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ABRAHAMS ’ AND MCMINN ’S

ATLAS OF HU岛1AN

EIGHTH EDITION

Peter H. Abrahams, MB B乱 FRCS (Ed), FRCR, DO (Hon) FH EA

Professor "Emeritus" of Clinic.al Anatomy, Warwick Medical School, UK
Professor of Clini创 Anat。my, St. G剖rge’s University, Grenada, W.I.
National Teaching Fellow 2011, UK
Life Fellow, Girton College，臼mbridge, UK
Examiner, MRCS, Royal Colleg田 of Surgeons (UK)
Family Practitioner NHS (retired), Brent, London, UK

』onathan D. Spratt, MA (Cantab). FRCS (En时， FRCR

Clini臼lDirector of Radiolog如 City Hospitals Sunderland, UK
Former Examiner in Anatomy, Royal College of Surgeons of England, UK
Former Examiner in Anat。m如 Royal College of Radiologists, UK

Marios Loukas, MD, Pho

Dean of Basic Sciences, Dean of Research,
Professor and Co-Chair, Department of Anatomic.al Sciences, School of Medicine
St. George's Unive四”， Grenada, W.I.

Albert-Neels van Schoo巳 BSc MedSci, BSc (H。n啡， MSιPhD

陆目ciate Professo巳 Head of Section of Clinical Anatom~， Department of Anatomy, School of Medicine,
Faculty of Health Science置， University of Pretoria, P『etoria, Gaute吨， So皿h Af『i臼

For additional online con幅nt visit StudentConsult.com

ELSE飞'IER EDINBU阳H LONDON NEW YORK OXFORD PHILADELPH队 ST LOUIS SYDNEY TORONTO 2019
ELSEVIER
。 2020. Elsevier Lim过：ed. All rights r的创ved.
First edition 1977 by Wolfe Publishing
Second edi币。n 1988 by Wolfe Publishing
而ird edi币。n 1993 by Mosby-Wo悔， an imprint of Times Mirror International Publishers Ltd
Fourth ed浏阳 1998 by Mosby. an imprint of Mosby International Ltd
F的h edition 2003 by Elsevier Scienc睡 L创
Sixth edition 2008 by Elsevier Ltd
Seventh edition 2013 by Elsevier Ltd

The 『ight of Peter H. Abrahams. Jonathan D. Spratt, Marios Loukas and Albert N. Van Schoor to be
identified as authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright. De唱igns
and Patents Act 1988.

All photographs taken by Ralph Hutchings, photographer for lmagingbody.com. remain in his sole
copyright.

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transm闹剧 in any form or by any means. electronic
or mechanical. including photocopying, recording. 。『 any information storage and retriev副主y如m,
without pennission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further
information about the Publishe内阳rmi臼ions policies and our a『rangements with organ阳tions such as
the Copy句ht Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency. can be found at our website:
www.elsevier.com/阳rmissions.

This book and the individual contributions contained in it are prot创立：ed under copy句ht by the
阳blisher (other than as may be noted herein).

Notices
Practitioner军 and resea时lers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in e切lua划”
and using any information, methods, compounds or experiments described herein. Be臼use of rapid
advances in the medical scien创立 in pa付icular. independent verification of diagnoses and drug dosages
should be made. To the fullest 以tent of the la以 no responsibility is assumed by Else响ιautho邸，
editors or contributors for any i时uryan的r damage to persons or property as a matter of products
liabili以 negligence or o伽erwise，。r from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions,
。r ideas contained in the material herein.

ISBN: 978-0-7020·7332-8
97E• 0-7020-7333-5

Prin始d in Poland
Last dig技 is the print number: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

[!]2量 ；2挂在：江s

Content S"a俑，1st: Jeremy Bo州$

Content Developm酬t Specialists: Joanne So创t, Kim Benson
脚。1jKtManag由民 Julie Taylor
Design: Miles Hitchen
lllustratfon Manage民 Karen Giacomuαi
Illustrators: Jessica Holland, MPS
Mart&:eting Mana镑’r: Deborah Watldns
Preface and Dedication

’7o our patients and long-suffering families and spouses who do not see us enough
and to our students on four continents who seem to see a bit too much of us!"

This new 8th edition based on the original McMinn Colou『

Atlas (1977) has now been updated and integrated with
modern imaging anatom弘 clinical case studies and 30 videos
of most anatomical structur回. over the last 40 yea阳（8 edi-
tions) the o『iginal book has moved with the tim臼 and ben-
efited from the anatomical experti”。f many international
stars including Ralph Hutchings, Bari Logan and Professors
』ohn Pegington (U 町， Sandy Marks (USA) and Hanno B。on
(RSA) - all who made their own separate unique contribu-
ti。ns (see the sixth and seventh edition dedications and
prefao臼 in the Student Consult eBook (www.studentcon-
suit.com)).

Fo『 over 25 years Peter Abrahams has been the d『iving force
keeping the first e四『 full-colou『 photographic dissection
atlas so relevant today; with updates on clinical practice and
modern 恒chniqu缸， as well as the addition of numerous
radiological modalities. This edition b『ings new coloured
dissections, most of which were pert。rmed at the 3rd Hanno
Boon Masterclass, held in 2016 at SGU, G 『enada (see photo
in the Acknowledgements). Mari创 Loukas from Grenada,
WI and Albert van Scho。r from Pretoria，阳A-two younger
generation academic anatomists- have now been working
with Jonathan Spratt, our consultant radiologist, to keep
~his atlas on the in~rnational cutting edge of anatomy as
integrated into clini臼l medicine.

