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Meyer
Farrar
Biezonski
Yates
Psychopharmacology
Psychopharmacology
Psychopharmacology 4e
by Meyer, Farrar, Biezonski and Yates
UNIQUE IN ITS BREADTH OF COVERAGE ranging from historical accounts of Drugs, the Brain, and Behavior
drug use to clinical and preclinical behavioral studies, Psychopharmacology Fourth Edition
is the ideal text for students studying disciplines from psychology to biology to
neuroscience, who are interested in the relationships between the behavioral
effects of psychoactive drugs and their mechanisms of action. This is a uniquely
engaging text, which provides the scientific depth, breadth, and rigor required
for the psychopharmacology course.
FOURTH
EDITION
ISBN 978-1-60535-987-8
1
www.oup.com/us/he
SINAUER
Jerrold S. Meyer ■ Andrew M. Farrar
Cover Photo: Courtesy Bethlem Museum of the Mind
Cover Design: Beth Roberge
9 781605 359878
2 Dominik Biezonski ■ Jennifer R. Yates
SINAUER ASSOCIATES
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Printed in the United States of America
Andrew Farrar dedicates his contribution to the book to his wife and partner in all
endeavors, Dr. Mariana Pereira, for her patience, dedication and support.
Dominik Biezonski dedicates his contribution to the book to his incredible wife,
Patty Biezonski, and to his loving parents, John and Margaret Biezonski.
Jennifer Yates dedicates her contribution to the book to Dr. James C. Walton,
for supporting her, always.
BOX 1.2
■ CASE STUDIES The Perils of Alcohol Dose–response curves describe receptor activity 29
Taken by an Unconventional Route The therapeutic index calculates drug safety 30
of Administration 7 Receptor antagonists compete with agonists
Multiple factors modify drug absorption 11 for binding sites 30
Drug distribution is limited by selective barriers 14 Biobehavioral effects of chronic drug use 32
Depot binding alters the magnitude and duration Repeated drug exposure can cause tolerance 32
of drug action 17 Chronic drug use can cause sensitization 35
Biotransformation and elimination of drugs Pharmacogenetics and personalized medicine
contribute to bioavailability 18 in psychiatry 36
Therapeutic drug monitoring 23
CNS functioning is dependent on structural The cerebral cortex is divided into four lobes, each
features 62 having primary, secondary, and tertiary areas 70
The CNS has six distinct regions reflecting Rat and human brains have many similarities
embryological development 63 and some differences 71
BOX 2.5
■ OF SPECIAL INTEREST
Neuroendocrine Response to Stress 69
5 Catecholamines 148
5.1 C
atecholamine Synthesis, Release, There are five main subtypes of dopamine receptors
organized into D1- and D2-like families 160
and Inactivation 149
Dopamine receptor agonists and antagonists affect
Catecholamines are synthesized by a multi-step locomotor activity, motor control, and other
pathway in which tyrosine hydroxylase catalyzes behavioral functions 162
the rate-limiting step 149
BOX 5.1
■ THE CUTTING EDGE Using Molecular
Catecholamine storage and release are regulated by Genetics to Study the Dopaminergic System 164
vesicular uptake, autoreceptor activity, and cell
firing rate 151 5.3 O
rganization and Function of the
Catecholamines are recycled after release by a process Noradrenergic System 168
of reuptake 153
Norepinephrine is an important transmitter in both
Catecholamine levels are regulated by metabolizing the central and peripheral nervous systems 168
enzymes 155
Norepinephrine and epinephrine act through α- and
5.2 O
rganization and Function of the β-adrenergic receptors 169
Dopaminergic System 157 The central noradrenergic system plays a significant
role in arousal, cognition, and the consolidation of
Two important dopaminergic cell groups are found
emotional memories 170
in the midbrain 157
Several medications work by stimulating or inhibiting
Ascending dopamine pathways have been implicated
peripheral adrenergic receptors 174
in several important behavioral functions 157
6 Serotonin 179
6.1 S
erotonin Synthesis, Release, The serotonergic system originates in the brainstem
and projects to all forebrain areas 188
and Inactivation 180
The firing of dorsal raphe serotonergic neurons varies
Serotonin synthesis is regulated by enzymatic activity with behavioral states 189
and precursor availability 180
There is a large family of serotonin receptors,
Similar processes regulate storage, release, and most of which are metabotropic 189
inactivation of serotonin and the catecholamines 183
BOX 6.1
■ OF SPECIAL INTEREST “Ecstasy”—
6.3 B
ehavioral and Physiological Functions
Harmless Feel-Good Drug, Dangerous of Serotonin 192
Neurotoxin, or Miracle Medication? 184 Multiple approaches have identified several behavioral
and physiological functions of serotonin 192
6.2 B
asic Features of the Serotonergic
System: Anatomical Organization,
Cell Firing, and Receptor Families 188
7 Acetylcholine 203
7.1 A
cetylcholine Synthesis, Release, BOX 7.1
■ PHARMACOLOGY IN ACTION
Botulinum Toxin—Deadly Poison, Therapeutic
and Inactivation 204 Remedy, and Cosmetic Aid 206
Acetylcholine synthesis is catalyzed by the enzyme Several neuromuscular disorders are associated
choline acetyltransferase 204 with abnormal cholinergic functioning at the
Many different drugs and toxins can alter neuromuscular junction 209
acetylcholine storage and release 204
Acetylcholinesterase is responsible for acetylcholine
breakdown 205
7.2 O
rganization and Function of the BOX 7.2
■ THE CUTTING EDGE Acetylcholine
and Cognitive Function 212
Cholinergic System 210
There are two acetylcholine receptor subtypes:
Cholinergic neurons play a key role in the functioning
nicotinic and muscarinic 214
of both the peripheral and central nervous
systems 210
Drug reward and incentive salience drive the binge/ BOX 9.2
■ THE CUTTING EDGE Epigenetic
intoxication stage of drug use 274 Processes and Synaptic Plasticity as
Mechanisms for the Development and
The withdrawal/negative affect stage is characterized Persistence of Drug Addiction 281
by stress and by the recruitment of an antireward
system 277
10 Alcohol 289
10.1 Psychopharmacology of Alcohol 290 10.2 Neurochemical Effects of Alcohol 307
Alcohol has a long history of use 290 Animal models are vital for alcohol research 307
What is an alcohol and where does it come from? 291 Alcohol acts on multiple neurotransmitters 309
The pharmacokinetics of alcohol determines its 10.3 Alcohol Use Disorder (AUD) 317
bioavailability 292
Defining AUD and estimating its incidence have
Chronic alcohol use leads to both tolerance and proved difficult 317
physical dependence 294
The causes of AUD are multimodal 319
Alcohol affects many organ systems 297
Multiple treatment options provide hope for
BOX 10.1
■ CASE STUDIES The Case of rehabilitation 323
a Neurodegenerative Disease Disguised
by Alcohol Use Disorder 300
Several brain areas contribute to the opioid Detoxification is the first step in the
abstinence syndrome 358 therapeutic process 361
Neurobiological adaptation and rebound constitute Treatment goals and programs rely on
tolerance and withdrawal 359 pharmacological support and counseling 362
Environmental cues have a role in tolerance, BOX 11.3
■ CASE STUDIES A Case of Neonatal
drug abuse, and relapse 360 Abstinence Syndrome Following Maternal
Treatment programs for opioid use disorder 361 Kratom Use 365
Nicotine enhances cognitive function 412 Why do smokers smoke and vapers vape? 424
Nicotine exerts both reinforcing and aversive Smoking is a major health hazard and a cause
effects 414 of premature death 426
Nicotine produces a wide range of physiological BOX 13.1
■ THE CUTTING EDGE
effects 416 How Safe Are E-cigarettes? 429
Nicotine is a toxic substance that can cause severe Behavioral and pharmacological strategies are used
distress or even death at high doses 417 to treat tobacco dependence 430
Chronic exposure to nicotine induces tolerance
and dependence 417
13.4 Caffeine 433
Basic pharmacology of caffeine 434
13.3 Cigarette Smoking and Vaping 421
Behavioral and physiological effects of caffeine 434
What percentage of the population are current users
of tobacco and/or e-cigarettes? 421 BOX 13.2
■ OF SPECIAL INTEREST
Energy Drinks: Caffeine and More 436
Nicotine users progress through a series of stages
in their pattern and frequency of use 422 Mechanisms of caffeine action 440
Inhalants are rapidly absorbed and readily enter GHB has significant dependence potential
the brain 514 when used recreationally 526
These substances are particularly favored by children 16.3 Anabolic–Androgenic Steroids 528
and adolescents 515 AAS are structurally related to testosterone 529
Many inhalant effects are similar to alcohol AAS were developed to help build muscle mass
intoxication 516 and enhance athletic performance 529
Chronic inhalant use can lead to tolerance AAS are currently taken by many adolescent
and dependence 516 and adult men 531
BOX 16.1
■ CASE STUDIES Dependence and AAS are taken in specific patterns and
Withdrawal in an Adolescent Inhalant User 517 combinations 532
Rewarding and reinforcing effects have been AAS enhance performance through multiple
demonstrated in animals 517 mechanisms of action 533
Inhalants have complex effects on central nervous Many adverse side effects are associated
system (CNS) function and behavioral activity 518 with AAS use 535
Health Risks Associated with Inhalant Use 519 Regular AAS use causes dependence in
some individuals 537
16.2 Gamma-Hydroxybutyrate 521
BOX 16.2
■ OF SPECIAL INTEREST Anabolic–
Background 521
Androgenic Steroids and “Roid Rage” 538
GHB produces behavioral sedation, intoxication,
and learning deficits 523 Testosterone has an important role in treating
hypogonadism 541
GHB and its precursors have reinforcing
properties 524
17.3 D
rugs for Treating Anxiety, OCD, Second-generation anxiolytics produce distinctive
clinical effects 583
and PTSD 575
Antidepressants relieve anxiety and depression 584
Barbiturates are the oldest sedative–hypnotics 576
Many novel approaches to treating anxiety are
BDZs are highly effective for anxiety reduction 578 being developed 584
18.2 N
eurochemical Basis of Affective Second-generation antidepressants have different
side effects 610
Disorders 597
Third-generation antidepressants have distinctive
Serotonin dysfunction contributes to mechanisms of action 612
mood disorders 598
Drugs for treating bipolar disorder stabilize the highs
Norepinephrine activity is altered by and the lows 615
antidepressants 601
Glossary G-1
References R-1
Index I-1
genetic basis of drug-organism interactions. The next 19 (Schizophrenia: Antipsychotic Drugs) has been up-
four chapters, Chapter 5 (Catecholamines), Chapter 6 dated with examples of recent studies demonstrating
(Serotonin), Chapter 7 (Acetylcholine), and Chapter the promise of pharmacogenetics in optimizing treat-
8 (Glutamate and GABA), describe the key features ment efficacy while reducing side effects, such as tar-
of neurotransmitter systems that are particularly im- dive dyskinesia. Finally, Chapter 20 (Neurodegenera-
portant to psychopharmacologists. Information about tive Diseases) updates our discussion of the symptoms,
the neurochemistry, anatomy, and behavioral func- clinical trials, FDA-approved therapies, and diagnostic
tions of these transmitters not only lays the ground- tools, including advances in neuroimaging, for all dis-
work for the chapters that follow, but this new edition orders covered in the chapter. It additionally introduces
places increased emphasis on clinical applications of novel developments such as a new symptom (unusual
neurotransmitter-targeted drugs. The next eight chap- body odor) that helps diagnose Parkinson’s disease and
ters focus on recreational drugs and their potential for a recently developed technology (focused ultrasound)
misuse. Chapter 9 (Drug Misuse and Addiction) covers for treating Alzheimer’s disease.
