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2019v1.0
Gray Morris’s
Calculate
WITH
Confidence
Second Canadian Edition
Tania Killian, BScN, BEd, MEd, CCN, CHSE
Professor of Nursing
Seneca College of Applied Arts and Technology
Toronto, Ontario
U.S. Author
Deborah C. Gray Morris, RN, BSN, MA, LNC
Chairperson
Department of Nursing and Allied Health Sciences
Bronx Community College of the University of New York (CUNY)
Bronx, New York
GRAY MORRIS’S CALCULATE WITH CONFIDENCE, SECOND EDITION ISBN: 978-0-323-69571-8
Copyright © 2022 Elsevier, Inc. All rights reserved.
Adapted from Calculate With Confidence, Seventh Edition, by Deborah Gray Morris. Copyright © 2018 by
Elsevier Inc. 978-0-323-39683-7 (softcover)
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the publisher. Reproducing passages from this book without such written
permission is an infringement of copyright law.
Requests for permission to make copies of any part of the work should be mailed to: College Licensing
Officer, access ©, 1 Yonge Street, Suite 1900, Toronto, ON M5E 1E5. Fax: (416) 868-1621. All other inquiries
should be directed to the publisher www.elsevier.com/permissions.
Every reasonable effort has been made to acquire permission for copyrighted material used in this text
and to acknowledge all such indebtedness accurately. Any errors and omissions called to the publisher’s
attention will be corrected in future printings.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher
(other than as may be noted herein).
Notice
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating
and using any information, methods, compounds or experiments described herein. Because of
rapid advances in the medical sciences, in particular, independent verification of diagnoses and
drug dosages should be made. To the fullest extent of the law, no responsibility is assumed by
Elsevier, authors, editors or contributors for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a
matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods,
products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.
Tania Killian
Tania Killian, BScN, BEd, MEd, CCN, CHSE, began her nursing career at Lakehead Uni-
versity in Thunder Bay, Ontario. Graduating in 1998, she continued her educational pur-
suits at Lakehead University, subsequently completing a Bachelor and then a Masters of
Education. Tania supplemented her studies with practical field experience, spending her
summers working Search and Rescue for the Canadian Coast Guard. It was the combina-
tion of academics and experiential learning that served to solidify her love for prehospital
and emergency care. Tania parlayed this passion into a profession providing essential
service as an emergency/trauma nurse throughout the evolution of her career. The student
turned teacher in 2002 when Tania became a full-time professor at Seneca College. Now,
almost 20 years later, Tania continues to be a valued and respected faculty member of
Seneca’s School of Health Sciences. Her college portfolio includes a variety of course cur-
riculum development and delivery. In addition to her classroom leadership, Tania also
manages simulation and virtual reality programs for numerous faculties within Seneca
College. Within her roles, she has secured several funding initiatives and established and
continues to maintain partnerships within the international community to grow numerous
projects that enhance student learning.
An advocate of innovation, Tania has advanced cross-disciplinary experiential learning
in the various responsibilities she holds at the college. She has served as a Seneca Ambas-
sador internationally and has hosted international delegations at the college to share best
practices in nursing studies. Combining her medical training with her love of sports, Tania
has added new capacities and ‘personal bests’ to her career. She is proud to have served
professionally at several Olympic, Paralympic, Pan Am, and national games. Closer to
home, Tania is a member of several Team Ontario sport teams where she has the privilege
of working with sector allies to provide high-quality health care to elite athletes.
Tania’s other love is animals, and she is often seen with her loyal dog, Lucy, by her side.
iv
About the Authors v
chairperson began in July 2015. Deborah is also a program evaluator for the Accreditation
Commission for Education in Nursing (ACEN). Upon request, Deborah provides consult-
ant services to nursing programs in the area of dosage calculation.
