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SE VE NTH EDITION
EMPOWERMENT SERIES
Generalist Practice with

Organizations and Communities
Karen K. Kirst-Ashman and Grafton H. Hull, Jr.

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Generalist Practice with
Organizations and Communities
Seventh Edition
Karen K. Kirst-Ashman
University of Wisconsin-Whitewater
Grafton H. Hull, Jr.

University of Utah
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Generalist Practice with Organizations and © 2018, 2015 Cengage Learning
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Printed in United States of America

Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2016
To Linda Kirst and Jim Spielman, the best relatives anyone could ask for
To my grandchildren, Patrick, Tatiana, Gregory, Ilsa, Marcus, Michael, Savannah, and Jonah
Brief Contents
Preface xvii
1 Introduction to Generalist Practice with Organizations and Communities 1
2 Stress and Time Management 43
3 Using Micro Skills with Organizations and Communities 71
4 Group Skills for Organizational and Community Change 98
5 Understanding Organizations 143
6 Decision Making for Organizational Change 203
7 Implementing Organizational Change: Agency Policy, Projects, and Programs 235
8 Understanding Neighborhoods and Communities 289
9 Macro Practice in Communities 340
10 Evaluating Macro Practice 378
11 Advocacy and Social Action with Populations at Risk 412
12 Ethics and Ethical Dilemmas in Practice with Organizations and Communities 454
13 Using Supervision 501
14 Developing and Managing Agency Resources 517
References 567
Name Index 581
Subject Index 587
Contents
Preface xvii Broker 22

Facilitator 22
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Generalist Practice with
Initiator 22
Organizations and Communities 1
Negotiator 23
LO 1-1 Generalist Practice Using the Generalist Mobilizer 23
Intervention Model 2 Advocate 24
Example: A Micro Approach 4 Maintaining a Professional Identity and Roles 24
Example: A Mezzo Approach 5 LO 1-10 Using Critical Thinking Skills 25
Example: A Macro Approach 5 A Formula for Critical Thinking 25
Generalist Practice: An Eclectic Avoiding Fallacies 26
Knowledge Base 7 A Final Note on Critical Thinking
Human Behavior and the Social and Generalist Practice 26
Environment (HBSE) 9 Utilizing Research-Informed Practice 26
Social Welfare Policy and Policy Practice 9
Social Work Practice 10 LO 1-11 Using a Planned Change Process 28
Research 10 Engagement 28
Values and Principles that Guide Generalist Practice 11 Assessment: Identifying Clients, Issues,
and Collecting Information 28
LO 1-2 Sources That Guide Professional Values Planning in Macro Practice 30
and Ethics in Practice 12 Implementing and Evaluating Macro Practice 30
National Association of Social Managing Termination in Macro Practice 30
Workers (NASW) Code of Ethics 12 Engaging in Follow-Up in Macro Practice 30
Specific Steps for Pursuing Planned Change
LO 1-3Awareness of Personal Values 12
in Macro Practice 30
Managing Ethical Dilemmas 13
Why Do You Need to Know About Practice
LO 1-4 Range of Practice Skills Used to Target Systems with Organizations and Communities? 31
of Any Size 13
Understanding Macro Practice: Three Models
LO 1-5 Differentiating Client Empowerment, of Community Organization 33
Strengths, and Resiliency 14 The Importance of Historical Perspectives 34
LO 1-6 Engaging Human Diversity 14 Chapter Summary 38
Recognizing the Influence of Differences 17
Competency Notes 40
LO 1-7 Advocating for Human Rights
HIGHLIGHTS
and Social, Economic, and Environmental Justice 18
1.1 Dimensions in the Definition of Generalist Practice 6
LO 1-8 Working Effectively Within 1.2 Core Values of the NASW Code of Ethics 12
1.3 Resiliency: Seeking Strength amid Adversity 15
an Organizational Structure 18
1.4 Variables of Human Diversity 16
LO 1-9 Professional Social 1.5 Empowerment of Lesbian and Gay People
at the Macro Level 17
Work Roles 19
1.6 More Fallacies to Avoid When Using Critical
Enabler 20 Thinking 27
Mediator 20 1.7 Updating Traditional Models of Community
Manager 21 Organization 34
Educator 21 1.8 Generalist Practice with Organizations
and Communities in Historical Context 35
Analyst/Evaluator 21
vii
viii CONTENTS
CHAPTER 2 Stress and Time Management 43 Facial Expressions 77

Body Positioning 78
Introduction 45 Multicultural Sensitivity and
LO 2-1 The Relationship Between Stress and the General Nonverbal Behavior 79
Adaptation Syndrome 45 Demonstrating Warmth, Empathy,
General Adaptation Syndrome 46 and Genuineness 79
LO 2-2 Identifying Potential Stressors Warmth 79
in Agency Settings 47 Empathy 80
Perceptions of Stress 48 Genuineness 83
LO 2-3 Stress-Management Strategies to Improve LO 3-2 Utilize Nonverbal Communication and

Practice Effectiveness 49 Empowerment with People Who Have Physical
Managing your Stress 49 Disabilities 83
LO 2-4 The Relationship Between Poor Time LO 3-3 Interviewing and Communicating Effectively
Management and Stress 56 in Macro Contexts 84
How Poor Time Management Causes Stress 56 Simple Encouragement 84
Styles of Dealing with Time 57 Sensitivity to Cultural Differences 84
Paraphrasing 84
LO 2-5 Use Time-Management Techniques to Improve Reflective Responding 85
Practice Effectiveness 58 Clarification 85
Planning Your Time 58 Interpretation 85
Get Control of Your Own Behavior 62 Providing Information 85
LO 2-6 Utilize Mechanisms for Eliminating Emphasizing People’s Strengths 86
Procrastination 67 Summarization 86
Reasons for Procrastination 67 Eliciting Information 86
The Cons of Procrastination 68 The Use of “Why?” 87
Battling Procrastination 68 Overlap of techniques 87
Chapter Summary 69 LO 3-4 Personal Reflection and Professional

Development 87
Competency Notes 70
LO 3-5 Using Assertiveness Skills in Macro Settings 88
HIGHLIGHTS Using Appropriate Assertiveness in the Macro
2.1 Time-Management Problems 57 Environment: Empowering Yourself and
2.2 Time-Tracking 60
2.3 Planning Time-Management Goals 60
Others 88
2.4 Prioritized Plan for “A Day in My Life” 61 Recognizing Nonassertive, Assertive,
2.5 Prioritized Plan for a Professional Workday 62 and Aggressive Communication 89
2.6 Self-Analysis of Procrastination 68 The Advantages of Assertiveness 95
CHAPTER 3 Using Micro Skills with Organizations Assertiveness Training 96
and Communities 71 A Final Note on Assertiveness Training 96
Chapter Summary 96
Introduction 73
Competency Notes 97
LO 3-1 Using Empathy and Other Interpersonal Skills
to Work Effectively Within Larger Systems 73 HIGHLIGHTS
3.1 Practicing Empathic Responses
A Review of Basic Micro Skills 74 in Macro-Practice Contexts 81
Verbal and Nonverbal Behavior 74 3.2 Nonverbal Behavior, Communication, Empowerment,
Eye Contact 75 and People Who Have Physical Disabilities 83
3.3 Each of Us Has Certain Assertive Rights 90
Attentive Listening 75
3.4 What Would You Do? 95
CONTENTS ix
CHAPTER 4 Group Skills for Organizational Amendments 122

and Community Change 98 Voting Rights 122
Introduction 99 LO 4-5 Conflict Management 124

Advocating and Conflict 124
Understanding Conflict 100 Recognizing Types of Conflict 126
LO 4-6 The Pros of Conflict 128
LO 4-1 Employ Leadership Skills in Social Work
Services 100 The Cons of Conflict 128
Identifying Targets for Change 100 Personal Styles for Addressing Conflict 129
Inspiring Others 100 Procedures for Conflict Resolution 131
Using Assertiveness 100 Step 1: The Confrontation 131
Employing Communication Skills 101 Step 2: Establish Common Ground 132
Leading by Example 101 Step 3: Emphasize the Importance
Bringing New Perspectives 101 of Communication 132
Using Self 101 Step 4: Emphasize Your Willingness to Cooperate 133
Understanding the Media 102 Step 5: Empathize with Your Opponent’s
Providing Leadership Skills in Task Groups 102 Perspective 133
Managing Conflict 102 Step 6: Evaluate Motivations to Address
Distinguishing Leadership and Administration 102 the Conflict 134
Employing Leadership and Power 102 Step 7: Come to Some Mutually
LO 4-2 Networking to Analyze, Formulate, and Satisfactory Agreement 134
Advocate for Policies and Practices That Advance Advanced Conflict Management:
Social Well-Being 102 Guidelines and Strategies 135
Recognizing the Importance of Networking 103 Focusing on Power 136
Networks: Mutual Aid 107 Generating Conflict 137
Types of Networks 107 Conflict Management by Covert Means 137
Problems with Networks 108 More Specific Tactics 138
Worker Roles in Networking 109 Conflict Management by Emergent Agreement 139
LO 4-3 Teamwork and Collaboration with Colleagues Conflict Management by Coactive Disputation 139
and Clients 110 Conflict Management by Negotiated Agreement 139
Characteristics of Effective Teams 111 Conflict Management by Indirect Means
or Procedural Measures 140
LO 4-4 Planning and Conducting Meetings 114 Conflict Management by Exercise of Authority/
Plan Ahead 114 Power 140
Clarify Purpose and Establish Objectives 115
Select Participants 115 Chapter Summary 140
Select a Time and Place 115 Competency Notes 142
Prepare an Agenda 116
Start Meetings on Time 117 HIGHLIGHTS
4.1 Networking in Action 103
State Ending Time at the Start 117 4.2 Networking for Latchkey Kids 106
Keep the Group on Target 117 4.3 Worker Roles in Self-Help Groups 110
End the Meeting on Time 118 4.4 Example of an Agenda 116
Plan for Follow-Up Meetings 119 4.5 Ending Meetings 119
4.6 Minutes of a Meeting 120
Parliamentary Procedure 120 4.7 Common Parliamentary Definitions 121
Advantages and Disadvantages 4.8 Classes of Motions 123
4.9 Conflict in the Hospital 125
of Parliamentary Procedure 120
4.10 Guidelines for Managing Conflict 130
Basic Parliamentary Concepts 121 4.11 Dealing with Confrontation 135
x CONTENTS
CHAPTER 5 Understanding Organizations 143 LO 5-6 Social Work Values and Organizational Values 184
How to Survive in a Bureaucracy 185
Introduction 144
Management and Worker Empowerment 187
Defining Organizations, Social Services, Constructing a Culture Of Caring 187
and Social Agencies 144 The Learning Organization 187
Organizations 144 Teamwork and Team Empowerment 188
Social Services 145 Managing Diversity 190
Social Agencies 145
Comparing Specific Management Approaches 190
LO 5-1 The Macro Context of Organizations 146 Total Quality Management 190
The Shifting Macro Environment and Shrinking
Resources 146 LO 5-7 Empower Macro Client Systems to Improve
Legitimation 149 Social, Economic, and Environmental Justice 195
LO 5-2 Client Sources 153 Servant Leadership 196
LO 5-3 Theoretical Approaches to Understanding Common Problems Encountered in Organizations 197

Organizations 153 Impersonal Behavior 197
Classical Organizational Theories 154 Lack of Rewards and Recognition 197
Neoclassical Organizational Theories 156 Agency Policy and Worker Discretion 198
Human Relations Theories 156 Traditions and Unwritten Rules 198
Feminist Theories and Organizations 157 Chapter Summary 199
The Cultural Perspective 160
Political-Economy Theory 160 Competency Notes 201
The Institutional Perspective 161 HIGHLIGHTS
Contingency Theory 161 LO 5-2 5.1 Assessing the Impact of Managed Health Care on
Culture-Quality Theories 162 Social Well-Being 147
Systems Theories 162 LO 5-3 5.2 Helping Immigrants and Refugees: Organizations
Which Organizational Theory Is Best? 162 in a Global Context 150
5.3 Faith-Based Social Services 170
LO 5-4 Assessing Organizations and Agencies 5.4 Achieving Organizational Objectives 171
from a Systems Perspective 164 5.5 Goal Displacement: Process Superseding Progress 173
Appraising Organizations from a Systems 5.6 Dynamics Contributing to Political Behavior in
Agencies 180
Perspective 166
5.7 Orientation Conflicts Between Helping Professionals
Resource Input 166 and Bureaucracies 184
Process Through Organizational Technology 166 5.8 Recognizing Challenges in Creating Learning
Output 167 Organizations 189
Outcomes 167 5.9 The Seven Sins of Service 191
5.10 Empower Macro Client Systems to Improve Social,
Defining the Nature of Organizations 167 Economic, and Environmental Justice 195
Agency Settings 167
CHAPTER 6 Decision Making for Organizational
Organizational Mission Statements 169
Change 203
Defining Organizational Goals 169
Organizational Culture 174 Introduction 204
Organizational Structure 175
Power and Politics in Organizations 179 LO 6-1 Changing Organizations Through Agency
Policies, Projects, and Programs 205
LO 5-5 Ethical Behavior Within Organizational Undertaking Specific Projects 206
Contexts 181 Initiating and Developing Programs 206
Centralized Versus Decentralized Changing Agency Policies 208
Organizations 183 Informal Agency Policies 209
Comparing Methods of Management 183 Beginning the Change Process 212
Working in a Traditional Bureaucracy 183 LO 6-2 Assess the Potential for Organizational Change 212
CONTENTS xi
Step 1: Problem Identification—Identify Problems CHAPTER 7 Implementing Organizational

to Address 215 Change: Agency Policy, Projects,
Substep 1: Seriously Evaluate the Potential for and Programs 235
Macro-Level Intervention 215
Substep 2: Define and Prioritize Problems 215 Introduction 236
Substep 3: Translate Problems into Needs 216 LO 7-1 Conceptualize the Macro-Practice Environment,
Substep 4: Determine Which Need or Needs to Client, Change Agent, Target, and Action Systems 237
Address 218 The Macro Client System 237
Step 2: Reality Check—Review Your Macro and The Change Agent System 237
Personal Reality 218 The Target System 238
Substep 1: Evaluate Variables Working for or Against The Action System 239
You in the Macro-Change Process 218 LO 7-2 Change Agency Policy to Advance Social
Substep 2: Review Your Personal Reality—Strengths Well-Being 240
and Weaknesses that May Act for or Against Understanding Agency Policy 241
Successful Change Efforts 221 Types of Agency Policy Changes 241
Step 3: Establish Primary Goals 223 LO 7-4 Initiate and Implement a Program 245
Step 4: People Resources—Identify Relevant People Articulating the Planned Change Process
of Influence 224 and Organizational Change 247
Rationales for Internal Advocacy 226 LO 7-5 Utilize a Process for Implementing Macro-System
Step 5: Assess Potential Costs and Benefits Change 247
to Clients and Agency 227 Identify an Innovative Idea 247
Muster Support and Formulate an Action System 251
LO 6-3 Step 6: Assess Personal Strengths and Weaknesses LO 7-6 Formulate an Action System 252
in the Context of Organizational Change 227 Identify Assets 253
Could I Lose My Job? 228
Will My Career Path Be Affected? 228 LO 7-7 Communicate Effectively Utilizing Memos
Will I Strain Interpersonal Relationships at Work? 229 and E-mails 255
A Strengths Perspective on Risk 229 LO 7-8 Develop Goals, Objectives, and Action Steps
LO 6-4 Appraise the Potential for Internal Advocacy to Attain Them 256
to Improve Client Access to Services 231 Goals 256
Objectives 256
Step 7: Evaluate the Potential Success of a Macro- Action Steps 256
Change Process 231 Implement the Plan 258
Substep 1: Review the Process and Weigh Describe How the Changes Will Affect Services 258
the Pros and Cons of Proceeding 231 Anticipate Target System Receptiveness 258
Substep 2: Identify Possible Macro Approaches to Use, Emphasize Communications 258
Estimate their Effectiveness, and Select the Most
Appropriate one 232 LO 7-9 Utilize a Planning Tool to Achieve Organizational
Change 259
Looking Ahead 232 PERT Charts Illustrate Objectives and Action
Chapter Summary 233 Steps 260
PERT Charts Portray Specific Tasks 260
Competency Notes 234 PERT Charts Depict Task Sequence 260
HIGHLIGHTS PERT Charts and Necessary Resources 260
6.1 A Word About Innovations 206 PERT Charts Establish a Time Frame 261
6.2 Case Example: “Hidden” Informal Policies 210 Advantages of Pert Charts 261
6.3 Leadership Styles of Decision Makers 225
6.4 Consider “Covert Operations” 230 LO 7-10 Neutralize Opposition to a Planned Change
6.5 Summary Outline of the Process 233 Effort 264
xii CONTENTS
Communicating with Decision Makers 265 Spatial Communities 295

Logical Administrative Reactions 265 Social Communities 296
Phases of Resistance 266 Political Communities 296
Collaborative and Adversarial Strategies 266 Communities and Neighborhoods 296
Collaboration and Persuasion 266 Functions of Communities 296
Types of Spatial Communities 298
LO 7-11 Evaluate Outcomes in Macro Practice 271
Monitor Daily Activities and Evaluate Impact 271 LO 8-3 Systems Perspective for Viewing the Community
as an Ecological and Social System 302
LO 7-12 Use the Macro-Change Process to Establish a
Culturally Competent, Empowering The Community as an Ecological and Social
Organization 273 System 303
Defining Cultural Competence 273 Ecological Perspective 303
Assessing Cultural Competency 274 Social Systems Perspective 304
Recommendations for Attaining Social Structural Perspective 305
Cultural Competence 275 Human Behavior Perspective 305
Additional Perspectives on the Community 305
Program Development: A Case Example 276
The Shape Program 276 LO 8-4 Key Concepts to Discover and Assess Changes
Start with An Innovative Idea 276 in Neighborhoods and Communities 306
Muster Support 278 Competition 306
Identify Assets 278 Centralization 307
Specify Goals, Objectives, and Action Steps to Concentration 307
Attain Them 279 Invasion 308
Implement the Plan 284 Gentrification 308
Neutralize Opposition 284 Succession 308
Evaluate Progress 285 Concepts Characterize Real Life 308
Looking Ahead 285 LO 8-5 Utilize Community Resource Systems with