the current theories and mechanisms of drug addiction, Several features of Psychopharmacology: Drugs, the
which is followed by seven chapters devoted to specific Brain, and Behavior distinguish it from its many com-
recreational drugs. Chapter 10 (Alcohol) discusses the petitors. Full-color photos depict pharmacologically
pharmacology of alcohol, the features of alcohol use dis- relevant plant species, drugs in crystalline form, and
order (previously called alcoholism), and both current drug-related paraphernalia. Beautifully rendered
and emerging treatments for this disorder. Chapter 11 four-color illustrations present data from important
(The Opioids) describes the features of the endogenous experiments and portray models of drug action, in-
opioid system, opioid use disorder, and novel treat- cluding neural pathways thought to mediate the psy-
ments for that disorder. The chapter has been updated chological and behavioral effects of specific substances.
to reflect the increasing severity of the opioid epidemic Bulleted interim summaries highlight the key points
and the array of harm-reduction strategies being em- made in each part of the chapter, and study questions
ployed to combat it. This section of the book continues are provided at the end of each chapter to assist stu-
with Chapter 12 (Psychomotor Stimulants: Cocaine, dents in reviewing the most important material. A new
Amphetamine, and Related Drugs), Chapter 13 (Nico- feature for this edition is the inclusion of learning ob-
tine and Caffeine), Chapter 14 (Marijuana and the Can- jectives at the beginning of each section to help direct
nabinoids), Chapter 15 (Psychedelic and Hallucinogenic students and instructors towards the main content to
Drugs, PCP, and Ketamine), and Chapter 16 (Inhalants, be covered. Breakout boxes (printed and on the web)
GHB, and Anabolic-Androgenic Steroids). Among the categorized by the themes of Pharmacology in Action,
highlights of these chapters are greatly expanded cover- The Cutting Edge, Of Special Interest, Clinical Applica-
age of e-cigarettes and vaping (Chapter 13), new discus- tions, Case Studies, and History of Psychopharmacol-
sions of cannabis legalization and emerging therapeutic ogy highlight topics of particular importance. Finally,
applications of cannabidiol (CBD) and other cannabi- the new Enhanced e-book offers access to Web Boxes,
noids (Chapter 14), and the mechanisms by which entac- study resources such as self assessment at the end of
togens and psychedelic drugs (MDMA, psilocybin, and each section, flashcards, weblinks and animations that
LSD) are thought to work when used in drug-assisted visually illustrate key neurophysiological and neuro-
psychotherapy for mood- and trauma-related disorders chemical processes important for Psychopharmacology.
(Chapter 15). The final four chapters consider the neu- Finally, the new Enhanced e-book offers access to
robiology of neuropsychiatric and neurodegenerative Web Boxes, study resources such as self assessment
disorders and the drugs used to treat these disorders. at the end of each section, flashcards, weblinks and
Chapter 17 (Disorders of Anxiety and Impulsivity and animations that visually illustrate key neurophysio
the Drugs Used to Treat Them) and Chapter 18 (Affec- logical and neurochemical processes important for
tive Disorders: Antidepressants and Mood Stabiliz- psychopharmacology.
ers) cover not only classical pharmacotherapies such Readers familiar with previous editions of this text-
as benzodiazepines and selective serotonin reuptake book may notice that the long-standing co-author Linda
inhibitors (SSRIs) but also novel approaches using Quenzer was not involved in preparing this new edi-
more “non-traditional” substances such as ketamine tion. Although Linda has retired from textbook writing,
and psilocybin, that are discussed in prior chapters on she has been ably replaced by new co-authors Andrew
recreational drugs. We highlight ongoing studies on Farrar and Dominik Biezonski. We are confident that
these substances that seek to determine optimal dos- this new team, which includes previous contributor
ing regimens, tolerability, durability, and mechanisms Jennifer Yates, has produced a worthy successor to pre-
of action, the latter which may lead to the generation vious editions of the textbook. We hope that you, the
of novel compounds with reduced side effects. Chapter reader, will ultimately agree with that assessment.
1.1 P
harmacology: The Science of pupil of the eye before eye examinations. Atropine has
Drug Action a site of action (the eye muscles of the iris) that is close
to the site of its ultimate effect (widening the pupil), so it
Pharmacology is the scientific study of the actions of is administered directly to the eye. In comparison, mor-
drugs and their effects on a living organism. Until the phine applied to the eye itself has no effect. Yet when it
beginning of the last century, pharmacologists studied is taken internally, the drug’s action on the brain leads to
drugs that were almost all naturally occurring sub- “pinpoint” pupils. Clearly, for morphine, the site of effect
stances. The importance of plants in the lives of ancient is far distant from the site of its initial action.
humans is well documented. Writings from as early Keep in mind that because drugs act at a variety of
as 1500 BCE describe plant-based medicines used in target sites, they always have multiple effects. Some
Egypt and in India. The Ebers Papyrus describes the may be therapeutic effects, meaning that the drug–re-
preparation and use of more than 700 remedies for ail- ceptor interaction produces desired physical or behav-
ments as varied as crocodile bites, baldness, constipa- ioral changes. All other effects produced are referred to
tion, headache, and heart disease. Of course, many of as side effects, and they vary in severity from mildly
these treatments included elements of magic and in- annoying to distressing and dangerous. For example,
cantation, but there are also references to some modern amphetamine-like drugs produce alertness and insom-
drugs such as castor oil and opium. The Chinese also nia, increased heart rate, and decreased appetite. Drugs
have a very long and extensive tradition in the use of in this class reduce the occurrence of spontaneous sleep
herbal remedies that continues today. World Health Or- episodes characteristic of the disorder called narcolepsy,
ganization estimates suggest that in modern times, as but they produce anorexia (loss of appetite) as the prima-
many as 80% of the people in developing countries are ry side effect. In contrast, the same drug may be used as
totally dependent on herbs or plant-derived medicinals. a prescription diet control in weight-reduction programs.
And in 1999, in the United States, modern herbal medi- In such cases, insomnia and hyperactivity are frequently
cines and drugs based on natural products represented disturbing side effects. Thus therapeutic and side effects
half of the top 20 drugs on the market (Hollinger, 2008). can change, depending on the desired outcome.
Many Americans are enamored with herbal medica- It is important to keep in mind that there are no
tions despite limited clinical support for their effective- “good” or “bad” drugs, because all drugs are just chem-
ness, because they believe these treatments are more icals. It is the way a drug is procured and used that de-
“natural.” Nevertheless, serious dangers have been as- termines its character. Society tends to think of “good”
sociated with some of them. WEB BOX 1.1 discusses the drugs as those purchased at a pharmacy and taken at
benefits and dangers of herbal remedies. the appropriate dosage for a particular medicinal pur-
When placed in historical context, it can be seen pose, and “bad” drugs as those acquired in an illicit
that drug development in the United States is in its in- fashion and taken recreationally to achieve a desired
fancy. The rapid introduction of many new drugs by psychological state. Even with this categorization, the
the pharmaceutical industry has forced the develop- differences are blurred because many people consider
ment of several specialized areas of pharmacology. Two alcohol to be “bad” even though it is purchased legally.
of these areas are of particular interest to us. Neuro Morphine and cocaine have legitimate medicinal uses,
pharmacology is concerned with drug-induced changes making them “good” drugs under some conditions,
in the functioning of cells in the nervous system, and although they can, when misused, lead to dangerous
psychopharmacology emphasizes drug-induced chang- consequences and addiction, making the same drugs
es in mood, thinking, and behavior. In combination, the “bad.” Finally, many “good” prescription drugs are ac-
goal of neuropsychopharmacology is to identify chemi- quired illicitly or are misused by increasing the dose,
cal substances that act on the nervous system to alter prolonging use, or sharing the drug with other indi-
behavior that is disturbed because of injury, disease, or viduals, leading to “bad” outcomes. As you will read
environmental factors. Additionally, neuropsychophar- in later chapters, the ideas of Americans about appro-
macologists are interested in using chemical agents as priate drug use have changed dramatically over time
probes to gain an understanding of the neurobiology (see the sections on the history of the use of narcotics
of behavior. in Chapter 11 and cocaine in Chapter 12).