Deborah’s interest in dosage calculation started with her career at Bronx Community
College of the City University of New York in 1978. Her original position at the college
was in the capacity of providing nursing students with tutoring in the area of dosage cal-
culation, which had been identified as an area of difficulty for students. She began with the
development of a manual to assist students with the subject matter and later developed a
course titled Pharmacology Computations, which was approved through the college gov-
ernance bodies and is currently a required course for students in the Associate Degree
Nursing Program. Deborah’s very first edition of Calculate with Confidence was published
in 1994. Calculate with Confidence is currently in its 7th U.S. edition and ranks among the
top books published by Elsevier in this area.
Deborah is married.
Reviewers
Jennifer Black, RN, BScN, MN Pammla Petrucka, RN, PhD
Professor & Coordinator Professor
Practical Nursing Program College of Nursing
Fanshawe College—Woodstock/Oxford Regional Campus University of Saskatchewan
Woodstock, Ontario Saskatoon, Saskatchewan
Julie Duff Cloutier, RN, BScN, MSc, PhD(c) Crystal Schauerte, BscN, MscN
Assistant Professor Nursing Professor
School of Nursing Department of Nursing
Laurentian University Algonquin College
Sudbury, Ontario Ottawa, Ontario
Michelle Earl, BSN, PID Ruth Swart, EdD, MHS, RN, BN, BSc
Team Leader and Placement Coordinator Senior Instructor
Practical Nursing Faculty of Nursing
Sprott Shaw College—Kelowna Campus; University of Calgary
Clinical Nursing Instructor Calgary, Alberta
University of British Columbia—Okanagan Campus
Kelowna, British Columbia Selena Talbot, RN, MAEd
Instructor III
Andrea Gretchev, RN, BScN, MN, CCNE
Faculty of Nursing
BSN Curriculum Coordinator
University of Regina
Douglas College, Health Sciences
Regina, Saskatchewan
Coquitlam, British Columbia
(Amy) Phuong Thi Dieu Hoang, BSc Andrea Tannahill, RN, MSN
Mathematics, BEd Nursing Instructor
Professor School of Health Sciences
Department of Mathematics University of Alberta BScN Collaborative Program at Red
Niagara College Deer College
Welland, Ontario Red Deer, Alberta
Kelly Kidd, RN, BScN, MN Barbara Thompson, RN, BScN, MScN
Professor Nursing Studies Professor of Nursing, Coordinator Practical Nursing
Coordinator Year 1 Practical Nursing Program Program
Coordinator Clinical Education Health Programs
Health and Community Studies Sault College
Algonquin College Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario
Pembroke, Ontario Lorna Walsh, BN, MEd, RN
Allison McFadden-Squire, BScN, RN, MEd(c) Nurse Educator/Year 1 and 2 Coordinator
Curriculum Lead Centre for Nursing Studies
Practical Nurse Program Memorial University of Newfoundland
NorQuest College St. John’s, Newfoundland
Edmonton, Alberta
With special thanks to
Dennise Morgan, RN, BScN, MN, CON(c) Terri Burrell RN, BScN, MSN
Clinical Supervisor Faculty
Seneca-York Collaborative BScN Program Saskatchewan Collaborative Bachelor of Science in
Practical Nursing Program Nursing (SCBScN)
Seneca College of Applied Arts and Technology Saskatchewan Polytechnic—Regina Campus
Department of Health Sciences Regina, Saskatchewan
Toronto, Ontario
vi
Preface to the Instructor
The culture of safety continues to be a priority in the delivery of health care. To advance
patient safety and its importance in health care delivery worldwide, several organizations
continue to promote patient safety, which includes an emphasis on improving safety in
medication administration. Canadian organizations include Health Canada, the Canadian
Institute for Health Information (CIHI), the Institute for Safe Medication Practices Canada
(ISMP Canada), and the Canadian Patient Safety Institute (CPSI). These organizations also
collaborate on the Canadian Medication Incident Reporting and Prevention System
(CMIRPS). This pan-Canadian program encourages reporting, sharing, and learning about
medication incidents in order to help reduce their reoccurrence and create a safer health
care system.
The second Canadian edition of Gray Morris’s Calculate with Confidence continues to
emphasize safety in medication administration and is written to meet the needs of current
and future practitioners of health care at any level. This book can be used as a resource for
any education program or practice setting that involves dosage calculation and medication
administration by health care providers.