This is best illust『ated by the clinical topics displayed as We, the authors - all of whom teach on a daily basis to
bullets at the bottom of each page as a guide to ove『 2000 both a natomi臼I science students and clinical po筑graduate
clinical photographs and 臼se vignettes plus 250+ 30 videos, medics-f1倒 that the understanding of the human body is
all of which are in the Student Consult eBook (www.student- best 帽tained by learning anatomi臼I structures in a clini臼｜
consult.com). This unique 也ature for any anatomical dissec- context. Hence the inclusi。non almost every dissection page
tion atlas is the combined cases from Abrahams and Spra忧 of this atlas of radiology, endoscopy and real clinical 臼S臼
plus 120 clinical colleagues from aero臼 the globe - see the backed up by 3D angiograms, scans and some pathologi臼｜
acknowledgements in the present edition and from the sixth cases to emphasise the normal anatomy within it革 clinical
and seventh edition in the Student Consult eBook (www. context.
studentconsu It.Cl。m). We are truly gra时ultoall 。ur donors,
patients and their d。ctors f，。r this unique anatomical trea-
sure tr＇。，ye from six c。ntinents spanning 。1ver 70 years.
Another bonus in this B"'edition is a completely new 25-page
For additional electronic content (at www.studentcon-
neuroanatomy and cranial nerve section, with many new
suit.com) I。。k 。ut for the following throughout the
dissections and brain cross-阻ctions matched with MR scans
book:
to show the cranial nerv，田 in situ. Lastl弘 but not least. we
have improved chapter 7 on ~~mphatics - difficult to see in
the dissection room but essential t。 the clinical understand-
ing of disease.，自pecially 臼ncer spread. We have expanded
0 Goonli叫 view 蜘剖曲。 l叩 and JD rotations
and c。loured much of the ~mphatic section to illustrate this
m。st important system clinically but which is rarely actually
~ Clinical im咽”：“。nline to vi侧目伽 dinical 饵”’
dissected in 目lases and 恒脑．
Ac kn 。wledgements
Dissections
Hea附felt thanks to all our donors and 伽eir families for the
ultimate donation to benefit mankind and future genera-
tions of medical knowledge. This supreme gift to society
educates and enriches the human experience for genera-
tions to come, for today's medical students are tomorrow’s
clinicians worldwide.
The production of this atlas and accompanying Student
Consult eBook (www.军tudentconsult.com) has been a huge
team effort over 5 years and has involved prosect。”’ pro­
fessor嚣， teachers and students from across five continents.
We, the four author嚣， would like to thank all those who
worked with us to deliver this new exciting clinical anatomy
atlas and accompanying linked clinical Student Consult
eBook.
Prosection preparation
Lane Prigge, Sone van der Walt. Nhlanhla Japh始 from the
Sefako Makgatho Health Sciencesυ川versity.
Helene Biemond, Lev6 Beytell, Dylan Calldo, Edwin de
Jag帆 Shavana Govende民 Anya K6nig, Lezanne Lou毗
υrsula Mariani, Thiasha Nadesan, Andiswa Ncube, Siphesi-
hie Sithole, and Dani!I van Tonder from the University of
Pretoria, South Africa.
Special thanks to Prof. Marius Bosman and Gerda Venter
for their efforts, guidance, and contribution to the revised
neuroanatomy section of the atla队
Maira du Plessis, Benjamin Turner, Ors. Theofanis Kollias,
Wallisa Robe邸， Department of Anatomi铺l 钳制捕事， St.
George'sυniversity, School of Medicine, Grenada, West
Indies.
Many of the new dissections were carried out at the 3rd
” anno Boon Masterclass in Grenada in D时ember of 2016.
Those contributing their skills and in so honouring the
international memory of Pro悔”。r Hanno Boon (R.I反，） were
Vicky Cottrell, Paul Dansie, Maira du Plessis，阳chard Tunstall,
Erin Fillmore, Shiva Mathurin，』am部 Coey, Natalie Keough
assisted by Yvonne James (see photo).
Photographic, technical
and research
Marius Loots (Department of Anatomy， υniversity of Preto-
ria, South Africa），部 well as Laura Jane and Jaco van Schoor
(Jack & Jane Photography, South Africa) and Joanna Loukas
(Department of Anatomical Sciences, St. George’s University)
for all their photographic skills.
Gert Lewis, Samuel Ngobe时， Renestanle弘 and Helena Tau始
(Department of Anatom弘 University of Pretoria, S。uth
Africa) for t棋hnical 都si到.a nee.
Rodon Marrast, Shiva Mathurin，隙。meo Cox, Seikou Phillip,
Marlon Joseph, Nelson Davis, Travis Joseph, Simone Francis,
Charlon Charles, Arnelle Gib胁， Sheryce Fraser and Chad
Phillip (Department of Anatomical Sciences, St. George’s
υniversity, School of Medicine, Grenada, West Indies) for
their technical and lab assistance, throughout the project.
Ryan Jacobs, Nadica Thomas-Dominique, Tracy Shabazz and
Yvonne James for their invaluable assistance during the 3阔
”an no 隙。on Masterclass in 2016 at St. George’sυniversi勘
School of Medicine, Grenada, West Indies.
The following research fellows of the Department of Ana-
tomical Sci帆ces, St. George’s Universrty, School of Medicine,
Grenada, West Indies for their contributions: Ors. Sonja
知land》r, Shinelle Whiteman, Rafik Shereen, Mu” Hsiang (Joy)
Wa吨， Mohammad Walid Kassem and Jaspreet Johal.
The following instructors of the Department of Anatomi-
cal Sciences, St. George、 υniversity, School of Medicine,
Grenada, West Indies for their artistic talents and contribu-
tion throughout the book to numerous illustrations: Jessica
Holland, Brandon Holt, David Nahabedian, Charles Price and
Katie Yost.
Clinical, operative,
endoscopic, ultrasound,
other imaging modalities
and videos cases - see
also the sixth and seventh
edition clinical cases
acknowledgements in the
Student Consult eBook
{www.studentconsult.com).
。民 Lucille Abrahams MBChB, FRCGP, GP, Brent; M民 Arunmoy
Chakravorty MS, FRCS (E份， Hillingdon Hospital NHS Foun-
dation Trust London; Prof. Paul Finan MD, FRCS Hon, FRCPS
(Glas）.，”。n Professor of Color惧怕I Surgery， υniversity of
Leeds; Mr. Hite宫h Lachani BSc, MCOptom, Ashdown &Collins-
Optician, Kensal Rise, London; Mark Surgenor 邸Sc 民N 民NT
at Teleflex; D民 Tom Watson MBC恼， FRCR, Consultant P翩翩
diatric Radiologi民 Great Ormond Street ”。spital, London.
All the mis抽kes, though hopefully minimal. are ours but
the following individuals have kept the errors to a minimum
with their proofreading 事kills and expert clinical knowl-
edge: Ang Eng-Tat，问， PhD; James Chambers FRCR, MRCS
(En剖， MBCh窟， BSc 徊。n纱， MD; Matthew A Boissaud-Cooke
BMedSc (Hons), MB ChB (Hons); Erin Fillmore MPH, PhD;
Petrut Gogalniceanu MBBS, B纭， MEd, FRCS; Nick Heptonstall
MBChB (Hon纱， PGCer飞 MAcadMEd; Adam Iqbal, BSc 徊。n纱，
MBChB(Hon纱， MRCP （υ盼1; Ruth Joplin, PhD; Natalie Keough
BSc，时c （’ions), MSc, PhD （υP); Samantha Lov略战Eng (Hons)
MBBS MRCS (En时 FRCR; David A. Magezi MA (canta峙， BM
BCh (Oxo吟， PhD (Notts); David Metcalfe MBChB, LLB, MSc,
MRCP. MRCS; Nkhensani Mogale BMedSc, BSc 帆。啡， MSc
Anatomy 仰的； Sreenivasulu Reddy Mogali BSc, MSc (med
anat), PhD; Tom Paterson BSc 徊。ns) Ana飞 MBChB, MRCS,
DOHNS; Thomas Peachey BA (Oxo时， MBChB 徊。n纱， FRCR;
Daryl 民amai MD; Jamie Roebuck MMedEd, MBCh酶， BSc
(Hon纱， FHEA; Sara Sulaiman PhD; Richard Tunstall BMedSci,
“
τh•3rd ”1nno Boon m•morf1I di action m111wrdu1 阳rt凶””钮， Gl'lft1d1，”’fi.
PhD, PGCLT肘， FHEA; Zithulele N. Tshabalala BSc 徊。ns)
Macro-anatomy (Cum laude）仰的， MSc Anatomy (Cum
laude) （υ的．
User Guide
This book is arranged in the general order 'head to toe飞 The
Head and Neck section (including neuroanatomy and £阳nial
nerves) is followed by the Vertebral column and spinal cord,
then υpper limb, Thorax, Abdomen and pelvis, Lower limb
”
and finally a special ction on Lymphatics. In each s前tion,
sk创etal elements are shown first followed by di~ections,
with 革时ace 制atomy views and correlated imaging included
for orientation. All structure需 are labelled by number事， and
these are identified in lists beside each image. Text has been
limited to that needed to under抵制d 创ch preparation, and
is not intended to be comprehensive. All clinical bullets at
the bottom of mo宫t pages lead to the topics in the Student
Consult eBook. (www.studentconsult.com) with over 200。
images and video loops as illustration of these conditions.
Contents

Preface and Dedl饵”。n y Sub－。“ipital triangle 108

Adm。wledgements Vertebral radiographs 112
w”

回 Systemic review 圄 仰
Sitelet。n Upper limb overview 115
Muscles Upper limb b。nes 116
Arteries Sh。ulder 132
Veins Axilla 144
Nerves Arm 151
Dermatomes Elbow 153
Cross-sections of the human body F。rear”、 157
Hand 163
E 叫阳k and brain Wrist and hand radi。graphs 178
Skull
Skull bones
1
18 II Tho阳
Neck 28 Thorax ove『view 179
R。。t of the neck 36 Thoracic b。nes 180
Face 38 Thoracic wall surface markings and breast 184
Temporal and infratemporal fossae 40 Breast 185
lnfratemporal fossa 42 Thoracic wall and surface markings 186
Deep infratemporal fossa 44 Thoracic wall 187
Pharynx 45 Thoracic viscera 190
La叩nx 48 Heart 196
Eye 51 Mediastinum 204
Nose 55 Mediastinal imaging 208
Nose and tongue 56 Lungs 209
Ear 57 Superi。r mediastim』m 217
Cranial cavity 59 Superi。「『nediastinum and thoracic inlet 218
Brain 62 Superi。r thoracic aperture (thoracic inlet) 220
Cranial nerves 79 Posterior mediastinum 221