When we speak of drug action, we are referring to the Many of the drug effects we have described so far
specific molecular changes produced by a drug when it have been specific drug effects, defined as those based
binds to a particular target site or receptor. These mo- on the physical and biochemical interactions of a drug
lecular changes lead to more widespread alterations with a target site in living tissue. In contrast, non
in physiological or psychological functions, which we specific drug effects are those that are based not on
consider drug effects. The site of drug action may be the chemical activity of a drug–receptor interaction, but
very different from the site of drug effect. For example, on certain unique characteristics of the individual. It is
atropine is a drug used in ophthalmology to dilate the clear that an individual’s background (e.g., drug-taking
experience), present mood, expectations of drug effect, aspects of the medical facility. Since a placebo effect
perceptions of the drug-taking situation, attitude to- has been demonstrated many times in animal models,
ward the person administering the drug, and other cues in the environment are apparently sufficient, and
factors influence the outcome of drug use. Nonspecific verbal reassurances are not necessary. In fact, patients
drug effects help to explain why the same individual have been shown to benefit even if they are told that the
self-administering the same amount of ethyl alcohol medication is a placebo, so deception is apparently not
may experience a sense of being lighthearted and a necessity; however, verbal suggestion interacts with
gregarious on one occasion, and depressed and mel- conditioning (see Colagiuri et al., 2015).
ancholy on another. The basis for such a phenomenon A second possible explanation for the placebo effect
may well be the varied neurochemical states existing is that of conscious, explicit expectation of outcomes.
within the individual at different times, with which For example, those individuals who anticipate relief
specific drug effects interact. may show an enhanced placebo response. Of great in-
terest are the placebo-induced neurobiological effects
Placebo effect within the brain. Research has shown that when place-
Common examples of nonspecific effects are the multi- bos effectively reduce pain, those individuals who are
ple outcomes that result from taking a placebo. Many of responders have significantly higher levels of natural
you automatically think of a placebo as a “fake” pill. A pain-relieving opioid neuropeptides in their cerebro-
placebo is in fact a pharmacologically inert compound spinal fluid than those individuals who do not show
administered to an individual; however, in many in- a response to the placebo. Further, the subjects who
stances it has not only therapeutic effects, but side ef- anticipate pain relief show reduced neural activity in
fects as well. Just as many of the symptoms of illness pain-related brain regions (see Benedetti et al., 2011).
may have psychogenic or emotional origins, belief in a While Pavlovian conditioning and conscious ex-
drug may produce real physiological effects despite the pectation both contribute to the placebo effect, other
lack of chemical activity. These effects are not limited factors may also have a part (see Murray and Stoessl,
to the individual’s subjective evaluation of relief but in- 2013; Carlino et al., 2016). Placebo effects may involve
clude measurable physiological changes such as altered social learning. That is, observing another individual
gastric acid secretion, blood vessel dilation, hormonal anticipating a positive outcome can be a more powerful
changes, and so forth. inducer of the placebo effect than direct conditioning or
In a classic study, two groups of patients with ulcers verbal suggestions. Others have found that anticipating
were given a placebo. In the first group, the medication a successful outcome reduces anxiety and activates re-
was provided by a physician, who assured the patients ward networks in the brain. Finally, a number of genet-
that the drug would provide relief. The second group ic variants have been found that influence the placebo
also received the placebo, but it was administered by effect. Understanding more about which genes identify
a nurse, who described it as experimental in nature. In patients who will respond to placebo could allow treat-
group 1, 70% of the patients found significant relief, but ment to be adjusted to maximize outcome (Colagiuri et
in group 2, only 25% were helped by the “drug” (Levine, al., 2015). This is one step toward personalized medi-
1973). Based on these results, it is clear that a sugar pill cine (see the last section of this chapter).
is not a drug that can heal ulcers, but rather its effective- In contrast to placebos, negative expectations may in-
ness depends on the ritual of the therapeutic treatment crease the level of anxiety experienced, which may also
that can have both neurobiological and behavioral ef- influence the outcome of treatment. Expecting treatment
fects that influence the outcome. It is a perfect example failure when an inert substance is given along with ver-
of mind–body interaction, and there has been increasing bal suggestions of negative outcome, such as increased
interest in understanding the mechanism responsible pain or another aversive event, would increase anxiety
for the placebo effect as a means to enhance the thera- as well as cause an accompanying change in neural
peutic effectiveness of drug treatments. Although some mechanisms, including increases in stress hormones.
consider deliberate prescription of placebos to patients This is the nocebo effect, and both the nocebo-induced
unethical because of the deception involved, other physi- increase in pain reported and the hormonal stress re-
cians and ethicists have identified appropriate uses for sponse can be reduced by treatment with an antianxiety
placebos that represent an inexpensive treatment that drug, demonstrating that expectation-induced anxiety
avoids unnecessary medications. plays a part in the nocebo effect. Nocebos are important
Placebo effects may in part be explained by Pavlov- to study because warnings about potential side effects
ian conditioning in which symptom improvement in can lead to greater side-effect occurrence. Unfortunately,
the past has been associated with particular character- because drug companies are required by law to provide
istics of a medication, for example its taste, color, shape, a comprehensive listing of all possible side effects, many
and size; a particular recommending clinician, with individuals have negative expectations, leading to in-
her white coat, reassuring tone of voice, or attitude; or creased side effects.
In pharmacology, the placebo is essential in the de- therapeutics and the associated ethical dilemmas, refer
sign of experiments conducted to evaluate the effec- to the articles by Brown (1998) and Louhiala (2009).
tiveness of new medications, because it eliminates the Throughout this chapter, we present examples that
influence of expectation on the part of the experiment’s include both therapeutic and recreational drugs that af-
participants. The control group is identical to the ex- fect mood and behavior. Since there are usually several
perimental group in all ways and is unaware of the names for the same substance, it may be helpful for you
substitution of an inactive substance (e.g., sugar pill, to understand how drugs are named (BOX 1.1).
saline injection) for the test medication. Comparison
of the two groups provides information on the effec- Pharmacokinetic factors determining
tiveness of the drug beyond the expectations of the drug action
participants. Of course, drugs with strong subjective Although it is safe to assume that the chemical struc-
effects or prominent side effects make placebo testing ture of a drug determines its action, it quickly becomes
more challenging because the experimental group will clear that additional factors are also powerful con-
be aware of the effects while those experiencing no ef- tributors. The dose of the drug administered is clearly
fects will conclude they are the control group. To avoid important, but more important is the amount of drug
that problem, some researchers may use an “active” in the blood that is free to bind at specific target sites
placebo, which is a drug (unrelated to the drug being (bioavailability) to elicit drug action. The following sec-
tested) that produces some side effects that suggest to tions of this chapter describe in detail the dynamic
the control participants that they are getting the active factors that contribute to bioavailability. Collectively,
agent. In other cases clinical researchers may feel that these factors constitute the pharmacokinetic compo-
it is unethical to leave the placebo group untreated if nent of drug action; they are listed below and illus-
there is an effective agent available. In that case the con- trated in FIGURE 1.1.
trol group will be given the older drug, and effective-
1. Routes of administration. How and where a drug is
ness of the new drug will be compared with it rather
administered determines how quickly and how
than with a placebo.
completely the drug is absorbed into the blood.
The large contribution of nonspecific factors and
the high and variable incidence of placebo responders 2. Absorption and distribution. Because a drug rarely
make the double-blind experiment highly desirable. In acts where it initially contacts the body, it must
these experiments, neither the patient nor the observer pass through a variety of cell membranes and
knows what treatment the participant has received. enter the blood plasma, which transports the
Such precautions ensure that the results of any given drug to virtually all of the cells in the body.
treatment will not be biased on the part of the partici- 3. Binding. Once in the blood plasma, some drug
pant or the observer. If you would like to read more molecules move to tissues to bind to active target
about the use of placebos in both clinical research and sites (receptors). While in the blood, a drug may
make it difficult to predict how quickly the drug will more slowly than those produced by other methods
reach the intestine. In addition, many drugs undergo of administration.
extensive first-pass metabolism. First-pass metabo Rectal administration requires the placement of a
lism is an evolutionarily beneficial function because drug-filled suppository in the rectum, where the sup-
potentially harmful chemicals and toxins that are in- pository coating gradually melts or dissolves, releasing
gested pass via the portal vein to the liver, where they the drug, which will be absorbed into the blood. De-
are chemically altered by a variety of enzymes before pending on the placement of the suppository, the drug
passing to the heart for circulation throughout the may avoid some first-pass metabolism. Drug absorbed
body (FIGURE 1.2). Unfortunately, some therapeutic from the lower rectum into the hemorrhoidal vein by-
drugs taken orally may undergo extensive metabo- passes the liver. However, deeper placement means
lism (more than 90%), reducing their bioavailability. that the drug is absorbed by veins that drain into the
Drugs that show extensive first-pass effects must be portal vein, going to the liver before the general circula-
administered at higher doses or in an alternative man- tion. Bioavailability of drugs administered in this way
ner, such as by injection. Because of these many fac- is difficult to predict, because absorption is irregular
tors, oral administration produces drug plasma levels (BOX 1.2). Although rectal administration is not used
that are more irregular and unpredictable and rise as commonly as oral administration, it is an effective
Bronchiole
Brain
Intravenous
injection (IV)
Inhalation
Lungs
Right side Left side
of the heart of the heart
Liver
Alveoli Capillaries
Intestine
Intramuscular
Rest of the body
Intravenous
Intramuscular
Subcutaneous
injection (IM)
injection (SC)
Epithelium Muscle Blood
vessel
FIGURE 1.2 Routes of drug administration First-pass alveoli. Rapid absorption occurs after inhalation because
effect. Drugs administered orally are absorbed into the blood the large surface area of the lungs and the rich capillary
and must pass through the liver before reaching the general networks provide efficient exchange of gases to and from
circulation. Some drug molecules may be destroyed in the the blood. (Bottom inset) Methods of administration by injec-
liver before they can reach target tissues. The arrows indicate tion. The speed of absorption of drug molecules from admin-
the direction of blood flow in the arteries (red) and veins (blue). istration sites depends on the amount of blood circulating to
(Top inset) Pulmonary absorption through capillaries in the that area.
Meyer 4e
01_Meyer4e_CH01.indd 6 12/9/21 2:29 PM
Psychopharmacology
Principles of Pharmacology 7
route in infants and in individuals who are vomiting, reaches the brain almost instantly. Drug users report
unconscious, or unable to take medication orally. that intravenous injection of a cocaine solution usually
Intravenous (IV) injection is the most rapid and ac- produces an intense “rush” or “flash” of pure pleasure
curate method of drug administration in that a precise that lasts for approximately 10 minutes. This experience
quantity of the agent is placed directly into the blood rarely occurs when cocaine is taken orally or is taken
and passage through barriers such as the stomach wall into the nostrils (snorting; see the discussion on topical
is eliminated (see Figure 1.2). However, the quick onset administration). However, IV use of street drugs poses
of drug effect with IV injection is also a potential haz- several special hazards. First, drugs that are impure or
ard. An overdose or a dangerous allergic reaction to of unknown quality provide uncertain doses, and toxic
the drug leaves little time for corrective measures, and reactions are common. Second, lack of sterile injection
the drug cannot be removed from the body as it can be equipment and aseptic technique can lead to infec-
removed from the stomach by stomach pumping. tions such as hepatitis, human immunodeficiency virus
For drug abusers, IV administration provides (HIV), and endocarditis (inflammation of the lining of
a more dramatic subjective drug experience than the heart). Fortunately, many cities have implemented
self-administration in other ways, because the drug free needle programs, which significantly reduce the
probability of cross-infection. Third, many drug abus- reducing drug withdrawal and promoting treatment
ers attempt to dissolve drugs that have insoluble filler compliance due to the long duration of effect (see Ling
materials, which, when injected, may become trapped et al., 2019; Rosenthal, 2019, for detailed reviews of the
in the small blood vessels in the lungs, leading to re- effectiveness of these novel formulations). Also, refer
duced respiratory capacity or death. to Chapter 11 for information about the endogenous
An alternative to the IV procedure is intramuscular opioid system and drugs that act upon it.
