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BEH AV I O R
M A N AG E M E NT
FROM THEORETICAL IMPLICAT
PLICA IONS
PLICAT
T PRACT
TO RAC ICAL APPLICAT
RACT PPLICA IONS
PPLICAT
Third Edition
Dr. JOHN W. MAAG

University of Nebraska-Lincoln
Australia ● Brazil ● Mexico ● Singapore ● United Kingdom ● United States
Behavior Management: From Theoretical © 2018, 2004 Cengage Learning
Implications to Practical Applications,
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I would like to dedicate this book to all the students throughout the
years who have taken courses from me in behavior management. They
have constantly challenged me to make the information practical and
relevant to real life. Without these students, there would be no book.
I am indebted to them.
Brief Contents
Preface xv
Acknowledgments xx
About the Author xxi
Chapter 1 Introduction to Behavior Management 1

Chapter 2 Impediments to Managing Behavior 25
Chapter 3 Theories of Behavior 41
Chapter 4 Basic Principles of Behavior 61
Chapter 5 Counting and Recording Behavior 85
Chapter 6 Graphing Behavior 111
Chapter 7 Functional Behavioral Assessment (FBA) 135
Chapter 8 Preventative Approaches 171
Chapter 9 Reinforcement Techniques for Increasing
Behavior 205
Chapter 10 Differential Reinforcement
for Decreasing Behavior 245
Chapter 11 Punishment 261
Chapter 12 Teaching Self-Management 289
Chapter 13 Cognitive-Behavior Modification 315
Chapter 14 Promoting Generalization 341
iv
Contents
Preface xv
Acknowledgments xx
About the Author xxi
Chapter 1 Introduction to Behavior Management 1

1-1 Behavior Modification 2
1-1a Attributes of Behavior Modification 2
1-1b Misconceptions About Behavior Modification 3
1-2 Defining Behavior 4
1-2a Things That Are Not Behavior 4
1-2b Problems Subjective Terms Present 5
1-2c Considering Covert Behavior 6
1-3 Three-Term Contingency 7
1-3a Antecedents 7
1-3b Consequences 8
1-3c A-B-C Analysis 8
1-4 Important Terms 10
1-5 Applied Behavior Analysis 12
1-6 Behavior Management and Its Relation to Schools 13
1-6a School-Wide Positive Behavior Support 13
1-6b Response to Intervention 14
1-7 Ethical Considerations in Behavior Management 15
1-8 Technology 15
1-9 Bringing It Together 18
Case Study 18
Summary 19
Activities 20
Review Questions 20
References 21
Glossary 23
vi CONTENTS
Chapter 2 Impediments to Managing Behavior 25

2-1 The Medical Model 26
2-1a Why Differential Diagnosis Is Ineffective 26
2-1b The Myth of Mental Illness 27
2-2 Students with Challenging Behaviors 28
2-3 Academic Versus Social Behavior and the Concept of Control 29
2-4 Personal Standards and Social Behavior 30
2-5 Contextual Variation 31
2-5a Recognizing Context as a Determinant of Behavior 32
2-5b Appreciating Context 32
2-5c Facilitating Opportunities for Students to Interact 33
2-6 Cultural Diversity and Ethnicity 33
2-6a Ethnic Minorities and Student Behavior 34
2-6b Ethnic Minorities and Principles of Behavior 34
Case Study 35
Summary 36
Activities 37
Review Questions 37
References 37
Glossary 39
Chapter 3 Theories of Behavior 41

3-1 Biophysical and Psychodynamic Explanations 43
3-1a Biophysical Model 43
3-1b Psychodynamic Theory 44
3-2 Behavioral Approaches 46
3-2a Respondent (Classical) Conditioning 46
3-2b Operant Conditioning 47
3-2c Respondent Versus Operant Conditioning 50
3-3 Social Learning Theory 50
3-3a Observational Learning and Performance 50
3-3b Mechanisms of Observational Learning 51
3-3c Cognitive Factors in Imitative Performance 51
3-3d Implications of Social Learning Theory 52
3-4 The Ecological Model 52
3-4a Basic Ecological Tenants 54
3-4b Basic Tenants 54
3-4c The Disturbing Environment 55
Summary 56
Activities 56
Review Questions 57
References 57
Glossary 58
CONTENTS vii
Chapter 4 Basic Principles of Behavior 61

4-1 Principles Related to Increasing Behavior 62
4-1a Positive Reinforcement 63
4-1b Primary and Secondary (Conditioned) Reinforcers 69
4-1c Negative Reinforcement (Escape Conditioning) 69
4-1d Avoidance Conditioning 71
4-2 Schedules of Reinforcement 71
4-2a Fixed-Ratio Schedule of Reinforcement 71
4-2b Variable-Ratio Schedule of Reinforcement 72
4-2c Fixed-Duration Schedule of Reinforcement 72
4-2d Variable-Duration Schedule of Reinforcement 72
4-2e Fixed-Interval Schedule of Reinforcement 73
4-2f Variable-Interval Schedule of Reinforcement 74
4-2g Interval Schedules with Limited Hold 74
4-3 Principles Related to Decreasing Behavior 74
4-3a Application of Contingent Stimulation Punishment (Type I) 75
4-3b Contingent Withdrawal of a Positive Reinforcer Punishment (Type II) 75
4-3c Conditioned Punishment 75
4-3d Extinction 76
4-3e Forgetting 77
4-4 Stimulus Control and Related Terms 77
4-4a Stimulus Control 77
4-4b Stimulus Discrimination 78
4-4c Stimulus Generalization 78
4-4d Fading 78
4-5 Response Class and Related Terms 79
4-5a Response Class 79
4-5b Differential Reinforcement 79
4-5c Response Differentiation 79
Case Study 80
Summary 81
Activities 81
Review Questions 82
References 82
Glossary 83
Chapter 5 Counting and Recording Behavior 85

5-1 Reasons Why Counting Behavior Is Important 86
5-1a Precounting to Help Evaluate the Effectiveness of Intervention 87
5-1b Counting to Identify the Correct Behavior 89
5-1c Identifying Behavior Deserving of Intervention 90
5-1d Evaluating Our Successes 90
viii CONTENTS
5-2 Considerations Prior to Recording Behavior 90

5-3 Factors to Consider When Pinpointing a Target Behavior 91
5-3a Stranger Test 91
5-3b The So-What Test 92
5-3c Fair Pair 93
5-3d The Dead Man’s Test 93
5-4 Techniques for Recording Behavior 94
5-4a Frequency (Event) Recording 94
5-4b Duration Recording 96
5-4c Direct Measurement of Permanent Products 97
5-4d Interval Recording 98
5-4e Time Sampling 101
5-5 Methods for Calculating Interobserver Reliability 102
5-5a Frequency Recording and Interobserver Reliability 103
5-5b Duration and Latency Recording and Interobserver Reliability 103
5-5c Permanent Product and Interobserver Reliability 104
5-5d Interval Interobserver Reliability 104
Case Study 105

Summary 106
Activities 107
Review Questions 107
References 108
Glossary 109
Chapter 6 Graphing Behavior 111

6-1 Benefits of Graphing Behavioral Observations 112
6-2 Elements of a Graph 113
6-3 Collecting Baseline Data 114
6-4 Designs for Graphing Behavioral Observations 117
6-4a The AB Design 118
6-4b ABAB (Reversal or Withdrawal) Design 118
6-4c Multiple Baseline Design 120
6-4d Changing Criterion Design 123
6-4e Changing Conditions Design 125
6-4f Alternating Treatments Design 126
6-5 Constructing Graphs 128
Case Study 129
Summary 130
Activities 131
References 132
Glossary 132
CONTENTS ix
Chapter 7 Functional Behavioral Assessment (FBA) 135

7-1 An Overview of Functional Assessment 137
7-1a Reasons for Conducting FBAs 137
7-1b Basic Assumptions of Functional Assessment 138
7-1c Types of Hypotheses 140
7-1d General Approaches for Conducting Functional Assessment 142
7-2 Stages of Functional Assessment 143
7-2a Stage I: Hypothesis Development 144
7-2b Stage II: Hypothesis Testing 152
7-3 Writing Behavioral Intervention Plans 154
7-3a Summary of the Findings 155
7-3b General Approach 155
7-3c Areas of Concern 158
7-3d Monitoring and Evaluation 159
7-4 Issues in Functional Assessment 160
7-4a Variability in FBA Practices 160
7-4b Multiple Control and Transfer of Function 160
7-4c Overruling Results of Functional Analysis 161
Case Study 162

Summary 164
Activities 164
References 165
Glossary 169
Chapter 8 Preventative Approaches 171

8-1 Curricular Considerations 173
8-1a The Curriculum as an Antecedent for Behavior Problems 173
8-1b Types and Sequencing of Curricula 175
8-1c Analyzing Content Knowledge 176
8-2 Direct Instruction 180
8-2a Explain Goals and Objectives 181
8-2b Sequence Content 181
8-2c Review Prerequisite Skills 182
8-2d Delivery of Information 182
8-2e Give Clear Instructions, Explanations, and Relevant Examples 183
8-2f Provide Guided Practice 186
8-2g Check for Comprehension 187
8-2h Provide Feedback 187
8-2i Provide Independent Practice 187
8-2j Conduct Formative Evaluation 189
x CONTENTS
8-3 Environmental Accommodations 190

8-3a Arranging the Classroom Area 191
8-3b Developing Classroom Rules 192
8-3c Managing Transition Time 195
8-3d Handling Classroom Materials 195
8-3e Managing Students’ Paperwork 197
Case Study 199

Summary 200
Activities 200
References 201
Glossary 203
Chapter 9 Reinforcement Techniques for Increasing Behavior 205

9-1 Catch Students Being Good 207
9-1a Think Small 207
9-1b “Gotcha Technique” 209
9-1c The PEGS Program 209
9-2 Token Economies 210
9-2a Reasons for the Effectiveness of Token Economies 211
9-2b Procedures for Establishing a Token Economy 213
9-2c Check-In Check-Out (CICO) Program 217
9-3 Behavioral Contracting 219
9-3a Reasons Why Behavioral Contracts Work 220
9-3b Components of a Behavioral Contract 221
9-3c Guidelines for Successful Contracting 223
9-3d The Contract Negotiation Process 224
9-3e The Home–School Contract 224
9-4 Group-Oriented Contingencies 226
9-4a Types of Group-Oriented Contingencies 226
9-4b Ethical Considerations When Using Group-Oriented Contingencies 230
9-5 Novel Applications of Positive Reinforcement 232
9-5a Mystery Motivators 232
9-5b Chart Moves 233
9-5c Spinners 235
9-5d Raffles and Lotteries 236
9-5e 100-Square Chart 237
9-5f The Compliance Matrix 238
Case Study 240

Summary 241
Activities 242
CONTENTS xi
References 242
Glossary 244
Chapter 10 Differential Reinforcement for Decreasing Behavior 245

10-1 Types of Differential Reinforcement 246
10-1a Differential Reinforcement of Incompatible and Alternative Behavior 246
10-1b Differential Reinforcement of Other Behavior 247
10-1c Differential Reinforcement of Low Rates of Behavior 248
10-2 Schedules of DRO and DRL 248
10-2a Schedules of DRO 248
10-2b Schedules of DRL 253
10-3 Considerations When Using Differential Reinforcement 256
Case Study 257
Summary 258
Activities 259
References 259
Glossary 260
Chapter 11 Punishment 261

11-1 Undesirable Side Effects of Punishment 263
11-1a Escape and Avoidance 264
11-1b Emotional Reaction 264
11-1c Aggression 264
11-1d Response Substitution 264
11-1e Response Facilitation 265
11-1f Generalized Suppression 265
11-1g Punishment Contrast 266
11-2 Limitations of Punishment 266
11-2a Punishment Does Not Teach Appropriate Behaviors 266
11-2b Punishment Does Not Eliminate Reinforcement 266
11-2c Punishment Becomes Reinforcing 266
11-2d Punishment May Affect Peers’ Behavior 267
11-2e Punishment Should Be Intense 267
11-2f Punishment Should Be Immediate 267
11-2g Punishment Should Be Continuous 268
11-3 Types of Punishment 268
11-3a Response Cost 268
11-3b Time-Out 272
11-3c Overcorrection 278
11-3d Procedures Resembling Overcorrection 280
xii CONTENTS
Case Study 282

Summary 283
Activities 283
References 284
Glossary 286
Chapter 12 Teaching Self-Management 289

12-1 Theoretical Underpinnings of Self-Management 290
12-1a Self-Control or Self-Management? 290
12-1b The Operant Model of Self-Management 291
12-1c The Cognitive Model of Self-Management 292
12-2 Self-Monitoring 292
12-2a Self-Monitoring Attention 293
12-2b Self-Monitoring Performance 297
12-2c Specific Areas of Concern in Self-Monitoring 300
12-3 Self-Evaluation 302
12-3a Developing a Rating System 302
12-3b Setting a Daily Goal 303
12-4 Self-Reinforcement 306
12-4a External Self-Reinforcement 306
12-4b Internal Self-Reinforcement 307
Case Study 309

Summary 310
Activities 311
References 311
Glossary 313
Chapter 13 Cognitive-Behavior Modification 315

13-1 An Overview of Cognitive-Behavior Modification 316
13-1a The Cognitive A-B-C Model 316
13-1b Factors Contributing to Cognitive-Behavior Modification 318
13-2 Methods of Cognitive-Behavioral Assessment 320
13-2a Dangers Associated with Cognitive Assessment 320
13-2b Cognitive Assessment Techniques 321
13-3 Cognitive-Behavior Modification Intervention Techniques 323
13-3a Self-Instruction Training 323
13-3b Attribution Retraining 325
CONTENTS xiii
13-3c Thought Stopping 327

13-3d Problem-Solving Training 329
13-3e Cognitive Restructuring 331
Case Study 334

Summary 335
Activities 336
References 337
Glossary 339
Chapter 14 Promoting Generalization 341