I( Vertebral col… nd spinal cord

Vertebral column 。verview 87
lntercostal nerves and thoracic joints
A。『ta and associated vessels
Diaphragm
223
224
225
Back. and shoulder Oesophageal imaging 226
88
Vertebrae
Sacrum
89
93
IJll Abdomen and pelvis
Sacrum and coccyx 94 Abdomen overview 227
Bony pelvis 96 Anteri。r abdominal wall 228
Vertebral 。ssification 97 Inguinal region 233
Vertebral column and spinal cord 98 Abdomen and pelvis 236
Surface anatomy 。f the back 104 Upper abdomen 237
Muscles of the back 105 Intestinal imaging 250
Liver 254 Gluteal regi。n 324
Gall bladder imaging 257 Thigh 326
Spleen 259 Front of thigh 328
Spleen and intestines 260 Hip joint 333
Intestines 261 Knee 337
Small intestine 262 Knee radiographs 343
Kidneys and suprarenal glands 263 Leg 346
Kidneys and kidney imaging 269 Ankle and f。。t 354
Diaphragm and posterior abdominal wall 270 Foσt 360
p。steri。r abdominal and pelvic walls 271 Ankle and f。。t imaging 364
Pelvic walls 276
Male inguinal region, external genitalia 278 II Lympha阳
Male pelvis 279 Lymphatic system 365
Pelvic vessels and nerves 282
Lymphangiography 365
Pelvic ligaments 2剖
Thymus 366
Female pelvis 285 Chest 366
Female perineum 289
Palatine t。nsils 366
Male perineum 291 Neck 367
Thoracic duct 368
圄 Low，町蛐 Right axilla 370
Lower limb overview 293 Cisterna chyli and thoracic duct 372
Lower limb bones 294 Female pelvis 373
F。。t bones 318 Gross lymphadenopathy of the pelvis 375
Foot and ankle b。nes 320 Thigh and superficial inguinal lymph nodes 376
Ankle bones 321
Development of lower limb bones 322 Index 377
Video contents
固 l H叫 neck a『冒
An。『nal。us double aortic arch 30
Anomalous left subclavian artery 30
Anomalous subclavian a民ery 30
Anomalous subclavian a同ery and branches 30
A。『tic arch thyroid superior Inferior rotati。n 30
Arch aortogram head and neck arterial tree,
thyr。id 30
Arch aort。gram lateral r。，tati。『， 30
Arch aort。gram superi。r inferi。r rotation 30
B。ne: cervical and upper thoracic spine 30
B。ne:c。ronal cut，。rbit 30
Bone: head and neck lateral r。tation
B。ne: hyoid lateral 『·otation 30
B。ne: hyoid superior inferior rotation 30
Bone: skull cervical spine superior inferior
rotati。n 30
B。ne: skull cervical vertebrae plus veins 30
B。ne: skull cor。nal lateral rotation 30
B。ne: skull sagi饥al and coronal cuts lateral
rotati。n 30 (Le。nard。｝
Bone: skull sagittal cut lateral rotati。『l 30
Brain: axial CT 坦ries
Brain: axial CT series, eye level
日rain : carotid angiogram anteroposterior, both
phases 1
Brain: carotid angi。gram anteroposterio巴 b。th
phases 2
Brain: carotid angiogram anteroposterioιboth
phases 3
Brain: carotid angiogram anteroposterior, both
phases false E。lours
Brain: carotid angiogram lateral view, both phases
Brain: car。，tid angiogram lateral vie毗 both phases
false c。1。urs
B『ain : cerebral dural venous sinu揭s 30
Brain: cerebral ventricles 30
Brain: dural venous sinuses and arteries 30 1
Brain: dural venous sinuses and arteries 30 2
Brain: vertebral angiogram anteroposterior view,
b。·th phases
Brain: vertebral angiogram anteroposteri。『 view,
b。th phases false colours
Brain: ve民ebral angi。g ram lateral vie毗 both phases
Brain: vertebral angiogram lateral view, both phases
false c。lours
Carotid arteriogram lateral rotation path。logy 30
Carotid arteriogram superior ir巾『ior r·σtation 30
Cerebral a巾ri。gram Circle of Willis 30
Circle of Willis 30
Head and neck arteriogram 30
Head, face and neck superficial muscles 30
Left brachiocephalic vein, great arte『ies and internal
thoracic arte叩 30
Neck arte「i。gram 30
Route of neck great veins 30
Thoracic inlet，阳ft brachiocephalic vein, great
arteries, internal th。racic arteries, lateral
r。，tati。n 30
Thoracic inlet, left brachi。cephalic vein, great
arteries, internal th。racic arteri缸， superi。r inferi。r
r。tation 30
圄 Ver蛐k。lum『’
B。ne: ce阿ical and upper tt、。racic spine 30
Bone: head and neck late『al r。tati。『l
Bone: lumbar vertebrae lateral r。，tati。n 30
Bone: male pelvis lateral rotati。n 30
B。ne: rib articulati。ns 30
Bone: skull cervical spine supe时。r inferior
rotati。n 30
Bone: skull cervical vertebrae plus veins 30
Bone: skull E。『。nal lateral rotati。『130
Bone: thoracic ve内ebrae and ribs lateral r。，tation 30
Bone: th。racic vertebrae lateral rotation 30
Bone: th。rax, vertebrae and pelvis lateral
r。，tati。n 30
B。ne: ve『tebral column lateral rotation 30
Cervical ve同ebrae axial MR series
Chest lateral rotation 30 1
II Upper limb
Anomalous subclavian artery 30
An。malous subclavian artery and branches superi。r
inferior 『。1tation
Arch ao同ogram lateral rotation 30
Bone: elbow lateral r创ation 30
B。ne: fractured clavicle lateral m恒ti。n
pathology 30
B。ne: hand 30
Bone: humerus 30
B。ne: scapula lateral r。·tation pathology 30
B。ne: wrist joint lateral rotation 30
Cubital fossa layered dissection 30
Cubital fossa muscles and veins 30
Hand dissolving musculature 30
Hand long tend。ns 3D
Hand skin 30
Hand small intrinsic muscles 30
Left brachiocephalic vein, great arteries and internal
th。racic a民ery 30
Thoracic inlet, clavicles, great arteries and veins,
superi。r infe「ior rotation 30
Upper limb: brachial a同e叩 ι。l。ur Doppler
ultrasound
Upper limb: head of radius ultrasound
Upper limb: long head biceps in intertubercular
gr。。1ve ultrasound
Upper limb: radial a同e叩 c。l。ur D。ppler ultrasound
Wrist joint muscles and tendons 30
Wrist joint, carpal tunnel full rotation 30
a Thorax
Anomalous double aorta 30
Anomalous double aortic arch 30
Anomalous le仕 subclavian a同ery 30
Anomalous 『ight circumflex, c。ronary angiogram
lateral rotation 30
Anomalous subclavian artery 30
Ao同a heart femoral angiogram 3D
Axial CT angiogram
B。ne: fractured clavicle superior inferior rotation
pathology 30
Bone: rib articulations 30
Bone: thoracic vertebrae and ribs lateral rotation 30
Bone: thorax, abdomen and pelvis 30
B。ne: thorax, vertebrae and pelvis lateral
rotati。n 30
Cardiac: parasternal long axis view ultrasound 1