Gray Morris’s Calculate with Confidence, Second Canadian Edition, primarily uses the
metric system in calculating dosages, but it presents examples that incorporate imperial
system (household, apothecary) measurements where applicable. Specifically, you will see
the conversion of pounds to kilograms in some examples because weight is still sometimes
measured in pounds in the community at large. Therefore it is prudent to include imperial
units of measurement in this book.
The second Canadian edition of Gray Morris’s Calculate with Confidence illustrates the
standard methods of dosage calculation: the ratio and proportion method, the formula
method, and the dimensional analysis method. With the inclusion of all three, instructors
have the freedom to decide which method(s) best suit their program, and students have
the same freedom to choose the method that facilitates correct dosage calculations.
This second Canadian edition responds to evidence-informed practices as they relate to
safe medication practices at all levels. Highlights include best practices for the labelling,
dispensing, preparing, and administering of medications. With the nursing student in
mind, emphasis is placed on critical thinking and clinical reasoning in the prevention of
medication errors. Principles of competence and safety are integrated throughout.
Answers to the Practice Problems include rationales to enhance the understanding of
principles. In response to the increased need for competency in basic math as an essential
prerequisite for dosage calculation, many Practice Problems are included in the basic math
section.
The once controversial use of calculators is now a more accepted practise, and they are used
in many nursing exams, including when writing licensure exams such as the NCLEX. Critical
care areas in some health care institutions have policies that require the use of calculators to
verify calculations to avoid medication errors. A basic calculator is usually sufficient for dosage
calculations. Calculator use is not encouraged in the basic math section of this book due to the
expectation that students should be able to perform calculations proficiently and independently
without their use.
Despite decreased errors in calculating medication dosages due to the availability of
better technology, health care providers must continue to use sound clinical reasoning in
problem solving to minimize the risk to patient safety.
vii
viii Preface to the Instructor
The second Canadian edition of Gray Morris’s Calculate with Confidence embodies all
the standards of nursing practice. It clearly delineates the nurse’s responsibility in medica-
tion practices, including accurate dosage calculation to optimize safe patient outcomes.
Organization of Content
The second Canadian edition is organized in a progression from simple topics to more
complex ones, making content relevant to the needs of students and using realistic Practice
Problems and Clinical Reasoning Questions to enhance learning and make material clini-
cally applicable.
The 23 chapters are arranged into 5 units.
Unit One includes Chapters 1 through 4. This unit provides a review of basic math skills,
including fractions, decimals, ratio and proportion, and percentages. A pre-test and post-
test are included. This unit allows students to determine their weaknesses and strengths in
math and provides a review. Academic institutions using this book may use these units as
independent study for students to review basic math concepts before venturing on to actual
dosage calculations.
Unit Two includes Chapters 5 through 7. Chapter 5 introduces students to the metric
and imperial (household, apothecary) systems of measurement. Canada’s health care pro-
viders use the metric system. However, some units of household measurement are dis-
cussed because of their continued use, albeit limited. These measurements are pound,
ounce, teaspoon, tablespoon, and cup. In Chapter 6, students learn to convert measure-
ments. Chapter 7 presents conversions relating to temperature, length, weight, and inter-
national time.
Unit Three includes Chapters 8 through 14. This unit provides essential information
that is needed as a foundation for dosage calculation and safe medication administration.
Chapter 8 includes an expanded discussion of medication errors, routes of medication
administration, equipment used in medication administration, the rights of medication
administration, and the nursing role in preventing medication errors. Chapter 9 presents
the abbreviations used in medication administration and discusses how to interpret medi-
cation orders. Chapter 10 introduces students to medication administration records and
the various medication distribution systems. Chapter 11 provides students with the skills
necessary to read medication labels to calculate dosages. Chapters 12 through 14 introduce
students to the various methods used for dosage calculation followed by Practice Problems
illustrating each method.