Neighborhoods and Communities 309
Chapter Summary 285
Demographic Development of Communities 311
Competency Notes 287 Urbanization and Suburbanization 311
Rural Communities 312
HIGHLIGHTS
7.1 A Word About Engagement 237 Where is the Best Place to Live? 314
LO 7-3 7.2 Changing a Policy on Practice Procedures 242
7.3 Examples of Projects in Macro Practice 244 LO 8-6 Community Factors Affecting Human Rights
7.4 A Project Example: Substance Abuse Prevention for and Social, Economic, and Environmental Justice:
Puerto Rican Adolescents 246 Social Stratification, Economic and Political Systems,
7.5 Why Program Development Is Relevant to You 248 and Power 314
7.6 Program Development Ideas are Endless 250
Social Stratification 315
7.7 Observations About Memos and E-mail
Communications 254 Community Economic Systems 315
7.8 Being an Adversary and Pressuring 268 Community Political Systems 317
7.9 What Is Sexual Harassment? 277 Formal Organizations and Informal Political
Processes 317
CHAPTER 8 Understanding Neighborhoods
Power in the Community 319
and Communities 289
LO 8-7 Neighborhoods as Helping Networks
Introduction 291 and Resources 323
LO 8-1 Professional Roles of Social Workers in Functions of Neighborhoods 323
Neighborhoods and Communities 292 Types of Neighborhoods 325
Neighborhoods as Helping Networks 326
LO 8-2 Theoretical Frameworks for Understanding Neighborhood Organizations 326
Communities and Neighborhoods 295 Community and Neighborhood Resources 329
CONTENTS xiii
LO 8-8 The Ability of Communities and Neighborhoods Chapter Summary 375

to Advance Social Well-Being and Respond to
Competency Notes 376
Residents’ Needs 330
HIGHLIGHTS
Community Needs Assessments 333 9.1 Community Change Activities 343
Purposes of a Community Assessment 333 9.2 A Community Response to Suicide 343
Steps in Conducting a Community Assessment 333 9.3 Empowering Clients’ Participation in Decision
Making 347
Chapter Summary 336 9.4 Gang Graffiti 350
9.5 Logic Model 352
Competency Notes 338 9.6 Geri’s Force Field Analysis 356
HIGHLIGHTS 9.7 Identifying People of Influence 361
8.1 Examples of Two Communities 299 9.8 Gathering People of Influence 362
8.2 Key Concepts for Understanding Communities 306 9.9 Evaluating Potential Success 364
8.3 Social Work in Rural Areas 314 9.10 An Innovative Idea 365
8.4 Governmental Activities in the Community 318 9.11 Goal, Objectives, and Action Steps: Reducing Gang
8.5 Power at Work 319 Activity 367
8.6 Goodbye to Geneva 325 9.12 Getting Things Done 368
8.7 Two Effective Neighborhood Associations 328 9.13 Goal, Objective, and Action Steps: Obtaining
8.8 Neighborhood Organizations 328 a Permanent Shelter 369
8.9 Neighborhood Resources 329 9.14 Implementing the Plan 370
8.10 A Model for Community Assessment 331 9.15 Confronting a Bad Idea 371
8.11 Kids-Place 332 9.16 Bargaining and Negotiating 372
8.12 A Failed Windshield Survey 335 9.17 Evaluating Progress and a Follow-Up 374
CHAPTER 9 Macro Practice in Communities 340 CHAPTER 10 Evaluating Macro Practice 378
Introduction 341 LO 10-1 Program Evaluation Research Informs

Practice 380
LO 9-1 Advance Social, Economic, and Environmental
Justice in Communities 342 LO 10-2 The Context of Program Evaluation 380
Purposes of Program Evaluation:
Philosophical Perspective on Macro Practice: Pursuit A Summary 381
of Social, Economic, and Environmental Justice 344
LO 10-3 A Review of Key Concepts in Evaluation 381
LO 9-2 Utilize Theoretical Frameworks and Strategies Control Group 381
for Empowering Communities 344 Experimental Group 381
Perspectives on the Community 346 Dependent Variable 382
Independent Variable 382
Approaches to Community Change 348 Sampling 382
Beginning the Change Process 348 Experimental Design 382
LO 9-3 Engage and Assess the Potential for Community Quasi-Experimental Designs 382
Change 348 Baseline 382
LO 9-4 Community Asset Mapping to Identify Measures of Central Tendency 383
Community Resources 356 Standard Deviation 383
Reliability 383
LO 9-5 Intervene and Evaluate Change Validity 383
in a Community 365 Descriptive Statistics 384
Start with an Innovative Idea 365 Inferential Statistics 384
Muster Support and Formulate an Action System 365 Outcome 384
Identify Assets 366 Outcome Measures 384
Specify Goals, Objectives, and Action Steps 367 Statistical Significance 385
Implement the Plan 368 Chi-Square Test 385
Neutralize Opposition 369 Correlation Test 386
Evaluate Progress 374
xiv CONTENTS
LO 10-4 Problems and Barriers in Program Evaluation 386 CHAPTER 11 Advocacy and Social Action with
Failure to Plan for Evaluation 386 Populations at Risk 412
Lack of Program Stability 386
Relationships Between Evaluators Introduction 414
and Practitioners 387 LO 11-1 Key Concepts Involved with Macro Practice 414
Evaluation Results are Unclear 387 Advocacy 414
Evaluation Results are Not Accepted 388 Social Action 416
When Evaluation is Not Worth the Effort 388 Empowerment 416
LO 10-5 Models of Evaluation 389 Populations at Risk 417
Formative (or Monitoring) Evaluations 389 LO 11-2 Risk Factors for Social, Economic,
Summative (or Impact) Evaluations 389 and Environmental Injustice 418
Effectiveness and Efficiency Evaluations 390 Factors Contributing to Putting Populations at Risk 418
Evaluation Approaches 390 Examples of Populations at Risk 419
Quantitative Methods 391 LO 11-3 Advocacy, Social Action, and Empowerment
Qualitative Methods 391 Activities 422
One-Group Posttest Designs 391
Pretest/Posttest Designs 391 Advocacy 423
Client Satisfaction Surveys 392 The Values and Limitations of Advocacy 423
Goal Attainment Scaling 392 Agency Commitment to Advocacy 424
Target Problem Scaling 393 Opportunities for Macro-Level Advocacy 425
Case Studies 394 Principles of Macro-Level Advocacy 426
Group Comparisons 394 Guidelines for Macro-Level Advocacy 427
Quality Assurance Reviews 395 Advocacy Tactics 428
Summary of Evaluation Designs 395 Grassroots and Grasstop Advocacy
LO 10-6 Stages and Steps in Evaluation 395 and Organizing 431
Stage 1: Conceptualization and Goal Setting 395 Locating Grasstop Supporters 433
Stage 2: Measurement 398 Identity the Help You Need 433
Stage 3: Sampling 398 Recruitment Strategies 433
Stage 4: Design 399 LO 11-4 The Use, Value, and Limitations of Advocacy 434
Stage 5: Data Gathering 401
Stage 6: Data Analysis 404 LO 11-5 Theoretical and Conceptual Models of Social
Stage 7: Data Presentation 404 Action 434
Alinsky’s Social Action Approach 434
LO 10-7 Communicate Evaluation Data 405
Part 1: Introduction 405 LO 11-6 Critique Macro Practice Using Professional
Part 2: Literature Review 405 Knowledge, Skills, and Values 436
Part 3: Methodology 405 Legal Action 437
Part 4: Results 405 LO 11-7 Participatory Action Research: Practice Informs
Part 5: Discussion 406 Research, and Research Informs Practice 439
Part 6: References and Appendices 407 Social Worker Roles in PAR 439
Summary of Data Presentation 407 Empowerment 440
LO 10-8 Uphold Ethics and Values in Evaluation 407 Recognizing Strengths 440
Chapter Summary 408 LO 11-8 Legislative Advocacy and Political Activity

Advance Social, Economic, and Environmental
Competency Notes 410 Justice 441
HIGHLIGHTS Factors Affecting Legislative Advocacy 442
10.1 Guidelines for Planning an Evaluation 397 Steps in Legislative Advocacy 442
10.2 Six Common Evaluation Designs 400 Other Political Activities 449
CONTENTS xv
Chapter Summary 450 LO 12-5 Ethical Reasoning Strategies to Make

Principled Decisions 476
Competency Notes 452
Facing an Ethical Dilemma: Decision-Making
HIGHLIGHTS Steps 477
11.1Key Terms 414
11.2Advocacy Produces System Change 416
Ranking Ethical Principles 478
11.3Coordinated Social Action Efforts 417 Reamer’s Guide to Ethical Decision Making 478
11.4Caveats in Empowerment 417 Dolgoff, Harrington, and Loewenberg’s, “Ethical
11.5Advocacy for Change 425 Principles Screen” 479
11.6Advocacy in Action 429
11.7Embarrassing the Target 430 Ethical Dilemmas in Macro Contexts 481
11.8A Petition Form 432 Distribution of Limited Resources 481
11.9Social Action on Behalf of the Homeless: Community Support (or Lack Thereof) for Service
Some Considerations 436
11.10 Steps in the Legislative Process 443
Provision 483
11.11 Communicating with Elected Officials 447 Relationships with Colleagues 485
CHAPTER 12 Ethics and Ethical Dilemmas in Practice LO 12-6 Ambiguity Affects Ethical Decision Making 489
with Organizations and Conforming to Agency Policy 491
Communities 454 Breaching Confidentiality in a Macro Context 493
LO 12-7 Cultural Differences Influence Ethical

Introduction 456
Practice 494
LO 12-1 The NASW Code of Ethics in Organizational
Other Potential Ethical Dilemmas 496
and Community Practice 456
Co-Optation versus Cooperation 496
The NASW Code of Ethics 457 Conflict of Interest 497
Social Workers’ Ethical Responsibilities Potential Harm to Participants 497
to Clients 458 Stigmatization Tactics 498
Social Workers’ Ethical Responsibilities to Furthering Ethical Practice in Agency Settings 498
Colleagues 463
Chapter Summary 498
Social Workers’ Ethical Responsibilities in Practice
Settings 464 Competency Notes 499
Social Workers’ Ethical Responsibilities as
HIGHLIGHTS
Professionals 466 12.1 A Summary of the Ethical Standards in the
Social Workers’ Ethical Responsibility to the Social NASW Code of Ethics 458
Work Profession 469 12.2 Combating Your Own Stereotypes and
Social Workers’ Ethical Responsibilities to the Broader Prejudices 467
Society 470 12.3 Ethical Boundaries and Spirituality 471
12.4 Negative Responsibility 487
LO 12-2 The Role of Ethical Boundaries When Addressing
CHAPTER 13 Using Supervision 501
Spirituality 471
Introduction 502
LO 12-3 Demonstrate Familiarity with International Social
Work Ethical Principles 472 LO 13-1 The Functions of Supervision 502
Administrative Functions of Supervisors 503
Human Rights and Social Justice 473
Educational Functions of Supervisors 504
What Can You Do? 473
Support Functions of Supervisors 505
LO 12-4 Manage Personal Values and Use Professional
LO 13-2 Using Supervision, Improving Supervisory
Values to Guide Practice 474
Relationships, and Enhancing the Communication
Types of Ethical Issues Confronting Agency Process 506
Practitioners 475 Use Communication Skills with Your Supervisor 506
Ethical Absolutism Versus Ethical Relativism 475 Keep Your Records Up to Date 506
xvi CONTENTS
Plan Your Supervisory Agenda Ahead of Time 507 Understanding the Software 525
Put Yourself in Your Supervisor’s Shoes 507 Agency Software Usage 527
Display Openness to Learning and to Improving General Observations About Computers 532
Yourself 507 Other Macro Uses of Technology 532
Demonstrate a Liking for Your Work 508
LO 14-4 Fund-raising 533
Follow the Rules 508
Sources of Funds 534
Think Beyond Tomorrow 508
Work Cooperatively with Other Staff 508 LO 14-5 Differentiating Grants from Contracts 540
Do More Than Expected 508 Grants and Contracts: Who’s Got the Money? 541
Give Your Supervisor Feedback 509 Government Grants 542
Forewarn Your Supervisor Foundation Grants 543
About Problematic Situations 509 Business and Corporate Grants 544
Learn Your Supervisor’s Evaluation System 509
LO 14-6 Key Steps in Securing Grants 545
LO 13-3 Manage Potential Problems in Supervision 510 Pre-Application Phase 545
Supervisor-Supervisee Misunderstandings 514 Application Phase 545
Supervisors Who Take Credit Writing a Grant Proposal 546
for Your Achievements 514 Kinds of Grants and Contract Proposals 549
Supervisory Incompetence 514 Post-Application Phase 563
Laziness 515
Chapter Summary 564
Problems with Delegation 515
Inability to Deal with Conflict 515 Competency Notes 565
A Final Note 515 HIGHLIGHTS
14.1 The Media’s Influence 521
Chapter Summary 515 14.2 Example of a News Release 523
14.3 Example of a Newspaper Editorial 524
Competency Notes 516 14.4 Management Information Systems 528
HIGHLIGHTS 14.5 Fund-raising 534
14.6 My First Grant—A First Person Account 543
13.1 Workers’ General Expectations of Supervisors:
14.7 Critical Topics Regarding Grant Applications 546
Keys to Empowerment 503
14.8 Example of a Cover Page 550
13.2 Games Supervisors and Supervisees
14.9 Example of a Summary or Abstract 550
Sometimes Play 510
14.10 Example of a Grant Application Problem
13.3 What Would You Do? 512
Statement 552
CHAPTER 14 Developing and Managing Agency 14.11 Examples of Goals and Objectives 554
Resources 517 14.12 Example of a Description of the Method 554
14.13 Example of an Evaluation Section 557
14.14 Example of a Bibliography 558
Introduction 519
14.15 Example of a Line-Item Budget 558
LO 14-1 Working with the Media to Advance Social 14.16 Example of a Functional or Program Budget from
a Peer Counselor and Drug Education Program 559
Well-Being and Social, Economic, and Environmental
14.17 Example of Allocating Time and Space Costs 560
Justice 519 14.18 Example of a Budget Narrative 561
The Nature and Role of Social Media 520
General Guidelines for Working with the Media 521 References 567
LO 14-2 Utilize Professional Communication Strategies Name Index 581
with the Media 523 Subject Index 587
Media Interviews 523
Letters to the Editor and Editorials 524
LO 14-3 Technology for Managing Resources, Service

Delivery, and Evaluating Agency Effectiveness 525
Understanding Computer Hardware 525
Preface
This book is a guide to generalist social work practice address significant issues relevant to this practice.
with organizations and communities. The three adjec- Skills include working with the media, using new tech-
tives that best describe this text are relevant, practical, nological advances, fund-raising, grant writing, evalu-
and readable. Generalist practice is clearly defined, ating macro-practice effectiveness, resolving ethical
and specific macro-practice skills are presented in a dilemmas in macro contexts, and advocating for
straightforward and interesting manner. Applications diverse populations at risk.
to actual macro-practice situations are emphasized The fifth basic goal is to present material that is
throughout, as is the importance of client system not only relevant and interesting but also inclusive of
strengths. The content is geared to both the under- major concepts currently considered critically important
graduate and graduate generalist practice sequences. by the social work profession and social work educators.
This text aims to fulfill five major goals. First, it New material and concepts from the current accredita-
provides a readable and practical guide to working in tion standards have been included. (Please see the subse-
and with organizations and communities (macro prac- quent section on new content.) Enhanced emphasis is
tice). Numerous real-world situations and case exam- placed on critical thinking, empowerment and resilien-
ples are presented to make the material interesting and cy, and the global context of social work practice. The
relevant. Organizational and community theories are text adopts a generalist perspective, emphasizes evalu-
examined and linked to practice applications. ation of practice and research-informed practice, fo-
Second, the text proposes a generalist perspective cuses on the use of various communication skills with
to emphasize how micro, mezzo, and macro skills are colleagues and community members, demonstrates the
interlinked. This generalist approach assumes that appropriate use of supervision, and examines practi-
group (mezzo) skills are built on a firm foundation tioner functioning within organizational structures
of individual (micro) skills. Likewise, skills involved and communities.
in working with organizations and communities
(i.e., macro skills) rest on a solid base of both micro
and mezzo skills. This text links the three levels of About the Cover
practice—micro, mezzo, and macro—so that students Generalist Practice with Organizations and Commu-
can clearly see how all three skill levels are used in nities is focused on the need to work with and cre-
everyday practice situations. Whole chapters and nu- ate change within larger systems. Often this process
merous examples throughout illustrate how micro and involves working with others to achieve difficult and
mezzo skills can be applied to macro-practice situ- intractable goals. From citizen protests and dem-
ations. The text also aims to structure how students onstrations in the Middle East (i.e., Arab Spring) to
think about clients and clients’ problems so that, as similar efforts in the United States (e.g., Occupy Wall
practitioners, they will automatically explore alterna- Street, Black Lives Matter), individuals and groups are
tives beyond the individual and small-group levels. demanding changes in their environments, including
The text’s third basic goal is to provide clearly de- both government and business policies. Achieving and
fined, step-by-step frameworks for thinking about and maintaining positive outcomes in any system requires
initiating macro change in organizations and commu- continuous effort, and any gains must be guarded
nities. A model to decide whether to pursue macro in- and protected. Rights won must be defended against
tervention is proposed. Additionally, a procedure for groups and organizations seeking their repeal. This is
pursuing the macro-intervention process is described. part of your obligation as a social worker committed
The text’s fourth goal is to identify, explain, and to the pursuit of social, economic, and environmental
examine specific skills useful in macro practice and justice.
xvii
xviii PREFACE
summary chart of the icons’ locations in all chapters

The Empowerment Series: and their respective competencies or practice behav-
Relationship with the Educational iors is placed in the front matter of the book.
Policy Statement and Accreditation
Standards (EPAS), and New Content
Professional Competencies New content includes the following:
This book is part of the Cengage Learning Empow- Chapter 1

erment Series and addresses accreditation standards
● Reduced redundancy with a stronger focus on macro
established by the Council on Social Work Education
practice
(CSWE). Our intent is to facilitate programs’ ability
● Provided recent case examples
to link content provided in this textbook with expec-
● Material on environmental justice
tations for student learning and accomplishment. As
● Enhanced content on resiliency
is true in almost all learning, students must acquire
knowledge before they can apply it to practice situa-
tions.1
Chapter 2
The CSWE has identified 9 com- ● Chapter 14 on Stress and Time Management from
petencies with 31 component behaviors the previous edition is now Chapter 2 based on
that are critical for professional practice reviewers’ requests
(CSWE, 2015). Each competency is de- ● More emphasis on mindfulness as a stress-reduction
signed to reflect knowledge, skills and mechanism
values needed by social workers along ● More on the structural causes of stress and burnout
with related “cognitive and affective processes” that
inform social work practice (CSWE, 2015, P. 7). For Chapter 3
clarity, we have alphabetized in lowercase the practice ● Improved clarity through greater use of bullet points
behaviors under each competency. “EP” icons (i.e., instead of narrative
Educational Policy) located within paragraphs clearly ● Reduced redundancy with additional macro agency
show the linkage between content in the textbook and examples
specific practice behaviors and competencies. Each
icon is labeled with the specific practice behavior or Chapter 4
competency that relates directly to the content con- ● Increased content on electronic networking and
veyed in the paragraph. For example, an icon might be using technology to connect and organize
labeled EP 1, which is the competency, “Demonstrate ● Additional examples of networking by women veterans
ethical and professional behavior” (CSWE, 2015, P. 7). ● Emphasized conflict-resolution approaches
Accredited social work programs are required to prove
that students have mastered all practice behaviors for Chapter 5
competence as specified in the EPAS. (Please refer to
● More detailed description of Type A and B
http://www.cswe.org for the EPAS document.)
personalities
For all icons, “Competency Notes” are provided at
● Reduction in length
the end of each chapter. These “Competency Notes”
explain the relationship between chapter content and
the CSWE’s competencies and practice behaviors.
Chapter 6
They also list page numbers or page ranges where ● Additional examples provided of macro change
icons are located and where the content is discussed. A efforts
Chapter 7
1. Please note that this content addresses standards posed in the
EPAS. In no way does it claim to verify compliance with standards.
● Updated chapter title to more accurately capture
Only the CSWE’s Commission on Accreditation can make those intent
determinations. ● Reduced redundancy
PREFACE xix
Chapter 8 is also available for download. Finally, as with every