Cardiac: parasternal long axis view ultrasound 2
Cardiac: short axis view aortic valve ultras。und 1
Cardiac: short axis view aortic valve ultrasound 2
Cardiac: subxiphoid view ultrasound 1
Cardiac: subxiphoid view ultrasound 2
Chest lateral rotation 3D 1
Chest lateral rotation 30 2
Coronal abdomen and pelvis lateral rotation 30 1
Coronal abdomen and pelvis lateral rotation 30 2
Coronal CT arterial series anteroposterior
Corona叩 angiogram full rotation 30
Corona『y angiogram pathology 30
Coronary angiogram stent insertion
Heart and lungs axial CT series, false colours
Heart anomalous right circumflex arte叩 lateral
rotation 30
Heart anomalous right circumflex arte叩 superior
inferior rotation 30
Heart aorta, interc。stals full rotati。『130
Heart axial MR
Heart beating 40
Heart coronal MRI, aortic valve
Heart coronal MRI, valves
Heart CT 3D
Heart lateral rotation 30
Heart left ventricular outflow tract MRI
Heart MRI f。ur chamber oblique view
Heart MRI long axis, mitral valve
Heart MRI short axis series, base t。 apex
Heart MRI sho同 axis, apex view
Heart sagi忧al MR
Heart superior inferior rotation 30
Heart, aorta pulmonary vasculature lateral
r。1tation 30
Left coronary angiogram
Lungs lateral rotation 30
Lungs superior inferior rotation 30
Pulm。na叩 vasculature lateral rotation 30
Right corona叩 angiogram
Thoracic inlet arteries and veins 3D
Thoracic inlet, clavicles, g 陪at arteries and veins,
superior inferior r。tati。n 30
Thoracic inlet, le仕 brachiocephalic vein, great
a『teries, internal thoracic a『teries, lateral
r。1tation 30
Thoracic inlet, left brachiocephalic vein, g陌at
arteries, internal thoracic arteries, superior inferior
rotation 30
Th。rax abd。men male, superficial musculature 3D
Thorax: sliding pleura ultrasound 1
Thorax: sliding pleura ultrasound 2
固 A胁mer冒
Abd。『Y’e『1: sag忧tal oblique view: hepat。renal recess
(Rutherf1。rd-M。rriso时， pararena l fat ultras。und
Abd。『nen: sagittal 。blique view: lower p。le
spleen - left. left kidne~巳 upper p。le ultrasound
Abd。men: sagi忧al 。blique view: right lobe live巳
p。此al vein - central, hepatic vein-left, right
kidney - superior pole ultras。und
Abd。men: sagi忧al view: IVC - left, portal
vein - right ultras。und
Abd。men: sagittal view: p。rtal vein, CBD, right lobe
liver ultrasound
Abd。men: sagi忧al view: right lobe live巳 po同al vein,
CBD ultrasound
Abd。men: transverse view: (from le·仕 to right) right
l。be liver, portal vein with fat, IVC, linear splenic
vein, pancreatic b。dy ultrasound
Abd。men: transve『se view: IVC, left renal vein,
a。同a, vertebral b。dy ultrasound
Abd。men: transverse view: IVC, pancreas, left lobe
liver ultrasound
Abd。men: transverse view: IVC - left, a。rta - right,
vertebral body - posterior ultrasound
Abdomen: transverse view: right lobe liver,
gallb ladde巳 right hemidiaphragm, hepatic veins
ultrasound
Abd。『ninal a。而c aneurysm 30 1
Abd。minal ao民ic aneurysm 30 2
Abd。minal a。rtic angiogram
Aorta renal arteries lateral rotation 30
Aorta renal arteries superior In也rior rotation 30
Aortic stent 30
Biliary tree and duodenum lateral rotation 3D
Biliary tree and duodenum superior inferior
rotati。n 30
Billa可 tree lateral rotation 30
Biliary tree supe『ior infe『ior rotati。n 30
B。ne: female pelvis lateral rotation 30
Bone: female pelvis superior inferior rotation 30 1
B。ne: female pelvis superior Inferior rotati。n 30 2
Bone: hip joint 30 2
B。ne: ilium lateral rotation 30
B。ne : ilium superior inferior rotati。n 30
B。ne: male pelvis lateral r。tation 30
B。ne : male pelvis superior inferi。『 rσtation 30
B。ne : th。rax. abdomen and pelvis 30
B。ne: thorax, vertebrae and pelvis lateral
rotation 30
CBD, gallst。nes, pancreatic duct 30
CBD, gallst。nes, pancreatic duct lateral rotation 30
Coeliac angiogram 30
Coeliac mesenteric and renal arteries 30
Cor。nal abdomen and pelvis lateral rotation 30 1
c。ronal abd。men and pelvis lateral rotati。n 30 2
Cor。nal CT a「terial series anterop。steri。r
Coronal MR penis series
Female pelvic musculature superior inferior
rotati。n 30
Foetal scan 1st trimester ultras。und 30
Foetal scan 2nd trimester ultras。und 30
Foetal scan 3时 trimester 40 1
Foetal scan 3rd trimester 40 2
Foetal scan 3rd trimester 40 3
Foetal scan series MRI 1
Fo剖al scan series MRI 2
Foetal scan ultrasound 40
Iliac angiogram bilateral
Iliac angiogram bilateral left pathology
Iliac angiogram non subtraction
Iliac angiogram path。l。gy
Iliac femoral angiogram
Kidneys, aorta full r。tatI。『， 30
Kidneys, lumbar vertebrae full rotation 3D
Pelvic arteriogram 30
Renal and pelvic angiogram, transplant kidney
lateral rotation 30
Renal and pelvic angi ogram, transplant kidney
superior inferior rotati。n 30
Renal angiogram, pelvis transplant kidney
Thorax abdomen male, superficial musculature 30
固 L。w町 Ii
Ankle j。int tendons and 『m』scles 30
Ankle, foot angiogram
Bone: ankle joint fractures pathology 30
Bone: ankle joint fractures superior inferi。r rotati。n
pathology 3D
Bone: foot with sesamoid bones 30
Bone: hip joint 30 1
Bone: hip joint 30 2
Bone: hip joint 30 3
Bone: knee epiphyses lateral rotation 3D
B。ne: knee epiphyses superior inferi。r rotation 30
Bone: knee joint p。” ACL repair pathology 30
Butt。ck musculature 30
Calf angiogram
Calf angiogram 30
Calf angiogram atheroma pathology
Fem。ral angiogram 1
Femoral angiogram atheroma pathology
Femoral angiogram bilateral atheroma pathology
Femoral angiogram distal
Femoral arteriogram lateral rotation 30
Femoral arteriogram 3D pathology
Femoral, proximal angiogram
Foot muscles and tendons lateral rotation 30
Iliac angiogram bilateral
Iliac angiogram bilateral graft pathology
Iliac angiogram bilateral left pathology
Iliac angiogram non subtraction
Iliac angiogram pathology
Iliac femoral angiogram
Iliac femoral arteriogram 3D
Knee joint muscles, tendons and ligaments 30
Popliteal angiogram
Popliteal angiogram, plaques pathology 1
Popliteal angiogram, plaques pathology 2
Orientatio n