14-1 Overview of Generalization 342
14-1a Types of Generalization 342
14-1b Approaches to Generalization 343
14-1c A Case Study in Generalization 345
14-2 Tactics for Promoting Generalization 346
14-2a Taking Advantage of Natural Communities of Reinforcement 346
14-2b Train Diversely 347
14-2c Incorporating Functional Mediators 350
14-3 Steps for Implementing Generalization Tactics 351
14-3a Step 1: List All Prerequisite Skills 351
14-3b Step 2: List All Members of the Same Response Class 352
14-3c Step 3: Define Stimulus Conditions 352
14-3d Step 4: List Situations, Settings, and Places Target Behavior Is Performed 352
14-3e Step 5: Selection and Sequencing of Teaching Examples 352
14-3f Step 6: Identify Individuals Involved in Training 353
14-4 Issues in Promoting Generalization 353
14-4a Attending to Stimulus Overselectivity 354
14-4b Generalizing Teacher Repertoire 354
14-4c Using Functional Contingencies 354
14-4d Providing Sufficient Detail 355
14-4e Conducting Outcome Assessment 355
Summary 356
Activities 356
References 357
Glossary 358
Index 359
Preface
Welcome to the wonderful world of behavior management. You are about to enter a realm
about which few teachers have a solid working knowledge and many possess broad miscon-
ceptions. For instance, too many teachers think that behavior management consists of pro-
viding students with M&M’s or stickers when they exhibit appropriate behaviors. Behavior
management entails much more—analyzing behavior, deciding what to change, collecting
information on the behaviors of concern, using schedules of reinforcement, and monitor
monitor-
ing progress—not to mention the variety of techniques for promoting students’ appropriate
behaviors. Some teachers may not be competent in behavior management because it is much
more than simply giving a reward to children for “being good” or punishing them for “being
bad.” It should come as no surprise, therefore, that behavior management is probably one
of the most misunderstood concepts in education today. It never ceases to amaze me that so
many people can have such strong feelings concerning a topic about which they know so little
yet when teachers are surveyed it is the topic on which they want more training.
What will become readily apparent to you is that behavior management is not easy—it is a
time-consuming and difficult endeavor. Consequently, teachers need to ask themselves if stu-
dents’ inappropriate behavior is worth the time and effort required to develop and implement
behavior management techniques. Sometimes the answer will be “no,” and that is okay—not
every behavior requires intervention. However, students with challenging behaviors can ben-
efit most from the techniques presented in this book.
The Focus of Behavior Management

Although it is often desirable to reduce disruptive behaviors, reduction is only one small part
of a program for effectively managing students’ challenging behaviors. The major goal of
behavior management—the one that is emphasized in this book—involves increasing desir desir-
able student behaviors. To be effective behavior managers, teachers need specialized infor
infor-
mation and skills. Unfortunately, the needed information and skills are often inaccessible or
unavailable to teachers. One of the main reasons I wrote this book was so that teachers at
all career levels, ranging from teachers-in-training to seasoned veterans, can become better
managers of student behavior. Acquiring these skills is essential because many more students
than before are displaying an increasingly broad range of challenging behaviors in classrooms
around the country.
Things to Keep in Mind

One of my major goals in writing this book was to ensure, to the greatest extent possible,
that it be “user-friendly.” This commitment has sometimes been a challenge. For example, it
is important for any textbook on behavior management to include discussions of principles
of behavior, techniques for recording behavior, and methods for graphing behavior (which
appear in Chapters 4, 5, and 6, respectively). In many textbooks, this information comes
across as highly technical. To combat this problem, I incorporated many real-life examples
xv
xvi PREFACE
and tried to keep the text as free of technical jargon as possible while preserving the theoreti-
cal and empirical foundations on which the book is based. That is one reason the subtitle is
From Theoretical Implications to Practical Applications.
Unlike in other books on behavior management, you will find that the chapters contain-
ing specific interventions techniques (such as Chapters 8–14) go into considerable detail.
I have included “how-to” lists, charts, graphs, and illustrations. My goal is for you to be able
to implement the techniques successfully, rather than simply read a one- or two-page con-
densed description of them, as is typical of other behavior management books. Therefore,
I hope you will keep this book handy and refer to it often during your teaching career. If you
find this book helpful as you begin to teach, please tell a colleague about it. If you do not like
it, please let me know why, and I will try to make it better.
As you read this book, always keep in mind that developing and implementing behav-
ior management techniques are difficult! There are no quick fixes to students’ challenging
behaviors. In addition, behavior management is no substitute for teaching. That is, behavior
management does not teach students new behaviors; teachers do. Rather, behavior manage-
ment techniques are helpful in getting students to use behaviors and skills they already know
but are not currently exhibiting. To accomplish this goal, you must systematically analyze
and modify the antecedents (events that occur before a behavior) and consequences (events
that occur after a behavior) that surround behavior. You should always start by analyzing and
modifying the antecedents. This places you in a better position to prevent future episodes of
misbehavior from occurring. It is important to maintain a preventative mindset.
Although behavior management is not easy, there is a great payoff for taking the time
and effort to learn and implement the techniques described in this book. You will run more
effective classrooms with students who treat each other, and you, with respect and who com-
plete their work in a timely fashion. Not coincidentally, learning and implementing these
techniques represents one of the best ways to preserve your own sanity in those occasionally
insane moments that occur in every classroom.
The Approach of This Book

This book focuses primarily on students’ observable behavior and the environmental factors that
affect its expression—unlike many other books, which assume that behavior can be explained
and manipulated through medical, pharmacological, or genetic treatments. Consequently, this
book avoids labels that have little or no relevance to managing students’ behaviors. Regardless
of the labels students receive, they still engage in behavior whose expression is shaped by the
environment. One thing that will become clear is that developing and implementing behavior
management interventions requires considerable attention to detail—in identifying behaviors
of concern, recording their occurrence precisely, and following detailed intervention plans.
Although this approach may seem rigid or overly structured, there is one key rule to follow as
you develop behavior management interventions: take what students give you. In other words,
do not be afraid to be flexible. Good behavior management interventions are constantly evolv-
ing to meet the ever-changing aspects of students’ behaviors.
To meet this challenge, this book is organized into 14 chapters. Chapter 1 presents an
introduction to behavior management and the basic tenets of behavior modification and
applied behavior analysis on which it is based. Chapter 2 describes impediments to manag-
ing behavior that can interfere with our ability to deal with students’ inappropriate behaviors.
Chapter 3 provides an overview of the origins of behavior management by presenting various
theories of human behavior. Chapter 4 focuses on the basic principles of behavior modification
that form the foundation for all the subsequent interventions described in the book. Chapter 5
PREFACE xvii
discusses the importance of targeting, counting, and recording behavior as it occurs in natural
settings. Chapter 6 describes methods for taking the information collected from counting and
recording behavior and graphing it to provide a visual representation of whether an interven-
tion is working. Knowledge of the material presented in Chapters 5 and 6 is necessary to
engage in one of the most important aspects of behavior management—conducting functional
assessment—the focus of Chapter 7. Through functional assessment, we can analyze contex-
tual and curricular variables and teach students replacement behaviors. Chapter 8 focuses on
preventing behavior problems by describing techniques for making curricular modifications,
applying effective instructional strategies, and making environmental accommodations. Chap-
ter 9 describes techniques for increasing behavior, including token economies, behavioral
contracts, group-oriented contingencies, and novel approaches. Chapter 10 examines ways to
use differential reinforcement for decreasing behavior. By using the information presented in
Chapters 9 and 10, we can eliminate about 95 percent of all behavior problems. The remain-
ing 5 percent are usually modifiable using punishment—the focus of Chapter 11. Chapter 12
discusses how to teach students self-management—the ultimate goal of any behavior man-
agement intervention. Chapter 13 gives an overview of cognitive-behavior modification.
These techniques center on the role our beliefs about, or interpretations of, events play in our
emotional reactions and behavioral responses. Finally, Chapter 14 discusses how to promote
generalization from the settings in which intervention took place to other settings.
New to This Edition

There are several new features to the third edition of this book. First, and most importantly,
case studies have been added. Specifically, scenarios of two children—Shawna, a third-
grader and Jose, a fifth grader—are followed across most of the chapters relating the infor
infor-
mation to developing effective interventions for these two children within a collaborative
model. Second, examples of technology related to behavior management have been infused
throughout most of the book and supported through Tech Support boxes. Third, there is a
focus on school-wide positive behavior support (SWPBS) and response to intervention (RtI)
as the mechanisms for implementing behavior management. Fourth, a section on cultural
diversity and its relation to behavior management has been added to Chapter 2. Finally,
MindTap for Education is a first-of-its kind digital solution with an integrated e-portfolio
that prepares teachers by providing them with the knowledge, skills, and competencies they
must demonstrate to earn an education degree and state licensure, and to begin a successful
career. Through activities based on real-life teaching situations, MindTap elevates students’
thinking by giving them experiences in applying concepts, practicing skills, and evaluating
decisions, guiding them to become reflective educators.
Accompanying Teaching and Learning Resources

The third edition of Behavior Management offers many ancillary materials that can support
and enhance the text experience and an instructor’s presentation of the course.
Online Instructor’s Manual with Test Bank
An online instructor’s manual accompanies this book. It contains information to assist the in-
structor in designing the course, including sample syllabi, discussion questions, teaching and
learning activities, field experiences, learning objectives, and additional online resources.
For assessment support, the updated test bank includes true/false, multiple-choice, match-
ing, short-answer, and essay questions for each chapter.
xviii PREFACE
PowerPoint Lecture Slides

These vibrant Microsoft PowerPoint lecture slides for each chapter assist you with your lecture
by providing concept coverage using images, figures, and tables directly from the textbook.
Cognero
Cengage Learning Testing Powered by Cognero is a flexible online system that allows you to
author, edit, and manage test bank content from multiple Cengage Learning solutions; cre-
ate multiple test versions in an instant; and deliver tests from your LMS, your classroom, or
wherever you want.
MindTap™: The Personal Learning Experience
MindTap for Behavior Management represents a new approach to teaching and learning.
A highly personalized, fully customizable learning platform with an integrated e-portfolio,
MindTap helps students to elevate thinking by guiding them to:
▶ Know, remember, and understand concepts critical to becoming a great teacher
▶ Apply concepts, create curriculum and tools, and demonstrate performance and com-
petency in key areas in the course, including national and state education standards
▶ Prepare artifacts for the portfolio and eventual state licensure, to launch a successful
teaching career
▶ Develop the habits to become a reflective practitioner
MindTap Moves
Students Up Create
Create
Bloom’s Revised
Ta
Taxonomy Evaluate
Analyze
Apply
Understand
Remember & Know

Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and
assessing: A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives. New York: Longman.
As students move through each chapter’s Learning Path, they engage in a scaffolded
learning experience, designed to move them up Bloom’s Taxonomy, from lower- to higher-
order thinking skills. The Learning Path enables preservice students to develop these skills
and gain confidence by:
▶ Engaging them with chapter topics and activating their prior knowledge by watching
and answering questions about authentic videos of teachers teaching and children
learning in real classrooms
▶ Checking their comprehension and understanding through Did You Get It? assess-
ments, with varied question types that are autograded for instant feedback
▶ Applying concepts through mini-case scenarios—students analyze typical teaching
and learning situations, and then create a reasoned response to the issue(s) present-
ed in the scenario
▶ Reflecting about and justifying the choices they made within the teaching scenario
problem
MindTap helps instructors facilitate better outcomes by evaluating how future teach-
ers plan and teach lessons in ways that make content clear and help diverse students learn,
PREFACE xix
assessing the effectiveness of their teaching practice, and adjusting teaching as needed.
MindTap enables instructors to facilitate better outcomes by:
▶ Making grades visible in real time through the Student Progress App so students
and instructors always have access to current standings in the class
▶ Using the Outcome Library to embed national education standards and align them
to student learning activities, and also allowing instructors to add their state’s stan-
dards or any other desired outcome
▶ Allowing instructors to generate reports on students’ performance with the click of a
mouse against any standards or outcomes that are in their MindTap course
▶ Giving instructors the ability to assess students on state standards or other local
outcomes by editing existing or creating their own MindTap activities, and then by
aligning those activities to any state or other outcomes that the instructor has added
to the MindTap Outcome Library
MindTap for Behavior Management helps instructors easily set their course since it inte-
grates into the existing Learning Management System and saves instructors time by allowing
them to fully customize any aspect of the learning path. Instructors can change the order
of the student learning activities, hide activities they don’t want for the course, and—most
importantly—create custom assessments and add any standards, outcomes, or content they
do want (e.g., YouTube videos, Google docs). Learn more at www.cengage.com/mindtap.
An Example for Thought

You are busily circulating around the room helping individual students who are working on
their arithmetic assignment. You ignore the sounds of students talking and laughing behind
you. Then Mike knocks several books to the floor getting out of his chair and saunters over,
asking you for permission to go to the bathroom. When you deny his request, he sighs
loudly and takes the long route back to his desk. As he swerves between the rows of desks,
he kicks several students’ feet, knocks the books off the desk of another student, and tweaks
the ear of the boy sitting in front of him. Finally, he sits down and dramatically gets out
his worksheet—only to break his pencil before completing the first problem. He then sits
back, flipping his broken pencil in the air. When you ask him what he’s doing, he replies,
“Nothing.” The other students in the class now have stopped working and are alternately
staring at you and at Mike. You give him permission to sharpen his pencil.
The giggles begin and grow louder as Mike sharpens his pencil down to a stub. He then
opens the compartment containing the pencil shavings, only to spill them on the floor. He
apologizes insincerely as he bends down to clean up the mess, nonchalantly stepping on a
classmate’s foot. As he begins to stand, he purposely bumps his head on another student’s
desk. The entire class is now laughing.
Although Mike’s antics are not severe, your class routine has been disrupted, and you
are angry and frustrated. This scenario, and many like it, occurs daily in the lives of teachers.
How do you handle Mike and others like him? Read on and find out!
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank the following reviewers for their helpful comments and suggestions
for improving the manuscript: Lewis Browning, University of Southern Indiana; Sumita
Chakraborti-Ghosh, Tennessee State University; Mary Ann Nelson, Georgia Southern
University; Mary Newell, Florida A & M University; Aleck Peck, Boston College; and Marshall
Zumberg, Wayne State University.
xx
Contents
About the Author
Dr. John W. Maag is a professor at the University of Nebraska–Lincoln, where he specializes

in the education and treatment of children and adolescents with emotional and behavioral
disorders. He currently trains preservice teachers—both undergraduates and graduates—in
the effective use of behavior management techniques for students with challenging behav-
iors. He was the recipient of the Distinguished Teaching Award. Dr. Maag’s research inter
inter-
ests include cognitive-behavior modification for the treatment of depression and attention
deficit disorders, functional behavioral assessment, school-wide positive behavior support,
and response to intervention. He has published over 90 articles and book chapters dealing
with these, and related, topics as well as authoring several books—one of which—Parenting
Without Punishment, won a Parent’s Choice award.
Dr. Maag has taught students with emotional and behavioral disorders and those along
the autism spectrum. He is also a licensed psychotherapist and has worked with numerous
families and children throughout the past 20 years. He is a nationally recognized behavioral
consultant to agencies, school districts, and organizations on best practices for managing re-
sistance and improving relationships with others. Dr. Maag is a frequent public speaker and
consulting editor to several journals. He is also the co-founder of Alternative Communication
Techniques (www.altcommtechniques.com), an organization that provides consultation to
school districts and educational agencies to address the challenges of students who display
problematic behaviors.
xxi
CHAPTER
1 Introduction to
Behavior Management
Chapter Overview Learning Objectives