● Incorporated major section on doing community text in the Empowerment Series, a Curriculum Quick
needs assessments Guide: A Resource for Program Accreditation is avail-
● Added discussion of Tax Incremental Financing able online. The “quick guide” provides an overview
(TIF) issues of textbook and supplementary resources correlated
to the EPAS recommended competencies and practice
Chapter 9 behaviors to help programs prepare self-study materi-
als more efficiently. Log in to the book-specific web
● Expanded discussion of Logic models and theories
site at login.cengage.com to access the quick guide.
of change
This text is one of two for generalist practice, the
other being Understanding Generalist Practice, Eighth
Chapter 10 Edition (Kirst-Ashman & Hull, 2018), which focuses
● Reduced redundancy on micro skills within a generalist context. Both stress
● Updating of content the links across all practice levels necessary to maintain
● New sources of evaluation instruments the generalist perspective. The texts can be used in se-
● New examples quence—one builds on the other—or each can be used
independently in conjunction with other practice texts.
Chapter 11 Either can be used to integrate a generalist perspective
● Added material on grassroots and grasstop at some point during the practice sequence. Similar
advocacy and organizations supplementary materials to those available for this text
are also available for Understanding Generalist Practice.
Chapter 12
● Added case examples to illustrate concepts and
points
MindTap
Generalist Practice with Organizations and Communi-
Chapter 13 ties comes with MindTap, an online learning solution
created to harness the power of technology to drive
● Added examples of potential problems in
student success. This cloud-based platform integrates
supervision
a number of learning applications (“apps”) into an
● Added examples of ways to strengthen your position
easy-to-use and easy to access tool that supports a
in the agency
personalized learning experience. MindTap combines
student learning tools—readings, multimedia, activi-
Chapter 14 ties and assessments—into a singular Learning Path
● Added major section on using the Internet for fund- that guides students through the course. This Mind-
raising along with case examples Tap includes the following:
As in the previous edition, we have listing the relevant ● Case studies that provide students with examples
learning objectives at the start of each chapter. This and stories from social workers in the field
helps students understand the primary topics that will highlighting real work application of concepts
be covered in the chapter. ● Self-reflection activities that encourage students to
connect the book content to their own experiences
and practice
Instructor Ancillaries ● Newly selected videos from CNN and BBC that
A suite of instructor resources makes teaching with the bring basic concepts to contemporary real-life
Seventh Edition of Generalist Practice with Organiza- scenarios
tions and Communities even easier. An online Instruc- ● Research activities that give students further
tor’s Manual provides useful information for faculty, insight into social work concepts in practice
and an electronic Test Bank includes chapter-specific ● Chapter quizzes at the end of each chapter
test questions that can be used immediately or adapted ● A glossary and flashcards of key terms and
as needed. A complete set of PowerPoint lecture slides concepts
xx PREFACE
Liz Fisher – Shippensburg University

Acknowledgments Carmelita Dotson – Middle Tennessee State
We wish to express our sincere gratitude to Vicki University
Vogel for her exceptional professionalism, techni-
Stephanie Adams – Eastern Kentucky University
cal assistance, and support, and to Karen Thomson
for her excellent assistance. We would like to thank Kelly Reath – East Tennessee State University
Julie Martinez, Product Manager; Michelle Clark, Barbara Kasper – The College at Brockport
Senior Content Project Manager; and Casey Lozier, Deborah Wills – Cleveland State University
Content Coordinator. Many thanks to Nicole Sala, Mari Alschuler – Youngstown State University
Marketing Coordinator at Cengage, who demon-
Cassandra Bowers – Wayne State University
strates exceptional marketing skills, and also to
Jitendra Kumar, Project Manager at MPS Limited, Stacie McGee – Texas State University
for his conscientious, responsive, and insightful help Catherine Macomber – Saginaw Valley State
and coordination. University
Also due our gratitude is the staff of UlsterCorp Carol Wheeler-Strother – University of Cincinnati
and Colleen Spratt for permission to use their Logic Laura Parker-Barua – Concord University
model and discuss the New Visions Hunger Project.
Kathleen Walsh – Millersville University
We would especially like to thank our reviewers
who provided us with expert and excellent feedback to Margaret Pittman – Morgan State University
improve our work: Genesis Player – Miles College
1 Introduction to Generalist
Practice with Organizations
and Communities
© Anton Oparin/Shutterstock.com
Learning Objectives (LOs)
This chapter will help prepare students to:
LO 1-1 Describe generalist practice using the LO 1-6 Engage human diversity.
Generalist Intervention Model.
LO 1-7 Advocate for human rights and social,
LO 1-2 Recognize sources that guide professional economic, and environmental justice.
values and ethics in practice.
LO 1-8 Work effectively within an organizational
LO 1-3 Demonstrate awareness of personal values. structure.
LO 1-4 Describe the wide range of practice skills LO 1-9 Attend to a wide range of professional
used to target systems of any size. social work roles.
LO 1-5 Differentiate client empowerment, strengths, LO 1-10 Use critical thinking skills.
and resiliency.
2 Generalist Practice with Organizations and Communities
Rudolph will gRaduate in a week and has already accepted a position in an agency
that provides family counseling, foster care, and adoption services. having done his field
placement in the agency, he feels more comfortable about transitioning to this new position.
however, as he begins to pack up his books, he comes across a book from one of the last
practice courses he completed. the book focused on generalist practice with organizations
and communities using a generalist approach. looking at the title and thinking about his
new position brings up several questions:
● how would i describe generalist practice if asked by my new supervisor?

● why do i need to understand organizations and communities when my job will be
working primarily with individual clients and families?
● won’t my supervisor or other agency administrators take care of all those agency and
policy matters?
these are logical questions for social work students to consider. after all, most students enter
the social work field with a desire to help people and focus their attention on learning how
to work with individuals and families. in this chapter, we will try to answer these questions
and provide information that is essential for generalist practitioners with a specific focus on
working within larger systems.
professional values and ethics, and a wide range of

Generalist Practice Using skills to target systems of any size for change within
the Generalist Intervention the context of three primary principles, a practice con-
text, and four major processes.1 Keep this definition in
Model LO 1-1 mind because we will return to it with greater elabora-
By now, you have likely been introduced tion later in this and subsequent chapters.
to the concept of generalist practice. Generalist practice may involve almost any help-
Other social work courses often make ing process, from working to establish a homeless
reference to generalist practice, and shelter, to arranging help for a sexually abused child,
it is the model upon which this text is EP 1c a pregnant teenager, or an older adult who is no lon-
based. It is not our intent to bore you ger able to care for herself. Generalist social workers
with repetition, but in case any space aliens have might assist an alcoholic parent, a community try-
just joined your social work program, we will risk it ing to address its drug abuse problem, or a public
by summarizing the basic components of generalist assistance agency struggling to amend its policies to
practice. conform to new federal regulations. Generalist prac-
For our purposes, generalist practice is defined titioners also pursue efforts to achieve social justice
as the application of an eclectic knowledge base, for groups and individuals who have been denied this
1. Most of these concepts are taken directly from the Educational is intended to assist in a social work program’s accreditation
Policy and Accreditation Standards (EPAS) developed by the Coun- process.) Throughout the chapter, icons such as that located in this
cil on Social Work Education (CSWE) (CSWE, 2015). One major paragraph call attention to the location of EPAS-related content.
goal of social work education is to facilitate students’ attainment Each identifies what competency or practice behavior is relevant
of the EPAS-designated 10 core competencies and their 41 related by specifying the designated Educational Policy (EP) reference
component behaviors so that students develop into competent number. “Competency Notes” are provided at the end of each
practitioners. Students require knowledge in order to develop chapter that relate EPAS competencies and component behaviors
skills and become competent. Our intent here is to specify what to content in the chapter. A summary chart of the icons’ locations
chapter content and knowledge coincides with the development of in all chapters and their respective competencies or component
specific competencies and component behaviors. (This ultimately behaviors appears in the inside cover of the book.
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Generalist Practice with Organizations and Communities 3
right. As a consequence of this breadth of responsibil-

ity, generalist practitioners must be well prepared to FOUNDATION FOR GENERALIST PRACTICE
address many kinds of difficult situations. KNOWLEDGE SKILLS VALUES
Social workers require a wide array of skills
because they don’t pick and choose what problems and
issues they would like to address. They must prepare
themselves to help people with personal problems on Step 1: Engagement
the one hand and to address very wide-ranging prob-
lems that affect whole organizations and communities
on the other. They may work in a broad assortment of
settings that can focus on children and families, health, Step 2: Assessment
justice, education, economic status, and many more
issues too numerous to list.
The generalist practice approach used throughout
this book is called the Generalist Intervention Model2 Step 3: Planning
(GIM) and is oriented toward solving problems at mul-
tiple levels of intervention by employing a series of
planned steps. The steps in GIM are shown in Figure 1.1.
As you can see from the figure, the model is founded Step 4: Implementation
on the knowledge, skills, and values that characterize
the unique nature of social work. We review and explain
this definition more thoroughly later in the chapter.
Second, this generalist perspective uses a spe- Step 5: Evaluation
cific, seven-step planned change method that includes
engagement, assessment, planning, implementation,
evaluation, termination, and follow-up. We address
each step briefly in this chapter. Step 6: Termination
GIM recognizes that problems may involve indi-
viduals, families, groups, organizations, and communi-
ties. Sometimes these various-size systems are referred
to as micro, mezzo, and macro systems. Depending Step 7: Follow-up
on one’s definition, micro systems include individu-
als, whereas mezzo systems are small groups. Macro
systems are any large systems, including organizations
Discontinue
and communities. Families, because of their intimate Reassess
contact
nature, arbitrarily lie somewhere between micro sys-
tems and mezzo systems. F i g u r e 1 . 1 Planned Change Steps in the Generalist
Figure 1.2 illustrates how, as a generalist practi- Intervention Model
tioner, you might choose any or all of the four levels
of intervention to address a particular problem. First, choose to pursue work with an individual, family,
you must often use micro skills to engage (i.e., estab- group, organization, or community, or a combination
lish a relationship and begin effective communication of these, to solve the problem. Figure 1.2 depicts how
with) the individual or individuals with whom you you might progress through the planning, implementa-
are talking about the problem. Second, you assess the tion, evaluation, termination, and follow-up process,
problem, which entails seeking information about var- regardless of the level of intervention you pursue.
ious aspects of the problem. After Step 2, you might For example, suppose you are a generalist prac-
titioner for a rural Midwest county. Your job entails
receiving referrals from the agency’s intake worker.
2. GIM was first proposed in Understanding Generalist Practice You then establish initial connections with clients and
(Kirst-Ashman & Hull, 1993, and subsequent editions). other referral people by engaging them in the planned
Step 1 Engagement
Step 2 Assessment
Individuals Families Groups Organizations &

(Micro) Communities
(Macro)
Step 3 Planning Planning Planning Planning
Step 4 Implementation Implementation Implementation Implementation
Step 5 Evaluation Evaluation Evaluation Evaluation
Step 6 Termination Termination Termination Termination
Step 7 Follow-up Follow-up Follow-up Follow-up
F i g u r e 1 . 2 Steps in the Planned Change Process—Initiating Macro Change
change process, familiarize clients with the agency and and help. With this call, you have engaged Mr. Earl
supply them with information, solicit necessary data in the problem-defining process. Engagement is the
to assist in service provision, provide short-term coun- initial period when a practitioner becomes oriented to
seling when needed, and make appropriate referrals to the problem at hand and begins to establish commu-
agency units and other community resources. nication and a relationship with any other individu-
You receive a referral involving an older adult, als addressing the problem. Subsequently, you figure
Murray Strewynskowski. The person making the initial out what to do about Mr. Strewynskowski. You must
referral, Duke Earl, is one of Mr. Strewynskowski’s con- also engage him as the client in the planned change
cerned neighbors. Mr. Earl expresses concern because process. Of course, as a generalist practitioner, you
Mr. Strewynskowski has twice fallen down on his icy must work with the client to establish what he needs
sidewalk and been unable to get back up and into the and wants.
house. Both times, Mr. Earl happened to notice the fall During the assessment phase, you may decide to
and was able to assist Mr. Strewynskowski into the house. pursue planning and implementation at the micro,
While inside, Mr. Earl noticed extremely chaotic condi- mezzo, or macro level. You might also decide that
tions: Rotting garbage was strewn about the kitchen, and intervention at more than one level is appropriate.
about a dozen cats leisurely wandered around. Mr. Earl
noticed that a black cat with a white patch over the left Example: A Micro Approach
eye was eating what seemed to be canned creamed corn A micro-level plan might be to refer Mr. Strewynskowski
mixed with ketchup from a plate on the table that looked to the appropriate services and oversee service provi-
as if it might have been Mr. Strewynskowski’s lunch. sion. You might then continue Mr. Strewynskowski’s
Mr. Earl also expresses concerns about Mr. Strewyn- assessment and arrange for additional services such as
skowski’s diet in a general sense and wonders whether a traveling homemaker and daily hot meal delivery. You
Mr. Strewynskowski is able to shop or cook adequately might also arrange for supportive services as needed,
because he looks unhealthily thin. such as assisting Mr. Strewynskowski with paying his
Initially, you call Mr. Earl to clarify any ques- bills, obtaining medical assistance, or making arrange-
tions you might have and to thank him for his interest ments to get groceries and other needed items.
Example: A Mezzo Approach the possibility of funneling funds and resources away
Assuming another perspective, however, you might from other, less critical areas to these older adult cli-
choose to focus on a mezzo- or group-/family-oriented ents who are in what you consider grave need. Sup-
approach. Suppose there are no services for traveling pose services and resources are already available in the
homemakers or hot meal delivery in Mr. Strewyns- agency but are accessible only to other client popula-
kowski’s immediate area. Perhaps the county in which tions (e.g., people who have specific types of physical
you work is neither very populated nor very wealthy. or developmental disabilities). It may be that an agency
In fact, suppose that the county is downright poor. policy change could extend eligibility for resources to
Without all the services and resources you would like the older adult population. Perhaps a community orga-
to have, what would you do? nization might be willing to sponsor some type of help
For one thing, you might decide to research whether for people like Mr. Strewynskowski. Pursuing changes
Mr. Strewynskowski’s family could provide help and in agency service provision, policy, or distribution of
support. Upon further investigation, you find out that resources are what macro practice—and this book—
Mr. Strewynskowski has two sons and a daughter liv- are all about. Change may have to occur in policies at
ing in the county. You decide to explore the extent to the local, state, or national level, and a social worker
which they are aware of their father’s situation and can can be involved in one or more of these efforts.
provide some of the help he needs. This would involve (Note that “EP” icons illustrated in
engaging his relatives in the helping process. Addition- this paragraph are located throughout
ally, you decide to look into whether Mr. Strewyn- the book. The Council on Social Work
skowski has any friends or neighbors who might be Education (CSWE, 2015), the national
accrediting organization for bachelor’s EP
willing to help him. You already know that Mr. Earl is
concerned about Mr. Strewynskowski’s well-being. and master’s social work programs,
Using a mezzo perspective therefore involves peo- specifies the areas where social workers must demon-
ple and family who are close to Mr. Strewynskowski. strate competency. A competency is the proven ability
You might also pursue the mezzo approach of get- to demonstrate sufficient knowledge, skills, and val-
ting Mr. Strewynskowski into some type of social or ues in a designated area in order to practice effective
support group to minimize his isolation. This might social work. Component behaviors, as conceptual-
include involving him in a local senior center. Perhaps ized by CSWE, are actions that students complete to
Mr. Strewynskowski belongs to a church that could demonstrate the overarching competency. In research
serve some of his needs, such as having volunteers take terms, each competency is operationalized by a series
him shopping or involving him in both religious and of specified component behaviors. Accredited social
social activities. work programs must show that they are teaching
students to be proficient in these competencies and
related behaviors. These competencies and compo-
Example: A Macro Approach nent behaviors are listed inside the front cover of the
Finally, in addition to thinking purely in micro or mezzo book. The occurrence of an icon with a numerical ref-
terms, you might decide to pursue a macro approach. erence means that the corresponding content in the
Once again, suppose there are no services that offer paragraph relates directly to the referenced compe-
traveling homemakers, meal delivery, older adult pro- tency or component behavior. “Competency Notes”
tection, or supportive workers in your area. Perhaps you listed at the end of the chapter further clarify these
discover that you and your colleagues have a number of relationships. The intent is to help faculty and social
older adult clients who are struggling to maintain them- work programs in the accreditation process.)
selves in their own homes. You find that, on a regular Earlier, we defined generalist practice as the
basis, you and other practitioners are having difficulty application of an eclectic knowledge base, professional
helping such clients because this issue extends beyond values and ethics, and a wide range of skills to target
the simple provision of help to an individual client. systems of any size for change within the context of
You determine that services are needed at a larger three primary principles, a practice context, and four
system level. Perhaps your county agency should major processes.
develop a new program to serve these clients. Maybe The three primary principles characterizing gen-
you should approach agency administrators to explore eralist practice all involve values. The first of these
principles entails an emphasis on client empowerment, and is critical to the formation of identity” (emphasis
strengths, and resiliency. Empowerment is “the process added). The third principle accentuated in generalist
of increasing personal, interpersonal, or political power practice concerns advocacy for human rights and the pur-
so that individuals can take action to improve their suit of social, economic, and environmental justice. Sub-
life situations” (Gutierrez, 2001, p. 210). It involves sequent sections discuss these concepts in greater detail.
ensuring that others have the right power, ability, and Social workers are usually employed by an orga-
authority to achieve self-determination (each individu- nization and practice within the context of an orga-
al’s right to make his or her own decisions). Strengths nizational structure. Within this context, they engage
include any “capacities, resources, and assets” that can in four processes that characterize generalist practice.
be accessed to increase empowerment (Saleebey, 2009, First, generalist practice requires the assumption of
p. 99). Resiliency (discussed further in Highlight 1.4) a wide range of professional roles. Second, it requires
is the ability of any system to withstand and recover the application of critical thinking skills throughout
from adversity and resume functioning even when suf- their efforts to help. Third, generalist practice incorpo-
fering serious trouble, confusion, or hardship (Glicken, rates research-informed practice to determine the most
2006). Evidence suggests that most people have some effective ways to help people and serve clients. Fourth,
degree of resilience that helps them cope with a variety practitioners follow a seven-step planned change
of crises (Rutter, 2008). While they experience typical process as they engage in their practice.
bouts of sadness, pain, or discomfort, these individuals This chapter will address the 12 key dimensions
continue to function and bounce back from the trauma inherent in that definition. The order in which they
(American Psychological Association, 2016). are presented does not imply that one dimension is
The second principle emphasized in generalist prac- more important than another. Each is significant.
tice is the importance of “understanding how [human] Highlight 1.1 summarizes these concepts in outline
diversity characterizes and shapes the human experience form. Subsequent discussion of each is introduced
HIGHLIGHT 1.1 Dimensions in the Definition of Generalist Practice
1. Acquisition of an eclectic knowledge base 5. Emphasis on client empowerment, strengths,