(IM) injection, which provides the advantage of slower, Inhalation of drugs, such as those used to treat asth-
more even absorption over a period of time. Drugs ad- ma attacks, allows drugs to be absorbed into the blood
ministered by this method are usually absorbed within by passing through the lungs. Absorption is very rapid
10 to 30 minutes. Absorption can be slowed down by because the area of the pulmonary absorbing surfaces is
combining the drug with a second drug that constricts large and rich with capillaries (see Figure 1.2). The effect
blood vessels, because the rate of drug absorption is on the brain is very rapid because blood from the capil-
dependent on the rate of blood flow to the muscle (see laries of the lungs travels only a short distance back to
Figure 1.2). To provide slower, sustained action, the drug the heart before it is pumped quickly to the brain via
may be injected as a suspension in vegetable oil. For the carotid artery, which carries oxygenated blood to the
example, IM injection of medroxyprogesterone acetate head and neck. The psychoactive effects of inhaled sub-
(Depo-Provera) provides effective contraception for 3 to stances can occur within a matter of seconds.
6 months without the need to take daily pills. One dis- Inhalation is the method preferred for self-
advantage of IM administration is that in some cases, administration in cases when oral absorption is too
the injection solution can be highly irritating, causing slow and much of the active drug would be destroyed
significant muscle discomfort. in the GI tract before it reached the brain. Nicotine re-
Intraperitoneal (IP) injection is rarely used with hu- leased from the tobacco of a cigarette by heat into the
mans, but it is the most common route of administra- smoke produces a very rapid rise in blood level and
tion for small laboratory animals. The drug is injected rapid central nervous system (CNS) effects, which peak
through the abdominal wall into the peritoneal cav- in a matter of minutes. Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC),
ity—the space that surrounds the abdominal organs. an active ingredient of marijuana, and crack cocaine are
IP injection produces rapid effects, but not as rapid as also rapidly absorbed after smoking. In addition to the
those produced by IV injection. Variability in absorp- inherent dangers of the drugs themselves, disadvantag-
tion occurs, depending on where (within the perito- es of inhalation include irritation of the nasal passages
neum) the drug is placed. and damage to the lungs caused by small particles that
In subcutaneous (SC) administration, the drug may be included in the inhaled material.
is injected just below the skin (see Figure 1.2) and is Topical application of drugs to mucous membranes,
absorbed at a rate that is dependent on blood flow to such as the conjunctiva of the eye, the oral cavity, na-
the site. Absorption is usually fairly slow and steady, sopharynx, vagina, colon, and urethra, generally pro-
but there can be considerable variability. Rubbing the vides local drug effects. Because topically applied
skin to dilate blood vessels in the immediate area in- drugs are typically intended to act locally, this method
creases the rate of absorption. Injection of a drug in a of drug administration is generally not considered a
nonaqueous solution (such as peanut oil) or implanta- systemic route of administration. However, some topi-
tion of a drug pellet or delivery device further slows cally administered drugs can nevertheless be readily
the rate of absorption. Subcutaneous implantation of absorbed into the general circulation, leading to wide-
drug-containing pellets is most often used to adminis- spread effects. A related delivery method is sublingual
ter hormones. Implanon and Nexplanon are two con- administration, which involves placing the drug under
traceptive implants now available in the United States. the tongue, where it contacts the mucous membrane
The hormones are contained in a single small rod about and is absorbed rapidly into a rich capillary network.
40 mm (1.5 inches) long that is implanted through a Sublingual administration has several advantages over
small incision just under the skin of the upper arm. A oral administration, because the drug is not broken
woman is protected from pregnancy for a 3-year period down by gastric acid or gastric enzymes. Further, its
unless the device is removed. Recent technological ad- absorption is faster because it is absorbed directly
vances allow drug solutions to be injected in a liquid into the blood and is not dependent on those factors
form, which, upon contact with subcutaneous tissue that determine how quickly the stomach empties its
fluid, forms a biodegradable solid or gel that slowly contents into the small intestine. Additionally, since
releases active drug over a period of up to 1 month. the drug is not absorbed from the GI tract, it avoids
This technology has been used to administer buprenor- first-pass metabolism. Intranasal administration is of
phine, which acts as a partial agonist or antagonist at special interest because it causes local effects such as
opioid receptors. This mechanism of action is thought relieving nasal congestion and treating allergies, but it
to help individuals overcome opioid use disorder by can also have systemic effects, in which case the drug
moves very rapidly across a single epithelial cell layer patches consist of a polymer matrix embedded with
into the bloodstream, avoiding first-pass liver metabo- the drug in high concentration. Transdermal delivery
lism and producing higher bioavailability than if given is now a common way to prevent motion sickness with
orally. The approach is noninvasive, painless, and easy scopolamine, reduce cigarette craving with nicotine,
to use, and hence it enhances compliance. Even more relieve angina pectoris with nitroglycerin, and pro-
important is the fact that intranasal administration al- vide hormones after menopause or for contraceptive
lows the blood–brain barrier to be bypassed, perhaps purposes. The major disadvantage of transdermal
by achieving direct access to the fluid that surrounds delivery is that because skin is designed to prevent
the brain (cerebrospinal fluid [CSF]) and moving from materials from entering the body, a limited number
there to extracellular fluid found in the intercellular of drugs are able to penetrate. However, techniques
spaces between neurons. (For a discussion of the po- are continuing to be developed to increase skin per-
tential mechanisms by which intranasal administra- meability through a variety of methods. For instance,
tion can bypass the blood–brain barrier, see Crowe et handheld ultrasound devices that send low-intensity
al., 2018.) A large number of drugs, hormones, steroids, sound energy waves through surrounding fluid in the
proteins, peptides, and other large molecules are avail- tissue temporarily increase the size of the pores in the
able in nasal spray preparations for intranasal delivery, skin, allowing absorption of large molecules from a
although not all drugs can be atomized. Hence, neu- skin patch. Other “active” patch systems that help to
ropeptides such as the hormone oxytocin can be ad- move large molecules through the skin use iontopho-
ministered by intranasal sprays to achieve significant resis, which involves applying a small electrical cur-
concentrations in the brain. WEB BOX 1.2 describes a rent with tiny batteries to the reservoir or the patch.
study that evaluated the effects of intranasal oxytocin The electrical charge repels drug molecules with a
administration on social behavior in autistic adults. similar charge and forces them through the skin at a
Intranasal absorption can also be achieved without predetermined rate. If the amount and duration of cur-
dissolving the drug. Direct application of finely pow- rent are changed, drug delivery can be restricted to
dered cocaine to the nasal mucosa by sniffing leads to the skin for local effects or can be forced more deeply
rapid absorption, which produces profound effects on into the blood. This process is also capable of pulling
the CNS that peak in about 15 to 30 minutes. One side molecules out through the skin for monitoring. Such
effect of “snorting” cocaine is the formation of perfora- monitoring might be used by diabetic individuals to
tions in the nasal septum, the cartilage that separates more frequently and painlessly evaluate levels of blood
the two nostrils. This damage occurs because cocaine glucose. An additional approach uses mechanical dis-
is a potent vasoconstrictor. Reducing blood flow de- ruption of the skin. Small arrays of microneedles about
prives the underlying cartilage of oxygen, leading to 1 μm in diameter and 100 μm long and coated with
necrosis. Additionally, contaminants in the cocaine act drug or vaccine are placed on the skin. The needles
as chemical irritants, causing tissue inflammation. Co- penetrate the superficial layer of the skin—the stra-
caine addicts whose nasal mucosa has been damaged tum corneum—where the drug is delivered without
by chronic cocaine “snorting” may resort to application stimulating underlying pain receptors. This method
of the drug to the rectum, vagina, or penis. provides the opportunity for painless vaccinations and
Although the skin provides an effective bar- drug injections that can be self-administered. These
rier to the diffusion of water-soluble drugs, certain and other developing techniques have been described
lipid-soluble substances (i.e., those that dissolve in fat) by Langer (2003), Banga (2009), and Waghule and col-
are capable of penetrating slowly. Accidental absorp- leagues (2019).
tion of industrial and agricultural chemicals such as Special injection methods must be used for some
tetraethyl lead, organophosphate insecticides, and drugs that act on nerve cells, because a cellular barrier,
carbon tetrachloride through the skin produces toxic the blood–brain barrier (discussed later in the chapter),
effects on the nervous system and on other organ sys- prevents or slows passage of these drugs from the blood
tems. Transdermal (i.e., through the skin) drug ad- into neural tissue. To directly bypass the blood–brain
ministration with skin patches provides controlled barrier, central routes of administration may be used.
and sustained delivery of drug at a preprogrammed For example, intrathecal injection is used when spinal
rate. The method is convenient because the individual anesthetics are administered directly into the CSF in the
does not have to remember to take a pill, and it is pain- subarachnoid space surrounding the spinal cord, where-
less without the need for injection. It also provides the as epidural infusion, in which a catheter is implanted
advantage of avoiding the first-pass effect. In cases of in the epidural space just outside of the dura mater, is
mass vaccination campaigns, transdermal delivery is commonly used during childbirth, bypassing the blood–
much quicker than other methods, and it reduces the brain barrier (FIGURE 1.3). In animal experiments, a mi-
dangers of accidental needle sticks of health care work- crosyringe or a cannula enables precise drug infusion
ers and unsafe disposal of used needles. Conventional into discrete areas of brain tissue (intracranial) or into
the CSF-filled chambers, the ventricles (intracerebro appropriate gene delivery system. Such a delivery sys-
ventricular). In this way, experimenters can study the tem, which is called a vector, is needed to carry the gene
electrophysiological, biochemical, or behavioral effects into the nuclei of target cells to alter protein synthesis.