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Sixth-edition Ackn 。wledgements
An atlas of this kind is not only the work of the author事 but
of numerous technical, scientific and clinical friends and col-
leagues who have been so generous of their knowledge and
given permission for the inclusion of their original photo-
graphs of clinical 倍ses. Hopeful以 like the Carlsbe咱 adve吨
this book and DVD are ’ probably the great，部t image collec”
tion of clini岱l anatomy cases in the world气。iowever, this
diss叙兔ion atlas would not be possible were it not for the
始lents of a special group of people 唰 the prosector事 and
dissectors listed below.
。issections ”anno Boon Masterclass, June 2005, Pretoria.
The following prof，锅sors, doctor事 and 军tudents worked
closely together as a team to honour the name of Professor
Hanno Boon who had been their student, friend, mentor
and an inspiration (see Dedication).
Donal Shanahan （υK); Stephen 臼rmichael, Rob Spinner
｛υSA); Jan Meiring, M矗rius Bosman, Linda Greyling, Japie v
Tonder, Andrea da Silva, Corrie Jacobs, Nanette Lizamore,
Anna Oettle, Nadia Nav拙，剧bert van Schoor (Pretoria);
Helena de Villier嚣， Daleen Raubenheimer, Francis Klopper
｛υFS); Nirusha Lachman (Oil).
Post-gradua怡然udents: Johan Aikman, Quenton W制sel丸
Carl Holt, Dawie Krug帆 Stephen Lambert, Desire Schabor飞
阳nee Botha, Maira du Pl时饰， Claire 民.obinson (Preto-
ria). Support team in Pretoria: Gert Lewis, Marius Loots,
Marinda Pretorius, Coen Nienab帆 Alet van Heerden,
Tshepo Lelaka.
During the past 5 year事， the following worldwide contribu-
tions have also produced some magnificent dissections,
which appear for the first time in this 6th edition.
Mr Bari Logan, formerly The University Prosecto巳 Depart”
ment of Anatomy, University of Cambridge, England; Dr
Marios Loukas, Associate Professor of Anatomy, St George’$
υniversit弘 Grenada, West Indies and med阳I st叫ents Lynsey
Stewart and 队 Hallner from the American υniversity of the
Caribbean, St Maarten, West Indies; Ms Lynette Nearn-For-
est, Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology， υniversity of
Illinois at Chicago （υ邸， Illinois.， υSA; Dr Donal Shanahan,
Prosector, Department of An剖omy and Clinical Skills, School
of Medical Education Development, University of Newcastle-
υpon-Tyne， υ民 Ms Sue Standley, Department of Anat·。，，＼y,
University of East Anglia, Norwi巾， UK.
Clinical cases
The authors and publishers thank the following individuals
and their institutions for kindly supplying various clinical,
operative, endoscopic and imaging photographs for both
the book and especially the DVD.
Dr Solomon Abrahams, Consultant Physiotherapist - Clinical
Dil'1轩t帆’Anatomie Physiotherapy Plus’， Harro毗 Middlesex;
Dr Tania Abrahams, Paediatrician, Great Ormond Street Hos-
pital, London; Dr Rosalind Ambrose, Consultant 阳diologist,,
St Vincent, West Indies; Ms Louise Anning, medical studen飞
Girt·。n College, Cambridge; Mr Chris Anderson, Consultant
Urologi代 Cromwell Hospital, London；如民ay Armstrong,
民heumatologist，骂。uthampton General Hospital，骂。uth”
ampton and ’Arthritis Research Campaign (ARC}’; Ms Sally
Barnett, Australian athle怡， London; Private Johnson Gideon
Behar『y vc of 1st h饥剑ion Prince of W刽础’ Royal Regiment
and Grenada, W时t Indies; Pr~部sor Paul Boulos, lnstitu艳
。f Surgical Studies, UCL. Medical School, London; Mr John
Bridge巴军urgeon Anatomist Department of Anatomy， υ时－
versity of Cambridge; Professor Norman 院rowse, Emeritus
Professor of Surgery - and Hodder Arnold Publisher事 to use
illustrations from Symptoms and Signs of Surgical Disea饨
4th edn. 2005; Mr Carl Chow, Obstetrician and Gynaecolo-
gi民 Kingston Hospital NHS Trust,, Surt'1ey; Professor Bruce
Connolly, Hand Surgeon, Sydney Hospital, Sydney, Australia;
Mr John Craven, formerly Consultant Surgeon, York Dis”
triαHospital, York; Mr Paddy Cullen. Consultant Vascular
Surgeon， υniversity Hospital of North Durham, Durham;
Mr D Dandy, Orthopaedic Consultant and Churchill Living”
stone for permission to use illustrations from ’Arthroscopic
Ac know陆agements Management of the Knee'; Mr Alan
Davis, Optometri纹， Ashdown &Collins, Kensal Rise, London;
Dr Marc Davison, Ana阳铀的i比 Stoke Mandeville Hospital,
Aylesbury, Bucks; Mr Simon Dexte巳 Consultant Surgeon,
Leeds Infirmary, Leeds; Mr Michael Dinneen, Consultant
Urologi民 Chels盼 and Westminster and Charing Cross Hos-
pitals, London; Professors Enrico Divitiis and Paolo 臼p­
pabianca, Neurosurgeons - and Karl Storz Endo-pri部S TM,
Tutt linger亏， Germany for permi~ion to reproduce pictures
from Endoscopic Pituitary Surgery 唰 Anatomy and Surgery
of the Transsphenoidal Approach to the Sellar Region 2004;
Profe弱。r J泉。umon, France; Ms Brenda Ems飞 medical
student SGυ， Grenada West Indies; Ms Oghenekome
Gbinigie, medical student, Gir协n College, Cambridge; Pro-
fessor Francis Nicho怜， Cardiothoracic Surgeon, Mayo Clinic,
Rochester, Minnesota， υSA; Pr~制sor Ralph Ge巴 Surgeon
and Prof Todd Olson, Anatomist, Albert Einstein College of
Medicine New York - and Parthenon Publishers to use illus-
trations from b盼ntials of Clinical Anatomy 2nd edn. 1996;
Professor J. Gielecki, Chairman, Department of Anatomy,
Silesian Medicalυniversity, Poland; Ms Natalie Gounaris-
Shannon, medical student, Girton College, Cambridge; Mr
Nadim Gulamhuseinwala, Department of Plastic Surgery,
Guy、 and St Thomas’ Hospitals, London; Mr Fares Haddad,
c。nsultant Orthopaedic and Trauma Surgeon， υCL”，
London; Mr I. C. Hargr，制ves, Hand and Wrist Surgeon, St
Luke's Hospital, Sydney, Australia; Dr David Heylings, Senior
Lecturer in Anatomy, School of Medicine Health Policy and
Practice，圳人 Norwich; Prof，础。r Michael Hobsl叩 formerly
Head of Dept of Surgical Studies, The Middlesex Hospital
Medical School, London; Dr Mike Jones, Consultant in In筒。
tious Di始ases, Director Edinburgh International Health
Centre, Edinburgh, Scσtland; Ms Megan Kaminskyj, medical
student, SGU, Grenada West Indies; Mrυmraz Khan, Plastic
Surgeon, Charing Cross Hosρital, London; Mr Stephen Kriss,
Podiatrist, Hospi抽I of St John and St Elizabeth, London;
如 Suzanne Krone, Ana阳thetist, Queen Victoria Hospital,
East Grinstead; Professor Stefan Kubik, Anatomist, formerly
Zurich University, Switzerland; Dr Lahiri, Cardiologist and
the ’ Wellington Hospital Cardiac Imaging and Research
Cent『e飞 London; Professor John Lumley, Director Vascular
Surgery υr咐， St Bartholomew’s and Great Ormond Street
Hospitals, London; Mr Alberto Martinez斗sla, Laparoscopic
Surgeon, Charing Cross and Ealing H。spitals, London; Mr
Nick Dawe and Medtronic medical equipment company;
Prof部sor Jan Meiring, Chairman and Clinical Anatomist,
υniversity of Pretoria, South Africa; Ms Kathryn Mitchell,
medical student, Bristol Universit协助is协I; Prof嗣sor Antony
Narula，。iead and Neck Surgeon, St Ma旷s Hospital, London;
Dr Barry Nicholls, Anaesthetist and υltrasonographer, Mus-
”
grove Park Hospital, Taunton, Somerset and B. arris, K.
Hill and S. Moss from Toshiba Medical Systems; Dr Nkem
。nyeador, Paediatrician and Arochukwu Medical Mission,
Nigeria; Mr David Peek, medical student, SGυ， Grenada,
West Indies; Mr Rob Pollock, Orthopaedic Surgeon，刷。”，
Stanmore, Middlesex; Professor Stephen Porter, Oral Medi-
cine， υCL Eastman Dental Institute, London; Dr Lonie
Salkowski, Associate Prof部sor of 阳diology， υniversity of
Wisc，。nsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison,
WI， υSA; Mr E阳n Saridogan, Gynaecologist, The Portland
Hospital, London; Mr Peter Scougall, Hand Surgeon, Sydney,
Australia; Mr Julian 趴拙， Senior Lecturer inυrology, lnsti-
tute ofυrologyυCL, London; Smith and Nephew Health-
care, Cambridge - Arthroscopic diagrams of limb joints; Mr
Rajeev Sharma, Consultant Orthopaedic Surgeon, QE2 Ho喧－
pital, Welwyn Garden Ci慨。ierts; Mr Spencer Quick, medical
student, Bristolυniversity Medical School, Bristol; Professor
隙。b Spinne几 Neurosurgeon, Mayo Clinic, Rocheste几 Min­
