Cengage Learning.

2-1c IDENTICAL AND FRATERNAL TWINS

mutation a sudden variation in a heritable characteristic, as by an

26 PART ONE: Introduction

dizygotic (DZ) twins twins that derive

ovulation the releasing of an ovum from

allele a member of a pair of genes.

Identical twins. Monozygotic twins share 100% of their

TABLE 2.1 E XAMPLES OF DOMINANT AND

28 PART ONE: Introduction

somal abnormality characterized by

estrogen a female sex hormone produced mainly develop it. Medicines

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STUDY READY TO STUDY? ONLINE AT CENGAGEBRAIN.COM YOU CAN:

2 ◻◻ Rip out the chapter review card at the back of the

34 PART ONE: Introduction

36 PART ONE: Introduction

T F Approximately 120 to 150 boys are conceived for

The discussion of theories of development reveals that 1-3b

2-1c IDENTICAL AND FRATERNAL TWINS

TABLE 2.1 E XAMPLES OF DOMINANT AND