of drugs on particular nerve cell groups. This method Administering gene therapy is clearly more challeng-
is described in Chapter 4. Animal research has evolved ing when disorders of the CNS, rather than disorders of
into potentially important treatment methods for human any other part of the body, are treated. Vectors are usu-
conditions such as cerebral meningitisSA/AU:
(inflammation of ally injected directly into the brain region targeted for
The scrap was busy with a lot of redundant labels. We
one of the protective membranes covering the brain). An modification. Viral vectors are frequently considered
simplified by using the bottom image in the scrap as a
infusion pump implanted under the skin of the
locator andscalp can important
then labeling for thisstructures
deliveryinsystem
the blow because of the special ability
be programmed to deliver a constantup (where
dose some of the details
of antibiotic of are clearer).toThis
viruses alsoto
bind helps
and enter cells and their nuclei,
to vary our figure more from the source.
into the cerebral ventricles; this device permits treat- where they insert themselves into the chromosomes to
ment of brain infection and is useful because
Note about antibiotics alterwant
fig legend - Au may DNA. Because
to swap viruses vary in terms of binding,
order of
are normally prevented from passing Top andblood–brain
the Bottom text and change Top andproteins,
cell entry Bottom to Right
and other properties, a variety of
barrier. These infusion pumps have and Left.
important uses in viruses are being evaluated.
delivering drugs systemically as well.AlsoWith appropriate
- I believe Lim and
the spelling of Touthy should colleagues
be Tuothy. (2010) provide a review of viral
software, it is possible to provide pulsed administration vector delivery as an approach to treating diseases of
Thanks,
of an agent that mimics the normal biological
Mike-DMG
rhythm, the CNS. Human trials have been increasing in num-
for example, of hormones. An exciting development has ber, but much research remains to be done before the
been the addition of feedback regulation of these pumps, safety and usefulness of gene therapy are fully demon-
which includes a sensor element that monitors
Meyer 4e a sub- strated. Concerns expressed by researchers include the
stance such as blood glucose in a diabetic individual and
Psychopharmacology following: that an immune response may be initiated
responds with an appropriate infusion of insulin
Dragonfly Mediadeliv-
Group by the introduction of foreign material, that the viral
ered from an implantable pump thatSinaueracts much like an
Associates vector may recover its ability to cause disease once it is
artificial pancreas. The downside to these pumps is the
Meyer4e_1.03 8-24-21 placed in the human cell, and that inserting the vector
risk of infection and frequent clogging, which reduces in the wrong place may induce tumor growth. Never-
their usefulness in maintaining stable drug concentra- theless, many animal studies are highly encouraging,
tions over prolonged periods. and gene therapy is believed to have enormous poten-
Many disorders of the CNS are characterized by ab- tial for the treatment of debilitating disorders of the
normal changes in gene activity, which alter the manu- nervous system such as stroke-induced damage, spinal
facture of an essential protein such as an enzyme or a cord injury, chronic pain conditions, and neurodegen-
receptor. Gene therapy refers to the application of de- erative disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease, Parkin-
oxyribonucleic acid (DNA), which encodes a specific son’s disease, and Huntington’s disease.
protein, to a particular target site. DNA can be used
to increase or block expression of the gene product to IMPACT ON BIOAVAILABILITY Because the route
correct the clinical condition. One significant difficulty of administration significantly alters the rate of ab-
in the application of gene therapy involves creating the sorption, blood levels of the same dose of a drug
10.0 FIGURE 1.4 The time course of drug blood level depends
on route of administration The blood level of the same amount
5.0 of drug administered by different procedures to the same indi
IV vidual varies significantly. Intravenous (IV) administration pro-
Drug concentration in blood (mg/kg)
in part by individual differences in age, sex, and body higher to lower concentration. The larger the concentra-
size. Finally, absorption is dependent on the solubility tion difference on each side of the membrane (called the
and ionization of the drug. concentration gradient), the more rapid is the diffusion.
Lipid solubility increases the absorption of drug into the
TRANSPORT ACROSS MEMBRANES Perhaps the blood and determines how readily a drug will pass the
single most important factor in determining plasma lipid barriers to enter the brain. For example, the nar-
drug levels is the rate of passage of the drug through cotic drug heroin is a simple modification of the parent
the various cell layers (and their respective membranes) compound morphine. Heroin, or diacetylmorphine, is
between the site of administration and the blood. To more soluble in lipid than is morphine, and it penetrates
understand this process, we need to look more care- into brain tissue more readily, thus having a quicker
fully at cell membranes. onset of action and more potent reinforcing properties.
Cell membranes are made up primarily of complex This occurs despite the fact that before the psychotropic
lipid (fat) molecules called phospholipids, which have a drug effects occur, the heroin must be converted to mor-
negatively charged phosphate region (the head) at one phine by esterase enzymes in the brain. That property
end and two uncharged lipid tails (FIGURE 1.5A). These makes heroin a prodrug—that is, one that is dependent
molecules are arranged in a bilayer, with their phosphate on metabolism to convert an inactive drug to an active
ends forming two almost continuous sheets filled with one, a process called bioactivation. This strategy is one
fatty material (FIGURE 1.5B). This configuration occurs used by pharmaceutical companies that develop pro-
because the polar heads are attracted to the polar water drugs that cross the blood–brain barrier (see the section
molecules. Hence, the charged heads are in contact with Drug Distribution Is Limited by Selective Barriers) if the
both the aqueous intracellular fluid and the aqueous active drug cannot penetrate easily.
extracellular fluid. Proteins that are found inserted into
the phospholipid bilayer have functions that will be de- IONIZED DRUGS Most drugs are not readily lipid sol-
scribed later (see Chapter 3). The molecular characteris- uble, because they are weak acids or weak bases that
tics of the cell membrane prevent most molecules from can become ionized when dissolved in water. Just as
passing through unless they are soluble in fat. common table salt (NaCl) produces positively charged
ions (Na+) and negatively charged ions (Cl−) when dis-
LIPID-SOLUBLE DRUGS Drugs with high lipid solu- solved in water, many drugs form two charged (ion-
bility move through cell membranes by passive diffu ized) particles when placed in water. Although NaCl is
sion, leaving the water in the blood or stomach juices a strong electrolyte, which causes it to almost entirely
and entering the lipid layers of membranes. Movement dissociate in water, most drugs are only partially ion-
across the membranes is always in a direction from ized when dissolved in water. The extent of ionization
(A) (B)
Globular Phospholipid
protein charged region
Extracellular
Negatively charged
(hydrophilic) region
Bilayer
Uncharged
(hydrophobic) region
Intracellular Globular Fatty uncharged
protein tails
FIGURE 1.5 Cell membranes (A) Example of a phospholipid molecule with a negatively charged
group (PO4−) at one end (hydrophilic) and two fatty uncharged tails (hydrophobic). (B) The arrange-
ment of individual phospholipid molecules forms a bilayer, with negatively charged heads attracted to
the water molecules of both intracellular and extracellular fluids. The fatty tails of the molecules are
tucked within the two charged layers and have no contact with aqueous fluid. Embedded in the bilayer
are protein molecules that serve as receptors or channels.
intestine and the slower movement of material through all tissues. Drug redistribution may be responsible for
the intestine, as compared with the stomach, provide a terminating the action of a drug, as in the case of the
much greater opportunity for absorption of all drugs. rapid-acting CNS depressant thiopental. Thiopental, a
Therefore, the rate at which the stomach empties into barbiturate used for intravenous anesthesia, is highly
the intestine very often is the significant rate-limiting lipid soluble; therefore, rapid onset of sedation is caused
factor. For this reason, medication is often prescribed to by entry of the drug into the brain. Deep sedation does
be taken before meals and with sufficient fluid to move not last very long, because the blood level falls rapidly
the drug through the stomach and into the intestine. as a result of redistribution of the drug to other tissues,
Since drug absorption is closely related to the con- causing thiopental to move from the brain to the blood
centration of the drug in body fluids (e.g., stomach), it to maintain equilibrium. High levels of thiopental can
should certainly be no surprise to you that the drug be found in the brain 30 seconds after IV infusion. How-
dosage required to achieve a desired effect is directly re- ever, within 5 minutes, brain levels of the drug drop to
lated to the size of the individual. In general, the larger threshold anesthetic concentrations. In this way, thio-
the individual, the more diluted the drug will be in the pental induces sleep almost instantaneously but is effec-
larger fluid volume, and less drug will reach target sites tive for only about 5 minutes, followed by rapid recovery.
within a given unit of time. The average dose of a drug is Because the brain receives about 20% of the blood
typically based on the response of individuals between that leaves the heart, lipid-soluble drugs are readily
the ages of 18 and 65 who weigh 150 pounds. However, distributed to brain tissue. However, the blood–brain
for people who are very lean or obese, the average dose barrier limits the movement of ionized molecules from
may be inappropriate because of variations in the ratio the blood to the brain.
of fat to water in the body. For these individuals, body
surface area, which reflects both size and weight, may BLOOD–BRAIN BARRIER Blood plasma is supplied
serve as a better basis for determining drug dose. The sex by a dense network of blood vessels that permeate the
of the individual also plays a part in determining plasma entire brain. This system supplies brain cells with oxy-
drug level: in women, adipose tissue, relative to water, gen, glucose, and amino acids, and it carries away car-
represents a larger proportion of the total body weight. bon dioxide and other waste products. Despite the vital
Overall, the total fluid volume, which contains the drug, role that blood circulation plays in cerebral function,
is relatively smaller in women than in men, producing a many substances found in blood fluctuate significantly
higher drug concentration at the target site in women. It and would have disruptive effects on brain cell activity
should be obvious also that in the smaller fluid volume if materials were transferred freely between blood and
of a child, a standard dose of a drug will be more concen- brain (and the brain’s associated CSF).
trated and therefore will produce a greater drug effect. CSF is a clear, colorless liquid that fills the subarach-
noid space that surrounds the entire bulk of the brain
Drug distribution is limited and spinal cord and also fills the hollow spaces (ven-
by selective barriers tricles) and their interconnecting channels (aqueducts),
Regardless of the route of administration, once the drug as well as the centrally located cavity that runs longi-
has entered the blood, it is carried throughout the body tudinally through the length of the spinal cord (central
within 1 or 2 minutes and can have an action at any canal) (FIGURE 1.7A). CSF is manufactured by cells of
number of receptor sites. In general, those parts of the the choroid plexus, which line the cerebral ventricles.