1-1 Behavior Modification After completing this chapter, you will be able to
do the following:
1-2 Defining Behavior 1-1 Describe the attributes and misconceptions
about behavior modification.
1-3 Three-Term Contingency 1-2 Explain the difference between traits and
objectively defined behavior, and between overt
and covert behavior.
1-4 Important Terms
1-3 Recognize that functional relations exist
between behavior and environmental variables
1-5 Applied Behavior Analysis (antecedents and consequences), and conduct
an A-B-C analysis.
1-6 Behavior Management and Its Relation to Schools 1-4 Define reinforcement, punishment, discipline,
and consistence and explain the misconceptions
surrounding these terms.
1-7 Ethical Considerations in Behavior Management
1-5 Define applied behavior analysis (ABA) and
describe its attributes.
1-8 Technology
1-6 Understand how behavior management fits into
school systems.
1-9 Bringing It Together
1-7 Understand the ethical issues in behavior
management.
Summary
1-8 Understand how technology is being used in
schools.
1-9 Understand that ABA techniques can be easily
misapplied and should initially be practiced
under the supervision of applied behavior
analysts.
2 CHAPTER 1
Behavior management is a familiar, albeit misunderstood, term that many teachers evoke
when confronted with students displaying challenging behaviors. Like many often-heard
terms, it triggers reactions that range from complete rejection to total acceptance of it as an
educational change approach. Perhaps some of the strong attitudes people have toward behav-
ior management stems from its reliance on principles of behavior modification—a term that
conjures strong images. Therefore, this chapter begins with a discussion of behavior modifica-
tion. Second, both overt and covert behaviors are defined and differentiated from subjective
occurrences that people frequently mistake for behavior. Third, the three-term contingency is
described as a way to better understand factors that prompt and maintain behaviors. Fourth,
several terms important to behavior management are introduced and reconceptualized in ways
different from those in which society traditionally views them. Fifth, the discipline of applied
behavior analysis (ABA) is described as a model for integrating the techniques presented in
much of this text. Finally, the role behavior management plays in school systems, is described.
1-1 Behavior Modification

The term behavior modification usually elicits strong opinions from people. At one ex-
The term behavior
modification elicits treme it is viewed as the answer to all of society’s ills; at the other it is seen as a coercive
strong negative reactions and manipulative tool no better than the brainwashing techniques that captors often inflict
because it is incorrectly on prisoners of war. The reality is that behavior modification is neither. Instead, behavior
associated with coercion
and bribery. modification in the classroom involves identifying maladaptive behaviors that interfere with
learning and assisting students in developing more adaptive behaviors.
1-1a Attributes of Behavior Modification

Martin and Pear (2016) described four attributes of behavior modification that have been
derived from scientific study. These attributes demonstrate that behavior can be systemati-
cally modified in a desired direction.
The most important attribute is that behavior can be precisely defined and measured.
Measuring allows us to assign a number to behavior. The numbers can be placed on a
Measuring, recording,
graph before, during, and after implementing a particular behavior management interven-
and graphing behavior tion. The term intervention simply refers to any action taken to improve a student’s be-
does not have to be a havior. Quantifying and graphing behavior in this fashion provides several useful pieces of
burdensome process,
information. First, it helps us determine whether the targeted behavior is severe enough to
and it is appropriate for
students who present warrant intervention. Sometimes our perceptions of given behavior are different from the
the most challenging actual behavior. This discrepancy becomes apparent when we can see the behavior visually
behaviors. represented on a graph. Second, it enables us to determine whether the intervention was
effective by comparing the counts of behavior before and after intervention. Third, seeing
the results of measuring behavior makes us better teachers. Specifically, teachers who mea-
sure behavior make more frequent and appropriate decisions regarding the continuation,
modification, or discontinuation of an intervention.
Although there are
Second, behavioral principles form the basis for developing effective interventions. The
numerous theories work of B. F. Skinner, described in Chapter 3, has had the greatest impact on the development
regarding the nature of effective interventions. These interventions are based on behavioral principles described in
of learning, the noted Chapter 4. Unfortunately, most teachers do not have a good working knowledge of principles
psychologist B. F.
Skinner probably of behavior. This ignorance often results in the misapplication of positive reinforcement tech-
summed it up best by niques and overreliance on punishment—two principles that will be elaborated upon shortly.
stating that “learning is Third, behavior modification is based on research. In fact, perhaps no other aspect of
not doing, it is changing
what we do.”
psychology and education has been as thoroughly investigated as have techniques of behavior
modification. An unfortunate practice in which many educators engage is “jumping on the
INTRODUCTION TO BEHAVIOR MANAGEMENT 3
bandwagon” of any new technique reported in the media. Techniques such as facilitative com-
munication, modality testing and teaching, applied kinesiology, optometric vision training, and
neural repatterning have a certain pseudoscientific appeal—and at one time they may have
even been considered chic. These fads seem to come and go like the tides. However, they have
not withstood the rigors of scientific scrutiny. In contrast, techniques of behavior modification
have been empirically tested and found to be effective for modifying students’ behaviors.
Fourth, intervention techniques derived from the basic principles of behavior can be
used to rearrange students’ environments to promote appropriate behavior. This results in
students who are more self-sufficient, independently functioning members of society—one
of the ultimate goals of education. The environment can be rearranged in a variety of ways
to promote appropriate behavior. For example, a teacher can move a student closer to or
farther away from certain classmates. The environment includes classroom variables such as
the teacher’s and students’ behaviors, the physical arrangement, tasks to be completed, and
materials used to deliver instruction.
Shea and Bauer (2011) condensed the attributes of behavior modification into four pro-
cedures in which teachers can engage in the classroom:
The four procedures
described by Shea 1. Observe and clarify the behavior to be changed.
and Bauer (2011) are 2. Select and present potent reinforcers at the appropriate time.
discussed in detail in 3. Design and impose, with consistency, an intervention technique based on principles
several chapters in this
book.
of reinforcement.
4. Monitor and evaluate the effectiveness of the intervention. (p. 43)
1-1b Misconceptions About Behavior Modification

Although these procedures, as well as attributes of behavior modification, reflect a systematic
method of helping students perform more socially desirable behaviors, the term behavior
modification still has negative connotations. Some of the negative reactions stem from the
meaning of the word modification, which brings to mind images of inhumane and coercive
attempts to control or change peoples’ behavior (Alberto & Troutman, 2012). The mistaken
use of the term is one reason why this book is titled Behavior Management. Although the
term management is not ideal—a point raised in the Preface—it nevertheless refers to the
process of giving individuals direction, guidance, and training regarding their performance.
Another reason for public outcry is because behavior modification is often (and incorincor-
rectly) associated with procedures that cause pain or discomfort, such as the use of electro-
shock therapy or restraints to suppress aberrant behavior. Tragically, aversive procedures
sometimes have been abused under the guise of behavior modification. For example, at an
institution in Florida one of the mildest punishments involved washing residents’ mouths
out with detergent when they spoke in what staff considered a verbally inappropriate fashion
(Risley, 1975). This unfortunate situation only demonstrates that any technique can be mis-
used by uncaring or ill-trained personnel.
Unfortunately, the bad press behavior modification often receives detracts from its societal
value and myriad practical applications, as described by Martin and Pear (2016) and listed in
Table 1.1. As this table clearly shows, behavior modification can be used to solve a number of
societal problems. Yet it can also be used by unscrupulous persons for unworthy ends. How-
ever, because behavior modification is simply the planned, systematic application of methods for
teaching everyday behaviors, its use cannot be prohibited. Few teachers deliberately cause their
students to engage in inappropriate behaviors, yet this may be the unintended outcome when
they do not systematically evaluate the consequences of their interactions with students. This
problem can be avoided by teachers who learn about behavior modification in an intelligent and
responsible manner. This process begins with an exploration of what behavior actually is.
4 CHAPTER 1
TABLE 1.1 CONTRIBUTIONS OF BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION

1. Improving education practices in every content area, from preschool to colleges and universities
2. Improving the behavior of individuals with developmental disabilities, autism, and schizophrenia
3. Treating clinical conditions such as anxiety, obsessions and compulsions, stress-related problems,
depression, obesity, marital problems, sexual dysfunction, and personality disorders
4. Treating medical problems such as seizure disorders, chronic pain, addictive disorders, and sleep
disorders
5. Establishing treatment compliance, promoting healthy living, dealing with aging and chronic ill-
ness, and managing caregivers
6. Decreasing littering in public campgrounds
7. Increasing the recycling of soft drink containers
8. Helping community boards solve problems
9. Promoting energy conservation by increasing bus ridership
10. Encouraging welfare recipients to attend self-help meetings
11. Helping college students live together in a cooperative housing environment
12. Improving productivity, decreasing tardiness and absenteeism, increasing sales volume, creating
new business, improving worker safety, reducing theft by employees, and improving management—
employee relations
13. Improving the skills of athletes, motivating athletes to practice and undergo endurance training,
changing the behavior of coaches, and psyching up athletes for competition
1-2 Defining Behavior

Behavior simply refers to what individuals do—their observable actions. Behavior can be ver ver--
bal or nonverbal. The use of language is an important aspect of verbal behavior, involving ask-
ing or answering a question, commenting on something, telling a joke, and so forth. Nonverbal
behaviors are physical actions. Some nonverbal behaviors serve a communicative function, such
as smiling, nodding one’s head, or raising one’s eyebrows in response to another person’s gesture
or comment. Other nonverbal behaviors entail more pronounced movements that serve func-
tions other than communication, such as running, throwing a ball, or putting on shoes. Some
activities, such as working on a crossword puzzle, require both verbal and nonverbal behavior
(Sarafino, 1996). The key aspects of behavior are that it not only requires human action but
also is performed as a way to interact with various elements of the environment. Consequently,
being buffeted by a strong gust of wind is not an example of behavior, because both living and
nonliving organisms respond similarly to high winds (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007).
1-2a Things That Are Not Behavior

It is common for teachers to mistakenly label behavior by what a student is not doing. For
example, a teacher may state that the main problem a student displays is not following direc-
tions or not completing work. However, behavior is what we do, not what we don’t do. Here
is the question to ask teachers when they use these descriptions: “What specific behaviors is
the student engaging in instead of following directions?” The answer may be that the student
is talking to neighbors, walking around the room, or doodling instead of following the direc-
tion to write answers to math problems on page 56.
Another similar problem is when teachers describe behaviors based on the outcome they
desire. For example, it is common for teachers to say they want students to complete more
work. However, the word “completion” is not a behavior but rather describes a final product.
Here is the question to ask a teacher in this situation: “What are the specific behaviors you
want to see the student do more of in order to result in a completed assignment?” The answer
to that question most likely is that the teacher would like to see the student write more cor
cor-
rect answers. However, the main problem teachers face is the tendency to explain students’
actions with subjective (versus objective) words or terms.
There are two interrelated additional terms that are attributed to behavior when, in
fact, they are not: “on-task” and “off-task.” Teachers commonly describe wanting students
to spend more time “on-task” and less time “off-task.” On-task and off-task are not behav-
iors but rather describe one’s status, position, or standing. A person’s status could be driving
a car, sitting in a movie theater, or flying on an airplane. It does not describe the specific
behaviors engaged in, such as changing a radio station in the car, whispering to a friend at
the movie theater, or walking to the restroom on an airplane. The question to ask teachers
when using terms such as “on-task” and “off-task” is the same as previously given: “What
are the specific behaviors you’d like to see the student perform to indicate he was on-task?”
or “What are the specific behaviors the student is currently engaging in that indicate he’s
‘off-task?’”
1-2b Problems Subjective Terms Present

In a nutshell, subjective terms used to describe behavior have different meanings to dif dif-
ferent people. They are biased, skewed, and global traits. For example, teachers may label
students’ behaviors as “lazy,” “honest,” “friendly,” “hard-working,” “angry,” “shy,” and “inat-
tentive.” The basic problem in using words like these to describe behaviors is typified in the
age-old saying “Beauty is in the eye of the beholder.” Perceptions of reality are based on
individuals’ past experiences, which necessarily differ from person to person. For example,
a common behavior for many elementary-age boys is to hit each other on the arm. One
teacher may call this student “friendly” and another may call him “mean.” Inevitably, the
same student’s behavior can appear both appropriate and inappropriate depending on the
characteristics of the observer doing the labeling.
There are several other problems with using subjective words to describe behavior. First,
the use of such terms shifts the focus from the student’s behavior to the student herself. If
we use a term like “lazy” to describe a student’s behavior, we are not really talking about her
actions. Instead, we are using our subjective judgment to attribute a reason for her behaving
in a certain way. For example, a student may be wandering around the room and talking to
peers instead of doing her assignment of 10 math problems on a worksheet. The teacher may
regard the student’s behavior—her laziness—as the result of some personality trait. What
does the student do? She fails to finish 10 math problems on a worksheet. Why? Because she
is lazy. What is she? She is lazy. However, we do not know whether laziness is the real reason
for the unfinished work or whether, for example, the student wants to avoid an assignment
that she believes she cannot complete correctly.
The second problem with using subjective terms such as “lazy” is that a teacher may
set in motion a self-fulfilling prophecy whereby the student comes to believe she is lazy and
acts accordingly. The teacher who labeled her may then say, “I told you so.” The solution is
to use more objective terms to describe the specific behaviors desired of the student and to
determine what purpose not completing the work may have served. For example, the teacher
might alter the assignment so that it is congruent with the student’s skill level.
The third problem with describing behavior subjectively is that it hinders both teacher
and student from detecting academic improvements. Describing a student as “lazy” does not
help us to determine if the behavior of completing math problems is improving, staying the
same, or getting worse. In contrast, saying that the student completed 4 out of 10 math prob-
lems permits us to set realistic goals for improvement. We can be confident that our efforts
were successful if the student completes 7 problems on the subsequent assignment.
6 CHAPTER 1
The fourth problem with describing behavior subjectively is that doing so may escalate
a confrontation between teacher and student that could otherwise have been avoided. For
example, a student may be told to stop being so “hostile” when he trips a classmate. Later, the
student socks a peer in the arm in an age-appropriate expression of friendship. Nevertheless,
the teacher views this new behavior as another example of being “hostile” and reprimands
the student. The student, in turn, may think this admonishment is unfair because, to his way
of thinking, he was being friendly, not hostile. A power struggle may ensue (Maag, 2001a).
These problems can be avoided by describing students’ behaviors in objective terms—
but this is not as easy as it sounds. Seasoned teachers have just as much difficulty being
objective as do novices. This is because we all like to condense our speech to convey the most
meaning with the least amount of words. Although this goal is noble, doing so makes it dif dif-
ficult to discuss students’ behaviors objectively. Table 1.2 provides some common examples
of subjective descriptions of inappropriate and appropriate behaviors and their objective
counterparts. Although it takes some time to begin thinking in objective terms when describ-
ing behavior, the benefits to both teachers and students are considerable. Namely, it permits
us to identify and analyze the factors that trigger and maintain behaviors.
1-2c Considering Covert Behavior