Unit Four includes Chapters 15 through 18. In Chapter 15, students learn the principles
and calculations related to oral medications (solid and liquids). In Chapter 16, students
learn about the various types of syringes and skills needed for calculating injectable medi-
cations. Chapter 17 introduces students to the calculations associated with reconstituting
solutions for injectable and noninjectable medications. Calculations associated with the
preparation of noninjectable solutions such as nutritional feedings include determining the
strength of a solution and determining the amount of the desired solution. Chapter 18
introduces students to insulin types, insulin equipment, and Canadian Diabetes Associa-
tion 2018 Clinical Practice Guidelines for the prevention and management of diabetes in
Canada.
Unit Five includes Chapters 19 through 23. Chapters 19 and 20 provide students with
a discussion of intravenous (IV) fluids and associated calculations related to IV therapy.
The recalculation of IV flow rate includes an alternative method to determining the per-
centage of variation. IV labels have been added throughout the chapter, with a discussion
of additives to IV solutions. Chapter 21 focuses on heparin and uses the new heparin
labelling. Sample heparin weight-based protocols are used to adjust IV heparin based on
activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT). Chapter 22 discusses the principles of cal-
culating pediatric and adult dosages, with emphasis on calculating dosages based on body
weight and body surface area as well as verifying the safety of dosages. Chapter 23 provides
students with the skills necessary to calculate critical care IV medications. Determining
the titration of IV flow rates for titrated medications includes developing a titration table.
Preface to the Instructor ix
Safety Alerts, Practice Problems, Clinical Reasoning scenarios, and Points to Remember
are included throughout the book. A Comprehensive Post-Test is included at the end of
the book and covers all 23 chapters.
Ancillaries
Evolve Resources for Gray Morris’s Calculate with Confidence, Second Canadian Edition,
are available to enhance student instruction. This online resource can be found at http://
evolve.elsevier.com/Canada/GrayMorris/. It corresponds with the chapters of the main
book and includes the following:
• TEACH for Nurses
• Test Bank
• PowerPoint Slides
• Image Collection of Drug Labels
• Answer Key from Textbook
• Student Review Questions
• NEW! Tips for Clinical Practice easy reference
• NEW! Next Generation NCLEX Case Studies (both generic and book-specific)
• NEW! Elsevier’s Interactive Drug Calculation Application, version 1: This interactive
drug calculation application provides hands-on, interactive practice for the user to
master drug calculations. Users can select the mode (Study, Exam, or Comprehensive
Exam) and then the category for study and exam modes. There are eight categories that
cover the main drug calculation topics. Users are also able to select the number of
problems they want to complete and their preferred drug calculation method. A calcula-
tor is available for easy access within any mode, and the application also provides history
of the work done by the user. There are 750 practice problems in this application.
x Preface to the Instructor
We hope that this book provides clear concept review, practice questions, detailed
explanations and clinical reasoning questions to help you master the dosage calculations
you need to correctly administer medications safely.
This book is not only for the beginner health care provider but is meant to also benefit
the experienced health care provider as a useful reference.
Tania Killian
Acknowledgements
First and foremost, I must thank Theresa Fitzgerald for guiding me throughout this process.
Without her patience and continued encouragement, I would not have completed this
book.
Thank you to Roberta A. Spinosa-Millman and Rachel McMullen of Elsevier for giving
me the opportunity to write this book and their support throughout the process.
I wish to acknowledge the valuable contributions of my reviewers. Thank you for your
notes regarding the improvement of quality, coherence, and presentation of the content of
the book. I am grateful for the combined insight they provided. I would also like to thank
Marcia Brown for her work on the first edition.
And most importantly, to my family, friends, colleagues, and the “Coffee Club” who
inspired me to take a chance at writing.