body in which blood flow is greatest will have the high- In contrast to the wide fluctuations that occur in the
est concentration of drug. Since blood capillaries have blood plasma, the contents of the CSF remain quite
numerous pores, most drugs can move from blood and stable. Many substances that diffuse out of the blood
enter body tissues regardless of lipid solubility, unless and affect other organs in the body do not seem to enter
they are bound to protein (see the discussion on depot the CSF, nor do they affect brain tissue. This separa-
binding later in this chapter). Quite rapidly, high concen- tion between brain capillaries and the brain/CSF con-
trations of drugs will be found in the heart, brain, kid- stitutes what we call the blood–brain barrier. FIGURE
neys, and liver. Other tissues with less vasculature will 1.7B shows an enlargement of the relationship between
more slowly continue to absorb the drug from the plas- the cerebral blood vessels and the CSF.
ma, causing plasma levels to fall gradually. As plasma The principal component of the blood–brain barrier is
levels fall, the concentration of drug in the highly vas- the distinct morphology of brain capillaries. FIGURE 1.8
cularized organs will be greater than that in the blood, shows a comparison between typical capillaries found
so the drug will move from those organs back into the throughout the body (Figure 1.8A) and capillaries that
plasma to maintain equilibrium. Hence, those organs serve the CNS (Figure 1.8B). Because the job of blood ves-
will have an initial high concentration of drug, and then sels is to deliver nutrients to cells while removing waste,
drug redistribution will reduce drug concentration there. the walls of typical capillaries are made up of endothe-
Ultimately drug concentration will be in equilibrium in lial cells that have both small gaps (intercellular clefts)
Blood
plasma Lipid-soluble Tight junction
transport
Intercellular
cleft Carrier-mediated
transport
Pinocytotic Blood
vesicle plasma
End foot
Endothelial
of astrocyte
cell
Fenestration
FIGURE 1.8 Cross-section of typical capillaries and brain movement of water-soluble molecules through the blood ves-
capillaries (A) Capillaries found throughout the body have sel wall because there are essentially no large or small clefts
characteristics that encourage movement of materials between or pinocytotic sites. (After W. H. Oldendorf. 1977. Exp Eye Res
the blood and surrounding cells. (B) Brain capillaries minimize 25: 177–190. © 1977. Reprinted with permission from Elsevier.)
In contrast, the structurally related but highly ionized a dramatic and prolonged action because of slow and
drug neostigmine is excluded from the brain and in- incomplete metabolism. It is well known that opiates
creases acetylcholine only peripherally. Its restriction such as heroin readily reach the fetal circulation and
by the blood–brain barrier means that neostigmine can that newborn infants of heroin- or methadone-addicted
be used to treat the muscle disease myasthenia gravis mothers experience many of the signs of opiate with-
without significant CNS side effects, but it would not be drawal. Certain tranquilizers, gaseous anesthetics, al-
effective in treating pesticide-induced intoxication. As cohol, many barbiturates, and cocaine all readily pass
mentioned earlier in this section, because many drugs into the fetal circulation to cause acute toxicity. In ad-
that are ionized do not pass through the blood–brain dition, alcohol, cocaine, and the carbon monoxide in
barrier, direct delivery of the drug into brain tissue by cigarette smoke all deprive the fetus of oxygen. Such
intracranial injection may be necessary, although at drugs pose special problems because they are readily
leastMeyer
some4edrugs can be atomized and delivered in- accessible and are widely used.
tranasally to bypass the blood–brain barrier. A second
Psychopharmacology Teratogens are agents that induce developmental ab-
Dragonfly
approach is toMedia Group
develop a prodrug that is lipid soluble normalities in the fetus. The effects of teratogens such as
Sinauer Associates
and becomes bioactivated by brain enzymes. drugs (both therapeutic and illicit), exposure to X-rays,
Meyer4e_1.08 8-25-21 and some maternal infections (e.g., German measles) are
PLACENTAL BARRIER A second barrier, unique to dependent on the timing of exposure. The fetus is most
women, is found between the blood circulation of a susceptible to damaging effects during the first trimes-
pregnant mother and that of her fetus. The placenta, ter of pregnancy, because it is during this period that
which connects the fetus with the mother’s uterine many of the fetal organ systems are formed. Each organ
wall, is the means by which nutrients obtained from system is maximally sensitive to damaging effects dur-
the digestion of food, O2, CO2, fetal waste products, and ing its time of cell differentiation (TABLE 1.3). Many
drugs are exchanged. As is true for other cell mem- drugs can have damaging effects on the fetus despite
branes, lipid-soluble substances diffuse easily, and minimal adverse effects in the mother. For example,
water-soluble substances pass less easily. The potential the vitamin A–related substance isotretinoin, which
for transfer of drugs from mother to fetus has very im- is a popular prescription acne medication (Accutane),
portant implications for the health and well-being of produces serious birth defects and must be avoided by
the developing child. Potentially damaging effects on sexually active young women. Experience has taught us
the fetus can be divided into two categories: acute tox- that evaluation of drug safety must consider potential
icity and teratogenic effects. fetal effects, as well as effects on adults. Furthermore,
The fetus may experience acute toxicity in utero after because teratogenic effects are most severe during the
exposure to the disproportionately high drug blood time before pregnancy is typically recognized, the use
level of its mother. In addition, after birth, any drug of any drug known to be teratogenic in animals should
remaining in the newborn’s circulation is likely to have be avoided by women of childbearing age.
in plasma (%)
transformation (metabolism) of the drug and excretion
of metabolites that have been formed. Drug clearance 50
reduces blood levels and in large part determines the
intensity and duration of drug effects. The easiest way
to assess the rate of elimination consists of intrave-
nously administering a drug to establish a peak plasma
25
drug level, then collecting repeated blood samples. The
decline in plasma drug concentration provides a direct
measure of the clearance rate without complication by 12
absorption kinetics. 6
3
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
DRUG CLEARANCE Drug clearance from the blood Time (in half-lives)
usually occurs exponentially and is referred to as
first-order kinetics. Exponential elimination means that FIGURE 1.9 First-order kinetics of drug clearance Expo-
nential elimination of drug from the blood occurs when clear-
a constant fraction (50%) of free drug in the blood is re-
ance during a fixed time interval is always 50% of the drug
moved during each time interval. The exponential func- remaining in blood. For example, the half-life of orally admin-
tion occurs because even at relatively high drug concen- istered dextroamphetamine (Dexedrine) is approximately 10
trations, surplus clearance sites are available, so the rate is hours. Therefore, 10 hours (one half-life) after the peak plas-
concentration-dependent. Hence, when blood levels are ma concentration has been reached, the drug concentration is
high, clearance occurs more rapidly, and as blood levels reduced to about 50% of its initial value. After 20 and 30 hours
drop, the rate of clearance is reduced. The amount of time (i.e., two and three half-lives) have elapsed, the concentration
is reduced to 25% and 12.5%, respectively. After six half-lives,
required for removal of 50% of the drug in blood is called
the drug is essentially eliminated, with 1.6% remaining. The
the half-life, or t½. FIGURE 1.9 provides an example of curve representing the rate of clearance is steeper early on,
half-life determination for the stimulant dextroamphet- when the rate is more rapid, and becomes more shallow as
amine (Dexedrine), a drug used to treat attention-deficit/ the rate of clearance decreases.
hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Although all drugs are Meyer 4e
essentially eliminated after six half-lives, many psycho- Psychopharmacology
active drugs have half-lives of several days, so clearance time as a Media
Dragonfly result Group
of the dynamic balance between ab-
may take weeks after even a single dose. A list of the sorption
Sinauer and clearance. After oral administration at
Associates
half-lives of some common drugs is provided in TABLE time A, the plasma
Meyer4e_1.09 level of a drug gradually increases
7-22-21
1.5. Keep in mind that clearance from the blood is also to its peak (peak 1) followed by a decrease because
dependent on biotransformation rate as well as depot of drug biotransformation, elimination, or storage at
binding and storage in reservoirs such as fat. inactive sites. If first-order kinetics is assumed, after
The principal goal of any drug regimen is to main- one half-life (time B), the plasma drug level has fallen
tain the plasma concentration of the drug at a constant to half its peak value. Half-life determines the time
desired level for a therapeutic period. The therapeutic needed to reach the steady state plasma level, which
window is the range of plasma drug levels that are is the desired blood concentration of drug achieved
high enough to be effective, but not so high that they when the absorption/distribution phase is equal to
cause toxic or otherwise intolerable side effects. For the metabolism/excretion phase. For any given daily
some drugs, such as stimulants used to treat ADHD, dose of a drug, the steady state plasma level is ap-
or hypnotic drugs used to promote sleep, the thera- proached after a period of time equal to five half-lives
peutic period is only part of each day, so a single daily (time C), at which point only 3.125% of the initial dose
dose of a drug with a relatively short half-life would theoretically remains, minimally contributing to the
be required to avoid disruptive effects at other times total drug concentration achieved with subsequent
of day. However, in many cases the target therapeu- doses. Hence, for a given dosing interval, the shorter
tic concentration is achieved only after multiple ad- the half-life of a drug, the more rapidly the therapeutic
ministrations. For instance, as FIGURE 1.10 shows, level of the drug will be achieved. Drugs with longer
a predictable fluctuation in blood level occurs over half-lives will take longer to reach consistent blood
0.50
Desired blood drug level
(steady state plasma level) 0.40
Peak 1
Blood drug level
0.30
0.20
0.10
0
20 21 22 23 24
0
A B C Time (h)
Time
FIGURE 1.11 Zero-order rate of elimination The curve
FIGURE 1.10 Achieving steady state plasma levels of drug shows the decline of ethanol content in blood after intrave-
The scalloped line shows the pattern of accumulation during nous administration of a large dose to laboratory animals.
repeated administration of a drug. The arrows represent the The x-axis represents the time beginning 19 hours after ad-
times of administration. The shape of the scallop is dependent ministration. Plotted data show the change from zero-order
on both the rate of absorption and the rate of elimination. The to first-order kinetics when low concentrations are reached
smooth line represents drug accumulation in the blood during between 23 and 24 hours after administration. (After E. K.
continuous intravenous infusion of the same drug. Marshall, Jr. 1953. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 109: 431.)