Behavior typically focuses on overt actions—either verbal or nonverbal—that are observ-
able to others. However, some experts have suggested that not all behaviors can be directly
observed, that they are covert. Interpretations of a situation or event are based on beliefs,
perceptions, and expectations stored in memory (Howell & Nolet, 2000). For example, some
college students dislike giving presentations to their classmates. They may be worried that
they may make a mistake and that their classmates will either laugh at them or become bored.
These covert beliefs, or self-statements, can stimulate emotions such as anxiety or fear and
physical sensations such as sweaty palms or rapid breathing and heart rate. These students
may also exhibit overt behaviors such as nervous laughter, rigid body posture, and hand
wringing, although these behaviors do not always accurately reflect their covert behaviors.
SUBJECTIVE AND OBJECTIVE DESCRIPTORS OF INAPPROPRIATE

TABLE 1.2 AND APPROPRIATE BEHAVIORS
Inappropriate Behaviors
Subjective Description Objective Description
Is lazy Only writes answers to half the math problems on the worksheet
Uses bad language Says “shut up” when asked to put books away
Is immature Cries when doesn’t get to be first in line
Is manipulative Asks Ms. Jones to listen to music after Mr. Smith says “no”
Acts oppositional Has to be told three times to stop talking to classmate
Appropriate Behaviors
Subjective Description Objective Description
Is polite Says “thank you” after receiving a compliment

Acts friendly Smiles when talking to others
Has good work habits Sits up straight, keeps eyes on teacher, raises hand before talking
Gets along well with others Asks students to play games at recess
Exercises self-control Finishes work without being asked
Covert behaviors and self-statements are not extensively covered in this text, because
The principles of
behavior described
they do not enjoy the empirical support that techniques based on the modification of overt
in this chapter form behaviors have. Nevertheless, thoughts can influence the expression of behaviors, which is
the basis for many of why a discussion of cognitive-behavior modification appears in Chapter 13. However, it is
the behavior change
important to understand that the most effective way of managing students’ challenging be-
procedures described in
this book. haviors is by observing their overt expressions and differentiating them from subjective traits
that teachers often incorrectly ascribe to behavior.
1-3 Three-Term Contingency

This book focuses on Behavior was previously defined as students’ overt and observable actions. It does not occur
overt behavior because
it can be observed in a random or unorganized fashion. Rather, students behave purposely, and their behaviors
objectively and its attain meaning as a function of the context—situation or circumstances—that exists in a par par-
modification can be ticular environment (Maag, 1999). The environment is the universe of events and objects,
validated. Nevertheless,
there is a growing body
both animate and inanimate, that are part of our surroundings (Johnston & Pennypacker,
of literature focusing 2009). For example, a classroom environment is composed of animate objects, such as stu-
on the assessment dents and adults, and a host of inanimate objects, including (but not limited to) tables, chairs,
and treatment of covert
chalkboards, materials, and tasks. The world is an orderly place in which each event happens
behavior. Consequently,
Chapter 13 addresses in relation to other events. The relation between events is called a contingency. Contingen-
the use of cognitive- cies are identified through the sequential relation between antecedents and consequences
behavior modification. that prompt and maintain behaviors. This arrangement is depicted in Figure 1.1.
1-3a Antecedents
Antecedents are the circumstances that exist in the environment before a behavior is
exhibited. Antecedents exist for all behaviors and serve as a cue or prompt for an individual
to behave in a particular way. For example, a red traffic light is an antecedent that prompts
the behavior of depressing the brake. Other examples of antecedents include a phone ringing
as a cue to pick it up, a teacher asking a question as a cue to provide an answer, and someone
smiling at another individual as a cue to smile back or say “hello.”
It is important to understand that antecedents do not cause behavior—they only serve as
cues. For example, there is no inherent biological predisposition for us to depress the brake
when encountering a red traffic light—it is a learned behavior. The red light cue cannot
prevent us from choosing to accelerate. Antecedents not only cue behavior but also can elicit
specific behaviors that help us avoid punishment or obtain reinforcement. Most of us stop at
a red light to avoid the potential punishing consequences of receiving a ticket, getting into
an accident, or injuring another person. Therefore, although our behavior may be cued by
antecedents, it is ultimately controlled by consequences.
A B C
Antecedents Behavior Consequences
● people ● appropriate ● reinforcement
● events ● inappropriate ● punishment
FIGURE 1.1
Three-Term Contingency
8 CHAPTER 1
TABLE 1.3 TWO FUNCTIONS OF CONSEQUENCES

Teacher asks Nancy a Nancy gives correct answer. Teacher tells Nancy
question. she gave a great answer
(stimulus presented).
Billy calls Jimmy a jerk. Jimmy hits Billy. Billy stops calling Jimmy a
jerk (stimulus terminated).
1-3b Consequences
Consequences affect future behavior by serving either to increase, decrease, or maintain
it. There are two forms of consequences: (1) A new stimulus is presented or added to the
environment or (2) an already-present stimulus is avoided, terminated, or removed from the
environment. Both forms are illustrated in Table 1.3. In the first example, the teacher’s question
serves as a prompt or cue for Nancy to provide the answer. The verbal behavior of Nancy’s
giving the correct answer introduces a new stimulus into the environment—teacher praise.
Assuming Nancy values teacher praise, that consequence will likely maintain or increase her
behavior of answering questions. In the second example, Jimmy presumably finds it aversive
for Billy to call him a jerk. This antecedent serves as a cue for Jimmy to hit Billy. Billy conse-
quently stops calling Jimmy a jerk, and so an already-present stimulus is terminated.
1-3c A-B-C Analysis

As depicted in Figure 1.2, an A-B-C analysis involves writing down a sequence of events be-
ginning with antecedents, followed by behavior, and terminating with consequences. Levitt
and Rutherford (1978) offered three reasons to conduct an A-B-C analysis.
1. Teacher: “Time for math 2. Kevin gets up from his 3. Sally giggles when
worksheets.” Teacher be- desk and walks around Kevin pushes her
gins handing out sheets. the room. elbow as she writes
her name on the
worksheet.
4. Teacher tells Kevin to 5. Kevin raises his hand. 6. Teacher: “I’ll be right
sit down. with you, Kevin.”
7. Kevin turns around to talk 8. Teacher tells Kevin to 9. Kevin drops his
to Bill. stop talking and get to worksheet on the
work. floor.
10. Teacher is looking for a 11. Kevin gets up from his 12. Teacher: “Where’s
pencil at her desk. seat and heads for the your worksheet,
pencil sharpener. Kevin?”
13. Kevin: “I’m not sure.” 14. Teacher: “Check under 15. Kevin: “I’ll copy the
your desk.” problems from Bill.”
16. Teacher: “Pick up your 17. Kevin walks over to the 18. Teacher helps
worksheet or you’ll stay in worksheet. another student.
for recess.”
19. Kevin knocks Sally’s book 20. Teacher: “Kevin, pick 21. Kevin smiles at Sally.
off her desk. up her book now.”
FIGURE 1.2
Example of an A-B-C Analysis
1. To get a general feel for the behavior of the student in order to help target the spe-
cific behavior to work on.
2. To determine, in a generally disruptive classroom, during a certain time of day,
which students are the main disrupters.
3. To get a fix on some environmental cues to disruptive behavior: Is it occurring at a
certain time each day? Is the teacher setting the students off by some cue?
In an A-B-C analysis, a piece of paper is turned sideways and divided into three columns
labeled “Antecedents,” “Behavior,” and “Consequences,” as shown in Figure 1.2. Observa-
tions are then numbered and recorded according to whether they were seen as antecedents,
behavior, or consequences. Alberto and Troutman (2012) recommended asking the following
questions to assist us in making sense of the A-B-C analysis:
1. What are the behaviors that can be described as inappropriate? The behavior analyst
should be able to justify labeling the behaviors inappropriate given the setting and
the activity taking place.
2. Is this behavior occurring frequently, or has a unique occurrence been identified?
3. Can reinforcement or punishment of the behavior be identified? The reinforcement
may be delivered by the teacher, parent, another child, or some naturally occurring
environmental consequences.
4. Is there a pattern to these consequences?
5. Can antecedents to the behavior(s) be identified?
6. Is there a pattern that can be identified for certain events or stimuli (antecedents)
that consistently precede the behavior’s occurrence?
7. Are there recurrent chains of certain antecedents, behaviors, and consequences?
8. Given the identified inappropriate behavior(s) of the student and the patterns of an-
tecedents and consequences, what behavior really needs to be modified, and who is
engaging in the behavior? (p. 208)
Based on the way we conduct A-B-C analyses, it may seem that the relation between
antecedents, behavior, and consequences is linear. However, this is not the case. Instead, the
relations between antecedents, behavior, and consequences are reciprocal (Gable, Hendrick-
son, Warren, Evans, & Evans, 1988). At the simplest level, reciprocity means that the con-
sequences of a given behavior can become the antecedents for a succeeding behavior. As an
illustration, apply an A-B-C analysis to the following exchange between teacher and student.
Teacher: “Nancy, what is the capitol of the United States?”
Nancy: “Washington, DC.”
Teacher: “Nice answer, Nancy.”
Nancy: “Thank you, Ms. Anderson.”
Teacher: “You’re welcome, Nancy.”
In this illustration, the first three exchanges should be obvious. The teacher’s question is
the antecedent for Nancy’s verbal behavior of saying “Washington, DC.” The consequence is
the teacher’s saying “Nice answer.” However, this consequence then becomes the antecedent
for Nancy saying “Thank you,” which is the next behavior in the sequence. And so it can go
indefinitely.
The key task in conducting an A-B-C analysis is to identify patterns. It is less relevant
whether a given response is viewed as an antecedent or consequence. For example, in Fig-
ure 1.2, it is not particularly important to determine whether Sally’s giggling is reinforcing
Kevin’s out-of-seat behavior (no. 3) or serving as an antecedent for the teacher’s telling Kevin
to sit down (no. 4). Rather, the crucial insight to be obtained from the A-B-C analysis is that
Kevin’s behavior is being reinforced through attention from both Sally and the teacher.
10 CHAPTER 1
1-4 Important Terms