A. Theoretical foundation: Systems theories and resiliency
B. Human behavior and the social environment 6. The importance of human diversity
C. Social welfare policy and policy practice 7. Advocacy for human rights and the pursuit of
D. Social work practice social, economic, and environmental justice
E. Research-informed practice and practice- 8. Assumption of a wide range of professional
informed research roles
F. Values and principles that guide practice A. Enabler
2. Acquisition of professional values and B. Mediator
application of professional ethics C. Manager
A. National Association of Social Workers D. Educator
Code of Ethics E. Analyst/evaluator
B. Awareness of personal values F. Broker
C. Management of ethical dilemmas G. Facilitator
3. Use of a wide range of practice skills H. Initiator
A. Micro I. Negotiator
B. Mezzo J. Mobilizer
C. Macro K. Advocate
4. Orientation to target systems of any size 9. Employment of critical thinking skills
A. Micro 10. Research-informed practice
B. Mezzo 11. Use of the planned change process
C. Macro
with the headings numbered 1 through 12. The intent will work in this environment with all its constraints,
here is to present a definition of generalist practice requirements, and rules. Thus, Figure 1.3 pictures you,
that you can remember. the generalist practitioner, as a rectangle within this
Figure 1.3 demonstrates how the various con- large square. In that same square, you see the terms
cepts introduced thus far fit together. The large square Knowledge, Values, and Skills. These illustrate that
labeled Organizational Structure represents the orga- you bring to your job a broad knowledge base, profes-
nization (or agency) that employs you to engage in sional values, and a wide range of skills.
social work practice. Organizational structure involves The concentric circles at the bottom of Figure 1.3
the operation of lines of authority and communica- illustrate your potential target systems. As we have estab-
tion within an agency, how the administration runs lished, generalist practitioners may choose to work with
the organization, and what the agency environment is a micro, mezzo, or macro system as the target of their
like (Chapter 5, “Understanding Organizations,” dis- change efforts. These three systems are positioned in
cusses this in detail). As a generalist practitioner, you concentric circles according to their respective sizes.
An arrow flows from the Organizational Structure
square down to the Target System circles. This indi-
cates that you will apply your knowledge, skills, and
ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE values to help change systems of various sizes.
Other arrows point from concepts on the right
You
as generalist and left to the central “application” arrow. This means
practitioner that generalist practitioners apply the concepts the
arrows represent as they undertake generalist practice.
1. Knowledge
“Principles/values” concepts, portrayed on the left,
2. Values
3. Skills include empowerment, human diversity, and advocacy
for human rights and social, economic, and environ-
mental justice. Social workers also apply the “pro-
APPLICATION (of): cesses” inherent in generalist practice. These, depicted
Principles/Values Processes on the right, consist of the assumption of various
professional roles, the use of critical thinking skills,
Empowerment Professional Roles the employment of research-informed practice, and
Human Diversity Critical Thinking the undertaking of the planned change process. Each
concept portrayed in Figure 1.3 will subsequently be
Advocacy/Social & Research-Informed addressed in greater detail.
Economic Justice Practice Note that terms can sometimes be confusing. This
Planned Change book focuses on generalist practice and assumes that
social workers are generalists. Therefore, the terms
generalist social worker, worker, generalist practitioner,
TARGET SYSTEM
and practitioner are used interchangeably throughout
this book to refer to professionals undertaking gener-
Macro system
alist social work practice.
Mezzo system Generalist Practice: An Eclectic
Knowledge Base
Micro The acquisition of an eclectic knowledge
system
base is a key requirement for social work
practice. By an eclectic knowledge base,
we mean that social workers acquire the
most useful and effective information, EP 6b, 7b,
theoretical frameworks, and practice 8b, 9b
skills from multiple sources. Knowl-
F i g u r e 1 . 3 Definition of Generalist Practice edge entails understanding the dynamics of people’s
situations and determining what skills work best under residents. Sometimes, a macro level change occurs when
particular circumstances. This knowledge may be a worker seeking changes on behalf of an individual
drawn from many different fields such as psychology, client gets results that help multiple beneficiaries. For
political science, and sociology, among others. example, you might persuade an agency to be more
In addition, (as shown in Highlight 1.1), social flexible in interpreting its policies to benefit client A,
work historically has taught the knowledge, skills, and which ends up helping other clients in a like situation.
values needed to develop the competencies and com-
ponent behaviors in a series of distinct courses: human Identifying the Target System
behavior and the social environment, social wel- The target system is the system that social workers
fare policy and policy practice, social work practice, must modify or influence in order to reach their goals
research-informed practice, and practice-informed and have clients benefit from the planned change pro-
research. These courses help provide the theories and cess (Compton et al., 2005; Pincus & Minahan, 1973;
perspectives used in most areas of social work, includ- Sheafor & Horejsi, 2014). In macro practice, this
ing macro practice. usually involves an organization or community. For
example, perhaps the agency in which you work needs
Conceptualizing Macro Practice to improve some of its policies or services. Likewise,
The term macro practice, used throughout the book, your community may need to provide some new ser-
is the application of generalist practice skills to larger vice that citizens really need (e.g., a drug rehabilita-
organizational, institutional, or community systems. We tion program or a crime prevention effort). Consider
may be pursuing a planned change process on behalf of Mr. Strewynskowski’s case discussed earlier. Suppose
others to make the larger system more responsive to the supportive services such as hot meal delivery, part-time
needs of clients, the general public, or even to organiza- homemaker services, or community support groups
tional employees. Sometimes, we will be helping a larger do not exist for numerous senior residents. In that
system achieve changes it has decided are necessary. case, you might decide to target “the system,” either
agency or community, to develop such resources.
Defining the Macro Client System The concepts of organization and community
A client system is any individual, family, group, organi- are broad. They can refer to very small organizations
zation, or community that will ultimately benefit from or communities (such as small field offices, isolated
generalist social work intervention. A macro client sys- church groups, or villages) or to systems that are huge
tem typically involves larger numbers of clients, fami- entities (such as city, county, state, or federal govern-
lies, or groups of clients with similar characteristics or ment units). Similarly, a community in its broad sense
needs for resources or services. This might include such might be the citizens of an entire state or nation. Much
diverse groups as children needing alternative care or of the recent unrest in the Middle East reflects the
older adults needing services to help them remain in desire of huge segments of citizens in several coun-
their own home. For example, you may work to develop tries to bring about change and achieve social justice.
and implement a job placement program that will As you can see, systems can be of virtually any size.
eventually affect dozens or perhaps even hundreds of Therefore, the target system is any system that macro
unemployed people. Likewise, an agency, organization, intervention intends to change.
or community might be a macro client system seeking
help responding to internal or external events or pres- Defining the Change Agent System
sures. You may need to develop an internal agency Within a macro-practice perspective, the change agent
training program on new intervention techniques is the individual or group that initiates the macro-
intended to benefit the agency by improving its service change process. In our context, you are the change
provision. You may also be involved in efforts to pursue agent because this book intends to teach you how
social justice goals in concert with other members of to implement macro-level change. You might seek
the community, such as strengthening the laws prevent- changes such as improving agency effectiveness or
ing discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation. enhancing a community’s quality of life. Later on, you
The difference is that macro change benefits larger might gain the support of, and join coalitions with,
groups of people, whether the group involves a particu- others who also believe in the proposed macro change.
lar client population, agency personnel, or community In such situations, you become part of a larger system.
Whether you undertake macro change by yourself or practice is often divided into three major categories:
join with others, you are also part of the action system economic policy, social welfare policy, and agency
described next. policy. Economic policy applies to all governmental
policies that relate to economic growth, taxing poli-
Identifying the Action System cies, budgeting, interest rates, money supply, and labor
The action system includes those people who agree markets. Such policies include decisions on minimum
and are committed to working together in order to wage, trade agreements among countries, and any
attain the proposed macro change. We have estab- action a government takes that impacts the economy.
lished that sometimes you alone will be the action Social welfare policy includes the laws and regu-
system for the change effort. Other times, you will lations that determine which social programs exist,
find it more useful to join with others to help imple- what categories of clients are served, and who quali-
ment a macro change. fies for a given program. It also set standards regard-
ing the type of services to be provided, qualifications
Human Behavior and the Social of the service provider, and many other aspects of
service provision. Social welfare policy involves “the
Environment (HBSE)
actions of government that have a direct impact
Knowledge about human behavior and on the welfare of people by providing services and
the social environment (HBSE) is essen- income. As principles of action, policies translate
tial as a foundation on which to build our government’s sense of responsibility to us, its
practice skills. After engagement, the sec- citizens. Thus, [social welfare] policy reflects societal
ond step in the planned change process EP 6b
values, ideals, and a vision of what the world should
is accurate assessment of the problem or look like” (Tice & Perkins, 2002, p. 2). It comprises
situation within the context of the social environment. the rules for how money can be spent to help people
The environment is vitally important in the analy- and how these people will be treated. Social welfare
sis and understanding of human behavior. Because policies determine who is eligible for public assis-
social work has a person and environment focus, the tance and who is not. For example, specific policies
interactions among individuals, systems, and the envi- designate what social workers can and cannot do for
ronment are critical. Such a conceptual perspective sexually abused children. Social policies supported by
provides social workers with a symbolic representation social workers tend to be those that enhance social,
of how to view the world. It provides ideas for how to economic, and environmental justice.
assess clients’ situations and identify alternative solu- In addition to social welfare policies, agency poli-
tions involving various levels of practice. Social work’s cies are standards adopted by the individual organiza-
goal is to apply such knowledge to enhance people’s tions and programs that provide services (e.g., a family
functioning and involvement with a range of systems service agency, a department of human services, or a
in their environment. nursing home). Such standards may specify the struc-
ture of the agency, the required qualifications for
Social Welfare Policy and Policy Practice supervisors and workers, the rules that govern what a
Social welfare policy is another dimen- worker may or may not do, and the proper procedures
sion about which social workers must be for completing a family assessment. These are only a
knowledgeable in order to practice com- few of the many aspects of agency life.
petently at the macro level. Policy, in its Knowledge about policy at all levels is vitally impor-
simplest portrayal, can be thought of as EP 5 tant. Economic policy can affect the kinds of employ-
rules. Our lives and those of our clients ment available to citizens, whether they can afford a home
are governed by rules: rules about how we’re sup- mortgage, and whether they can belong to a union. An
posed to drive our cars, about when we’re supposed organization’s policy can dictate how much vacation an
to go to school, and about how we’re supposed to talk employee can have and how she can earn raises in salary.
or write. An adoption agency’s policy can determine who is eli-
Policies are rules that tell us which actions we may gible to adopt a child and who isn’t. A social program’s
take and which we may not. Policies guide our actions policies determine who is able to get needed services and
and our decisions. Policy most relevant to social work resources and who is left without them.
Sometimes, for whatever reasons, economic, envi- to pursue in order to help Norman. What counseling
ronmental, social welfare, or agency policies appear to approach would be most effective? What crisis interven-
be unfair or oppressive to clients. (Note that from here tion skills would best apply? Does the problem extend
on, the terms social welfare policy and social policy are even beyond Norman? Is Melba seeing many students
used interchangeably.) A social worker may conclude expressing similar thoughts? Are students being sub-
that an organization’s policy is ethically or morally jected to bullying in the school? Should she initiate and
intolerable. In such a case, the worker may decide to develop new preventive programs within the school
advocate on behalf of clients for a change in the policy. context in order to combat this larger problem? Must
For example, a foster care agency might refuse to place Melba pursue agency and political policy changes in
children with same sex couples due to their bias against order to provide funding to help Norman and other
this group of potential foster parents. Generalist practi- students in similar situations more effectively?
tioners require the ability to analyze policy and under-
take change when it is needed. In other words, they have Research
responsibility for undertaking policy practice. Policy
Knowledge about social work research
practice involves “efforts to change policies in legisla-
is important for at least three basic
tive, agency, and community settings, by establishing
reasons (Tripodi & Lalayants, 2008).
new policies, improving existing ones, or defeating the
First, it provides a scientific orientation
policy initiatives of other people” (Jansson, 2014, p. 1).
to identifying, evaluating, and choos- EP 4, 4a, 9
Policy practice may also involve advocacy on behalf
ing effective intervention approaches.
of “relatively powerless groups, such as women, chil-
Research-informed practice is social work practice
dren, poor people, African Americans, Asian Ameri-
based on empirical evidence. Framing social work
cans, Latinos, gay men and lesbians, and people with
interventions so that they can be evaluated through
disabilities, [to] improve their resources and opportuni-
research provides information about which specific
ties” (Jansson, 2014, p. 1). Later chapters will say much
techniques work best with which specific problems.
more about changing larger systems and their policies.
Practice-informed research refers to scientific investi-
Additionally, generalist practitioners need a
gation designed to attain results related to successful
sound foundation of knowledge concerning social ser-
social work practice. In other words, on the one hand,
vices. This includes a historical perspective about how
you must use knowledge, theory, and skill in ways
services have been developed and an analytical per-
that have been verified through the research process.
spective concerning how well services “advance social
On the other, you should be able to identify practice
well-being” and achieve social justice for those in need.
issues and problems for which additional research is
still needed. In some cases, you may conduct or be part
Social Work Practice
of efforts to do research on these areas.
If knowledge is the what of social work, Second, with this scientific perspective, research
then practice is the how. Social work prac- can guide social workers to become more effective in
tice is the doing of social work. It involves their practice. It can help them get better and clearer
identifying and choosing among a range results. Similarly, agencies can use research to evaluate
of intervention alternatives and under- EP 6, 7, 8 their programs’ effectiveness.
taking the planned change process to The third reason is that accumulated research
achieve the intervention’s goals. (The planned change helps build an effective knowledge base for the social
process will be described in greater detail later in this work profession. This helps to define social work prac-
chapter.) tice, increase the effectiveness of interventions, and
The social work practice knowledge base includes enhance the profession’s accountability.
the ability to determine what skills will be most effec- Rubin and Babbie (2016) describe how social work
tive in a given situation. research has at least four major purposes:
For example, Norman, age 14, approaches his
school social worker Melba and states softly, “I can’t ● Exploration: “Much of social work research
stand it any longer. I’d be better off dead.” Melba then is conducted to explore a topic—to provide a
must determine what is the best practice alternative beginning familiarity with it. This purpose is
typical when a researcher is examining a new social policy, program, or intervention is effective
interest, when the subject of study is relatively or not. For example, to evaluate service provision
new or unstudied, or when a researcher seeks to in a community, one might explore what services
test the feasibility of undertaking a more careful are needed by administering a survey to a sample
study or wants to refine the methods to be used in of community citizens. Similarly, research might
a more careful study. For example, suppose your be conducted to describe the services that are
first job as a social worker is to develop services already available. Research might investigate
for the frail [older adults] . . . in a predominantly variables related to service provision such as
ethnic minority community about which you know ethnicity, income level, or educational level to
very little. You want to conduct a community-wide explain why services are provided to some groups
survey to assess the precise extent of the need more than others. An example is a county-wide
for and likely utilization of alternative services school social work program that assigned a truant
that you are contemplating developing. Before officer to investigate kids who were truant from
mounting a large-scale study geared to producing school and then referred them either to social
conclusive findings, you’d be well advised to begin workers or to the juvenile court. An analysis found
with a smaller, more flexible exploratory study that that those referred into the juvenile justice system
will help you plan a larger and more careful study were no different from those referred to school
in a culturally sensitive manner” (p. 60). social workers in terms of seriousness of days
● Description: Much social work research is done truant or other problems. The only difference was
for a second purpose, namely, “to describe that African-American children usually ended
situations and events. The researcher observes up in juvenile court while white children received
and then describes what was observed. Because counseling from social workers.
scientific observation is careful and deliberate, Finally, evaluation of service provision
scientific descriptions are typically more accurate effectiveness might focus on how services
and precise than casual descriptions” (p. 61). For affect clients or the extent to which goals are
example, a researcher might assess the needs of a achieved. Thus, evaluation requires a depth of
community by conducting a survey of community understanding concerning many dimensions
residents or identify challenges facing a specific involved in service provision. Note that research
group within the society, such as individuals who does not always fall neatly into one of the four
are HIV positive. categories. Many studies have more than one
● Explanation: A third common purpose of social purpose and involve a range of components.
work research is “to explain things.” Consider for
As you can see, research is important to general-
a moment the topic of child abuse. Research that
ist practice. Research informs and supports interven-
is descriptive will tell us the rate of child abuse in a
tion approaches. It identifies theories and programs
community but not explain why one community has
that are more likely to be effective. Finally, it helps the
more reports of abuse than a similar community.
worker ensure that the client system is being helped,
Reporting why some cities have higher child abuse
rather than hurt, by what workers do.
rates than others is a case of explanation. “A
researcher has an explanatory purpose if he or she
wishes to know why battered women repeatedly Values and Principles that Guide
return to live with their batterers, rather than simply Generalist Practice
describing how often they do” (p. 61). Knowledge, skills, and values in social work overlap
● Evaluation: A fourth purpose of social work in many ways. For example, consider the values and
research “is to evaluate social policies, programs, principles that guide generalist practice. These include
and interventions. The evaluative purpose of social the broad category of professional values and ethics
work research actually encompasses all three of in addition to the principles of client empowerment,
the preceding purposes: exploration, description, understanding and appreciation of human diversity,
and explanation” (pp. 62). A number of questions and advocacy for human rights and the pursuit of
might be asked in order to understand whether a social, economic, and environmental justice. The vital
knowledge in the eclectic knowledge base concerning the National Association of Social Workers (NASW)
each of these areas is necessary for competent social Code of Ethics, awareness of personal values, and
work practice. Such knowledge should be applied management of ethical dilemmas.
via skills during implementation of planned change.
However, each concept is an important component in National Association of Social
the definition of generalist practice. Therefore, subse- Workers (NASW) Code of Ethics
quent sections involving primary values and principles
Social work has a clearly delineated set of professional
in generalist social work will address each dimension
values reflected in the NASW Code of Ethics (NASW,
more thoroughly in its own right.
2008). The Code’s mission “is to enhance human well-
being and help meet the basic human needs of all people,
with particular attention to the needs and empower-
Sources that Guide Professional ment of people who are vulnerable, oppressed, and liv-
Values and Ethics in Practice LO 1-2 ing in poverty” (NASW, 2008, Preamble). Highlight 1.2
Not only must generalist practitioners cites the Code’s six core values.
have substantial and diverse knowledge Related to the core values recognized in High-
at their disposal, but they must also have light 1.2, the Code encompasses 155 specific standards
assimilated professional values. Values clustered under six major categories. These categories
are principles, qualities, and practices EP 1 include social workers’ ethical responsibilities to clients,
that a designated group, individual, or to colleagues, in practice settings, as professionals, to
culture deems inherently desirable. Values, then, give the social work profession, and to the broader society.
direction concerning what is considered right and Chapter 12 of this text explores the NASW Code of Eth-
wrong. Subsequently, values provide general guide- ics and its application to macro practice in greater detail.
lines for behavior.
Ethics are principles based on a set of values
and establish more explicit guides to behavior. Val- Awareness of Personal Values LO 1-3
ues reflect what you consider to be right and wrong; Before you are able to prevent your per-
ethics involve how you behave based on these values. sonal values from interfering with ethical
Generalist practitioners must have a sound basis for professional practice, you must clearly
making ethical decisions that are in accord with social identify those personal values. This prop-
work values. Aspects of professional values and ethics osition stems directly from the fourth EP 1b, 2c
we will discuss here (shown in Highlight 1.1) include NASW Code of Ethics core value cited
HIGHLIGHT 1.2 Core Values of the NASW Code of Ethics
The NASW Code of Ethics identifies the following six core 4. Importance of human relationships: Valuing the
values that serve as the foundation for ethical behavior: dynamic interpersonal connections between two
or more persons or systems that involve how
1. Service: The provision of help, resources,
they think about, feel about, and behave toward
and benefits so that people may achieve their
each other.
maximum potential.
5. Integrity: Maintaining trustworthiness and sound
2. Social justice: Social justice is the philosophical
adherence to moral ideals.
perspective that all people have the right to
6. Competence: Having the necessary skills and
enjoy equal opportunities in economic, political,
abilities to perform work with clients effectively.
and social realms.
(NASW, 2008, Preamble)
3. Dignity and worth of the person: Holding in high
esteem and appreciating individual value.
earlier concerning “valuing human relationships” intertwined, we will address them here together. Differ-
(NASW, 2008, Preamble). Valuing the client-worker ent and specific skills are used respectively with micro,
relationship means keeping it clear of personal opin- mezzo, and macro systems, with some skills being useful
ions. You certainly have the right to maintain personal regardless of system size.
values and opinions. However, a generalist practitioner Historically, social work skills were clustered into
is professionally obligated to prevent personal values three major categories:
that conflict with professional values from interfering
with practice. This is similar to lawyers’ ethical respon- ● Casework involved working primarily on a
sibility to defend a client regardless of how they may direct level with individual clients and their
feel personally about the client or the alleged crime. families. This resembles in some ways the micro
level of practice.
● Group work involved organizing and running
Managing Ethical Dilemmas a wide variety of groups (e.g., therapeutic
An ethical dilemma is a problematic groups or support groups). The mezzo level
situation in which ethical standards are of practice corresponds in some ways to this
in conflict. In other words, sometimes skill cluster.
making a perfect choice and abiding ● Community organization involved working with
by all ethical guidelines is impossible. EP 1a organizations and communities. This is similar
For example, consider a client who tells in some ways to the macro level of social work
you he plans to blow up a mosque to get back at practice. A subsequent section reflects upon
Muslims because his brother died in Afghanistan. three models of community organization that
He reminds you that because of confidentiality, you historically preceded the concept of macro
must not tell anybody. You cannot maintain the practice.
primary ethical standard of protecting human life
(namely, those attending the mosque) and confiden- Under this old model of practice, social workers
tiality at the same time. Confidentiality is the ethical usually concentrated on developing expertise in one
principle that workers should not share information particular approach. They were caseworkers, group
provided by or about a client unless that worker has workers, or community organizers. They did not nec-
the client’s explicit permission to do so.) You are in essarily see themselves as having a sound basis of skills
the midst of an ethical quandary. Generalist prac- in more than one arena.
titioners must be vigilant and prepared to address In contrast, the generalist perspective assumes
such ethical dilemmas because they occur regularly. a multiple-level approach to intervention. That is,
Often, potential answers are unclear, confusing, and for any particular problem or situation, a generalist
ambiguous. Each dilemma is unique. Social workers practitioner might have to intervene with individu-
must be able to work through such situations and als, families, groups, organizations, or communities.
use ethical reasoning to decide what to do. Chapter Therefore, social workers must master and have read-
12 addresses a wide range of ethical dilemmas occur- ily available skills involved in working with any of
ring within organizational and community settings these entities.
and discusses how practitioners might make strate- The skills of working with individuals and group
gic decisions about what to do. are especially important when working for change with
larger systems such as organizations and communities.
Skills such as interviewing and listening are useful in
Range of Practice Skills Used to groups seeking to change agency and social policies,
planning and implementing programs, and initiating
Target Systems of Any Size LO 1-4 and conducting projects within agency and commu-
The next two major dimensions involved nity contexts. As we will see, mezzo skills (discussed
in generalist practice concern a mastery in Chapter 4) are based largely on the skills needed
of a wide range of practice skills, and to work with individuals and families (explained in
targeting systems of any size for change. Chapter 3). Later chapters will explore a range of
Because these two aspects are so closely EP 9 macro skills for you to use in practice.
agencies” to improve a community’s functioning and qual-