are catalyzed by enzymes and can occur in many tis- they are metabolized. For example, the inactive drug
sues and organs, including the stomach, intestine, codeine is metabolized in the body to the active drug
blood plasma, kidney, and brain. However, the great- morphine, making codeine a prodrug.
est number of chemical changes, which we call drug The liver enzymes primarily responsible for metabo-
metabolism or biotransformation, occur in the liver. lizing psychoactive drugs are located on the smooth
There are two major types of biotransformation. endoplasmic reticulum, which is a network of tubules
Type I biotransformations are sometimes called phase within the liver cell cytoplasm. These enzymes are
I because these reactions often occur before a second often called microsomal enzymes because they exhibit
metabolic step. Phase I changes involve nonsynthetic particular characteristics on biochemical analysis.
modification of the drug molecule by oxidation, reduc- Microsomal enzymes lack strict specificity and can
tion, or hydrolysis. Oxidation is by far the most com- metabolize a wide variety of xenobiotics (i.e., chemi-
mon reaction; it usually produces a metabolite that is cals that are foreign to the living organism), including
less lipid soluble and less active, but it may produce toxins ingested with food, environmental pollutants,
a metabolite with equal or even greater activity than and carcinogens, as well as drugs. Among the most im-
the parent drug. Type II, or phase II, modifications are portant liver microsomal enzymes is the cytochrome
synthetic reactions that require the combination (called P450 (CYP450) enzyme family. Members of this class of
conjugation) of the drug with some small molecule such enzyme, which number more than 50, are responsible
as glucuronide, sulfate, or methyl groups. Glucuronide for oxidizing most psychoactive drugs, including anti-
conjugation is particularly important for inactivating depressants, morphine, and amphetamines. Although
psychoactive drugs. These metabolic products are less they are primarily found in the liver, cytochrome en-
lipid soluble because they are highly ionized and are zymes are also located in the intestine, kidney, lungs,
almost always biologically inactive. In summary, the and nasal passages, where they alter foreign molecules.
two phases of drug biotransformation ultimately pro- Enzymes are classified into families and subfamilies
duce one or more inactive metabolites, which are water by their amino acid sequences, as well as by the genes
soluble, so they can be excreted more readily than the encoding them, and they are designated by a number—
parent drug. Metabolites formed in the liver are re- letter—number sequence such as 2D6. Among the cy-
turned to the circulation and are subsequently filtered tochrome enzymes that are particularly important for
out by the kidneys, or they may be excreted into bile psychotropic drug metabolism are CYP450 1A2, 3A4,
and eliminated with the feces. Metabolites that are ac- 2D6, and several in the 2C subfamily.
tive return to the circulation and may have additional
action on target tissues before they are further metabo- FACTORS INFLUENCING DRUG METABOLISM The
lized into inactive products. Obviously, drugs that are enzymes of the liver are of particular interest to psycho-
converted into active metabolites have a prolonged du- pharmacologists because several factors significantly
ration of action. TABLE 1.6 shows several examples of influence the rate of biotransformation. These factors
the varied effects of phase I and phase II metabolism. alter the magnitude and duration of drug effects and are
The sedative drug phenobarbital is rapidly inactivated responsible for significant drug interactions. These drug
by phase I metabolism. In contrast, aspirin is converted interactions can either increase bioavailability, causing
at first to an active metabolite by phase I metabolism, adverse effects, or reduce blood levels, which may re-
but phase II action produces an inactive compound. duce drug effectiveness. Additionally, variations in the
Morphine does not undergo phase I metabolism but rate of metabolism explain many of the individual dif-
is inactivated by phase II reactions. Finally, diazepam ferences seen in response to drugs. Factors that modify
(Valium), a long-lasting antianxiety drug, has several biotransformation capacity include (1) enzyme induc-
active metabolites before phase II inactivation. Further, tion, (2) enzyme inhibition, (3) drug competition, and (4)
as mentioned previously, some drugs are inactive until individual differences in age, gender, and genetics.
Many psychoactive drugs, when used repeatedly, A second drug–food interaction involves the inges-
cause an increase in a particular liver enzyme (called tion of grapefruit juice, which significantly inhibits
enzyme induction). Increased numbers of enzyme mol- the biotransformation of many drugs metabolized by
ecules not only cause the drugs to speed up their own CYP450 3A4, including numerous psychiatric medi-
rate of biotransformation two- to threefold but also cations. A single glass (5 ounces) of grapefruit juice
can increase the rate of metabolism of all other drugs elevates the blood levels of those drugs significantly
modified by the same enzyme. For example, repeated by inhibiting their first-pass metabolism. The effect is
use of the antiseizure drug carbamazepine (Tegretol) caused by chemicals in grapefruit that are not found in
increases the number of CYP450 3A4 enzyme mole- oranges, such as bergamottin. Inhibition persists for 24
cules, leading to more rapid metabolism of carbamaze- hours and dissipates gradually after several days, but
pine and many other drugs, producing a lower blood it can be a hazard for those taking medications daily,
level and a reduced biological effect. Among the drugs because it causes significant drug accumulation.
metabolized by the same enzyme are oral contracep- A second type of inhibition, based on drug com
tives. For this reason, if carbamazepine is prescribed petition for the enzyme, occurs for drugs that share
to a woman who is taking oral contraceptives, she a metabolic system. Because the number of enzyme
will need an increased hormone dose or an alterna- molecules is limited, an elevated concentration of either
tive means of birth control (Zajecka, 1993). When drug drug reduces the metabolic rate of the second, causing
use is terminated, there is a gradual return to normal potentially toxic levels. CYP450 metabolism of alcohol
levels of metabolism. leads to higher-than-normal brain levels of other seda-
Another common example is cigarette smoke, which tive–hypnotics (e.g., barbiturates or Valium) when ad-
increases CYP450 1A2 enzymes. People who are heavy ministered at the same time, producing a potentially
smokers may need higher doses of drugs such as an- dangerous drug interaction.
tidepressants and caffeine that are metabolized by the Finally, differences in drug metabolism due to ge-
same enzyme. Such changes in drug metabolism and netic and environmental factors can explain why some
elimination explain in part why some drugs lose their individuals seem to be extremely sensitive to certain
effectiveness with repeated use, a phenomenon known drugs, but others may need much higher doses than
as tolerance (see the discussion on tolerance later in the normal to achieve an effect. Over 40 years ago, the first
chapter); these changes also cause a reduced effect of genetic polymorphisms (genetic variations among indi-
other drugs that are metabolized by the same enzyme viduals that produce multiple forms of a given protein)
(cross-tolerance). Clearly, drug-taking history can have for drug-metabolizing enzymes were identified. Large
a major impact on the effectiveness of the drugs that an variations, for instance, were found in the rate of acety-
individual currently takes. lation of isoniazid, a drug used to treat tuberculosis and
In contrast to drug-induced induction of liver subsequently found to relieve depression. Acetylation
enzymes, some drugs directly inhibit the action of en- is a conjugation reaction in which an acetyl group is at-
zymes (enzyme inhibition); this reduces the metabolism tached to the drug. These genetic polymorphisms that
of other drugs taken at the same time that are metab- determine acetylation rate vary across populations. For
olized by the same enzyme. In such cases, one would instance, 44% to 54% of American Caucasians and Afri-
experience a much more intense or prolonged drug can Americans, 60% of Europeans, 10% of Asians, and
effect and increased potential for toxicity. Monoamine only 5% of Inuit are slow inactivators (Levine, 1973).
oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs), used to treat depression, The enzymes that have been studied most are in the
act in the brain by preventing the destruction of certain CYP450 family, and each has multiple polymorphisms.
neurotransmitters by the enzyme monoamine oxidase In that family, CYP2D6 (i.e., CYP450 2D6) is of great in-
(MAO). The same enzyme is found in the liver, where it terest because it is responsible for metabolizing numer-
normally metabolizes amines such as tyramine, which is ous psychotropic drugs, including many antidepres-
found in red wine, beer, some cheeses, and other foods. sants, antipsychotics, antihistamines, muscle relaxants,
When individuals who are taking these antidepressants opioid analgesics, and others. In a recent study, swabs
eat foods rich in tyramine, dangerous high blood pres- of epithelial cells from the cheek linings of 31,563 in-
sure and cardiac arrhythmias can occur, making normal dividuals were taken and analyzed for the number of
foods potentially life-threatening. Further detail on this copies of the gene for CYP2D6. FIGURE 1.12A shows the
side effect of MAOIs is provided in Chapter 18. distribution of samples based on the number (zero, one,
In addition, because MAOIs are not specific for two, or three or more) of normal CYP2D6 genes (Beoris
MAO, they have the potential to cause adverse effects et al., 2016; see Taylor et al., 2020, for review). A small
unrelated to MAO function. They inhibit several mi- percentage of individuals (0.14%) are very poor metabo-
crosomal enzymes of the CYP450 family, producing lizers and have multiple copies of a polymorphism that
elevated blood levels of many drugs and potentially is ineffective in metabolizing substrates for the CYP2D6
causing increased side effects or unexpected toxicity. enzyme. Intermediary metabolizers make up 7.25% of
(A) Potential adverse Nonresponders FIGURE 1.12 Four genetic populations based on the number of
response to medication normal CYP2D6 genes (A) Percentage of samples containing zero,
100 one, two, and three or more copies of the normal CYP2D6 gene
87.41% from 31,563 individuals. PM, poor metabolizers; IM, intermediary
90
80
metabolizers; EM, extensive metabolizers; UM, ultrarapid metabo-
Percentage of samples
(B)
100
88.87% 86.89% 88.39%
90 Caucasian
77.17% African American
Percentage of samples
80
Asian
70 Hispanic
60
50
40
30
20 13.40%
6.33% 6.52% 8.82% 9.09% 6.52%
10 4.69% 2.71%
0
1 Copy 2 Copies ≥3 Copies
IM EM UM
the population tested and have one deficient allele and in African Americans than in the other ethnic groups
one normal allele. These two clusters of individuals and that the percentage of individuals with one copy
having poorer metabolism would be expected to have was 1.5 to 2.1 times higher in that group. Additionally,
greater bioavailability of those drugs, which may be re- the percentage of individuals with three or more copies
sponsible for adverse drug reactions or toxicity. These among African American was 1.4 to 3.4 times higher.