—Tania Killian
xi
Contents
2 Decimals, 23
Reading and Writing Decimals, 24
Comparing the Value of Decimals, 26
Adding and Subtracting Decimals, 27
Multiplying Decimals, 29
Dividing Decimals, 31
Rounding Off Decimals, 32
Changing Fractions to Decimals, 34
Changing Decimals to Fractions, 34
4 Percentages, 51
Percentage Measures, 51
Converting Percentages to Fractions,
Decimals, and Ratios, 52
Converting Fractions, Decimals,
and Ratios to Percentages, 54
Comparing Percentages and Ratios, 56
Determining the Percentage of a Quantity, 57
Determining What Percentage
One Number Is of Another, 57
Calculating the Percentage of Change, 59
xii
Contents xiii
POST-TEST 64
18 Insulin, 473
Labels, 474
Types of Insulin and Their Action, 475
Appearance of Insulin, 479
Insulin Administration Methods, 479
Insulin Orders, 485
Preparing a Single Dose of Insulin in an Insulin Syringe, 488
Measuring Two Types of Insulin in the Same Syringe, 489
Intravenous Insulin, 492
Calculating an Intravenous Insulin Infusion, 492
Hypoglycemia, 493
References, 709
Drug Label Credits, 711
Drug Index, 712
Index, 717
UNIT ONE
Math Review
A n essential role of the nurse is providing safe medication administration to all patients.
To accurately perform dosage calculations, the nurse must have knowledge of basic math,
regardless of the problem-solving method used in calculation. Knowledge of basic math is a
necessary component of dosage calculation that nurses need to know to prevent medication
errors and ensure the safe administration of medications to all patients, regardless of the
setting. Serious harm to patients can result from a mathematical error during calculation and
administration of a medication dosage. The nurse must practise and be proficient in the basic
math used in dosage calculations. Knowledge of basic math is a prerequisite for the preven-
tion of medication errors and ensures the safe administration of medications.
Although calculators are accessible for basic math operations, the nurse needs to be able
to perform the processes involved in basic math. Controversy still exists among educators
regarding the use of calculators in dosage calculation. Calculators may indeed be recom-
mended for complex calculations to ensure accuracy and save time; the types of calculations
requiring their use are presented later in this text. However, because the basic math required
for less complex calculations is often simple and can be done without the use of a calculator,
it is a realistic expectation that each practitioner should be competent in the performance of
basic math operations without its use. Performing basic math operations enables the nurse
to think logically and critically about the dosage ordered and the dosage calculated.
Pre-Test
Chapter 1 Fractions
Chapter 2 Decimals
Chapter 3 Ratio and Proportion
Chapter 4 Percentages
Post-Test
PRE-TEST
This test is designed to evaluate your ability in the basic math areas reviewed in Unit One.
The test consists of 62 questions. If you are able to complete the pre-test with 100% accu-
racy, you may want to bypass Unit One. Any problems answered incorrectly should be used
as a basis for what you might need to review. The purposes of this test and the review that
follows are to build your confidence in basic math skills and to help you avoid careless
mistakes when you begin to perform dosage calculations.
25 24
2. ___________________________ 5. ___________________________
100 36
2
3. ___________________________
150
3 3
7. 4÷ = _______________________ 14. 9 − = _______________________
4 5
2 1 1 3
8. + = _______________________ 15. 4 − 1 = ____________________
5 9 4 4
1 5 1 3
9. 7 − 2 = ____________________ 16. 7 − 1 = ____________________
7 6 5 4
2 9
10. 4 × 4 = _____________________ 17. 7 − = ______________________
3 16
5 2 3 7
11. 3 + 5 = ____________________ 18. 3 −1 = __________________
6 3 10 10
6 5
12. 5 + 3 = ____________________
7 7
Change the following fractions to decimals; express your answer to the nearest tenth.
6 2
19. ____________________________ 21. ____________________________
7 3
6 7
20. ___________________________ 22. ____________________________
20 8
Perform the indicated operations with decimals. Provide the exact answer; do not
round off.
Divide the following decimals; express your answer to the nearest tenth.
Complete the table below, expressing the measures in their equivalents where indicated.
Reduce to lowest terms where necessary.
Find the following percentages. Express your answer to the hundredths place as indicated.