Differentiating Client ity of life (pp. 6–8). They provide the following examples:
Empowerment, Strengths, ● “A group of African-American men of middle
and Resiliency LO 1-5 age and older created an association to work with
young men in order to help them to come of age in
An emphasis on empowerment, strengths, constructive, historically rooted, and community-
and resiliency is the fifth aspect of gen- supported ways. The association has created
eralist practice. We have established that workshops, presentations, classes, and a network of
empowerment is the “process of increas- ready and willing mentors” (p. 134).
ing personal, interpersonal, or political EP 7c
● “Six local [church] congregations work together to
power so that individuals can take action provide a community meal on separate days during
to improve their life situations” (Gutierrez, 2001, p. 210). the week” (p. 149).
We have also determined that some groups of people ● “A group of seniors that forms the East Side
suffer from stereotypes, discrimination, and oppression. Historical Society works with a local high school
It is social work’s task to empower clients in general and in space provided by the park system to develop
members of oppressed groups in particular. Empower- a museum which documents the history of four
ment means emphasizing, developing, and nurturing Chicago neighborhoods” (p. 163).
strengths and positive attributes. It aims at enhancing ● “The Hispanic Club at an urban high school brings
the power and control that individuals, groups, families, a sense of the importance of Latino culture to the
and communities have over their destinies. community by hosting a Latino Cultural Week and
Cowger and Snively (2002) explain: organizing a food festival” (p. 166).
Promoting empowerment means believing that people ● “A representative from the local police precinct
are capable of making their own choices and deci- comes to the library to give workshops on crime
sions. It means not only that human beings possess prevention” (p. 199).
the strengths and potential to resolve their own dif- ● “A hospital forms a partnership with a chain of
ficult life situations, but also that they increase their department stores to open neighborhood health
strength and contribute to the well-being of society clinics in two of its branches. The same hospital
by doing so. The role of the social worker is to nour- already runs many other health centers, including
ish, encourage, assist, enable, support, stimulate, and three in high schools and two at public housing
unleash the strengths within people; to illuminate the developments” (p. 266).
strengths available to people in their own environ- ● “A Washington human services agency purchased a
ments; and to promote equity and justice at all levels 20-unit apartment building which was falling to pieces.
of society. To do that, the social worker helps clients With multilayered financing, volunteer support from a
articulate the nature of their situations, identify what coalition of urban and suburban churches, and donated
they want, explore alternatives for achieving those materials, the complex was completely renovated into
desires, and then achieve them. (p. 110) long-term transitional housing for homeless families.
The basement of the complex is a restaurant which
Focusing on strengths can provide a sound basis for
acts as an income-generating source and as a training
empowerment. Sometimes referred to as the strengths
ground for the unemployed” (p. 321).
perspective, this orientation focuses on client system
resources, capabilities, knowledge, abilities, motivations, Chapter 8 will more thoroughly discuss communi-
experience, intelligence, and other positive qualities that ties and how they function.
can be put to use to solve problems and pursue positive Highlight 1.3 discusses a concept related to the
changes (Saleebey, 2009; Sheafor & Horejsi, 2014). strengths perspective—resiliency.
For example, Kretzmann and McKnight (1993) sug-
gest a strengths perspective for enhancing communities.
They stress using potential community assets, including
Engaging Human Diversity LO 1-6
citizens’ “religious, cultural, athletic, [and] recreational” Human diversity entails the vast range
associations; “private businesses; public institutions such of differences among individuals and
as schools, libraries, parks, police and fire stations; [and] groups involving a wide range of vari-
nonprofit institutions such as hospitals and social service ables. Any time a person can be identified EP 2
HIGHLIGHT 1.3 Resiliency: Seeking Strength amid Adversity
Resiliency is the ability of an individual, family, group, burnout, stress, and compassion fatigue among their
community, or organization to withstand and/or recover staff and volunteers. To help prevent problems with
from adversity and resume functioning even when suf- important staff, they employed the services of a con-
fering serious trouble, confusion, or hardship (Glicken, sulting group. The consultants trained organizational
2006). A mechanical example of this ability occurs staff to be resiliency coaches for their employees and
whenever a car hits a pothole in the road. A car with other helpers (Institute on Domestic Violence & Sexual
good shock absorbers will bounce a bit as it hits the pot- Assault, 2013). The goal was to strengthen critical orga-
hole, but it will protect the occupants from what could nizational resources against occupational hazards.
be a nasty bump. After the car clears the pothole, the Resiliency in a community is illustrated by a group
shock absorbers return to their normal state, ready for of urban neighborhoods that address an increasing
the next bump. Some systems develop the same capac- crime and drug-use problem. These troubles put the
ity to bounce back immediately, demonstrating their community at risk for disorganization and destruction.
resiliency. On the other hand, a car with worn-out shock Community strengths include availability of organiza-
absorbers will expose the occupants to a sharp jolt or jar tions that provide resources; residents’ expectations
that may continue to rebound for several more seconds. for appropriate, positive behavior; and opportunities
Resiliency involves two dimensions: risk and protec- for “neighborhood youths to constructively partici-
tion (Norman, 2000). In this context, risk involves “stress- pate in the community” (Greene & Livingston, 2002,
ful life events or adverse environmental conditions that p. 78). A resilient community might use its concerned
increase the vulnerability [defenselessness or helpless- citizens to form neighborhood organizations that over-
ness] of individuals” or other systems (p. 3). Protection, see community conditions and upkeep, work with
on the other hand, concerns those factors that “buffer, public services to improve conditions, and advocate
moderate, and protect against those vulnerabilities” (p. 3). for increased resources (Homan, 2016). Neighborhood
On the individual level, an example of a resilient Watch programs may be formed in which neighbor-
child is one who, despite being shifted from one fos- hood residents volunteer to keep careful watch upon
ter home to another during childhood, still completes each other’s premises to prevent and combat crime.
high school, enters college, and later begins a healthy Community residents might work with local police and
family of her own. Regardless of the risks to which she’s schools to establish drug education and prevention
been exposed, she uses her strengths to protect her- programs for young people. They might also advocate
self and struggle through her adversity. Such strengths for more police to increase surveillance and apprehen-
might include positive self-esteem and self-worth, good sion of drug dealers. A resilient community uses its
problem-solving abilities to address the difficulties con- strengths to address the risks threatening it and protect
fronting her, a positive sense of direction, the ability to its residents.
empathize with others’ situations, use of humor, high Systems that do not develop resiliency are des-
expectations for personal performance, and the ability tined to stumble and collapse under the pressure of
to distance herself from the dysfunctional people and internal or external events. At the macro level, it is
negative events around her (Norman, 2000). A key to easy to recognize evidence of this. For example, suc-
enabling resiliency is the identification and use of cli- cessful businesses such as Blockbuster Video, Pontiac
ents’ strengths to overcome problems. automobiles, Borders, Circuit City, Coldwater Creek,
An example of resiliency at the organizational level is Kodak, Sears, Pan Am, and Hummer have either ceased
a public university experiencing budget cuts of several operation entirely or become a shadow of their for-
million dollars. That university is resilient to the extent mer selves. This can happen in social service-oriented
that it responds to the risk of loss by protecting its most organizations as well. Hull House closed down as a
important functions, making plans to adapt to the short- social service agency in 2012 and is now a museum.
fall of resources, and continuing to provide students Nonprofit social service agency Phoenix Frontier filed
with a quality education. Again, resiliency involves for bankruptcy in 2013, and for-profit organizations are
focusing on strengths to maintain basic functioning. taking social work positions from nonprofit agencies at
Another example of macro-level resiliency is a child the state and county level. Resiliency is at least a partial
abuse organization concerned about issues such as defense against the unknown.
as belonging to a group that differs in some respect least, groups distinguished by culture or ethnicity,
from the majority of others in society, that person sex and sexual orientation, religion, disability, age,
is subject to the effects of human diversity. Under- immigration status, social class, ethnicity, gender,
standing and appreciating people’s diverse qualities gender expression, gender identity, political views,
is the sixth dimension of generalist practice. Peo- color, or race. Highlight 1.4 defines each of these
ple meriting special attention include, at the very concepts.
HIGHLIGHT 1.4 Variables of Human Diversity
Age: Some period of time during a person’s life span. Culture: “A way of life including widespread values
Age is often considered an important aspect of (about what is good and bad), beliefs (about what
human diversity for older adults as they experi- is true), and behavior (what people do every day)”
ence ageism, discrimination based on preconceived (italics deleted) (Macionis, 2008, p. 2).
notions about older people, ignoring their individ- Disability: “Any physical or mental impairment [or
ual qualities and capabilities. ongoing health or mental health condition] that sub-
Social Class: Divisions within a society based on such stantially limits one or more major life activities”;
variables as economic well-being, level of educa- these activities include “seeing, hearing, speaking,
tion, perceived or actual power, family background, walking, breathing, performing manual tasks, learn-
or relative levels of prestige. ing, caring for oneself, and working” (U.S. Equal
Race: A social construct that attempts to categorize people Employment Opportunity Commission, 1997, p. 1).
who share a common descent and genetic origin and Gender: “The social and psychological characteristics
are believed to be physically similar (as in skin color). associated with being female or male” (McCammon
The term assumes that different “races” share char- & Knox, 2007, p. 112).
acteristics distinguishing them from other groups of Gender identity: A person’s internal psychological self-
people, such as interests and abilities. In reality, biolo- concept of being either a male or a female, or, pos-
gists recognize only one race, human, indicating that sibly, some combination of both (Gilbert, 2008).
all groups identified as races are part of the human Gender expression: The manner in which we express
race and that “racial groups are not genetically dis- ourselves to others in ways related to gender that
crete, reliably measured, or scientifically meaningful” include both behavior and personality.
(Smedley & Smedley, 2005, p. 16). Although some Sex: “The biological distinction between being female
people continue to argue that there are distinct races, and being male, usually categorized on the basis
geneticists point out that “all human beings are 99.9 of the reproductive organs and genetic makeup”
identical in their genetic makeup” (National Human (McCammon & Knox, 2007, p. 606).
Genome Research Institute, 2014). Sexual orientation: Sexual and romantic attraction to
Ethnicity: “A dynamic set of historically derived and insti- persons of one or both genders.
tutionalized ideas and practices that (1) allow people Immigration status: A person’s position in terms of legal
to identify or to be identified with groupings of peo- rights and residency when entering and residing in
ple on the basis of presumed (and usually claimed) a country that is not one’s country of origin.
commonalities, including language, history, nation Political ideology: The “relatively coherent system of
or region of origin, customs, ways of being, religion, ideas (beliefs, traditions, principles, and myths)
names, physical appearance, and/or genealogy or about human nature, institutional arrangements,
ancestry; (2) can be a source of meaning, action, and and social processes” that indicate how a govern-
identity; and (3) confer a sense of belonging, pride, ment should be run and the principles that it should
and motivation” (Markus, 2008, p. 654). support (Abramovitz, 2007, p. 126).
(People of) color: “A collective term that refers to the Religion: People’s spiritual beliefs concerning the origin,
major groups of African, Latino and Asian Ameri- character, and reason for being, usually based on
cans, and First Nations People [Native Americans] the existence of some higher power or powers, that
who have been distinguished from the dominant often involves designated rituals and provides direc-
society by color” (Lum, 2011, p. 129). tion for what is considered moral or right.
Recognizing the Influence of Differences woman in an all-male business or organization. Think of

Membership in groups that differ from the a 62-year-old person applying for a sales job in a depart-
young heterosexual mainstream can place ment store where everyone else is under 30. Consider an
people at increased risk of discrimination, African-American person applying for membership in an
oppression, and economic deprivation. all-white country club. Note that it was not until 2012 that
Discrimination is the act of treating people EP 2a the Augusta National Golf Club (where the Masters Golf
differently because they belong to a partic- Tournament is held each year) admitted women. Golfers
ular group rather than on their own merit. Oppression with a disability could not use a golf cart in Professional
involves putting extreme limitations and constraints on Golfers’ Association (PGA) tournaments until the U.S.
some person, group, or larger system. Economic depri- Supreme Court ruled in 2001 that the Americans with
vation is the condition of having inadequate or unjust Disabilities Act (ADA) required this accommodation.
access to financial resources. The latter can result from Membership in any diverse group provides a dif-
a number of circumstances, including unemployment, ferent set of environmental circumstances. A Chicano
job discrimination, insufficient work benefits, and adolescent from a Mexican-American inner-city neigh-
unsatisfactory public policies (e.g., unfair tax rates or borhood has a different social environment than an
eligibility standards for financial benefits and services upper-middle-class adolescent of Jewish descent living
that make them inaccessible to those in need). in the well-to-do suburbs of the same city. The critical
Discrimination and oppression often result from ste- thing is for social workers to be aware of the enormous
reotypes. A stereotype is a fixed mental picture of mem- variety of human diversity. To work effectively with vari-
bers of a group based on some attribute(s) that reflects ous groups, social workers must constantly strive to gain
an overly simplified view of that group, without consider- understanding about cultural and situational differences
ation of individual differences. One might envision a num- and to use that knowledge to bring about needed change.
ber of potential scenarios. For instance, picture being a As an example, Highlight 1.5 provides suggestions for
Empowerment of Lesbian and Gay People