nesota, USA; Professor M. Stolle巳 Department of Urology,
υCSF, San Francisco， υSA; Dr William Torreggia时， Radio lo-
gi悦， The Adelaide and Meath Hospital, Tallaght, Dublin,
Ireland; Miss Gilli Vafidis，。phthalmologi代 Central Middle”
事ex Hospital, London; Mr Peter Valentine, ENT Consultant.
Royal Surrey County Hospital Guilford, Surrey; Mr Joseph
Vendi悦。， medical student, SGυ， St Vincent, West Indies; Mr
Richard Villa邸， Orthopaedic Consultant and Butte附orth
t制nemann for permission to reproduce illustrations from
,”ip Arthro西copy'; Mr Peter Webb, Consultant Surgeon,
Mayday Maritime Hospital, Kent; Mr Theo Welch, Surgeon,
Fellow Commoner Queens' College, Cambridge; Professor
Jamie Wei几 Department of Clinical Radiology, Grampian
υniversityH创pitals Trust, Aberdeen, Scotland - and Imaging
Atlas of Human Anatomy 3rd edn, Elsevier 2003; Mr Heikki
Whittet, ENT Surgeon，主ingleton Hospital, Swansea, Wales;
Professor Tony Wright. Director Ear Institute， υCL Hospital丸
London; Dr c. B. Williams, Colonoscopist, The London Clinic
Endoscopyυnit. London.
Art, photographic and
technical assistance
I would also like to thank Erica Saville, Elizabeth Hawke民
Valerie Newman, David Robinson, Marius Loots, Adrian
Newman, Richard Tibbetts at Antbits and Kim Knope民 f。r
their secretarial, photographic and artistic 军kills. A big thank
you to lnta Ozols, Madelene Hyde, Louise Cook, Tim Kimber,
Katie Sotiris, Thom Gulseven and Gemma Lawson for their
editorial and production talents, coping with my many ques”
tions and demands, and for providing a constant plate of
tuna sandwiches. All the mistakes, though hopefully very
fe毗矗re ours but the following individuals have kept the
error事 to a minimum with their proof reading skills and
础pert knowledge: David Choi MA. MB ChB, FRCS, PhD;
Elanor Clarke MB Ch廊， MD; Andrew Fletcher MA. MRCS,
PhD; David J. Heylings MB BCh, FHEA; Vishy Mahadevan
PhD, FRCS (Ed), FRCS; Michael Message MA. M廊， BChi民附D,
MD (Hon. Kigezi}; Mike Stansbie MA，酬， FRCS Eng. (Otol);
Donal Shanahan S纭， PhD; Theo f气 Welch MBBS, FRCS. Finally
we would like to thank Marios Loukas MD, PhD and Stephen
Carmichael PhD, DSc for their assistance with the multiple
choice qu部tions.
Seventh-ed iti 。n Ac kn。wledgements
Dissections
Heartfelt thanks to all our d。”。rs and their families for their
ultimate donation for the benefit of mankind and future
generations of medic.al knowledge. This supreme gi伐 to
m矗nkind edu相tes and enriches the human experience for
generations to come, for today's medical students ar嚓”mor­
row's clinicians and professors.
The production of this atlas and accompanying web site has
been a huge team effort over 5 year事 and has involved pro-
锦ctors and prof，锅so叫 teacher事 and students from f。urcon­
tinentsbut 部peciallyfrom England, South Africa, theυnited
Stat，部 and the West Indies. We, the four author事， would like
to thank all those who worked with us to deliver this new
制citing clinical atlas and accompanying web site.
Prosection preparation
Dani岳le Cavanagh, Franci Dorfling, Heinrich Hesse, Professor
Greg Lebona, Lan毒 Prigge, Sone du Plessis，矗II from the υni”
versity of Limpopo, Medunsa Campus, South Africa.
Nkhensani Mogale， υniversity of Johann时burg, South Africa.
民.ene Human-Baron, Elsabe Smit,υniversity of Pretoria,
South Africa.
Theofanis Kollias, Elizabeth ”。gan, Mohammed lrfan Ali
and faculty Ors. Kathleen Bubb, Deon Fori部te几 and Ewarld
Marshall, Department of Anatomi铺l Sciences, St. Georige、
υniversity School of Medicine, Grenada, West lndi脏
Many of the new dissections were 相rried out at the 饵cond
Hanno Boon Masterclass in Grenada in July of 2011. Those
contributing their skills and in honouring the international
memory of Prof嘟”r Hanno Boon （民l反） were Vicky Cottrell,
Paul Danse, Maira du Plessis, Alison Tucker, Richard Tuns幅II,
George Salte巳 Shane Tubbs and the following Warwick υni”
versity Medical students in the υK－践。ss Bannon, Matthew
Boissaud-Cooke, Michael Brown, Edward Dawton, Sarah
Diape巳 Zara Eagle, Elizabeth Jane ”arris, Morag Harri也
Daniel Lin，民iwa Meshaka, Rob Neave, Chariσtte Oakle>b
Chris Parry, Alison Rangedara, Farah Sadrudin, Jon Senio民
catherine Tart, Adam Walsh, Melanie Whitehead, John Wil-
Iiams, Katie Wooding, Dr. James Chambers.
”
The second anno Boon memorial dissection mastercla
participants, Grenada, 2011.
” MD, Prof. Robbie Hage MD, PhD, DLO, MBA, ENT Surgeon,
Photographic, technical
and research
Laura Jane van Schoor (Laura Jane Photography, South
Africa) and Joanna Loukas (Department of Anatomical Sci-
enc＇铺， St. George’$υniversity) for their photographic skills.
Marius Loot嚣， Gert Lewis, and Samuel Ngobeni (Department
of Anatomy， υniversity of Pretoria, South Africa) for techni-
cal assistance.
carslon Dominique, Rodon Mara民 Christopher Belgrave,
Ryan Jacobs, Nadica Thomas-Dominique，』acqueline Hope,
Salisha Thomas and Yvonne James of the Department of
Anatomi臼l 钳制C辄就 St. Georgesυniversit弘 for their tech”
nical and lab as,sistance.
The following research fello隅。f the Department of Ana-
tomical Sciences at St. Georg时 University for their con-
tribution-Drs. Asma Mian, lrfan Chaudhry, Philip Veith,
Amit Sharma, Edward Sorenson, Matthew Prekupec and
Christa Blaak.
All the mistak·郁， though hopefully very few, are ours but the
following individuals have keptthe errors to a minimum with
their proof reading skills and expert knowledge: Eng”·Tat Ang
PT, PhD; James Chambers MBChB, BSc(Hons); Sundeep Singh
Deol MSc, PhD, MD; Petrut Gogalniceanu BSc, Med, MRCS;
Ruth Joplin PhD; David A. Magezi MA(Canta胁， BM BCh
｛伽0时， PhD 例。他）； David Metcalfe BSc徊。时， LL叭”。时，
MRCS; Barry S Mitchell BSc, PhD, MSc，阿B, FHEA; Tom Pat-
erson BSc徊。ns)Anatom弘 MBChB Glasgow; Jamie Roebuck
BSc. MBChB, FHEA; R. Subbu MBChB, MRCS, BSci(Hons);
Kapil Sugand BSc;. MBBS; Richarid Tunstall BMedSci, PhD,
PGCLTHE, FHEA; Tom Turmezei MA. MPhil, BMBCh, FRC民；
Anne Waddingham B缸， LCGI.
Clinical, operative.
endoscopic, ultrasound,
other imaging modalities
and videos 饵”s (see also
the sixth edition clinical
cases acknowledgements
on the web page）篝
。“. Elias Abdulah MD, Chrystal Antoine MD, Nicole Avril
MD, Prof. Danny Burns MD, PhD, Melissa Brandford MD,
Katusha Cornwall MD, Adegberno Fakoya MD, Nicole George
Kennard Philip MD, and Kazzara 民aeburn MD, Department of
Anatomical Science富， St. George、 υniversit弘 Grenada, West
Indies；脚。f. Kitt Shaffer MD, PhD, Department of Radiology.
Boston University, Boston Ma部achus前毡， United S铺”s; Dr.
Robert Ward MD, Department of Radiolo如 Tuftsυniver­
sity, Boston, Massachus的毡， United S辅相； D民 MA Strydom,
Steve Biko Academic ”。spital, Pretoria, South Africa；。”－
MJ He归tek, M Maharaj, E Poul时， and E Raju, Department
of Family Medicine, Tshwane District Hospital， υniversity of
Pretoria, South Africa; Dr. PS Levay and Prof. D van Zyl,
Department of Internal Medicine, Kalafong Hospital， υni精
versity of Pretoria, South Afri倍； Dr. AK Mynhardt， υniversity
of Pretoria, South Africa; Dr. MY Gamieldien，。ral & Dental
Hospital, University of Pretoria, South Africa; Members of
the Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery,υni­
versity of Limpopo (Medunsa campu纱， South Africa；。民
民ichard Wellings, Consultant Radiologist and Hon Ass悦iate
Prof，部so几 υHCW Trust and Warwick Medical School， υnited
’
Kingdom; Ms. Cavita Singh and Mr. Janos Balega, Consultant
Gynaecologi伺I Oncologi巾， Sandwell and West Birmingham
Hospitals Trus飞 Pan-Birmingham Gynaecology Cancer Centre
Birmingham， υnited Kingdom; Dr. Adam lqb创， υHCW
Tru然 andWa附ick Medical School; Mr. Michael Brown and
M民 Mark Mobl邮 Wa附ick Medical School， υniversit:y of
Warwick:, Coventry, United Kingdom; Ms. Nadia Boujo and
M民 Alfred Boujo, London；。民 Vibart Yav院 Consultant Oral
and M础illofacial Surgeon, General Hospital, St. George、
Grenada, West Indies.；肌 Ankur Gulati, Cardiology Specialist
Registra几 The London Chest Hospital， υ，〈．
Head, neck and brain