There are several terms that most laypersons and those new to behavior management mis-
understand—terms many teachers and parents use on a regular basis. Yet few of them un-
derstand their true meaning or the ways in which they can be used (and misused) on behalf
of behavior management.
The first two terms—discipline and consequence—are typically and incorrectly associated
with punishment. The word discipline is found in every handbook on school policies and proce-
dures. Disciplinary actions include expulsion, in-school and out-of-school suspensions, restitu-
tion, and detentions, to name but a few. Most of us would consider these actions punitive, applied
only when a student misbehaves. Although that is most likely the intent of the authors of these
handbooks, it nevertheless is an incorrect application of the term. According to the American
Heritage Dictionary, discipline refers to “training that is expected to produce a specific char
char-
acter or pattern of behavior, especially training that produces moral or mental improvement.” A
key word in this definition is improvement. Improvement entails increasing skills or competence
in a particular area. Yet in the schools, the goal is to eliminate inappropriate behaviors.
We know from our previous discussion of the three-term contingency that a consequence
occurs after a behavior is performed. It can either increase or decrease the future likelihood
of a behavior occurring. Therefore, the word consequence has neither positive nor negative
connotations. Yet most teachers and parents use the word to describe the application of some
form of punishment. All we have to do is think back to our childhoods and our parents’ use
of the word consequence, which most of us associated with punishment.
The consequences presented in Figure 1.1 are categorized as either reinforcement
or punishment. They are the two most misunderstood terms associated with behavior
management—and yet their definitions are simple. Reinforcement increases the probabil-
ity that the behavior it follows will reoccur, whereas punishment decreases the probability
that the behavior it follows will do so. The key concept in these two definitions is that rein-
forcement and punishment are not things but effects. If a consequence increases a behavior,
then reinforcement took place; if it decreases a behavior, then punishment took place. Both
reinforcement and punishment are naturally occurring phenomenon.
In reality, anything could be either a reinforcer or punisher, depending on its effect on
behavior. For example, even though teacher praise is typically thought of as being reinforcing,
some students may find such praise embarrassing. Imagine a student who completes 10 math
problems in 5 minutes. The teacher comes over and says “Nice job.” The student then com-
pletes 3 math problems during the subsequent 5 minutes. In this scenario, the effect of the
teacher praise is punishment because it decreases behavior. The opposite also can be true. For
example, imagine a young child moving his hand close to a hot burner. The parent may issue
a stern “No” and slap the back of his hand, an action that can cause pain and even temporary
inflammation of the skin. Yet, if the child repeatedly places his hand by the burner, then, by
effect, the slap was not punishment but rather reinforcement because the behavior increases.
We sometimes view students who seem to continue behaving poorly when confronted with
punishment as disordered or even masochistic. What we fail to recognize is that the attention the
student receives from us may be more reinforcing than the punishment inflicted may be punish-
ing. Unless the punishment is severe, reinforcement will win out almost every time (Maag, 2001b).
It is ironic that such a simple and straightforward concept as positive reinforcement
continues to generate controversy. Many people seem unable to get past the stereotypic no-
tion that systematic or planned use of positive reinforcement is a manipulative tool wielded
to make people engage in behaviors chosen by others (Alberto & Troutman, 2012). Conse-
quently, positive reinforcement continues to be viewed by some as coercive and undermining
students’ ability to become self-directed and intrinsically motivated. The statement some
teachers make—that they do not believe in positive reinforcement—is analogous to their say-
ing they do not believe in gravity. Just because someone may not like an effect does not negate
its existence. Planned or unplanned positive reinforcement occurs in every classroom—all
students’ behaviors are followed by consequences from peers, adults, or both. Therefore, is
it better to preplan the use of reinforcement to increase appropriate student behaviors rather
than letting it occur naturally and running the risk of reinforcing inappropriate behaviors?
There are numerous other examples of positive reinforcement at work in the natural
environment. Alberto and Troutman (2012) provided the following examples of naturally
occurring positive reinforcers:
1. An office worker goes to work each day expecting to receive a check at the end of
the week. If the check is delivered on Friday in an amount the individual finds satis-
fying, it increases the probability that the person will return to work on Monday.
2. A little leaguer hits a double and is applauded by fans and teammates. This moti-
vates her to play again next Saturday.
3. A baby coos at his mother’s approach so she cuddles him and spends more time
playing with him. The mother’s response increases the frequency of the baby’s coo-
ing, which increases the time spent playing, and so on.
4. A student spends 45 minutes each night for a week studying for a history exam. If
the student makes an A on the exam, this consequence will motivate her to study
just as hard for her next exam. (p. 216)
Few people dispute that positive reinforcement is an effective naturally occurring phe-
nomenon, but as Axelrod (1983) suggested, they object to its planned use to elicit behaviors.
This view is puzzling. It makes more sense for a teacher to plan the application of positive
reinforcement for a student’s behavior than to let it occur randomly and run the risk that it
will increase inappropriate behaviors.
Kohn (1993) has been a vocal critic of positive reinforcement, claiming that it simply does
not work (clearly an oxymoronic statement because, by definition, if something does not increase
behavior then it is not a reinforcer). Kohn claimed that some 20 studies conducted over the past
30 years showed that positive reinforcement procedures produced only temporary improve-
ments in behavior and that their removal leads to a return of the behavior problem, often at a
worse level than before. In making his argument, Kohn ignored over 100 studies with results
contrary to his claims. However, his biggest error was equating reward with reinforcement.
A reward (or prize) is something given to a person for an accomplishment. A reward may
There is much confusion
about several terms or may not be a positive reinforcer. For example, an athlete may begin training to compete in
associated with the discus throw several years before the next Olympics. During this time, his discus-throwing
behavior management. behavior will occur at a high rate as part of his training regime. Consequently, he wins the goal
Reinforcement
and reward are not medal—certainly the ultimate reward—and decides to retire from competition. The subse-
synonymous; nor are the quent frequency of discus-throwing behavior certainly will decrease compared to the level
terms punishment and displayed prior to the Olympics. Therefore, the “reward” (i.e., gold medal) functioned as pun-
discipline.
ishment because its effect was to decrease future discus-throwing behavior. In contrast, if the
athlete places a disappointing 10th and subsequently spends more time practicing throwing
the discus to compete more effectively in the next Olympiad, then his poor showing functioned
as reinforcement because it had the effect of increasing subsequent discus-throwing behavior.
Kohn is not the only person who has objected to the planned use of positive reinforce-
ment—criticisms are broad based and ingrained in our society. Axelrod (1996) pointed out how
certain individuals object to positive reinforcement on the grounds that appropriate behavior
should be performed because it is the right and natural thing to do, not because one expects
to receive compensation or reward. But how effective can the technique of saying “should” or
“expect” be for increasing a behavior that a student is not currently performing? Another ques-
tion begs an answer: Are people who oppose the use of reinforcement also against the use of
12 CHAPTER 1
punishment? Probably not. Many schools that do not permit the use of positive reinforcement
techniques, viewing them as a form of bribery, administer a variety of consequences designed
to decrease behavior, such as suspension and corporal punishment. This double standard is
apparent throughout many segments of our society—a point elaborated on in the next chapter.
The criticisms of the systematic use of positive reinforcement are not likely to cease even
though empirical support for its effectiveness has been provided. Instead, only when teachers
have enough courage and foresight to use positive reinforcement techniques in a preplanned,
systematic, performance-based, and self-evaluative way will their effectiveness be acknowl-
edged and their techniques implemented by other teachers. The words used to describe this
approach refer to the basic tenant of applied behavior analysis.
1-5 Applied Behavior Analysis

The application of principles of behavior modification as a systematic, performance-based,
self-evaluative endeavor is called applied behavior analysis (ABA). It is based largely on the
work of B. F. Skinner, as described in Chapter 3. ABA explains the interaction between human
behavior and environmental factors—antecedents and consequences—that affect behavior
expression. Teachers apply the ABA approach to behavior management by studying students’
behaviors and their functional relations to antecedents and consequences. The three-term
(A-B-C) contingency schema is a key tool of ABA. Specifically, teachers use the model pre-
sented in Figure 1.1 to organize the observed antecedents and consequences of behavior in
order to make predictions about factors that trigger and maintain its occurrence. Teachers
then test these predictions by systematically altering or substituting antecedents and conse-
quences and noting their effect on the behavior of concern. Through this approach, teachers
design and test interventions to change behavior in a precisely measurable and accountable
manner. Sulzer-Azaroff and Mayer (1977) described several important attributes of ABA.
Applied behavior First, ABA is performance based—it is concerned with students’ behavior and the
analysis is a systematic, ways in which environmental factors affect its expression. As mentioned previously, terms
performance-based, such as “lazy,” “shy,” ”assertive,” or “lonely” are avoided because they have different meanings
self-evaluative method
for changing behavior. to different teachers. Once a behavior is defined precisely, its occurrence and nonoccurrence
can be accurately measured so that a complete description can be obtained.
Second, ABA uses principles of behavior derived from both laboratory and field stud-
ies that have identified lawful relations between behavior and environmental variables that
affect its occurrence. Principles of behavior have been found to apply under many conditions
and among many individuals with diverse characteristics. For example, positive reinforce-
ment and punishment are universal principles that are in effect regardless of the age, gender,
culture, or disability of a child (Maag, 2001b; Wielkiewicz, 1995).
Third, ABA is analytic because functional relations between an intervention and a target
behavior can be demonstrated. In other words, the idea is to systematically control the occur
occur-
rence and nonoccurrence of the behavior by introducing and withdrawing an intervention.
For example, a teacher may decide to write individual students’ names on pieces of paper
and place them in a jar whenever they provide a correct answer. At the end of the week the
teacher draws three names out of the jar and those students get to eat pizza in the classroom
during lunch while their classmates dine in the cafeteria. Through the use of an analytic sys-
tem, the teacher would count the number of correct answers provided for several days prior to
implementing the intervention and also while the intervention is in effect. In this way, she can
compare the number of answers correct before and during intervention to determine whether
it was effective, thereby helping her decide whether to continue or try something else.
Fourth, ABA is applied because it is characterized by the social importance of the be-
havior to be changed. To meet this criterion, we must ask ourselves whether we are trying to
change behaviors that will enhance the quality of students’ lives. For example, a teacher may
desperately want a student to sit quietly in his seat. However, is sitting quietly in a seat a so-
cially important behavior? We may be tempted to answer “yes.” However, if we think about it,
what is the goal for having students remain in their seats? To complete more work, of course.
Therefore, a more socially appropriate behavior to change is the amount of work the student
completes at his desk. If his work completion rate dramatically improves, it is unlikely that
he is spending an inordinate amount of time out of his seat. Besides, work completion is a
behavior that all teachers (and all of society) value.
1-6 Behavior Management and Its Relation to Schools

Behavior management is not just something individual teachers may learn in courses or work-
shops and implement individually and idiosyncratically depending on their individual procliv-
ities. There is a concerted effort by schools and districts to implement behavior management
at a school-wide level as well as tailoring it to individual teachers’ needs and interests. These
efforts, typically referred to as school-wide discipline, was a byproduct of the “get tough”
approach characterized by Zero Tolerance in the mid-1990s that was a reaction to perceived
increases in school violence (Vail,
Vail, 1995).
V
The dominant school-wide discipline programs rely heavily on exclusionary components—
most often suspensions and expulsions that are perceived to be punishment. The approach of
behavior management in this book does not adhere to that philosophy. Rather, behavior man-
agement focuses on rearranging the environment to make inappropriate behavior less likely
to occur and positively reinforcing appropriate student behavior. There is one system that is
congruent with the approach of this book: School-Wide Positive Behavior Support.
1-6a School-Wide Positive Behavior Support

School-Wide Positive Behavior Support (SWPBS) is a systematic three-tiered model
that addresses a continuum from prevention of behavior problems to highly individualized
supports for students who display the most challenging behaviors (Lewis, Jones, Horner, &
Sugai, 2010; Sugai & Horner, 2002). The interest in SWPBS is due, in part, to the growing
evidence base corroborating its effectiveness (Horner et al., 2009).
SWPBS is the only approach that has prescribed methods for addressing behavior at
three levels: school-wide, classroom or group, and individual-intensive. The school-wide level
of supports involves developing a universal set of behavioral expectations that applies to stu-
dents and staff across all school settings and then reinforcing students for their adherence.
Rules are discussed extensively in Chapter 8. Catching students being good is a reoccurring
theme throughout this text. The second level of supports focuses at the class-wide or group
level for students who are not responding to school-wide support but who are also not dis-
playing severe challenging behaviors (Sugai & Horner, 2006). Some of the techniques at
this level include modifying classroom environments and instructional techniques such as
those described in Chapter 8, small group reinforcement programs such as those described
in Chapter 9, and monitoring techniques—some of which are described in Chapter 5 The
third tier focuses on students with the most challenging behaviors and consists of conducting
functional behavioral assessment (FBA) and developing an individualized behavior interven-
tion plan (BIP)—topics addressed in Chapter 7.
Figure 1.3 depicts the three-tiered continuum of positive behavior support. According to
Simonsen, Sugai, and Negron (2008), approximately 80 percent of students respond to Tier 1
interventions. Although a large group of students will respond to primary tier interventions,
approximately 15 percent will require additional interventions to behavior appropriately and
14 CHAPTER 1
Tertiary Prevention:
Specialized, individualized systems
for students with high-risk behavior
Secondary Prevention:
Specialized group, systems for
students with at-risk behavior
Primary Prevention:
School-wide systems for all students,
staff, and settings
FIGURE 1.3
Continuum of Positive Behavior Support
successfully in schools. This group may experience some success with primary tier techniques,
and their behavior does not pose a serious risk to themselves or others, but they require ad-
ditional supports at the class-wide or small group level. The remaining 5 percent of students
display the most challenging behaviors and require intensive individualized interventions.
1-6b Response to Intervention

There is another three-tiered system that has become increasingly popular not only as a
process for promoting students’ appropriate behaviors but as an alternative method for iden-
tifying students eligible for receiving special education services under the Individuals with
Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). That system is called Response to Intervention (RtI).
It is conceptually similar to SWPBS, but with a major difference in that RtI has been used
to make eligibility decisions for students with learning disabilities within the content area of
reading (Gresham et al., 2005; V Vaughn, Linan-Thompson, & Hickman, 2003). RtI can also
be applied to social behavior problems and provide support to students with challenging
behaviors (Fairbanks, Sugai, Guardino, & Lathrop, 2007).
Barnett et al. (2006) described a four-phase model of RtI for students with challenging
behaviors: (a) screening, (b) class-wide interventions, (c) group and embedded interventions,
and (d) intensive and individualized interventions. In their model, screening would consist of
Although SWPBS and teacher observations, classroom observations by a school psychologist or counselor, or stan-
RtI are both three-
tier systems, SWPBS
dardized observation systems such as behavior rating scales. At the class-wide level, or Tier 1,
focuses primarily on interventions would focus on increasing students’ engagement and modifying instruction using
improving students’ such techniques as those presented in Chapter 8. Group and embedded interventions, the fo-
school and classroom cus at Tier 2, may take the form of social skills training for target students, additional practice,
behaviors, while RtI can
be used for content and more support implementing interventions from specially trained school personnel such as
areas such as reading school psychologists, counselors, or special education teachers. Intensive and individualized
and math and also for Tier 3 may include an expanded team of professionals and a focus on generalization and main-
identifying students with
a disability.
tenance, which is the topic of Chapter 14. Eligibility decisions would then be based on data gen-
erated from each phase and may form the basis of a student’s Individual Education Plan (IEP).
1-7 Ethical Considerations in Behavior Management