HIGHLIGHT 1.5
at the Macro Level
Tully (2000) explains that one facet of macro practice and allies that will become a coalition to fight for
on a conceptual level seeks to transform basic cultural pro-gay legislation and defeat legislation that is
traditions and behavioral expectations homophobic. (pp. 110–111)
to make them less rigid and more compatible with The following are recommendations for you to seek
current or evolving human need. Such practice the empowerment of lesbian and gay people at the
would include political advocacy; development, macro level:
implementation, and evaluation of public policy; Understand the many legal issues associated
and administration aimed at social change. . . . [The with lesbians and gays; Confront institutional
key] to macro-level intervention is to know what homophobia [as manifested by unfair policies
political and social issues are facing the lesbian and legislation] at the local, state, and federal
and gay community at any point in time. . . . [One levels; Become an expert in the field of gay and
major concern today involves] same-sex marriage. lesbian issues; Join and support pro-lesbian and
Other current issues include hate crimes legislation, gay organizations; . . . [Seek access to legislators
whether or not content related to gay and lesbian and lobby for legislation supporting lesbian and
issues should be in the secondary school curriculum, gay rights;] Prepare gay-friendly testimony . . . [if
and the status of gay clergy in the church, as foster called upon to testify at] congressional hearings; . . .
or adoptive parents. Construct coalitions that support the gay and lesbian
Once familiar with the topics, the social agenda; Create constituencies and make allies that
worker needs to become an expert able to lobby, are pro-gay; Be dignified and polite in legislative
testify, and be prepared to confront instances defeat; Learn to negotiate for an agreeable outcome;
of homophobia. In addition, the social work Be gracious, even in the face of homophobia. (Elze,
practitioner needs to build constituent groups 2006; Tully, 2000, p. 111)
empowering lesbian and gay people at the macro level. Conditions in the world are not necessarily benev-
Subsequently, wide-ranging issues concerning human olent or fair. People may be denied their human rights,
diversity are addressed throughout the book. such as in human trafficking for the purposes of sex
or labor. They may be oppressed by social, environ-
mental, and economic injustices, such as poverty and
Advocating for Human Rights discrimination. Social work education seeks to teach
and Social, Economic, and students how to promote social, economic, and envi-
ronmental justice; fight discrimination; and advocate
Environmental Justice LO 1-7 for improvements in the social and economic systems
Advocacy for human rights and the affecting people. The end result should involve more
pursuit of justice is the seventh concept effective service provision and improvement in peo-
inherent in generalist practice. Numer- ple’s quality of life.
ous related terms are integrated under In real life, social, economic, and environmental
this general heading. Advocacy is the EP 3a, 3b justice are hard goals to attain. Rarely are rights and
act of representing, championing, or resources fairly and equitably distributed. Even the
defending the rights of others. Human rights involve definitions of fair and equitable are widely debated.
the premise that all people, regardless of charac- Does “fair” mean that all people should receive the
teristics or circumstances (including those of race, same income regardless of what work they do or even
culture, nationality, class, orientation, age, gender, whether they have jobs at all? The point is that social
ability, religion, or beliefs), are entitled to basic rights workers must be aware of the existence of injustice.
and fair, humane treatment. We have established that It is our ethical responsibility to combat injustice
social justice is the philosophical perspective that all whenever necessary and possible to do so. Chapter 12
people have the right to enjoy equal opportunities explores this dimension of generalist practice in much
in economic, political, and social realms. Economic greater depth.
justice concerns the distribution and redistribution
of resources in a fair and equitable manner. Finally,
environmental justice “is the fair treatment and mean- Working Effectively Within
ingful involvement of all people regardless of race,
color, national origin, or income with respect to the
an Organizational Structure LO 1-8
development, implementation, and enforcement of Social workers practice within the context
environmental laws, regulations, and policies.” Envi- of organizations, the eighth dimension of
ronmental justice is achieved “when everyone enjoys generalist practice. Organizational struc-
the same degree of protection from environmental ture is the formal and informal manner in
and health hazards and equal access to the decision- which tasks and responsibilities, lines of EP 5, 6
making process to have a healthy environment in authority, channels of communication,
which to live, learn, and work.” (U.S. Environmental and dimensions of power are established and coordi-
Protection Agency, 2016, p. 1). As Gordon Walker nated within an organization.
(2012, p. 1) notes in his book on the subject, “for Tasks and responsibilities, of course, involve
some people and some social groups, the environ- what you and other staff are supposed to accom-
ment is an intrinsic part of living a ‘good life’ of pros- plish during your workday. Lines of authority con-
perity, health, and well-being, while for others the cern who supervises whom. You might think of
environment is a source of threat and risk, and access them as the chain of command. For example, who
to resources such as energy, water, and greenspace is has the responsibility for overseeing your work per-
limited or curtailed. It is also about how some of us formance? Channels of communication entail who
consume key environmental resources at the expense communicates with whom and how. Dimensions
of others, often in distance places, and about how the of power delineate whose opinions carry the most
power to effect change and influence environmental weight in agency decision making. Who captivates
decision-making is unequally distributed. Most fun- other staff members’ attention during meetings, and
damentally, it is about the way that people should be who bores them to tears? Who has the most control
treated, the way the world should be.” over agency policy?
Agency structure may be formal (i.e., by the techniques to assist supervisors in the supervisory pro-
book and according to established rules), informal cess. This is important not only for generalist social
(i.e., based on the more flexible way the agency really workers who want to succeed in their roles but also
works), or some combination of the two. Consider as preparation for future roles as supervisors as they
channels of communication, for example. They may ascend the organization’s hierarchy. Chapter 3, “Using
follow formal lines of authority or very informal Micro Skills with Organizations and Communities,”
routes. How information really gets circulated within discusses professional identity, use of supervision,
an agency may be very different from what the formal and other important factors concerning interpersonal
hierarchy expected or intended. agency activity in depth.
The following is an example of an informal agency
structure: The agency director’s brother-in-law is a
direct service worker within an organization that has Professional Social
several levels of authority. That is, designated super-
visors oversee direct worker supervisees (such as the
Work Roles LO 1-9
director’s brother-in-law), managers are responsible The ninth dimension of generalist prac-
for supervisors, assistant directors supervise managers, tice involves the assumption of profes-
and the agency director oversees the assistant direc- sional roles. A role is an expected behavior
tors. Each level is responsible for the employees on the pattern for a person having a specified
status or being involved in a designated EP 1
level below.
In our example, the agency director’s brother-in- social relationship. For example, people
law has the agency director’s ear whenever he wants have certain expectations regarding how social work-
it. Thus, the channel of communication flows directly ers are supposed to act. Social workers are expected to
from the bottom level to the very top. This informal participate in certain activities.
reality does not coincide with the formal structure. The To best understand the various roles generalist
brother-in-law also has greater power than other staff practitioners play, it is useful to recall the four types
at his level and at higher levels because of his access to of systems involved in generalist practice (illustrated
the agency director. Therefore, the dimensions of real in Figure 1.4). As we discussed, the client system
power vary dramatically from those portrayed by the includes those people who will ultimately benefit from
formal lines of authority. the change process. The change agent system is the
It is very important for generalist practitioners
to examine, evaluate, and understand their agency’s
formal and informal structure in order to do their
jobs effectively. Chapter 4 will address these and other
similar issues much more thoroughly. Worker
In addition to understanding formal and informal
agency operations, you should also be aware of other
SUPPORT SUPPORT
aspects of agency life. One aspect involves the impor-
tance of developing and demonstrating a professional
identity and demeanor. How should a “professional”
act? What does a “professional” look like?
Organizational Macro
Another important facet of effective work within or community client
an organizational structure concerns using supervi- macro system system
sion appropriately. What does this mean? We propose
that the appropriate use of professional supervision To benefit
involves all of the following: knowing practitioners’
general expectations of supervisors; understanding To benefit
the administrative, educational, and other functions
of supervisors; using supervision as effectively as ACTION ACTION
possible; addressing problems commonly occurring
in supervisory relationships; and adapting specific F i g u r e 1 . 4 The Enabler Role in Macro Practice
individual who initiates the macro-change process. help to make the rehabilitation a reality. Arrows point
Where the diagrams in Figures 1.4 through 1.15 refer from the worker system (you) to both the commu-
to the worker, they mean the change agent system— nity macro system circle and the macro client system.
you. The action system includes those people who These portray the support provided by the worker that
agree to and will work together to attain the proposed assists either system or both systems in undertaking
macro change. Finally, the target system is the system some action. The latter is depicted by arrows leading
that social workers must “change or influence in order from both macro systems to the word Action. This
to accomplish (their) goals” (Pincus & Minahan, 1973, action, in turn, is intended to result in some benefit for
p. 58). In macro practice, your own agency, some sub- the macro client system. Thus, arrows also lead from
system within your agency, or the community may the word Action back to the macro client system.
become the system at which you direct your interven-
tion efforts.
Figures 1.4 through 1.14 illustrate a variety of Mediator
possible social work roles characteristic of macro A mediator resolves arguments or disagreements
generalist practice. They include enabler, mediator, among various parties or systems in disagreement.
manager, educator, analyst/evaluator, broker, facili- At the macro level, mediation involves helping vari-
tator, initiator, negotiator, mobilizer, and advocate. ous factions (subsystems) within a community—or
Although these figures represent macro-practice roles, helping a community system and some other system
remember that many of the roles can also characterize (such as another community)—work out their differ-
interventions with systems of other sizes. ences. At its heart, mediation is an alternative means
These figures will use circles to represent the of resolving disputes using a third party to help both
worker, macro client systems, and organizational or sides find a satisfactory outcome. For example, a
community macro systems. Lines and arrows depict community (or neighborhood) and a social services
how systems relate to each other. Note that unless organization may require mediation over the location
specified otherwise, a macro system can illustrate inter- of a substance abuse treatment center. In this case,
action with either an organization or a community. the social services organization might have selected a
prime spot, but the community might balk at having
Enabler such a center within its boundaries. The mediator role
An enabler provides support, encouragement, and may involve improving communication among dissi-
suggestions to members of a macro client system so dent individuals or groups or otherwise helping those
that the system may complete tasks or solve prob- involved come to a compromise. A mediator remains
lems more easily and successfully. In the enabler role, neutral, not siding with either party in the dispute.
a worker helps a client system cope with various Mediators make sure they understand the positions
stresses, ranging from job loss to community issues of both parties, clarify positions, recognize miscom-
such as inadequate housing or day care. Enablers munication, and help those involved present their
employ such skills as giving encouragement, identify- cases clearly.
ing and managing feelings, providing hope, identify- Figure 1.5 illustrates the mediator role. The
ing strengths, partializing or breaking down problems worker circle is placed between the organizational or
to make them more manageable, and helping identify community macro system circle and the macro client
options for meeting goals.
Note that this definition of enabler is very differ-
ent from that used in the substance abuse literature.
There, the term refers to a family member or friend
who facilitates the substance abuser in continuing to Worker
use and abuse the drug of his or her choice. Organizational Macro
or community client
Figure 1.4 illustrates the enabler role in macro macro system system
practice. In this figure, the worker is providing support
to a neighborhood in need of rehabilitation (client sys- CONFLICT
tem) as well as to the community council (community
macro system) that will need to provide the financial F i g u r e 1 . 5 The Mediator Role in Macro Practice
system circle. This reflects the neutral stance of work- workers and various staff members, including other
ers, requiring that they take the side of either involved professionals, and support staff. The worker circle is
party. The broken line beneath the worker circle depicts located above two staff circles with arrows directed
the conflicting communication between the parties down from the worker circle to both staff circles.
and their inability to settle differences. This particu- This diagram indicates that the worker, having
lar diagram depicts a worker mediating between an administrative status, has authority over the staff.
organizational or community macro system (on the All three circles are located within the larger orga-
left) and a macro client system (on the right). How- nizational environment circle to indicate that the
ever, mediation can occur between or among systems manager role usually occurs within an organiza-
of virtually any size. tional context.
Manager Educator
A manager in social work is one who assumes some An educator provides knowledge and skills to other
level of administrative responsibility for a social ser- systems. To be an effective educator, the worker must
vices agency or other organizational system. Admin- be knowledgeable about the topics being taught and
istrators utilize three levels of skills—technical, have good communication skills so information is
people, and conceptual (Lewis, Packard, & Lewis, conveyed clearly and is readily understood by the
2012). Technical skills include those used to direct an receivers.
agency’s basic activities such as overseeing counseling In Figure 1.7, arrows run from the worker cir-
techniques, developing programs, or evaluating the cle both to the organizational or community macro
agency’s effectiveness. People skills include the ability system circle and to the macro system circle. This
to listen, communicate effectively, manage conflict, depicts that a worker conveys information to these
lead, and motivate other individuals and groups. Con- other systems.
ceptual skills are those oriented toward assessing and
understanding the overall operation of the agency and Analyst/Evaluator
how it fits into its larger macro environment; these An analyst/evaluator determines whether a program
also concern being able to solve complex problems or agency is effective (Brody, 2006). This can occur
and develop creative solutions. The term management in an organizational or community context. Gen-
refers to “making decisions to guide the organization eralist social workers with a broad knowledge base
through planning, organizing, leading, and control- of how various-sized systems function can analyze
ling” (Hellriegel, Jackson, & Slocum, 2008, p. 8). or evaluate how well programs and systems work.
Figure 1.6 portrays the manager role. We Likewise, they can evaluate the effectiveness of their
assume that the organization employs both social own interventions.
Figure 1.8 reflects how an analyst/evaluator
functions. One arrow points from the worker (you)
to an organizational or community macro system to
Organizational
macro system
Worker Worker
INFORMATION INFORMATION
Staff Staff Organizational Macro

or community client
macro system system
F i g u r e 1 . 6 The Manager Role in Macro Practice F i g u r e 1 . 7 The Educator Role in Macro Practice
provides resources to the client system circle that

Worker receives these resources.
Worker
(self)
EVALUATE Facilitator
EFFECTIVENESS
Organizational A facilitator is one who guides a group experience.
or community Workers frequently lead groups in macro practice. In
macro system the context of work with larger systems, a facilitator
Macro
client brings participants together to promote the change
system process by improving communication, helping direct
their efforts and resources, and linking them with
needed information and expert help.
F i g u r e 1 . 8 The Analyst/Evaluator Role in Macro Practice Figure 1.10 depicts three circles labeled “Col-
league” that are connected with each other by lines
representing group interaction and communica-
illustrate how a worker in an analyst/evaluator role tion. Additionally, the linking lines illustrate how
can evaluate a program’s or an agency’s effectiveness. colleagues working together form a mezzo system.
A second arrow points from the worker to a line that These three colleague circles are enclosed by a larger
joins another worker to a macro client system. This circle, a mezzo system that could be a task or plan-
connecting line illustrates the worker’s professional ning group within an organization or a community.
planned change relationship with his or her clients. The arrow pointing from the worker to the mezzo
The arrow illustrates how workers can and should system depicts the worker’s leadership of the mezzo
evaluate their own practice with clients. system. Hence, the rounded square entitled “Orga-
nizational or Community Macro System” encom-
Broker passes all of the interaction. The worker facilitates
A broker links a system of any size (individuals, whatever interaction occurs within the mezzo sys-
groups, organizations, or communities) with commu- tem, which, in turn, occurs within the macro context.
nity resources and services. Such resources might be in Note that although Figure 1.10 arbitrarily depicts
the financial, legal, educational, psychological, recre- three colleagues, any number of colleagues, clients,
ational, or health areas. community residents, administrators, or politicians
In Figure 1.9, the line from the worker circle can be involved.
to the arrow leading from the macro system to the
macro client system illustrates the worker’s active Initiator
involvement in obtaining resources for the macro An initiator is the person or persons who call atten-
client system. The arrow points from the organi- tion to an issue (Hardcastle & Powers, 2004). The
zational or community macro system circle that
Organizational Mezzo system

or community
Worker macro system
Colleague Colleague
Worker
Organizational Macro
or community client Colleague
macro system RESOURCES system
F i g u r e 1 . 9 The Broker Role in Macro Practice F i g u r e 1 . 1 0 The Facilitator Role in Macro Practice
issue in the community may be a problem, a need, or NEGOTIATOR