individuals would benefit from a reduction in drug dos- These differences indicate greater variation in CYP2D6
age. Approximately 87% of the individuals are exten- metabolism in African Americans, which puts some at
sive metabolizers and have two normal alleles. They are greater risk for adverse side effects and others at risk
considered extensive metabolizers because the normal for inadequate response to psychotropic medications.
enzyme is highly functional and efficient. The fourth Further discussion of this topic can be found at the end
group (5.21% of the population tested) are ultrarapid of the chapter in the section Pharmacogenetics and Per-
metabolizers and have multiple (three or more) normal sonalized Medicine.
gene copies. The ultrarapid group would be expected to Other enzymes also show wide genetic differences.
have
Meyersignificantly
4e lower blood levels of drug than nor- For example, approximately 50% of certain Asian groups
mal, which may make them nonresponders to the medi-
Psychopharmacology (Chinese, Japanese, and Koreans) have reduced capacity
cation. Hence,
Dragonfly Mediathese
Groupindividuals would benefit from to metabolize acetaldehyde, which is an intermediary
higher
Sinauer drug dosage. Such differences are significant
Associates metabolic step in the breakdown of alcohol. The result-
because there may
Meyer4e_1.12 be as much as a 1000-fold difference
9-16-21 ing elevation in acetaldehyde causes facial flushing,
in rate of metabolism for a particular drug among these tachycardia, a drop in blood pressure, and sometimes
individuals. In addition, the data showed there are dif- nausea and vomiting. The reduced metabolic capacity is
ferent distributions of these genotypes in different pop- caused by a specific mutation in the gene for aldehyde
ulations. FIGURE 1.12B shows the data for one or more dehydrogenase (Wall and Ehelers, 1995).
copies of the normal gene (the samples with zero copies Along with variations in genes, other individual dif-
are not shown) broken down by self-reported ethnicity ferences may influence metabolism. Significant changes
(about two-thirds of the individuals provided data on in nutrition or in liver function, which accompany vari-
ethnicity). The data show that the frequency of individ- ous diseases, lead to significantly higher drug blood lev-
uals with two copies of CYP2D6 was significantly lower els and prolonged and exaggerated effects. Advanced
age is often accompanied by a reduced ability to me- administering IV ammonium chloride increases the
tabolize drugs, while children under age 2 also have in- percentage of ionization of weakly basic drugs, which
sufficient metabolic capacity and are vulnerable to drug enhances their excretion. For example, acidifying the
overdose. In addition, both the young and the elderly urine increases the rate of excretion of amphetamine
have reduced kidney function, so clearance of drugs for and shortens the duration of a toxic overdose episode.
them is much slower. Sex differences in drug metabo-
lism also exist. For example, the stomach enzymes that Therapeutic drug monitoring
metabolize alcohol before it reaches the bloodstream are For a drug to be clinically effective while producing
far less effective in women than in men. This means that minimal side effects, optimal blood levels and hence
for an identical dose, a woman will have a much higher drug concentration at the target site must be main-
concentration of alcohol reaching her blood to produce tained throughout the treatment period. The difficul-
biological effects. If you would like to read more about ties in determining the appropriate drug dosage for
some of the clinical concerns related to differences in initial clinical trials with humans and for veterinary
drug metabolism, see Applegate (1999). medical treatment based on preclinical laboratory ani-
mal testing are described in BOX 1.3. Optimal blood
RENAL EXCRETION Although drugs can be excret- levels must be determined in clinical trials before Food
ed from the body in the breath, sweat, saliva, feces, or and Drug Administration (FDA) approval. However,
breast milk, the most important route of elimination is wide variation in rates of absorption, metabolism, and
the urine. Therefore, the primary organ of elimination elimination among individuals because of differences
is the kidney. The kidneys are a pair of organs, each in gender, age, genetic profile, disease state, and drug
about the size of a fist. They are responsible for filtering interactions can lead to significant differences in blood
materials out of the blood and excreting waste products. levels. Blood levels that are too low prevent desired clin-
As filtered materials pass through the kidney tubules, ical outcomes, and for individuals with higher-than-
necessary substances such as water, glucose, sodium, normal blood levels, unwanted side effects and toxicity
potassium, and chloride are reabsorbed into the blood. may occur. In the future, pharmacogenetic screening of
Most drugs are readily filtered by the kidney unless individuals (see the section Pharmacogenetics and Per-
they are bound to plasma proteins or are of large molec- sonalized Medicine in Psychiatry) will allow personal-
ular size. However, because reabsorption of water from ized prescription of drug doses, but at present, the ap-
the tubules makes the drug concentration greater in the propriate dosage of a drug is determined most often by
tubules than in the surrounding blood vessels, many the clinical response of a given individual. Under some
drug molecules are reabsorbed back into the blood. Ion- conditions, such as for drugs with serious side effects,
ization of drugs reduces reabsorption because it makes multiple blood samples are taken after drug adminis-
the drugs less lipid soluble. Liver biotransformation of tration to determine plasma levels of drug or to monitor
drugs into ionized (water-soluble) molecules traps the a biological process (i.e., biomarker) for a toxic response
metabolites in the kidney tubules, so they can be ex- (therapeutic drug monitoring). Short-term blood sam-
creted along with waste products in the urine. pling may be done to establish the optimal dosage for a
Reabsorption from the tubules, similar to diffu- patient taking a new medication. After each dosage cor-
sion across other membranes (discussed earlier), is rection by the physician, it may take some time to reach
pH-dependent. When tubular urine is made more al- steady state (approximately five half-lives), so monitor-
kaline, weak acids are excreted more rapidly because ing may continue for several days or weeks, until the
they become more ionized and are not reabsorbed as optimal dosage has been determ ined. For drugs that
well; that is, they are “trapped” in the tubular urine. must be taken over the life span, periodic monitor-
If the urine is acidic, the weakly acidic drug will be ing may be performed regularly. Monitoring detects
less ionized and more easily reabsorbed; thus, excre- changes in pharmacokinetics due to aging, hormonal
tion will be less. The opposite is true for a weakly basic changes during pregnancy and menopause, stress,
drug, which will be excreted more readily when tubu- changes in medical condition, or addition of new med-
lar urine is acidic rather than basic. This principle of ications. Many of the monitored psychotropic drugs,
altering urinary pH is frequently used in the treatment such as antiepileptic drugs, including carbamazepine,
of drug toxicity, when it is highly desirable to remove some antidepressants, and drugs used as mood stabi-
the offending drug from the body as quickly as pos- lizers such as lithium and valproic acid, are taken on a
sible. In the case of phenobarbital poisoning, for ex- long-term basis.
ample, kidney excretion of this weakly acidic substance Therapeutic drug monitoring is especially important
is greatly enhanced by alkalinization of the urine with for drugs that have a narrow therapeutic index (i.e., the
sodium bicarbonate. This treatment leads to ioniza- dose needed for effectiveness is very similar to the dose
tion and trapping of the drug within the tubules, from that causes serious side effects; see section 1.2 Pharmaco-
whence it is readily excreted. Acidifying the urine by dynamics). Because blood levels rise to a peak and then
fall to a trough just before the next administration (see whether the individual is taking the drug according to
Figure 1.10), drug monitoring can ensure that the peak the prescribed regimen. Failure to comply with the drug
remains below the blood level associated with toxic ef- treatment protocol often can be corrected by further pa-
fects, while the trough remains in the therapeutic range tient education. The American Association for Clinical
to maintain adequate symptom relief. Modifying the Chemistry (2020) provides additional information on
dosage for a given individual can optimize treatment. therapeutic drug monitoring at https://labtestsonline.
In addition, drug monitoring can be used to determine org/tests/therapeutic-drug-monitoring.
© iStock.com/Oppdowngalon
dose for effectiveness and safety. See Sharma and
McNeill (2009) for a full discussion.
Comparing the sizes of the animals is the most Meyer 4e
obvious approach to scaling a drug dose to a dif- Psychopharmacology
ferent species, but it is not the only factor. Using
size alone can have disastrous consequences, as Sinauer Associates
Meyer4e_Bx1.03 7-22-21
shown by the tragic outcome in Tusko, a 14-year-old
Asiatic elephant housed in the Lincoln Park Zoo in
Oklahoma City (West et al., 1962). The researchers
used only the difference in weight to scale the dose for drug. For example, there are major variations among
the elephant from previous experiments with cats. If species in the CYP450 enzyme family amino acid
the elephant’s sensitivity to the hallucinogenic lysergic sequences. The varied enzyme structures determine
acid diethylamide (LSD) resembled that of humans, which drug substrates are acted upon by the enzyme.
the 297 mg given to the elephant would have been an Another example of varied metabolism is conjugation
enormous overdose. Almost immediately after the with glucuronide, which is important and efficient in
drug was injected into the rump of the 3.5-ton elephant humans, while cats lack glucuronidation. Rats are
with a dart rifle, he stormed around his pen, appear- Meyer very4eefficient acetylators, but dogs lack acetylation,
ing uncoordinated before he collapsed, defecated, and Psychopharmacology
while humans are intermediate between the two. It is
had continuous seizures. His tongue turned blue and heDragonfly
clear that these
Media differences will lead to variations in
Group
struggled to breathe, dying shortly later of strangula- Sinauer
the blood
Associates of drug in different species.
levels
tion. There were efforts to save him, but the drugs usedMeyer4e_Bx1.03
In addition to8-30-21
differences in weight and pharmaco-
may have instead contributed to his death. One must kinetic factors, drug targets also contribute to varia-
conclude that the elephant’s sensitivity to LSD more tions in interspecies response to administered drugs.
closely resembled that of humans than of felines. CNS neurotransmitters are differentially distributed
There are many pharmacokinetic and pharmacody- in the brains of various species, and differences in
namic factors that are unrelated to size yet vary signif- the number, affinity, distribution, and regulation of
icantly among species. For example, protein binding at receptors likely explain dramatic differences in drug
silent depots varies greatly among species because of response. For example, opiate analgesics such as
differences in affinity to and number of binding sites. morphine cause CNS depression in primates, dogs,
Hence, for any drug that shows high depot binding in and rats but induce excitation in horses and cats.
one species, using weight alone to determine dose These pharmacodynamic factors are not related to the
would be ineffective, whereas correction for the extent size of the animal, so to adequately convert the drug
of protein binding would increase accuracy. Complex dose, one should have some understanding of the
interspecies differences in drug metabolism are also receptor characteristics of each species.
key factors in differences in bioavailability of a given