54. A patient is instructed to take 7.5 millilitres (mL) of a cough syrup 3 times a day. How
many mL of cough syrup will the patient take each day? _______________
55. A tablet contains 0.75 milligrams (mg) of a medication. A patient receives 3 tablets a
day for 5 days. How many mg of the medication will the patient receive in 5 days?
_______________
56. A patient took 0.44 micrograms (mcg) of a medication every morning and
1.4 mcg each evening for 5 days. What is the total amount of medication taken?
_______________
57. Write a ratio that represents that every tablet in a bottle contains 0.5 mg of a
medication. _______________
59. A patient takes 10 mL of a medication 3 times a day. How long will 120 mL of
medication last? _______________
60. A patient weighed 125 kilograms (kg) before dieting. After dieting, the patient weighed
113.6 kg. What is the percentage of change in the patient’s weight? _______________
61. A patient was prescribed 10 mg of a medication for a week. After a week, the health
care provider reduced the medication to 7 mg. What was the percentage of decrease
in medication? _______________
62. A patient received 22.5 mg of a medication in tablet form. Each tablet contained 4.5 mg
of medication. How many tablets were given to the patient? _______________
Answers on page 5.
ANSWERS
2
1. 2
3 10. 18 19. 0.9 28. 47.77 37. x = 3
3
1
2. 3 1 1
4 11. 9 = 9 20. 0.3 29. 1 875 38. x = 0.5 or
6 2 2
1
3. 11 4
75 12. 8 =9 21. 0.7 30. 23.7 39. 0.4
7 7
4
4. 11
5 13. 22. 0.9 31. 36.8 40. 0.7
12
4 2
5. = 2 7
6 3 14. 8 23. 32. 0.674 41. 1.5
5 8
6. 2 2 1 11
15. 2 = 2 24. 33. 0.38 42. 0.74
4 2 12
1
7. 5 9
3 16. 5 25. 87.45 34. 0.6 43. 0.83
20
23
8. 7
45 17. 6 26. 5.008 35. x = 12 44. 1.23
16
13
9. 4 6 3
42 18. 1 =1 27. 40.112 36. x = 2
10 5
50. 5 53. 18.29% 56. 9.2 mcg 59. 4 days 62. 5 tablets
Health care providers need to have an understanding of fractions. Fractions may be seen in medical orders,
patient records, prescriptions, documentation relating to care given to patients, and literature related to
health care. Nurses often encounter fractions in dosage calculation.
5
Example: In the fraction , the whole is divided into 6 equal parts (denominator), and
6
five parts (numerator) are considered.
5 5
= 5 parts of 6 parts, or of the whole.
6 6
5
The fraction may also be read as 5 divided by 6.
6
125 mg
250 mg
500 mg 125 mg 125 mg
250 mg
125 mg
1 3
Whole = 250 mg = 375 mg
2 4
Types of Fractions
Proper Fraction: Numerator is less than the denominator, and the fraction has a value of
less than 1.
1 5 7 1
Examples: , , ,
8 6 8 150
Improper Fraction: Numerator is larger than, or equal to, the denominator, and the frac-
tion has a value of 1 or greater than 1.
3 7 300 4
Examples: , , ,
2 5 150 4
Mixed Number: Whole number and a proper fraction in which the total value of the mixed
number is greater than 1.
1 1 1 7
Examples: 3 , 5 , 9 , 25
3 8 6 8
Complex Fraction: Numerator, denominator, or both are fractions. The value may be less
than, greater than, or equal to 1.
3 1
2
1
3 2 2
Examples: , , ,
2 1
2 1 1 4 1150
1 3 6 100
Examples: 1 = , 3 = , 6 = , 100 =
1 1 1 1
Copyright © 2022, Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
8 UNIT ONE Math Review
Converting Fractions
An improper fraction can be changed to a mixed number or whole number by dividing
the numerator by the denominator. If there is a remainder, that number is placed over the
denominator, and the answer is reduced to lowest terms.
6 1 100 10 2 1
Examples: = 6÷5 =1 , = 100 ÷ 25 = 4, = 10 ÷ 8 = 1 = 1
5 5 25 8 8 4
A mixed number can be changed to an improper fraction by multiplying
the whole number by the denominator, adding it to the numerator, and
placing the sum over the denominator.