Ethics can be defined as moral principles that govern a person’s or group’s behaviors, practices,
and decisions. Cooper et al. (2007) described three basic questions that ethics address: What is
the right thing to do? What is worth doing? What does it mean to be a good behavior manager?
In terms of answering the first question, it is insufficient for teachers to simply follow
a school’s or district’s protocol of accepted practices. For example, sending a student to the
principal’s office or administrative suspensions and expulsions are common and traditional
practices. However, Ryan, Peterson, Tetreault, and V Van der Hagen (2007) found that these
practices were frequently being used more for students leaving an assigned area and class
disruptions than for violent behaviors. Skiba and Knesting (2002) noted how practices such
as suspension are used in increasingly peculiar ways, such as a 5-year-old student who was
suspended for wearing a 5-inch plastic ax as part of his firefighter’s Halloween costume and
an 11-year-old girl who was suspended for 2 weeks for possession of a 10-inch novelty chain
attaching her “Tweety Bird” wallet to her key ring. These are examples of why Alberto and
Troutman (2012) stressed that teachers must act morally even when their actions may conflict
with school or district guidelines.
The second question addresses what behaviors are worthy of changing in students. There
is no doubt that students’ behaviors that are dangerous either to themselves or others need
to be changed. But the question has a larger implication. Is the goal of teachers solely to sup-
press students’ inappropriate behaviors, or is it to encourage their performance of appropri-
ate behaviors? It is possible for educators to teach students prosocial behaviors in the same
way as they teach academic behaviors—a point that is elaborated upon in Chapter 2. The
goal is to determine if intervention produces improvements in socially important outcomes
for students. Some examples of these types of outcomes would be improved grades, fewer
office referrals, better teacher ratings of behavior, and improved relationships with peers.
The third question focuses on the skills necessary to become a good behavior manager.
The obvious answer is to behave in an ethical fashion. Several organizations such as the Be-
havior Analysts Certification Board (Bailey & Burch, 2011) and the Council for Exceptional
Children (2010) have published ethical standards, which teachers who become behavior
managers should be aware of. Another area in which behavior managers should be knowl-
edgeable is relevant laws and litigation. For example, there are certain situations in which
students with disabilities who are being served under IDEA are required to have an FBA
performed and a BIP developed from the results. Both FBAs and BIPs are the focus of
Chapter 7. But suffice it to say that BIPs are required to have positive behavioral supports
that are evidence based. Consequently, a behavior manager who relies heavily or exclusively
on punitive practices would not be in compliance with the law (Maag & Katsiyannis, 2006).
Finally, a good behavior manager knows which intervention techniques have an accumu-
lated evidence base and which ones are unproven. All the techniques presented in this book
have a large accumulated body of research to substantiate their effectiveness. Unfortunately,
fads come and go in education and any technique that purports to produce immediate re-
sults with little effort and relies solely on testimonials should be avoided (Scheuermann &
Evans, 1997).
1-8 Technology
No introductory chapter of any textbook focusing on various aspects of education or behav-
ioral psychology would be complete without a discussion of technology. Technology perme-
ates almost every area of education for students with and without disabilities across content
areas and instructional methodology.
16 CHAPTER 1
Communication boards—ranging from simple to complex—have been used for students

with developmental disabilities and communication disorders. With these devices, stu-
dents point to a picture to depict a task or need, or even to activate a prerecorded message.
Switches and scanning devices can be used for students who cannot push a button or point to
a picture (Sevcik & Romski, 2010). V Video modeling (a person watches someone completing
an entire task) and video prompting have been used to teach basic skills to individuals with
moderate to severe retardation (Cannella-Malone et al., 2006; Rehfeldt, Dahman, Young,
Cherry, & Davis, 2003). Hand-held and palm-top computers have also been used to provide
both visual and auditory prompts for individuals with intellectual disabilities (Cihak, Kessler,
& Alberto, 2007; Davies, Stock, & Wehmeyer, 2004).
In terms of instructional methodology, computerized curriculum-based measurement
programs have been developed to help teachers score and interpret results for students’ math
and reading performance (Fuchs, Hamlett, & Fuchs, 1997, 1998). The “Mini-Me” is a small
device that permits a teacher to record a 10-to-20-second message that can provide support
to struggling students in a variety of ways, including teaching sight words with flashcards,
peer tutoring, and reminders of homework assignments. Computer drill-and-practice pro-
grams are effective ways for students with disabilities to learn using small steps, systematic
feedback, and repeated practice (Okolo, 2008).
There are also some technologies being used in the area of improving students’ challenging
behaviors. Friend and Bursuck (2014) presented several useful websites, including advice for
teachers managing student’s behavior (http://www.behavioradvisor.com/11583.html), strate-
gies for effective collaboration with students with emotional and behavioral disorders (http://
cecp.air.org/), and the Kentucky Department of Education Behavior home page (www.state
.ky.us/agencies/behave/interact/interaction.html). They also provided two websites that
focus on schools implementing RtI. Intervention Central (http://interventioncentral.org)
contains academic resources, behavioral resources for motivating students and address-
ing bullying, and templates for graphing data. RtI Wire (www.jimwrightonline.com/php/rti
/rti_wire.php) has complete sets of free RtI resources, including descriptions of different
delivery and team models, tools and advice for matching interventions to specific student
problems, and several monitoring and graphing tools.
Sound-field amplification (SFA) is a technology that has been found to improve
the ability of students with emotional or behavioral disorders (EBD) and attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder to increase the speed with which they follow directions (Maag &
Anderson, 2006, 2007). SFA is a wireless unit, two or three loudspeakers, and a wireless
microphone that amplifies a teacher’s voice +8 to +10 decibels (dB) above background
noise and evenly throughout a classroom (Flexer, Millin, & Brown, 1990). Several re-
searchers have concluded that in order for students to hear effectively, the noise level
of an occupied classroom should not exceed 40–50 dB (Crandell, 1996; Flexer et al.,
1990; McSporran, 1997; Mendel, Roberts, & Walton, 2003; Palmer, 1998; Zabel & Taylor,
1993). However, they also found that at certain times during the school day, an occupied
classroom can reach the 75–85 dB range and that this noise level creates an environ-
ment in which students have difficulty listening and following directions (Berg, Blair, &
Benson, 1996).
In addition, many smartphone behavior management apps have been developed over the
last several years. The educational consulting website nove8 has an entire section devoted to
behavior management apps (www.inov8-ed.com/2011/10/theres-a-special-app-for-that-part
-10-apps-for-behavioral-management-and-intervention/). Table 1.4 summarizes those that
are most germane for the information presented in this book.
Finally, there are some legal mandates regarding technology for students with dis-
abilities. Heward (2012) described acts Congress has mandated regarding technology. The
TABLE 1.4 SAMPLE BEHAVIOR MANAGEMENT APPS FOR SMARTPHONES

Name of App Description
Behavior Tracker Pro Designed by board-certified applied behavior analyst, it has multiple op-
tions to collect and analyze data: frequency and duration data, A-B-C
data, and interval data. It can also accommodate multiple student profiles
and provides teachers with a detailed analysis including graphing and
video-recording functions.
Behavior Assessment Pro Designed for FBA and might be used by a school intervention team. It
allows teachers to answer a series of questions regarding a particular be-
havior (e.g., antecedents, consequences), permitting an intensive analysis
of the behavior. Questions are scripted, which allows for consistent analy-
sis, but they can’t be customized.
Tallymander Basic counting app teachers can use to keep track how many times a stu-
dent performs a specific behavior. An interesting feature about this app is the
ability to “count” by flicking the phone without having to touch the screen.
iRewardChart Allows teachers to target specific activities or behaviors (working on an
assignment, sharing, etc.) for their students and assign stars once those
targeted activities or behaviors are completed. The goal is working toward
a specific reinforcement after a certain number of stars have accumulated.
iReward Designed specifically for tying a target behavior to a specific reward in
a highly visual way. It allows teachers to link a behavior (e.g., writing an-
swers) to a specific reward (listening to music). Pictures can be selected
from the app library or from a personal library to represent the activities.
There is an audio option to record “voice praise” (e.g., “nice working”!) that
will play back after the student has completed the task.
MyPicturesTalk Allows teachers to record audio over an imported photo or to integrate
videos in order to use it for video modeling to teach students appropriate
behaviors and concepts visually.
first legislation was the Technology-Related Assistance for Individuals with Disabilities
Act of 1988 (P.L. 100-407). It created statewide programs of technology assistance for
persons of all ages with disabilities. The Improving Access to Assistive Technology Act of
2004 (P.L. 108-364) represented the third time Congress amended and extended provi-
sions of the Technology-Related Assistance for Individuals with Disabilities Act of 1988.
Specifically, Congress funds an Assistive Technology Act Project (ATAP) in each state
to assist persons with disabilities to obtain assistive technology (AT) services throughout
their entire life span. ATAP activities include product demonstrations, AT device loan
programs, financing assistance, and public awareness regarding the availability, benefits,
and costs of AT.
TECH SUPPORTT
Using Universal Design for Learning (UDL) to Integrate Technology
The use of technology can support behavior management through a commitment to Universal Design for Learning (UDL)—a set of
guidelines designed to make education accessible for all students, supported by technology. By making use of UDL, teachers can
make commonsense decisions about how to allow all students to access the curriculum and how to integrate technology to support
behavior management. For example, the use of smartphones, perhaps the most ubiquitous of all technology tools, has been used
extensively in behavior management. Applications (apps) can provide support for much of the behavior management process, from
data collection to systematic data analysis. Using tablets or phones can allow for ease of data collection, provide tables, charts,
and graphs to support ongoing student monitoring across settings, and allow for behavior progress to be monitoring through
ease of data sharing. Assistive technologies are good examples of the use of principles of UDL to reduce barriers for students
with disabilities (Rose, Hasselbring, & Zabala, 2005). Technologies such as communication boards, clickers, and text-to-speech
readers can allow students with expressive and receptive language disorders to share their choices and express opinions, thereby
engaging more fully in the classroom environment. A communication board, for example, can be used by a student to indicate his
or her understanding of a behavioral task by providing a means by which the student can select a response to a question.
18 CHAPTER 1
1-9 Bringing It Together

The overriding assumption of behavior modification, as operationalized in ABA, is that almost
all behaviors are learned. There are few human behaviors that are genetically preprogrammed.
The notable exceptions are some reflexive behavior (e.g., blowing air in a person’s and caus-
ing a blink reaction, and an infant’s ability to cry, coo, and smile). But beyond these types of
behaviors, students learn, for example, how to read, study, talk politely, cooperate or whine,
fight, steal, and lie through their experiences and interaction with the environment. The good
news about this model is that students, with our help, can unlearn inappropriate behaviors
and learn appropriate ones. The bad news is that behavior management takes time and effort.
The good and bad news is that anyone can use behavioral procedures. However, as Kerr and
Nelson (2005) cautioned, under no circumstances should specific behavioral techniques be
used by teachers who do not thoroughly understand the basic principles and assumptions of
ABA. Although the techniques described in this text can be powerful, they also can be easily
misapplied. Only when behavioral techniques are combined with systematic measurement
and evaluation can we say that ABA is taking place. Therefore, the techniques presented in
this book should be practiced initially under the supervision of competent applied behavior
analysts. When ABA is used in an ethically responsible manner, it should help promote the
betterment of both individuals and society (Sulzer-Azaroff & Mayer, 1977). In addition, the
principles and techniques can be used as part of positive school-wide behavioral supports and
within the RtI model for both intervention and identification.
CASE STUDY
S H AW N A AND H E R T E AC H E R , M R . R O D R I G U E Z
Shawna is an eight-year-old third-grader who has been identified as learning disabled in the area of reading. She
is fully included in Mr. Rodriguez’ general education classroom. Shawna’s IEP case manager is Ms. Giuseppe.
Part of Ms. Giuseppe’s responsibilities are co-teaching some reading lessons with Mr. Rodriguez and collabo-
rating with him to address any behavioral concerns he has regarding Shawna’s behavior.
During one of their planning periods, Mr. Rodriguez expressed concern to Ms. Giuseppe regarding Shaw-
na’s behavior.
“I just can’t seem to get Shawna to pay attention during lessons,” he said.
“What do you mean?” asked Ms. Giuseppe.
“Well, you know, she’s always off task,” replied Mr. Rodriguez.
Ms. Giuseppe was thinking to herself that there are already two problems with Mr. Rodriguez’ descrip-
tion. First, “attention” is not a behavior; rather it’s an internal cognitive state that cannot be directly observed.
Second, “off task” is not a behavior but rather one’s status—position or standing.
Ms. Giuseppe asks several questions to help Mr. Rodriguez clarify the specific behaviors of concern.
“Can you please tell me what you’re seeing Shawna do that indicates to you she’s not paying attention?”
“Sure,” replied Mr. Rodriguez. “She stares around the room daydreaming.”
Ms. Giuseppe was thinking to herself that this description didn’t do anything to clarify the problem because
“daydreaming” is a subjective opinion that truly can’t be known because it’s a covert process. Ms. Giuseppe
decides to come back to that one after getting Mr. Rodriguez’ idea of what “off task” means to him. She asks
him a similar question as before.
“What specific behavior are you seeing Shawna engage in that leads you to conclude that she’s off task?”
“Well, she’s not doing her work,” he said.
Ms. Giuseppe’s immediate thought, that she kept to herself momentarily was that behavior is what we do,
not what we don’t do. Instead she asks, “What are you seeing her do instead of her work?”
Mr. Rodriguez replies that she’s walking around the classroom and talking to peers.
“What would you like to see her do instead of walking around and talking to peers?” asks Ms. Giuseppe.
“Doing her work,” replies Mr. Rodriguez.
Ms. Giuseppe then asks him what he’s seen her doing that indicates she’s working. He replies that Shawna
would be writing answers on the math worksheet.
“Excellent!” says Ms. Giuseppe. “Now we have some concrete behaviors to change. You want to see Shawna
stop walking around and talking to peers and instead write answers on her math worksheet.”
“Yes,” that would be a great start,” he agreed. “But I still want her to pay more attention,” continued
Mr. Rodriguez.
“Yes, you mentioned that,” said Ms. Giuseppe. “How would you know if Shawna was paying attention?”
“She would be looking at me while I’m talking just like all the other students,” Mr. Rodriguez replied.
Ms. Giuseppe anticipated this answer. She knew that most teachers think of “eye contact” as the holly grail
of students paying attention. She causally responds the following way.
“Remember when you were in college and a professor was giving a really boring lecture?”
“Of course,” he replied. “Anyone who’s been to college knows some lectures can be really boring.”
Ms. Giuseppe then asks, “What were you thinking about instead of the lecture?”
Mr. Rodriguez replied that he usually thought of going out to dinner with his girlfriend or getting together
with buddies to play a game of basketball.
“Did the professor know that was what you were thinking?” asked Ms. Giuseppe.
“Of course not,” replied Mr. Rodriguez. “He’d never know that because I’d still be looking at him and even
nodding a little bit now and then. You know how much professors like to see students nod. It makes them think
we’re paying attention.”
“Ah, so you could look at the professor and even nod a little bit while thinking of something completely
unrelated to the lecture?” asked Ms. Giuseppe.
“Oh course,” Mr. Rodriguez replied sheepishly. “Yeah, I see your point,” he continued before Ms. Giuseppe
could say anything else. “Then how would I know if Shawna was paying attention?”
Ms. Giuseppe replied that asking her questions on a regular basis over the content being covered would be
an overt and observable way to see if she was paying attention. If the number of correct answers to his questions
increased, then he knew she was paying attention to the lesson.
Summary
This chapter introduced the basics of behavior modification. Behavior modification has
specific attributes, but people often have misconceptions about it. Behavior consists of
observable actions. The three-term contingency involves analyzing the impact of anteced-
ents and consequences on the occurrence of behavior. Antecedents are the events that
come before behavior and cue or prompt (but do not cause) its occurrence. Consequences
occur after behavior and either maintain, increase, or decrease it. Reinforcement and pun-
ishment are defined based on their effects on behavior: reinforcement increases behavior
and punishment decreases behavior. A reward may be either a reinforcer or punisher de-
pending on its effect on behavior. Contrary to popular belief, discipline is not the same as
punishment. Discipline is the process of imparting skills or knowledge and so has more in
common with reinforcement than punishment. Finally, ABA is a systematic, performance-
based, and self-evaluative method for changing behavior. Ethical considerations presented
described how teachers must act morally even when their actions may conflict with school
or district guidelines, are obliged to determine if intervention produces improvements in
20 CHAPTER 1
socially important outcomes for students, and should be aware of professional organiza-
tions ethical standards as well as knowledgeable about relevant laws and litigation. Finally,
technology has become woven into the fabric of education and behavioral psychology, and
it is important to understand how it can be used to enhance both academic and behavioral
outcomes for students.
Activities
1. Take a piece of paper, turn it sideways, draw three columns, and label them
“antecedents,” “behavior,” and “consequences.” Keep this sheet of paper by your
television set. When your favorite show comes on, spend 15 minutes conducting an
A-B-C analysis. When you are finished, see if you can determine any patterns in the
ways the characters behaved, as well as the antecedents that prompted their behaviors
and consequences that maintained them.
2. During a conversation with friends, note how many subjective words they use to
describe things. Take a piece of paper, make two columns, and label them “Subjective”
and “Objective.” List the subjective terms you heard your friends use during a
conversation. Then come up with objective counterparts for each subjective word and
record them in the “Objective” column. See if the objective terms clarify the topic of
conversation or change it.
Review Questions
1. What are the attributes of behavior modification and why is it misunderstood?