Skull from the front

’ Arr恒rior nasal spine
2 Body of mandible
J Frontal bone
4 Frontal nσtch
5 Frontal process of maxilla
I Glabella
7 Greater wing of sphenoid bone
I Infra。rb比al foramen
’ Infra。『bital margin
10 lnferio『 nasal concha
11 Inferior orbital 笛”ure
咀 Lacrtmal bone
3 ’”
J Lesser wing of sphenoid bone

’ Maxilla
5 Mental foramen
“
’& Mental pr ubenmce
17 Middle nasal concha
4 帽阳”l bone
25 6 ” Nasal 锚，tum
20，~ 20 Nasion
21 Orbit (orbital 臼~ity)
22 Ramus of mandible
5 18 J3 Superior orbltal 何ssure
24 Supra。rbital foramen
25 Supra唱rbital margin
21 Zygomatic bone

。
The tenn ’,kull' Includes the mandlble, and
'uanlum’附fen to the skull w忧h。ut the
mandible.
The calvartum Is the vault of the skull
(cranial vault or skull-cap) and is the upper
part of the cranium that encloses the brain.
The 骨。nt part of the skull forms the facial
skeleton.
The supra-orbital, infra-orbital and mental
foramina (24, 8 and 15) lie in approxi『nately
the 回me vertical plane.
Details of individual skull ban臼 are given on
pages 18-27，。f the bones of the orbit and
nose on page 12, and of the teeth on pages
13 and 16-19.

Tripod fracture
Skull muscle attachments, from the front
’2 Buccinator
Cor阳gata r su percilii
J Depr哩，sor 11nguli o巾
4 Depre”。r labll rnterrorrs
5 Levatar anguli ori量
& L＇剧atcr l11bii superior际
7 Levator labii superioris alaeque nasi
I Masseter

”’Mentalis
N11s1lis
”。rblcularls ocull
12 Platysma

’’
J Procerus
4 Tempor111is
15 Zygomatlcus major
11 Zygomatia』s minor
Skull radiograph, occipitofrontal 15° projection
’ B•si-oαi put
2 Body of sphenoid
3 Crim galli
4 Ethr『1oida l air c.ells
5 Floor of muillary sinus (antrum)
I Foramen rott』ndum
1 Frontal sinus
I Greater wing of sphenoid
’ Internal acoustic meatu晤
10 L1mbdoid suture

’” Lateral mass of atlas ｛们rst cervical ve『tebr1)

2 Lesser wing of sphenoid
咀 Ma如Id process
’4 Nasal 细ptum
4 Skull

Skull from the right

5 10

26
33

( 14
E

31 ' ,,, ’
36

’ Anterior lacrimal crest

2 Anterior nasal spine with
’ Fossa far lacrimal sac:
，。 Frontal bane
”
20
Maxilla
Mentel faramen
’O Ramus of mandible
M 问uamous part of temporal
tympanic ring
3 Body of mandible
4 Condylar process of tne
’’”S
Z
Frontal proce55 af maxilla
Frontozygomatic suture
21
Z2
23
Mental protuberance
Nasal bone
Naslon
3Z
bone
s句loid proc剧创 temporal
bone
mandible
5 Coronal suture
’4 Glabella
Gr回ter wing of sphenoid
bone
24
25
Occip民al bone
Orbital plate of ethmoid bone
3J Superior temporal line
34 T)'mpanic pa民 of temporal
& Coranaid praCl臼s af 『nandible
7 External acoustic meatus of
’E
帽
lnfe『iar temporal line
Lacrimal bane
26
27
Pa『ietal bone
Pituitary fc描a (sella tu rcica)
bone
:15 Zygomatic arch
temporal bane
8 External occlpltal
protuberance (inion>
’”S Lambclold suture
Mastoid process of temporal
bone
28
罩’
(see Figure A on page 5)
问:istertor lacrlmal c陪现
Pte『ion (encircled)
揭 Zygomatlc bone
37 Zygomatlc proce弱 of
temporal bone

Pterion (29) is not a single point but an a陪a where the frontal (10), It is an impo嗣nt landmark for the anterior bran曲。f the middle
parletal (2剑， squamous part of the temp。ral (31) and greater wing menlngeal artery, which underlle量 this area on the Inside of the skull
of the sphenold bane (14) adjoin one another. (page 1 η．

圃 。
Extradural
haemonhaga
 Skull 5

Skull
radiograph, lateral projection coloured bones

$树 labe川i悦。” 阳ge4 f。rAand 川拍els

scalp dissection Sc圃Ip I踊ye rs

辜，“n; C, conn时tive tissue；人 aponeurosis of 。“ipitofrontalis;

I., ”
IOO$e areolar ti ue; P. perlosteum.
@
A l ’ Aponeurosls of
2 Dura mater
ocdpltofro院alls
4
3 F仰的“is muscle (covered by lo阴暗副阔。lar tissue)
L 4 LOose areolar tissue
5 Middle mening曲al anery impression on dura mat自r
也 6 6 Parietal branch of the superficial temporal artery
7 Periosteum
a 骂kin
9 Subcutaneous tissue
，。 Temporal bone

’” Temporal fa锐问
2 Temporalis muscle

。
6 Skull

Skull muscle attachments, from the right

’2 Bucclnator
Corrugator superciIii
J Depressor anguli aris
4 Dep『回sor labii inferioris
5 Leva旬『 anguli oris
6 Levator labll superlorls
1 Levator labll superlorls alaeque nasl
8 Masseter
’ Nasalis
”。“ipital pa同 of octipito齿，ntalis
The bony attachments of the buccinator muscle 们） are to the upper and lower jaws
(maxilla and mandible) opposite the three molar teeth. {The teeth are identified on
page 13.)
The upper attachment of temporalis (upper 1 日 occupies the temporal fossa (the narrow
space above 伽E zygomatic arch 11t the side of 由E skulO. The lower llttlllchment of
temporalls <lower 15) extends from the lowest part of the mandibular notch of the
mandlb悟， over the coronold proc臼量 and down the front of the ram us al『nos士 as far as the
last molar tooth.
Ma翻倒er (8) extends from the zygomatlc arch to the lateral side of the ram us of the

’11
2
13
Orbicularis oculi
Plat归ma
Procerus
mandible.

’’
4
5
Stemocleidom自toid
Temporalis
’画 Temporomandibular joint
11 Zygomaticus major
18 Zygomatlcus minor

Temporomandibular
j。int (TMJ)
d lslocatlon
 Skull from behind
’Z Highest
External occipital protuberance (inion)
nuc:hal line
3 lnferi。r nuchal line
4 Lambda
’
L.ambdoid suture
．。αIp民al bone
1 Parte'切l bone
’
I Par eta I 旬ramlna
9 Sagi忧，I suture
10 Superior nuchal line

乙－ 4

2
nu
电
A
『S

s” label list below for C and D.