1 (5 × 8) + 1 41
Example: 5 = =
8 8 8
Comparing Fractions
Comparing the size of fractions is important in the administration of medications. It
helps the new practitioner learn the value of medication dosages early on. Fractions
can be compared if the numerators are the same by comparing the denominators or if
the denominators are the same by comparing the numerators. These rules are presented in
Box 1-1.
Two or more fractions with different denominators can be compared by changing both
fractions to fractions with the same denominator (see Box 1-1). This is done by finding the
lowest common denominator (LCD), or the lowest number evenly divisible by the denomi-
nators of the fractions being compared.
3 4
Example: Which is larger, or ?
4 5
NOTE Solution: The LCD is 20, because it is the smallest number that can be divided by
LCD = 20 both denominators evenly. Change each fraction to the same terms by
dividing the LCD by the denominator and multiplying that answer by the
numerator. The answer obtained from this is the new numerator. The
numerators are then placed over the LCD.
3 3 15
For the fraction , 20 ÷ 4 = 5; 5 × 3 = 15; therefore becomes .
4 4 20
4 4 16
For the fraction , 20 ÷ 5 = 4; 4 × 4 = 16; therefore becomes .
5 5 20
Therefore
4 16
5 20 ( )
is larger than
3 15
4 20
. ( )
Box 1-2 presents fundamental rules of fractions.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
Circle the fraction with the lesser value in each of the following sets.
6 4 4 1 3
1. 6.
30 5 8 8 8
5 6 1 1 1
2. 7.
4 8 40 10 5
1 1 1 1 1 1
3. 8.
75 100 150 300 200 175
6 7 8 4 5 10
4. 9.
18 18 18 24 24 24
4 7 3 4 1 1
5. 10.
5 5 5 3 2 6
Copyright © 2022, Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
10 UNIT ONE Math Review
Circle the fraction with the greater value in each of the following sets.
6 5 2 6 3
11. 16.
8 9 5 5 5
7 2 1 4 1
12. 17.
6 3 8 6 4
1 6 1 7 5 8
13. 18.
72 12 24 9 9 9
1 1 1 1 1 1
14. 19.
10 6 8 10 50 150
1 1 1 2 1 6
15. 20.
75 125 225 15 15 15
Reducing Fractions
Fractions should always be reduced to their lowest terms.
RULE
To reduce a fraction to its lowest terms, the numerator and denominator are each divided by the
largest number by which they are both evenly divisible.
6
Example: Reduce the fraction .
20
6 2 3
÷ =
20 2 10
6 3
=
20 10
75
Example: Reduce the fraction .
100
75 25 3
÷ =
100 25 4
75 3
=
100 4
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
Reduce the following fractions to their lowest terms.
10 7
21. = __________________________ 22. = __________________________
15 49
64 9
23. = _________________________ 30. = __________________________
128 27
100 9
24. = _________________________ 31. = ___________________________
150 9
20 15
25. = __________________________ 32. = __________________________
28 45
14 124
26. = __________________________ 33. = _________________________
98 155
10 12
27. = __________________________ 34. = __________________________
18 18
24 36
28. = __________________________ 35. = __________________________
36 64
10
29. = __________________________ Answers on page 21.
50
Adding Fractions
RULE
To add fractions with the same denominator, add the numerators, place the sum over the denominator,
and reduce to lowest terms.
1 4 5
Example: + = NOTE
6 6 6
In addition to reducing to
1 3 4 8 lowest terms in the second
Example: + + = Example, the improper fraction
6 6 6 6
was changed to a mixed number.
8 4 1
= =1
6 3 3
RULE
To add fractions with different denominators, change fractions to their equivalent fraction with the
LCD, add the numerators, write the sum over the common denominator, and reduce if necessary.
1 1
Example: +
4 3
Solution: The LCD is 12. Change to equivalent fractions.
1 3
=
4 12
1 4
+ =
3 12
7
12
1 1 2
Example: +1 +
2 3 4