2. What is the benefit of using objective rather than subjective terms to describe
behavior?
3. How does covert behavior differ from overt behavior?
4. What is the best way to measure whether learning has occurred?
5. How does the three-term contingency help explain how people learn behaviors?
6. How do antecedents and consequences affect the type of behaviors that students
exhibit?
7. What are the benefits of conducting an A-B-C analysis?
8. Define reinforcement, punishment, discipline, and rewards.
9. Why does society look so unfavorably on positive reinforcement?
10. How does behavior management fit together with school-wide positive behavior
support (SWPBS) and response to intervention (RtI)?
11. What are the ethical issues educators should be aware of when using behavior
management techniques?
12. What ways can technology be used in behavior management?
13. What are the attributes of applied behavior analysis (ABA)?
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Fig. 136.—Portion of the
radula of Gadinia
peruviana Sowb., Chili. ×
250. Type (c).
(c) Radula with an indefinite number of marginals, laterals (if
present) merging into marginals, central tooth present or absent,
inconspicuous, teeth all very small. This type of radula, among the
Nudibranchiata, is characteristic of certain sub-genera of Doris (e.g.
Chromodoris, Aphelodoris, Casella, Centrodoris), of Hypobranchiaea
and Pleurophyllidia; among the Tectibranchiata, of Actaeon, many of
the Bullidae, Aplustrum, the Aplysiidae, Pleurobranchus, Umbrella
and Gadinia (Figs. 136 and 137, C).
In the Pteropoda there are two types of radula. The
Gymnosomata, which are in the main carnivorous, possess a radula
with a varying number (4–12) of sickle-shaped marginals, central
tooth present or absent. In the Thecosomata, which feed on a
vegetable diet, there are never more than three teeth, a central and
a marginal on each side; teeth more or less cusped on a square
base.
Pulmonata.—The radula of the Testacellidae, or carnivorous land
Mollusca, is large, and consists of strong sickle-shaped teeth with
very sharp points, arranged in rows with or without a central tooth, in
such a way that the largest teeth are often on the outside, and the
smallest on the inside of the row (as in Rhytida, Fig. 139). The
number and size of the teeth vary. In Testacella and Glandina, they
are numerous, consisting of from 30 to 70 in a row, with about 50
rows, the size throughout being fairly uniform. In Aerope they are
exceedingly large, and only eight in a row, the outermost marginal
being probably the largest single tooth in the whole of the Mollusca.
The central tooth is always obscure, being, when present, simply a
weaker form of the weakest lateral; in genera with only a few teeth in
a row it is generally absent altogether.
Fig. 137.—Portions of the radula of

Opisthobranchiata, illustrating
types (b) and (c); A, Scaphander
lignarius L.; A´, one of the teeth
seen from the other side, × 40;
B, Lamellidoris bilamellata L.,
Torbay, × 60; C, Hydatina physis
L., E. Indies, × 75.
The first family of jaw-bearing snails, the Selenitidae, is distinctly
intermediate. The possession of a jaw relates it to the main body of
Helicidae, but the jaw is not strong, while the teeth are still, with the
exception of the central, thoroughly Testacellidan. The central tooth
is quite rudimentary, but it is something more than a mere weak
reproduction of the marginals. There are no true laterals. The
Limacidae show a further stage in the transition. Here the central
tooth has a definite shape of its own, tricuspid on a broad base,
which is more or less repeated in the first laterals; these, as they
approach the marginals, gradually change in form, until the outer
marginals are again thoroughly Testacellidan.[326] This is the general
form of radula, varied more or less in different genera, which occurs
in Nanina, Helicarion, Limax, Parmacella, and all the sub-genera of
Zonites. It is certain that some, and probable that all of these genera
will, on occasion, eat flesh, although their usual food appears to be
vegetable. The jaw is more powerful than in the Selenitidae, but
never so large or so strongly ribbed as in Helix proper.
Fig. 138.—Portion of the radula of Glandina truncata

Gmel. × 40.
Fig. 139.—Portion of the radula of Rhytida
Kraussii Pfr., S. Africa. × 25.
When we reach the Helicidae, we arrive at a type of radula in
which the aculeate form of tooth—so characteristic of the Agnatha—
disappears even in the marginals, and is replaced by teeth with a
more or less quadrate base; the laterals, which are always present,
are intermediate in form between the central and the marginals, and
insensibly pass into the latter. In size and number of cusps the first
few laterals resemble the central tooth; in the extreme marginals the
cusps often become irregular or evanescent. As a rule, the teeth are
set squarely in the rows, with the exception of the extreme
marginals, which tend to slope away on either side. In some
Helicidae there is a slight approximation to the Zonitidae in the
elongation of the first marginals.
The above is the type of radula occurring in the great family
Helicidae, which includes not only Helix proper, with several
thousand species, but also Arion, Bulimus, Ariolimax, and other
genera. The jaw is almost always strongly transversely ribbed.
In the Orthalicidae (Fig. 140, C) the teeth of the radula, instead of
being in straight rows, slope back at an angle of about 45 degrees
from the central tooth. The central and laterals are very similar, with
an obtuse cusp on rather a long stem; the marginals become
bicuspid.
In the Bulimulidae, which include the important genera
Placostylus, Amphidromus, Partula, Amphibulimus, and all the
groups of South American Bulimulus, the jaw is very characteristic,
being thin, arched, and denticulated at the edges, as if formed of
numerous narrow folds overlapping one another. The radula is like
that of the Helicidae, but the inner cusp of the laterals is usually
lengthened and incurved. In Partula the separation between laterals
and marginals is very strongly marked.
The remaining families of Pulmonata must be more briefly
described. In the Cylindrellidae there are three distinct types of
radula: (a) Central tooth a narrow plate, laterals all very curiously
incurved with a blunt cusp, no marginals (Fig. 140, D); (b) radula
long and narrow, central tooth as in (a), two laterals, and about eight
small marginals; (c) much more helicidan in type, central and laterals
obtusely unicuspid, marginals quite helicidan. Type (c) is restricted to
Central America, types (a) and (b) are West Indian.
Pupidae: Radula long and narrow; teeth of the helicidan type,
centrals and laterals tricuspid on a quadrate base, marginals very
small, cusps irregular and evanescent. This type includes Anostoma,
Odontostomus, Buliminus, Vertigo, Strophia, Holospira, Clausilia,
and Balea.
Stenogyridae, including Achatina, Stenogyra, and all its sub-
genera: Central tooth small and narrow, laterals much larger,
tricuspid, central cusp long, marginals similar, but smaller.
Achatinellidae: Two types occur; (a) teeth in very oblique rows,
central, laterals, and marginals all of the same type, base narrow,
head rather broad, with numerous small denticles (Achatinella
proper, with Auriculella and Tornatellina, Fig. 140, E); (b) central
tooth small and narrow, laterals bicuspid, marginals as in Helix
(Amastra and Carelia).
Fig. 140.—Portions of the radula of A, Hyalinia nitidula Drap.,
Yorkshire, with central tooth, first lateral, and a marginal
very highly magnified; B, Helix pomatia L., Kent, showing
central tooth, laterals, and one extreme marginal, the two
former also highly magnified; C, Orthalicus undatus Brug.,
Trinidad, with three laterals highly magnified; D, Cylindrella
rosea Pfr., Jamaica, central tooth and laterals, the same
very highly magnified; E, Achatinella vulpina Fér., Oahu,
central tooth (c) and laterals, the same highly magnified.
Succineidae: Central and laterals helicidan, bi- or tricuspid on a
quadrate plate, marginals denticulate on a narrow base; jaw with an
accessory oblong plate.
Janellidae: Central tooth very small, laterals and marginals like
Achatinellidae (a).
Vaginulidae: Central, laterals, and marginals unicuspid
throughout, on same plan.
Onchidiidae: Rows oblique at the centre, straight near the edges;
central strong, tricuspid; laterals and marginals very long, falciform,
arched, unicuspid.
Auriculidae: Teeth very small; central narrow, tricuspid on rather a
broad base; laterals and marginals obscurely tricuspid on a base like
Succinea.
Limnaeidae: Jaw composed of one upper and two lateral pieces;
central and lateral teeth resembling those of Helicidae; marginals
much pectinated and serriform (Fig. 141, A). In Ancylus proper the
teeth are of a very different type, base narrow, head rather blunt,
with no sharp cusps, teeth similar throughout, except that the
marginals become somewhat pectinated (Fig. 141, B); another type
more resembles Limnaea.
Fig. 141.—Portions of the radula of
A, Limnaea stagnalis L., with
the central tooth and two first
laterals, and two of the
marginals, very highly,
magnified; B, Ancylus fluviatilis
Müll., with two of the marginals
very highly magnified; C, Physa
fontinalis L., with central tooth
and two of the marginals very
highly magnified.
Physidae: Jaw simple, but with a fibrous growth at its upper edge,
which may represent an accessory plate; radula with very oblique
rows, central tooth denticulate, laterals and marginals serriform,
comb-like, with a wing-like appendage at the superior outer edge
(Fig. 141, C).
Chilinidae: Central tooth small, cusped on an excavated triangular
base, marginals five-cusped, with a projection as in Physa, laterals
comb-like, serrations not deep.
Amphibolidae: Central tooth five-cusped on a broad base, central
cusp very large; two laterals only, the first very small, thorn-like, the
second like the central tooth, but three-cusped; laterals simple,
sabre-shaped.
Scaphopoda.—In the single family (Dentaliidae) the radula is
large, and quite unlike that of any other group. The central tooth is a
simple broad plate; the single lateral is strong, arched, and slightly
cusped; the marginal a very large quadrangular plate, quite simple;
formula, 1.1.1.1.1 (Fig. 133, B).
Cephalopoda.—The radula of the Cephalopoda presents no
special feature of interest. Perhaps the most remarkable fact about it
is its singular uniformity of structure throughout a large number of
genera. It is always very small, as compared with the size of the
animal, most of the work being done by the powerful jaws, while the
digestive powers of the stomach are very considerable.
The general type of structure is a central tooth, a very few laterals,
and an occasional marginal or two; teeth of very uniform size and
shape throughout. In the Dibranchiata, marginals are entirely absent,
their place being always taken, in the Octopoda, by an accessory
plate of varying shape and size. This plate is generally absent in the
Decapoda. The central tooth is, in the Octopoda, very strong and
characteristic; in Eledone and Octopus it is five-cusped, central cusp
strong; in Argonauta unicuspid, in Tremoctopus tricuspid. The
laterals are always three in number, the innermost lateral having a
tendency to assume the form of the central. In Sepia the two inner
laterals are exact reproductions of the central tooth; in Eledone,
Sepiola, Loligo, and Sepia, the third lateral is falciform and much the
largest.
Fig. 142.—Portion of the radula of Octopus
tetracirrhus D. Ch., Naples, × 20.
In Nautilus, the only living representative of the Tetrabranchiata,
there are two sickle-shaped marginals on each side, each of which
has a small accessory plate at the base. The two laterals and the
central tooth are small, very similar to one another, unicuspid on a
square base.
Fig. 143.—Alimentary canal of Helix aspersa L.: a, anus; b.d, b.d´, right and
left biliary ducts; b.m, buccal mass; c, crop; h.g, hermaphrodite gland; i,
intestine; i.o, opening of same from stomach (pyloric orifice); l, l´, right
and left lobes of liver; m, mouth; oe, oesophagus; r, rectum; s.d, salivary
duct; s.g, salivary gland; st, stomach; t, left tentacle. (After Howes and
Marshall, slightly modified.)
Salivary glands are found in most Glossophora. They occur in one
or two pairs on each side of the pharynx and oesophagus, the duct
usually leading forwards and opening into the anterior part of the
pharynx (see Figs. 143, 144). They are exceptionally large in the
carnivorous Gasteropoda. In certain genera, e.g. Murex, Dolium,
Cassis, Pleurobranchus, the secretions of these glands are found to
contain a considerable proportion (sometimes as much as 4·25 per
cent) of free sulphuric acid. This fact was first noticed by Troschel,
who, while handling a Dolium galea at Messina, saw the creature
spit a jet of saliva upon a marble slab, which immediately produced a
brisk effervescence. A number of the genera thus provided bore
through the shells of other Mollusca and of Echinoderms, to prey
upon their soft tissues, and it is possible that the acid assists in the
piercing of the shell by converting the hard carbonate of lime into
sulphate of lime, which can easily be removed by the action of the
radula.[327] In the majority of the Cephalopoda there are two pairs of
salivary glands, one lying on each side of the mouth, the other on the
middle of the oesophagus.
Fig. 144.—Alimentary canal, etc.,
of Sepia officinalis L.: a,
anus; b.d, one of the biliary
ducts; b.m, buccal mass; c,
coecum; i, ink-sac; i.d, duct
of same; j, jaws; l.l, lobes of
the liver; oe, oesophagus; p,
pancreatic coeca; r, rectum;
s.g, salivary glands; st,
stomach. (From a specimen
in the British Museum.)
Fig. 145.—Gizzard of
Scaphander lignarius L.: A,
showing position with regard
to oesophagus (oe) and
intestine (i), the latter being
full of comminuted fragments
of food; p, left plate; p´, right
plate; p.ac, accessory plate;
B, the plates as seen from
the front, with the enveloping
membranes removed,
lettering as in A. Natural
size.
Fig. 146.—Section of the stomach of Melongena,