simply a situation that can be improved. It is impor-
tant to recognize that a problem does not have to Macro Macro system:
client Worker organization or
exist before a situation can be dealt with. Often, pre- system
CONFLICT community
venting future problems or enhancing existing ser-
vices is a satisfactory reason for creating a change
effort. Thus, a social worker may recognize that a F i g u r e 1 . 1 2 The Negotiator Role in Macro Practice
policy has the potential to create problems for par-
ticular clients and bring this to the attention of her
supervisor. Likewise, a client may identify ways that
directions characterize the conflict that has arisen.
service could be improved. In each case, the worker
The macro system on the right side of the figure rep-
is playing the role of initiator in terms of beginning
resents an organization or community engulfed in
the actual change process. Usually, this role must
conflict with the macro client system and the worker/
be followed up by other kinds of work because
negotiator on the left. The worker/negotiator seeks to
merely pointing out problems does not guarantee
resolve the conflict on behalf of one side of the con-
they will be solved.
flict, namely, the macro client system.
In Figure 1.11, an arrow leading from the worker
on the far left to the macro system circle in the middle
represents the worker’s activities directed at improving Mobilizer
service provision. Another arrow, which leads from the A mobilizer identifies and convenes community
macro system to the macro client system on the far people and resources and makes them responsive to
right, reflects the benefits that the macro system pro- unmet community needs. The mobilizer’s purpose
vides for the macro client system as the ultimate result is to match resources to needs within the commu-
of the initiator’s efforts. nity context. Sometimes a mobilizer’s goal involves
making services more accessible to citizens who
Negotiator need them. Other times, a goal is initiating and
A negotiator is an intermediary who acts to settle developing services to meet needs that heretofore
disputes and/or resolve disagreements. However, were unmet.
unlike mediators, negotiators clearly take the side of In Figure 1.13, the worker on the left is assum-
one of the parties involved. In many situations, both ing a mobilizer role in a macro practice context. The
sides in a dispute may have their own negotiators large central circle is labeled “Community Macro
who represent and articulate their respective posi- System.” The citizens within the community macro
tions with a goal of arriving at a mutually acceptable system circle represent an arbitrary number of com-
outcome. munity residents. (Fewer citizens may be involved,
In Figure 1.12, the macro client system and the or perhaps thousands of community residents are
worker are located together on the left side of the fig- part of the mobilization process. Ideally, an entire
ure. This indicates that the worker is negotiating on community with virtually all of its residents would
behalf of the macro client system. Two jagged lines participate in the macro intervention process.) The
with arrows pointing away from them in opposing arrow leading from the worker (mobilizer) to the
community macro system represents the worker’s
efforts directed toward the mobilization process.
INITIATOR The arrows inside the community macro system
Macro BENEFITS leading from the citizens toward “Action” represent
system: Macro
the resultant efforts of citizens as they participate
Worker organization or client
system in the process of meeting the community’s unmet
community
IMPROVES needs. The larger arrow leading from the commu-
SERVICE
nity macro system circle to “Action” represents the
PROVISION
process of pooling all the citizens’ efforts into some
F i g u r e 1 . 1 1 The Initiator Role in Macro Practice coordinated action.
Citizen
Citizen
MOBILIZER
Citizen
Worker Citizen ACTION
Citizen
Citizen
COMMUNITY
MACRO SYSTEM
F i g u r e 1 . 1 3 The Mobilizer Role in Macro Practice
Advocate ADVOCATE
Macro
Advocacy is active intervention on a system:
client system’s behalf to get needed Macro organization or
client Worker community
resources that are currently unavailable system
or to change regulations or policies that
negatively affect that client system. An EP 3a
advocate is one who steps forward and F i g u r e 1 . 1 4 The Advocate Role in Macro Practice
speaks out on behalf of the client system in order to
promote fair and equitable treatment or gain needed
resources. In macro practice, of course, it would be on
behalf of some macro client system. This may be espe- Figure 1.14 depicts a macro client system and
cially appropriate when a macro client system has little a worker standing together to reflect the worker’s
power to get what it needs. Advocacy often involves alliance with the macro client system during the
expending more effort than is necessary to simply advocacy process. The bold arrow leading from the
accomplish your job. It also often involves taking risks, worker to the macro system at the right is exception-
especially when advocating on a client’s behalf in the ally thick to represent the significant amount of
face of a larger, more powerful system. Chapter 11 energy it often takes to have an impact on a larger,
explores advocacy at length. more powerful system.
The advocate role is one of the most important
roles a generalist social worker can assume, despite Maintaining a Professional
its potential difficulties. To emphasize its importance, Identity and Roles
it is the last macro practice role discussed here. Regardless of what roles social workers
Advocacy is one of the practice dimensions that makes assume while working within an orga-
generalist social work practice unique (Kirst-Ashman nization, generalist practitioners must
& Hull, 2015). Part of a generalist social worker’s maintain and demonstrate a professional
ethical responsibility is to go beyond the minimum identity. Professional identification encom- EP 1
requirements of his or her job on behalf of a client passes adherence to professional ethics,
system when that client system is in desperate need of demonstration of professional roles, and participation
help or resources. in lifelong learning to enhance knowledge and skills.
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agog to be at a thing, and then, when you think her settled to half-an-
hour’s pleasant play, off she is like any butterfly. She says her, ‘How
doth the little busy bee,’ dutifully, but when I tell her she is not a bit
like a busy bee, but rather like a foolish, flitting butterfly, I’m afraid
she rather likes it, and makes up to the butterflies as if they were
akin to her, and were having just the good time she would prefer. But
you must come and see the child to understand how volatile she is.
“‘Oh, mother, please let me have a good doll’s wash this
afternoon; I’m quite unhappy about poor Peggy! I really think she
likes to be dirty!’
“Great preparations follow in the way of little tub, and soap, and
big apron; the little laundress sits down, greatly pleased with herself,
to undress her dirty Peggy; but hardly is the second arm out of its
sleeve, than, presto! a new idea; off goes Kitty to clean out her doll’s-
house, deaf to all nurse’s remonstrances about ‘nice hot water,’ and
‘poor dirty Peggy.’
“I’m afraid the child is no more constant to her loves than to her
play; she is a loving little soul, as you know, and is always adoring
somebody. Now it’s her father, now Juno, now me, now Hugh; and
the rain of warm kisses, the soft clasping arms, the nestling head,
are delicious, whether to dog or man. But, alas! Kitty’s
blandishments are a whistle you must pay for; to-morrow it is
somebody else’s turn, and the bad part is that she has only room for
one at a time. If we could get a little visit from you, now, Kitty would
be in your pocket all day long; and we, even Peggy, would be left out
in the cold. But do not flatter yourself it would last; I think none of
Kitty’s attachments has been known to last longer than two days.
“If the chief business of parents is to train character in their
children, we have done nothing for Kitty; at six years old the child
has no more power of application, no more habit of attention, is no
more able to make herself do the thing she ought to do, indeed, has
no more desire to do the right thing, than she had at six months old.
We are getting very unhappy about it. My husband feels strongly that
parents should labour at character as the Hindoo gold-beater labours
at his vase; that character is the one thing we are called upon to
effect. And what have we done for Kitty? We have turned out a ‘fine
animal,’ and are glad and thankful for that; but that is all; the child is
as wayward, as unsteady, as a young colt. Do help us, dear aunt.
Think our little girl’s case over; if you can, get at the source of the
mischief, and send us a few hints for our guidance, and we shall be
yours gratefully evermore.”
“And now for my poor little great-niece! Her mother piles up

charges against her, but how interesting and amusing and like the
free world of fairy-land it would all be were it not for the tendencies
which, in these days, we talk much about and watch little against.
We bring up our children in the easiest, happy-go-lucky way, and all
the time talk solemnly in big words about the momentous importance
of every influence brought to bear upon them. But it is true; these
naughty, winsome ways of Kitty’s will end in her growing up like half
the ‘girls’—that is, young women—one meets. They talk glibly on
many subjects; but test them, and they know nothing of any; they are
ready to undertake anything, but they carry nothing through. This
week, So-and-so is their most particular friend, next week such
another; even their amusements, their one real interest, fail and flag;
but then, there is some useful thing to be learnt—how to set tiles or
play the banjo! And, all the time, there is no denying, as you say, that
this very fickleness has a charm, so long as the glamour of youth
lasts, and the wayward girl has bright smiles and winning, graceful
ways to disarm you with. But youth does not last; and the poor girl,
who began as a butterfly, ends as a grub, tied to the earth by the
duties she never learnt how to fulfil; that is, supposing she is a girl
with a conscience; wanting that, she dances through life whatever
befalls; children, husband, home, must take their chance. ‘What a
giddy old grandmother the Peterfields have!’ remarked a pert young
man of my acquaintance. But, indeed, the ‘giddy old grandmother’ is
not an unknown quantity.
“Are you saying to yourself, a prosy old ‘great-aunt’ is as bad as a
‘giddy old grandmother’? I really have prosed abominably, but Kitty
has been on my mind all the time, and it is quite true, you must take
her in hand.
“First, as to her lessons: you must help her to gain the power of
attention; that should have been done long ago, but better late than
never, and an aunt who has given her mind to these matters takes
blame to herself for not having seen the want sooner. ‘But,’ I fancy
you are saying, ‘if the child has no faculty of attention, how can we
give it to her? It’s just a natural defect.’ Not a bit of it! Attention is not
a faculty at all, though I believe it is worth more than all the so-called
faculties put together; this, at any rate, is true, that no talent, no
genius, is worth much without the power of attention; and this is the
power which makes men or women successful in life.
“Attention is no more than this—the power of giving your mind to
what you are about—the bigger the better so far as the mind goes,
and great minds do great things; but have you never known a person
with a great mind, ‘real genius,’ his friends say, who goes through life
without accomplishing anything? It is just because he wants the
power to ‘turn on,’ so to speak, the whole of his great mind; he is
unable to bring the whole of his power to bear on the subject in
hand. ‘But Kitty?’ Yes, Kitty must get this power of ‘turning on.’ She
must be taught to give her mind to sums and reading, and even to
dusters. Go slowly; a little to-day and a little more to-morrow. In the
first place, her lessons must be made interesting. Do not let her
scramble through a page of ‘reading,’ for instance, spelling every
third word and then waiting to be told what it spells, but see that
every day she learns a certain number of new words—six, twelve,
twenty, as she is able to hear them; not ‘spellings’—terrible
invention!—but words that occur in a few lines of some book of
stories or rhymes; and these she should know, not by spelling, but by
sight. It does not matter whether the new words be long or short, in
one syllable or in four, but let them be interesting words. For
instance, suppose her task for to-day be ‘Little Jack Horner,’ she
should learn to know, by sight, thumb, plum, Christmas, corner, &c.,
before she begins to read the rhyme; make ‘plum’ with her loose
letters, print it on her slate, let her find it elsewhere in her book, any
device you can think of, so that ‘plum’ is brought before her eyes
half-a-dozen times, and each time recognised and named. Then,
when it comes in the reading lesson, it is an old friend, read off with
delight. Let every day bring the complete mastery of a few new
words, as well as the keeping up of the old ones. At the rate of only
six a day she will learn, say, fifteen hundred in a year; in other words,
she will have learned to read! And if it do not prove to be reading
without tears and reading with attention, I shall not presume to make
another suggestion about the dear little girl’s education.
“But do not let the lesson last more than ten minutes, and insist,
with brisk, bright determination, on the child’s full concentrated
attention of eye and mind for the whole ten minutes. Do not allow a
moment’s dawdling at lessons.
“I would not give her rows of figures to add yet; use dominoes or
the domino cards prepared for the purpose, the point being to add or
subtract the dots on the two halves in a twinkling. You will find that
the three can work together at this as at the reading, and the children
will find it as exciting and delightful as ‘old soldier.’ Kitty will be all
alive here, and will take her share of work merrily; and this is a point
gained. Do not, if you can help it, single the little maid out from the
rest and throw her on her own responsibility. ’Tis a ‘heavy and a
weary weight’ for the bravest of us, and the little back will get a trick
of bending under life if you do not train her to carry it lightly, as an
Eastern woman her pitcher.
“Then, vary the lessons; now head, and now hands; now tripping
feet and tuneful tongue; but in every lesson let Kitty and the other
two carry away the joyous sense of—
‘Something attempted, something done.’
“Allow of no droning wearily over the old stale work,—which must

be kept up all the time, it is true, but rather by way of an exciting
game than as the lesson of the day, which should always be a
distinct step that the children can recognise.
“You have no notion, until you try, how the ‘now-or-never’ feeling
about a lesson quickens the attention of even the most volatile child;
what you can drone through all day, you will; what must be done, is
done. Then, there is a by-the-way gain besides that of quickened
attention. I once heard a wise man say that, if he must choose
between the two, he would rather his child should learn the meaning
of ‘must’ than inherit a fortune. And here you will be able to bring
moral force to bear on wayward Kitty. Every lesson must have its
own time, and no other time in this world is there for it. The sense of
the preciousness of time, of the irreparable loss when a ten minutes’
lesson is thrown away, must be brought home.
“Let your own unaffected distress at the loss of ‘golden minutes’
be felt by the children, and also be visited upon them by the loss of
some small childish pleasure which the day should have held. It is a
sad thing to let a child dawdle through a day and be let off scot-free.
You see, I am talking of the children, and not of Kitty alone, because
it is so much easier to be good in company; and what is good for her
will be good for the trio.
“But there are other charges: poor Kitty is neither steady in play
nor steadfast in love! May not the habit of attending to her lessons
help her to stick to her play? Then, encourage her. ‘What! The doll’s
tea-party over! That’s not the way grown-up ladies have tea; they sit
and talk for a long time. See if you can make your tea-party last
twenty minutes by my watch!’ This failing of Kitty’s is just a case
where a little gentle ridicule might do a great deal of good. It is a
weapon to be handled warily, for one child may resent, and another
take pleasure in being laughed at; but managed with tact I do believe
it’s good for children and grown-ups to see the comic side of their
doings.
“I think we err in not enough holding up certain virtues for our
children’s admiration. Put a premium of praise on every finished
thing, if it is only a house of cards. Steadiness in work is a step on
the way towards steadfastness in love. Here, too, the praise of
constancy might very well go with good-humoured family ‘chaff,’ not
about the new loves, which are lawful, whether of kitten or playmate,
but about the discarded old loves. Let Kitty and all of them grow up
to glory in their constancy to every friend.
“There, I am sending you a notable preachment instead of the few
delicate hints I meant to offer; but never mount a woman on her
hobby—who knows when she will get off again?”
CHAPTER III
AN EDUCATIONAL EXPERIMENT
You wish me to tell you the story of my little girl? Well, to begin at the
beginning. In looking back through the pages of my journal I find
many scattered notices of Agnes, and I always write of her, I find, as
“poor Agnes.” Now, I wonder why? The child is certainly neither
unhealthy nor unhappy—at least, not with any reason; but again and
again I find this sort of entry:—
“Agnes displeased with her porridge; says nothing, but looks
black all day.”
“Harry upset his sister’s work-basket, by accident, I truly believe,
but she can’t get over it; speaks to no one, and looks as if under a
cloud.”
I need not go on; the fact is, the child is sensible of many injuries
heaped upon her; I think there is no ground for the feeling, for she is
really very sweet when she has not, as the children say, the black
dog on her back.
It is quite plain to me, and to others also, I think, that we have let
this sort of thing go on too long without dealing with it. We must take
the matter in hand.
Please God, our little Agnes must not grow up in this sullen habit,
for all our sakes, but chiefly for her own, poor child; I felt that in this
matter I might be of more use than Edward, who simply does not
understand a temper less sunny and open than his own. I pondered
and pondered, and, at last, some light broke in upon me. I thought I
should get hold of one principle at a time, work that out thoroughly,
and then take up the next, and so on, until all the springs of
sullenness were exhausted, and all supplies from without stopped. I
was beginning to suspect that the laws of habit worked here as
elsewhere, and that, if I could get our dear child to pass, say, six
weeks without a “fallen countenance,” she might lose this distressing
failing for life.
I meant to take most of the trouble of this experiment upon
myself, but somehow I never can do anything without consulting my
husband. I think men have clearer heads than we women; that is,
they can see both sides of a question and are not carried off their
feet by the one side presented to them.
“Well, Edward, our little Agnes does not get over her sulky fits; in
fact, they last longer, and are harder to get out of than ever!”
“Poor little girl! It is unhappy for her and for all of us. But don’t you
think it is a sort of childish malaise she will soon grow out of?”
“Now, have you not said, again and again, that a childish fault, left
to itself, can do no other than strengthen?”
“True; I suppose the fact is I am slow to realise the fault. But you
are right. From the point of view of habit we are pledged to deal with
it. Have you made any plans?”
“Yes; I have been trying to work the thing out on your lines. We
must watch the rise of the sullen cloud, and change her thoughts
before she has time to realise that the black fit is coming.”
“You are right; if we can keep the child for only a week without this
settling of the cloud, the mere habit would be somewhat broken.”
We had not to wait for our opportunity. At breakfast next day—
whether Harry’s porridge looked more inviting than her own, or
whether he should not have been helped first, or whether the child
had a little pain of which she was hardly aware—suddenly, her eyes
fell, brows dropped, lips pouted, the whole face became slightly paler
than before, the figure limp, limbs lax, hands nerveless—and our
gentle child was transformed, become entirely unlovable. So far, her
feelings were in the emotional stage; her injury, whatever it was, had
not yet taken shape in her thoughts; she could not have told you
what was the matter, because she did not know; but very soon the
thinking brain would come to the aid of the quick emotions, and then
she would be sulky of fixed purpose. Her father saw the symptoms
rise and knew what that would lead to, and, with the promptness
which has often saved us, he cried out—
“Agnes, come here, and hold up your pinafore!” and Agnes trotted
up to his side, her pinafore held up very much to receive the morning
dole of crumbs for the birds; presently, she came back radiant with
the joy of having given the birds a good breakfast, and we had no
more sulky fits that day. This went on for a fortnight or so, with fair
but not perfect success. Whenever her father or I was present, we
caught the emotion before the child was conscious of it, and
succeeded in turning her thoughts into some pleasant channel. But
poor nurse has had bad hours with Agnes; there would sit the child,
pale and silent, for hours together, doing nothing because she liked
to do it, but only because she was made. And, once the fit had
settled down, thick and steady as a London fog, neither her father
nor I could help in the least. Oh, the inconceivable settled cloudiness
and irresponsiveness of that sweet child face!
Our tactics were at fault. No doubt they helped so far as they
went. We managed to secure bright days that might otherwise have
been cloudy when we happened to be present at the first rise of the
sullen mood. But it seemed impossible to bring about so long an
abstinence from sullen fits as would eradicate the habit. We pictured
to ourselves the dreary life that lay before our pretty little girl; the sort
of insulation, the distrust of her sweetness, to which even one such
sullen fit would give rise; worse, the isolation which accompanies this
sort of temper, and the anguish of repentance to follow. And then, I
know, madness is often bred of this strong sense of injured
personality.
It is not a pleasant thing to look an evil in the face. Whether or no
“a little knowledge is a dangerous,” certainly, it is a trying thing. If we
could only have contented ourselves with, “Oh, she’ll grow out of it
by-and-by,” we could have put up with even a daily cloud. But these
forecasts of our little girl’s future made the saving of the child at any
cost our most anxious care.
“I’ll tell you what, Mary; we must strike out a new line. In a general
way, I do believe it’s best to deal with a child’s faults without making
him aware that he has them. It fills the little beings with a ridiculous
sense of importance to have anything belonging to them, even a
fault. But in this case, I think, we shall have to strike home and deal
with the cause at least as much as with the effects, and that, chiefly,
because we have not effects entirely under our control.”
“But, Edward, what if there is no cure? What if this odious temper
were hereditary—our precious child’s inheritance from those who
should have brought her only good?”
“Poor little wife! so this is how it looks to you. You women are
sensitive creatures. Why, do you know, it never occurred to me that it
might be all my fault. Well, I will not laugh at the fancy. Let us take it
seriously, even if, as it seems to me, a little morbid. Let us suppose
that this sad sullenness of which I hear so much and see so little, is,
indeed, Agnes’s inheritance from her mother—may she only inherit
all the rest, and happy the man whose life she blesses! The question
is not ‘How has it come?’ but ‘How are we to deal with it?’—equally,
you and I. Poor things! It’s but a very half-and-half kind of matrimony
if each is to pick out his or her own particular bundle of failings, and
deal with it single-handed. This poor man finds the prospect too
much for him! As a matter of fact, though, I believe that every failing
of mind, body, temper, and what not, is a matter of inheritance, and
that each parent’s particular business in life is to pass his family
forward freed from that particular vicious tendency which has been
his own bane—or hers, if you prefer it.”
“Well, dear, do as you will; I feel that you know best. What it would
be in these days of greater insight to be married to a man who would
say, ‘There, that boy may thank his mother’ for this or the other
failure. Of course, the thing is done now, but more often than not as
a random guess.”
“To return to Agnes. I think we shall have to show her to herself in
this matter, to rake up the ugly feeling, however involuntary, and let
her see how hateful it is. Yes, I do not wonder you shrink from this.
So do I. It will destroy the child’s unconsciousness.”
“Oh, Edward, how I dread to poke into the poor little wounded
heart, and bring up worse things to startle her!”
“I am sorry for you, dear, but I think it must be done; and don’t you
think you are the person to do it? While they have a mother I don’t
think I could presume to poke too much into the secrets of the
children’s hearts.”
“I’ll try; but if I get into a mess you must help me through.”
The opportunity came soon enough. It was pears this time. Harry
would never have known whether he had the biggest or the least.
But we had told nurse to be especially careful in this matter. “Each of
the children must have the biggest or best as often as one another,
but there must be no fuss, no taking turns, about such trifles.
Therefore, very rightly, you gave Harry the bigger and Agnes the
smaller pear.”
Agnes’s pear was not touched; there the child sat, without word or
sob, but all gathered into herself, like a sea anemone whose
tentacles have been touched. The stillness, whiteness, and brooding
sullenness of the face, the limp figure and desolate attitude, would
have made me take the little being to my heart if I had not too often
failed to reach her in this way. This went on all day, all of us
suffering; and in the evening, when I went to hear the children’s
prayers before bed, I meant to have it out.
We were both frozen up with sadness, and the weary little one
was ready to creep into her mother’s heart again. But I must not let
her yet.
“So my poor Agnes has had a very sad day?”
“Yes, mother,” with a little quivering sob.
“And do you know we have all had a very sad day,—father,
mother, your little brother, nurse—every one of us has felt as if a
black curtain had been hung up to shut out the sunshine?”
The child was sympathetic, and shivered at the sight of the black
curtain and the warm sunshine shut out.
“And do you know who has put us all out in the dark and the cold?
Our little girl drew the curtain, because she would not speak to any
of us, or be kind to any of us, or love any of us all the day long; so
we could not get into the sunshine, and have been shivering and sad
in the cold.”
“Mother, mother!” with gasping sobs; “not you and father?”
“Ah! I thought my little girl would be sorry. Now let us try to find out
how it all happened. Is it possible that Agnes noticed that her
brother’s pear was larger than her own?”
“Oh, mother, how could I?” And the poor little face was hidden in
her mother’s breast, and the outbreak of sobs that followed was too
painful. I feared it might mean actual illness for the sensitive little
soul. I think it was the right thing to do; but I had barely courage
enough to leave the results in more loving hands.
“Never mind; don’t cry any more, darling, and we will ask our
Father above to forgive and forget all about it. Mother knows that her
dear little Agnes will try not to love herself best any more. And then
the black curtain will never fall, and we shall never again be a whole
long day standing sadly out in the cold. Good-night from mother, and
another sweet good-night from father.”
The treatment seems to answer. On the slightest return of the old
sullen symptoms we show our little girl what they mean. But the grief
that follows is so painful that I’m afraid we could not go on with it for
the sake of the child’s health. But, happily, we very rarely see a sulky
face now; and when we do we turn and look upon our child, and the
look melts her, until she is all gentleness, penitence, and love.
CHAPTER IV
DOROTHY ELMORE’S ACHIEVEMENT: A