showing the gastric plates (g.p, g.p,) for the
trituration of food; b.d, biliary duct; g.g, genital
gland; i, intestine; l, liver; oe, oesophagus; st,
stomach. (After Vanstone.)
3. The Oesophagus.—That part of the alimentary canal which lies
between the pharynx and the stomach (in Pelecypoda between the
mouth and stomach) is known as the oesophagus. Its exact limits
are not easy to define, since in many cases the tube widens so
gradually, while the muscular structure of its walls changes so slowly
that it is difficult to say where oesophagus ends and stomach begins.
As a rule, the oesophagus is fairly simple in structure, and consists
of a straight and narrow tube. In the Pulmonata and
Opisthobranchiata it often widens out into a ‘crop,’ which appears to
serve the purpose of retaining a quantity of masticated food before it
passes on to the stomach. In Octopus and Patella the crop takes the
form of a lobular coecum. In the carnivorous Mollusca the
oesophagus becomes complicated by the existence of a varying
number of glands, by the action of which digestion appears to begin
in some cases before the food reaches the stomach proper.
4. The Stomach.—At the posterior end of the oesophagus lies the
muscular pouch known as the stomach, in which the digestion of the
food is principally performed. This organ may be, as in Limax, no
more than a dilatation of the alimentary canal, or it may, as is usually
the case, take the form of a well-marked bag or pocket. The two
orifices of the stomach are not always situated at opposite ends;
when the stomach itself is a simple enlargement of the wall of one
side of the alimentary canal, the cardiac or entering orifice often
becomes approximated to the orifice of exit (pyloric orifice).
The walls of the stomach itself are usually thickened and
strengthened by constrictor muscles. In some Nudibranchs
(Scyllaea, Bornella) they are lined on the inside with chitinous teeth.
In Cyclostoma, and some Bithynia, Strombus, and Trochus there is a
free chitinous stylet within the stomach.[328] In Melongena (Fig. 146)
the posterior end of the oesophagus is provided with a number of
hard plate-like ridges, while the stomach is lined with a double row of
cuticular knobs, which are movable on their bases of attachment,
and serve the purpose of triturating food.[329] Aplysia has several
hard plates, set with knobs and spines, and similar organs occur in
the Pteropoda. But the most formidable organ for the crushing of
food is possessed by the Bullidae, and particularly by Scaphander
(Fig. 145). Here there is a strong gizzard, consisting of several plates
connected by powerful cartilages, which crush the shells, which are
swallowed whole.
Into the stomach, or into the adjacent portions of the digestive
tract, open the ducts which connect with the so-called liver. The
functions of this important organ have not yet been thoroughly
worked out. The liver is a lobe-shaped gland of a brown-gray or light
red colour, which in the spirally-shelled families usually occupies the
greater part of the spire. In the Cephalopoda, the two ducts of the
liver are covered by appendages which are usually known as the
pancreatic coeca; the biliary duct, instead of leading directly into the
stomach, passes into a very large coecum (see Fig. 144) or
expansion of the same, which serves as a reservoir for the biliary
secretions. At the point of connexion between the coecum and
stomach is found a valve, which opens for the issue of the biliary
products into the stomach, but closes against the entry of food into
the coecum. In most Gasteropoda the liver consists of two distinct
lobes, between which are embedded the stomach and part of the
intestine. In many Nudibranchiata the liver becomes ‘diffused’ or
broken up into a number of small diverticula or glands connecting
with the stomach and intestine. The so-called cerata or dorsal lobes
in the Aeolididae are in effect an external liver, the removal of which
to the outside of the body gives the creature additional stomach-
room.
The Hyaline Stylet.—In the great majority of bivalves the
intestine is provided with a blind sac, or coecum of varying length.
Within this is usually lodged a long cylindrical body known as the
hyaline or crystalline stylet. In a well-developed Mytilus edulis it is
over an inch in length, and in Mya arenaria between two and three
inches. The bladder-like skin of the stylet, as well as its gelatinoid
substance, are perfectly transparent. In the Unionidae there is no
blind sac, and the stylet, when present, is in the intestine itself. It is
said to be present or absent indifferently in certain species.
The actual function performed by the hyaline stylet is at present a
matter of conjecture. Haseloff’s experiments on Mytilus edulis tend to
confirm the suggestion of Möbius, that the structure represents a
reserve of food material, not specially secreted, but a chemical
modification of surplus food. He found that under natural conditions it
was constantly present, but that specimens which were starved lost
it in a few days, the more complete the starvation the more thorough
being the loss; it reappeared when they were fed again. Schulze, on
the other hand, believes that it serves, in combination with mucus
secreted by the stomach, to protect the intestine against laceration
by sharp particles introduced with the food. W. Clark found that in
Pholas the stylet is connected with a light yellow corneous plate, and
imagined therefore that it acts as a sort of spring to work the plate in
order to comminute the food, the two together performing somewhat
the function of a gizzard.[330]
5. and 6. The Intestine, Rectum, and Anus.—The intestine, the
wider anal end of which is called the rectum, almost invariably
makes a bend forward on leaving the stomach. This is the case in
the Cephalopoda, Scaphopoda, and the great majority of
Gasteropoda. The exceptions are the bilaterally symmetrical
Amphineura, in which the anus is terminal, and many
Opisthobranchiata, in which it is sometimes lateral (Fig. 68, p. 159),
sometimes dorsal (Fig. 67). The intestine is usually short in
carnivorous genera, but long and more or less convoluted in those
which are phytophagous. In all cases where a branchial or
pulmonary cavity exists, the anus is situated within it, and thus varies
its position according to the position of the breathing organ. Thus in
Helix it is far forward on the right side, in Testacella, Vaginula, and
Onchidium almost terminal, in Patella at the back of the neck, slightly
to the right side (Fig. 64, p. 157).
In the rhipidoglossate section of the Diotocardia (Trochus, Haliotis,
etc.) the rectum passes through the ventricle of the heart, a fact
which, taken in conjunction with others, is evidence of their
relationship to the Pelecypoda.
Fig. 147.—Ink-sac of
Sepia, showing its
relation to the rectum:
a, anus; d, duct of
sac; i.g, ink-gland; i.r,
portion of the sac
which serves as a
reservoir for the ink; o,
orifice of ink-gland; r,
rectum; sp, double set
of sphincter muscles
controlling upper end
of duct. (Modified from
Girod.)
In nearly all Pelecypoda the intestine is very long and convoluted,
being sometimes doubled forward over the mouth. Towards its
terminal part it traverses the ventricle of the heart, except in Ostrea,
Anomia, Teredo, and a few more. The anus is always at the posterior
end of the animal, adjacent to and slightly above the adductor
muscle.
Anal glands, which open into the rectum close to the anus, are
present in some Prosobranchiata, e.g. Murex, Purpura. In the
Cephalopoda the anal gland becomes of considerable size and
importance, and is generally known as the ink-sac (Fig. 147); it
occurs in all known living genera, except Nautilus. The ink-sac
consists of a large bag generally divided into two portions, in one of
which the colouring matter is secreted, while the other acts as a
reservoir for its storage. A long tube connects the bag with the end of
the rectum, the mouth of the tube being controlled, in Sepia, by a
double set of sphincter muscles.
The Kidneys
The kidneys, nephridia,[331] renal or excretory organs, consist

typically of two symmetrical glands, placed on the dorsal side of the
body in close connexion with the pericardium. Each kidney opens on
the one hand into the mantle cavity, close to the anus (see Fig. 64, p.
157), and on the other, into the pericardium. The venous blood
returning from the body passes through the vascular walls of the
kidneys, which are largely formed of cells containing uric acid. The
blood thus parts with its impurities before it reaches the breathing
organs.
The kidneys are paired in all cases where the branchiae are
paired, and where the heart has two auricles, i.e. in the Amphineura,
the Diotocardia (with the exception of the Neritidae), the Pelecypoda,
and all Cephalopoda except Nautilus, which has four branchiae, four
auricles, and four kidneys. In other Gasteropoda only one kidney
survives, corresponding to the left kidney of Zygobranchiate
Gasteropods.
Besides their use as excretory organs the kidneys, in certain
groups of the Mollusca, stand in very close relation to the genital
glands. In some of the Amphineura the generative products, instead
of possessing a separate external orifice of their own, pass from the
genital gland into the pericardium and so out through the kidneys
(see Fig. 61 C, D, p. 154). In the Diotocardia it is the right kidney
alone which serves, besides its excretory functions, as a duct for the
emission of the generative products, the left kidney being at the
same time greatly reduced in size. Thus in Patella the left
nephridium is small, the right being much larger; both function as
excretory organs, but the right serves as a mode of conveyance for
the seminal products as well. In certain Pelecypoda (e.g. Yoldia,
Avicula, Modiola, Pecten, Spondylus) the genital glands
communicate directly, and with a similar object, with the renal pouch
on the same side of the body, but in the majority of cases the orifices
are distinct.
The following memoirs will be found useful for further study of this
portion of the subject:—
D. Barfurth, Ueber den Bau und die Thätigkeit der
Gasteropodenleber: Arch. Mikr. Anat. xxii. (1883), pp. 473–524.
Th. Behme, Beiträge zur Anatomie und Entwickelungsgeschichte
des Harnapparates der Lungenschnecken: Arch. Naturges. iv. (1889),
pp. 1–28.
R. Bergh, Semper’s Reisen im Archipelago der Philippinen;
Nudibranchiata: Theil ii. Band ii. (1870–78), Band iii. (1880–1892).
W. G. Binney, Terrestrial Air-breathing Mollusks of the United
States: Bull. Mus. C. Z. Harv. iv. (1878), 450 pp.
„ On the Jaw and Lingual Membrane of North American
Terrestrial Pulmonata: Proc. Ac. Nat. Sc. Philad. (1875), pp. 140–243.
J. T. Cunningham, The renal organs (Nephridia) of Patella: Quart.
Journ. Micr. Sc. xxiii. (1883), pp. 369–375.
„ „ Note on the structure and relations of the kidney in
Aplysia: Mitth. Zool. Stat. Neap. iv. (1883), pp. 420–428.
R. von Erlanger, On the paired Nephridia of Prosobranchs, etc.:
Quart. Journ. Micr. Sc. xxxiii. (1892), pp. 587–623.
H. Fischer, Recherches sur la Morphologie du Foie des
Gastéropodes: Bull. Scient. France Belg. xxiv. (1892), pp. 260–346.
C. Grobben, Morphologische Studien über den Harn- und
Geschlechtsapparat, sowie die Leibeshöhle, der Cephalopoden: Arb.
Zool. Inst. Wien, v. (1884), pp. 179–252.
„ Die Pericardialdrüse der Gasteropoden: ibid. ix. (1890), pp.
35–56.
B. Haller, Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Niere der Prosobranchier:
Morph. Jahrb. xi. (1885), pp. 1–53.
A. Hancock, On the structure and homologies of the renal organ in
the Nudibranchiate Mollusca: Trans. Linn. Soc. xxiv. (1864), pp. 511–
530.
A. Köhler, Microchemische Untersuchung der Schneckenzungen:
Zeits. Gesamm. Naturw. viii. (1856), pp. 106–112.
Ad. Oswald, Der Rüsselapparat der Prosobranchier: Jena. Zeits.
Naturw. N.F. xxi. (1893), pp. 114–162.
R. Perrier, Recherches sur l’anatomie et l’histologie du rein des
Gastéropodes prosobranches: Ann. Sc. Nat. Zool. (7), viii. (1889), pp.
61–315.
C. Semper, Reisen im Archipelago der Philippinen; Land
Pulmonata: Theil ii. Band iii. (1870–77).
C. Troschel, Das Gebiss der Schnecken: Berlin, 1856–1892.
W. G. Vigelius, Ueber das Excretionssystem der Cephalopoden:
Niederl. Arch. Zool. v. (1880), pp. 115–184.

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Behavior Management: From

Theoretical Implications to Practical

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Chapter 1 Introduction to Behavior Management 1

Chapter 1 Introduction to Behavior Management 1

Chapter 2 Impediments to Managing Behavior 25

Chapter 3 Theories of Behavior 41

Chapter 4 Basic Principles of Behavior 61

Chapter 5 Counting and Recording Behavior 85

5-2 Considerations Prior to Recording Behavior 90

Case Study 105

Chapter 6 Graphing Behavior 111

Chapter 7 Functional Behavioral Assessment (FBA) 135

Case Study 162

Chapter 8 Preventative Approaches 171

8-3 Environmental Accommodations 190

Case Study 199

Chapter 9 Reinforcement Techniques for Increasing Behavior 205

Case Study 240

Chapter 10 Differential Reinforcement for Decreasing Behavior 245

Chapter 11 Punishment 261

Case Study 282

Chapter 12 Teaching Self-Management 289

Case Study 309

Chapter 13 Cognitive-Behavior Modification 315

13-3c Thought Stopping 327

Case Study 334

Chapter 14 Promoting Generalization 341

The Focus of Behavior Management

Things to Keep in Mind

The Approach of This Book

New to This Edition

Accompanying Teaching and Learning Resources

PowerPoint Lecture Slides

Remember & Know

An Example for Thought

Dr. John W. Maag is a professor at the University of Nebraska–Lincoln, where he specializes

Chapter Overview Learning Objectives

1-1 Behavior Modification

1-1a Attributes of Behavior Modification

1-1b Misconceptions About Behavior Modification

TABLE 1.1 CONTRIBUTIONS OF BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION

1-2 Defining Behavior

1-2a Things That Are Not Behavior

1-2b Problems Subjective Terms Present

1-2c Considering Covert Behavior

SUBJECTIVE AND OBJECTIVE DESCRIPTORS OF INAPPROPRIATE

Subjective Description Objective Description

Subjective Description Objective Description

Is polite Says “thank you” after receiving a compliment

1-3 Three-Term Contingency

TABLE 1.3 TWO FUNCTIONS OF CONSEQUENCES

1-3c A-B-C Analysis

Antecedents Behavior Consequences

1-4 Important Terms

1-5 Applied Behavior Analysis

1-6 Behavior Management and Its Relation to Schools