FORECAST
Part I
I know of no happier moment for parents than that when their eldest
daughter returns from school to take her place finally by her mother’s
side. It was two years that very day since we had seen Dorothy
when her father set out for Lausanne to bring her home; and how the
children and I got through the few days of his absence, I don’t know.
The last touches had been put, many times over, to her rooms—not
the plain little room she had left, but a dainty bower for our young
maiden, a little sitting-room opening into a pure nest of a bedroom.
Our eyes met, her father’s and mine, and moistened as we conjured
up I don’t know what visions of pure young life to be lived there, the
virginal prayers to be offered at the little prayer table, the gaiety of
heart that should, from this nook, bubble over the house, and, who
knows, by-and-by, the dreams of young love which should come to
glorify the two little rooms.
Two or three times already had the children put fresh flowers into
everything that would hold a flower. Pretty frocks and sweet faces,
bright hair and bright eyes, had been ready this long time to meet
sister Dorothy.
At last, a telegram from Dover—“Home by five”—and our
restlessness subsided into a hush of expectation.
The sound of wheels on the gravel, and we flew to the hall door
and stood in two files, children and maids, Rover and Floss, waiting
to welcome the child of the house. Then, a lovely face, glad to tears,
looking out of a nest of furs; then, a light leap, almost before the
carriage drew up, and I had her in my arms, my Dorothy, the child of
my heart! The order of the day was “high tea,” to which every one,
down to baby May, sat up. We two, her father and I, gave her up to
the children, only exchanging notes by the species of telegraphy
married folk understand.
“Indubitably lovely!” said her father’s eyes; “And what grace—
what an elegant girl she is!” answered mine; “And do but see what
tact she shows with the little ones;” “And notice the way she has with
us, as if her heart were brimming with reverence and affection.”
Thus, we two with our eyes. For a week or more we could not settle
down. As it was the Christmas holidays, we had not Miss Grimshaw
to keep us in order, and so it happened that wherever Dorothy ran,—
no, she went with a quick noiseless step, but never ran,—about the
house to find out the old dear nooks, we all followed; a troop of
children with their mother in the rear; their father too, if he happened
to be in. Truly we were a ridiculous family, and did our best to turn
the child’s head. Every much has its more-so. Dorothy’s two special
partisans were Elsie, our fifteen years old girl, fast treading in her
sister’s steps, and Herbert, our eldest son, soon to go to college.
Elsie would come to my room and discourse by the hour, her text
being ever, “Dorothy says.” And as for Herbs, it was pleasant to see
his budding manhood express itself in all sorts of little attentions to
his lovely sister.
For lovely she was; there could not be two opinions on that point.
A lilymaid, tall and graceful, without a trace of awkwardness or self
consciousness; the exquisite complexion of the Elmores (they are a
Devonshire family), warm, lovely rose on pearly white, no hint of
brunette colouring; a smile which meant spring and love and other
good things; and deep blue eyes reflecting the light of her smile.
Never, not even during the raptures of early married life, have I
known a month of such joyous exhilaration as that which followed
Dorothy’s return, and I think her father would own as much.
What a month it was! There was the pleasant earthly joy of going
to town to get frocks for Dorothy; then the bewilderment of not being
able to find out what suited her best.
“Anything becomes her!” exclaims Mdme. la Modiste; “that figure,
that complexion, may wear anything.”
And then, the pleasure of entering a room—all eyes bent upon us
in kindliness; our dear old friends hurrying forward to make much of
the child; the deference and gentleness of her manner to these, and
the warmth with which she was received by her compeers, both
maidens and men; her grace in the dance; her simplicity in
conversation; the perfection of her manner, which was not manner at
all, but her own nature, in every situation. After all, she liked best to
be at home; was more amiable and lovely with father and mother,
brothers and sisters, than with the most fascinating strangers. Our
good child! We had grown a little shy of speaking to her about the
best things, but we knew she said her prayers: how else this outflow
of sweet maiden life upon us all?
I can imagine these ramblings of mine falling into the hands of a
young pair whose life is in each other:—“Oh, only the outpourings of
a doting mother!” and they toss the pages aside. But never believe,
young people, that yours are the only ecstatic moments, yours the
only experiences worth recording; wait and see.
Part II
These happy days had lasted for a month or more, when, one
bright day in February, I remember it well, a little cloud arose. This is
how it was: Dorothy had promised Elsie that she would drive her in
the pony-carriage to Banford to choose a doll for May’s birthday.
Now, it happened that I wanted the little carriage to take to my
“Mothers” at Ditchling the clothing I had bought in London with their
club money. My errand could not be deferred; it must be done that
day or a week later. But I did not see why the children’s commission
would not do as well to-morrow; and so I said, in good faith, as I was
stepping into the carriage, hardly noticing the silence with which my
remark was received.
I came home tired, after a long afternoon, looking forward to the
welcome of the girls. The two seniors were sitting in the firelight,
bright enough just then to show me Dorothy sitting limp and pale in a
low chair, and Elsie watching her with a perplexed and anxious
expression. Dorothy did look up to say, “Are you tired, mother?” but
only her eyes looked, there was nothing behind them.
“You look tired and cold enough, my dear; what has been the
matter?”
“Oh, I’m very well, thank you; but I am tired, I think I’ll go to bed.”
And she held up a cold cheek for the mother’s kiss for which she
offered no return.
Elsie and I gazed at one another in consternation; our fairy
princess, our idol (was it indeed so?) What had come to her?
“What is the matter with Dorothy? Has she a headache?”
“Oh, mother, I don’t know,” said the poor child, on the verge of
tears. “She has been like this ever since you went, saying ‘Yes,’ and
‘No,’ and ‘No, thank you,’ quite kindly, but never saying a word of
herself. Has any one been grieving our Dorothy, or is she going to be
ill? Oh, mother, mother!”
“Nay, child, don’t cry. Dorothy is overdone; you know she has
been out twice this week, and three times last, and late hours don’t
suit her. We must take better care of her, that’s all.”
Elsie was comforted, but not so her mother. I believed every word
I had said to the child; but all the time there was a stir in my heart
like the rustling of a snake in the grass. But I put it from me.
It was with a hidden fear that I came down to breakfast. Dorothy
was in the room already doing the little duties of the breakfast table.
But she was pale and still; her hands moved, her figure hung, in the
limp way I had noticed the night before. Her cheek, a cold “Good-
morning, mother,” and a smile on her lips that brought no light to her
eyes, was all the morning salutation I got. Breakfast was an
uncomfortable, constrained meal. The children wondered what was
the matter, and nobody knew. Her father got on best with Dorothy for
he knew nothing of the evening’s history, so he petted her as usual,
making all the more of her for her pale looks.
For a whole week this went on, and never once was I allowed to
meet Dorothy eye to eye. The children were hardly better served, for
they, too, had noticed something amiss; only her father could win
any of the old friendliness, because he treated her as the Dorothy
who had come home to us, only a little done up.
“We must have the doctor for that child, wife. Don’t you see how
she is losing flesh, and how the roses she brought home are fading?
She has no appetite and no spirits. But, why, you surely don’t think
our dainty moth has burned her wings already? There’s nobody
here, unless it’s young Gardiner, and she would never waste herself
on a gawky lad like that!”
This was a new idea, and I stopped a moment to consider, for I
knew of at least half-a-dozen young men who had been attentive to
Dorothy, all to be preferred to this hobbledehoy young Gardiner. But,
no! I could trace the change from the moment of my return from
Ditchling. But I jumped at the notion of the doctor; it would, at any
rate, take her out of herself, and—we should see.
The doctor came; said she wanted tone; advised, not physic, but
fresh air, exercise, and early hours. So we all laid ourselves out to
obey his directions that day, but with no success to speak of.
But the next was one of those glorious February days when every
twig is holding itself stiffly in the pride of coming leafage, and the
snowdrops in the garden beds lift dainty heads out of the brown
earth. The joy of the spring did it. We found her in the breakfast-
room, snowdrops at her throat, rosy, beaming, joyous; a greeting,
sweet and tender, for each, and never had we known her talk so
sparkling, her air so full of dainty freshness. There was no relapse
after this sudden cure. Our good friend Dr. Evans called again, to
find her in such flourishing health that ten minutes’ raillery of “my
poor patient” was the only attention he thought necessary. But, “H’m!
Mighty sudden cure!” as he was going out, showed that he too found
something odd in this sudden change.
In a day or two we had forgotten all about our bad week. All went
well for awhile. At the end of five weeks, however, we were again
pulled up—another attack of sudden indisposition, so outsiders
thought. What did I think? Well, my thoughts were not enviable.
“Father, I wish you would call at Walker’s and choose me some
flowers for this evening.” It was the evening of the Brisbanes’ dance,
and I had half an idea that Arthur Brisbane had made some
impression on Dorothy. His state of mind was evident enough. But,
without thinking twice, I interrupted with—
“Don’t you think what we have in the ‘house’ will do, dear? What
could make up better than stephanotis and maidenhair?”
Dorothy made no answer, and her father, thinking all was right,
went off at once; he was already rather late. We thought no more of
the matter for a minute or two, when, at the same moment, Elsie and
I found our eyes fixed upon Dorothy. The former symptoms followed
—days of pallor and indisposition, which were, at the same time,
days of estrangement from us all. Again we had in Dr. Evans, “just to
look at her,” and this time I noticed—not without a foolish mother’s
resentment—that his greeting was other than cordial, “Well, young
lady, and what’s gone amiss this time?” he said, knitting his bushy
brows, and gazing steadily at her out of the eyes which could be
keen as well as kind. Dorothy flushed and fidgeted under his gaze,
but gave only the cold unsatisfactory replies we had been favoured
with. The prescription was as before; but again the recovery was
sudden, and without apparent cause.
Part III
To make a long story short, this sort of thing went on, at longer or
shorter intervals, through all that winter and summer and winter
again. My husband, in the simplicity of his nature, could see nothing
but—
“The child is out of sorts; we must take her abroad for a month or
two; she wants change of air and scene.”
The children were quicker-eyed; children are always quick to
resent unevenness of temper in those about them. A single angry
outbreak, harsh word, and you may lay yourself out to please them
for months before they will believe in you again. Georgie was the first
to let the cat out of the bag.
“Dorothy is in a sulky fit again, mother; I wish she wouldn’t!”
Elsie, who has her father’s quick temper, was in the room.
“You naughty ungrateful little boy, you! How can you say such a
thing of Dorothy? Didn’t she sit all yesterday morning making sails
for your boat?”
Georgie, a little mollified, “Yes, but why need she be sulky to-day?
We all loved her yesterday, and I’m sure I want to to-day!”
Now that the mask was fallen and even the children could see
what was amiss, I felt that the task before me must not be put off. I
had had great misgivings since the first exhibition of Dorothy’s sullen
temper; now I saw what must be done, and braced myself for a
heavy task. But I could not act alone; I must take my husband into
my confidence, and that was the worst of it.
“George, how do you account for Dorothy’s fits of wretchedness?”
“Why, my dear, haven’t I told you? The child is out of sorts, and
must have change. We’ll have a little trip up the Rhine, and perhaps
into Switzerland, so soon as the weather is fit. It will be worth
something to see her face light up at some things I mean to show
her!”
“I doubt if there is anything the matter with her health; remember
how perfectly well and happy she is between these fits of
depression.”
“What is it, then? You don’t think she’s in love, do you?”
“Not a bit of it; her heart is untouched, and her dearest loves are
home loves.”
My husband blew his nose, with a “Bless the little girl! I could find
it in my heart to wish it might always be so with her. But what is your
notion? I can see you have got to the bottom of the little mystery.
Trust you women for seeing through a stone wall.”
“Each attack of what we have called ‘poorliness’ has been a fit of
sullenness, lasting sometimes for days, sometimes for more than a
week, and passing off as suddenly as it came.”
My dear husband’s face clouded with serious displeasure; never
before had it worn such an expression for me. I had a sense of
separation from him, as if we two, who had so long been one, were
two once more.
“This is an extraordinary charge for a mother to bring against her
child. How have you come to this conclusion?”
Already was my husband become my judge. He did not see that I
was ill, agitated, still standing, and hardly able to keep my feet. And
there was worse to come: how was I to go through with it?
“What causes for resentment can Dorothy conceivably have?” he
repeated, in the same cold judicial tone.
“It is possible to feel resentment, it is possible to nurse
resentment, to let it hang as a heavy cloud-curtain between you and
all you love the best, without any adequate cause, without any cause
that you can see yourself when the fit is over!”
My voice sounded strange and distant in my own ears: I held by
the back of a chair to steady myself: but I was not fainting: I was
acutely alive to all that was passing in my husband’s mind. He
looked at me curiously, inquisitively, but not as if I belonged to him,
and were part and parcel of his life.
“You seem to be curiously familiar with a state of feeling which I
should have judged to be the last a Christian lady would know
anything about.”
“Oh, my husband, don’t you see? You are killing me. I am not
going through this anguish for nothing. I do know what it is. And if

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and Communities - eBook PDF

Generalist Practice with

Karen K. Kirst-Ashman and Grafton H. Hull, Jr.

Grafton H. Hull, Jr.

Australia ● Brazil ● Mexico ● Singapore ● United Kingdom ● United States

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1 Introduction to Generalist Practice with Organizations and Communities 1

2 Stress and Time Management 43

3 Using Micro Skills with Organizations and Communities 71

4 Group Skills for Organizational and Community Change 98

5 Understanding Organizations 143

6 Decision Making for Organizational Change 203

7 Implementing Organizational Change: Agency Policy, Projects, and Programs 235

8 Understanding Neighborhoods and Communities 289

9 Macro Practice in Communities 340

10 Evaluating Macro Practice 378

11 Advocacy and Social Action with Populations at Risk 412

13 Using Supervision 501

14 Developing and Managing Agency Resources 517

Preface xvii Broker 22

CHAPTER 2 Stress and Time Management 43 Facial Expressions 77

LO 2-3 Stress-Management Strategies to Improve LO 3-2 Utilize Nonverbal Communication and

Chapter Summary 69 LO 3-4 Personal Reflection and Professional

CHAPTER 4 Group Skills for Organizational Amendments 122

Introduction 99 LO 4-5 Conflict Management 124

LO 5-3 Theoretical Approaches to Understanding Common Problems Encountered in Organizations 197

Step 1: Problem Identification—Identify Problems CHAPTER 7 Implementing Organizational

Communicating with Decision Makers 265 Spatial Communities 295

Looking Ahead 285 LO 8-5 Utilize Community Resource Systems with

LO 8-8 The Ability of Communities and Neighborhoods Chapter Summary 375

Introduction 341 LO 10-1 Program Evaluation Research Informs

Chapter Summary 408 LO 11-8 Legislative Advocacy and Political Activity

Chapter Summary 450 LO 12-5 Ethical Reasoning Strategies to Make

LO 12-7 Cultural Differences Influence Ethical

LO 14-3 Technology for Managing Resources, Service

summary chart of the icons’ locations in all chapters

This book is part of the Cengage Learning Empow- Chapter 1

Chapter 8 is also available for download. Finally, as with every

Liz Fisher – Shippensburg University

● how would i describe generalist practice if asked by my new supervisor?

professional values and ethics, and a wide range of

right. As a consequence of this breadth of responsibil-

Individuals Families Groups Organizations &

Step 3 Planning Planning Planning Planning

Step 4 Implementation Implementation Implementation Implementation

Step 5 Evaluation Evaluation Evaluation Evaluation

Step 6 Termination Termination Termination Termination

Step 7 Follow-up Follow-up Follow-up Follow-up

F i g u r e 1 . 2 Steps in the Planned Change Process—Initiating Macro Change

HIGHLIGHT 1.1 Dimensions in the Definition of Generalist Practice

1. Acquisition of an eclectic knowledge base 5. Emphasis on client empowerment, strengths,

HIGHLIGHT 1.2 Core Values of the NASW Code of Ethics

agencies” to improve a community’s functioning and qual-

HIGHLIGHT 1.3 Resiliency: Seeking Strength amid Adversity

HIGHLIGHT 1.4 Variables of Human Diversity

Recognizing the Influence of Differences woman in an all-male business or organization. Think of

Empowerment of Lesbian and Gay People

Staff Staff Organizational Macro