Skull right infratemporal region, obliquely from below

’ Articular tubercle
Z External acoustic meatus
J Horizontal plate of palatine bone
4 lnferio『 orbita I fissure
S lnfratemporal crest
“
‘ lnfr，创建mp白ral (p terior) surface of maxilla
7 lnfratemporal surface of greater wing of
sphenoid bone

’
I Lateral pterygold plate
Mandlbular fossa
10 Mastoid notch
” Mast。Id proces罩
’2
Medial pte叩gold
咽。αlpltal condyle
plate

’4 Occipital groov咀
15 Pt，咿goid hamulus
1• Pt•巾，。maxillary fissure and pt唱”’opalatine
俗笛’
17 Pyramidal proc醋。f palatine bone
18 Spine of sphenoid bone
11 Styloid w回回
20 Third maxillary molar too·曲
” Tuberosity of maxilla

。
Z2 Vomer
D Zygomatic aπh
 Skull from above Skull internal
surface of the cranial
vau／乙 central pa时

10 / 9

.. r4在；
7

.=·
)

,J' •＇噩• 1 7

圄｜
1
\ ‘’· ’、、
2 2 <•I
『 ！』 .
,
－~
，..、
' •• , 2
’ 1
3 3
, ‘民』

’
2
llregma
Coron1I suture In this skull, the parietal eminences are prominent 队8).
1 Coronal suture
2 Depre组ions for arachnoid granulations
J Frontal bone The point where the 锦9比剧 suture (A10) meets the J Frontal bone
4 Lambda toronal suture 队2) is the bregma (A1). At birth, the 4 Frontal crest
5 Lambdoid suture unossified par也 of the frontal and parietal bones in 5 Groove for superior sagittal sinus
e 。cclp11al bone I Grooves for middle menlngeal vessel章
1 P1rletal bone
a Pariml eminence
this region form 甘1e membranous anterior fontanelle
(page 14, D1). ’ Parletal bone
8 Parietal for1min画
9 Parietal foramen The point where the sag枪幅l suture (A10) meets the 9 Sag忧till suture
，。 Sag ittal sutur曹
lambdold s闹剧队5) Is the lambda 队.4). At birth, the
unotslf』ed parts of the parietal and oαlpltal bon制 In
this r句ion form the membranous posterior fontanelle
(page 14, C13).
节、e label A3 in the centre of the frontal bone indic.at“
the line of the 衡。ntal suture in 由e fetal skull (page 14.
AS). The suture may persist in the adult skull and is
wmetimes known as the metopic suture.
w、e arachnoid granulations (page 62. 81), through which
c.erebro1Pin1I fluid drains in旬 the supe『ior sagittal sinu睛，
cau锦 the Irregular depressions (B2) on the pa网， of the
frontal and parletal bones (83 and ηthat overtle the
sinus.

Pepparpot
skull
 Skull
external surface
of the base
’2
Apex of petrous part of temporal bone
Articular tubercle
S 臼rotid canal
28 32 4 Condylar canal (p闹剧”
5 Edge of t@gmen tym阳nl
I External acoustic meatus
7 External occipital crest
I External occipital protuberance
’ Foramen lacerum
咽。阳ramen maqnum
” Foremen ovale
唱Z Foramen spinosum
’J Greater pal田tine foramen
14 Horizontal plate of palatine bone
’S Hypogl剧组l 铺nal (proxlmal & dlstal
openings)
’ ‘ Incisive foua
4、~ ~3 ' s2 ’
45 7 lnferi。F nuchal line
输I 11 Inferior orbital fissure
2
”
d卢萨／ 飞9 施 V飞~ Jn卢
lnfratemporal crest of g陪aterwing of
sphenold bone
2D Jugular faramen
’
2 Lateral pterygoid plate

~5 丰6
22 Lesser palatine foramina
23 Mandibula『旬5511

却 15
29 15
咱 7t 且 Z4
25
21
Mastoid foramen
Ma董told notch
Mastoid proc四
10 47 27 Medial pterygoid p late
4/ 26
21 Median palatine (intermaxillary) suture
21 。ccipital condyle
25
到 ”。“ipi剧 gro刷e
剖 Palatine groo鸭s and spines
12 Palatine process of maxilla
24 JJ Pharyngeal canal
J4 Petro啕uamous 币ssure

‘
JS Petrotympanic 币ssure
3 Pharyngeal tubercle
37 Po舶rlor border of vomer
31 Posterior nasal aperture (choana)
17 7 罩’ Porte『ior nasal spine
4G Pte『ygoid hamulus
41 Pyramidal process of palatine bone
4Z Scaphoid fossa
43 Spine of sphenold bone
S 锦 “ Squamotympanic 宵ssure
45 Squamous part of temporal bone
‘
4 Styloid process
47 Stylomartoid foramen
41 Superior nuchal llne
49 Transverse 阳latine (palatomaxillaryl suture
SD Tuberosity of maxilla
51 Tympanic part of temporal bone
52 Vomerovaginal canal
The palatine processes of the maxilla (32) and the horizontal plate of the palatine SJ Zygomatic arch
bone (14) fonn the hard palate (roof of the mouth and floor at the na副 caviψ－

。
The car。tid canal (3), rec吨nized by its m』nd shape 。n the inferior 1urfa倪。f the
petrous pa『t of the temporal bone, does not pau straight upwards to 。pen int。 the
inside of the skull but tak.e s 1 right-angled turn forwards and medially within the
petrous temporal to 。pen into the back of the f。ramen lacerum (9).

lntracranial lntracranial
SpI'll蛐d of spread of
in旬ction - face inf由ction
- scalp
10 Skull

Skull muscle attachments, external surface of the base

Green line"' capsule attachments of
atlanto-。“：ipitaland
恒mporomandlbular Joints

’ Capsule attachment of atlanto唱民ipital

joint
Z 臼psule a忧ach『nent of temporomandlbular
Joint
3 DHp head of medial pterygoid
4 L剖面，tor veli palatini
5 Langissimus capitis
& Langus cap比is
7 Ma铠eter
8 Musculus uvulae
9 Occipital m同 of occipitofrontalis
10 Palatopharyngeus
11 Pharyngeal raphe
’’Z
3
Posterior belly of digastric
Rectus cap民Is a川思rlor
’
15
4 Rectus cap民Is lateralls
Rectus capitis po血rior major
’& Rectus cap趾is porterior minor
17 Semispinalis 臼pitis
18 Splenius capitis
19 Sternocleldomastold
20 Styloglossus
21 Stylohyoid
:Z:Z Stylop ha ryng eus
:ZJ Super币cial head of medial pterygoid
24 Superior constrictor
25 Superior obllque capltls
2
27
‘ Tensor tym阳ni
Tensor veli palatini
:ZB Tr叩ezius
:ZI Upper head of lateral p饵rygoid

The medlal pterygold plate has n。”幢叨，。Id

musclM attached to it. It passes straight
backwards, giving origin at i恼 lower end to
pa内。f the superior constricto『 of the
pharynx (24).
The lateral pterygoid plate has both
pte『Y，。id mu缸l臼 attached to it：『nedial and
lateral muscles from the medlal and lateral
surfaces, respectlvely (3 and 29). The pl况且
becom臼 twistll!d slightly latll!ra Ily bll!causll! of
the constant pull of the量E muscl臼 which
阳路 backwards and laterally to their
a忧achments to the mandible (pages 18-19).

Skull fracture
Skull internal surface of the base (cranial fossae)
’ Anterior clinoid process
:Z Arcuate eminence
3 Carotid groo鸭
4 Cllvus
5 Cribriform plate of ethmoid bone
15 ‘ Crista galli
1 Dipl。岳

’
I Dorsum 1ell1e
Foramen caecum
，。 Foramen la岳阳m

’’”:Z3
35 Foramen magnum
ti, Foramen ovale
~午
.r--. .
’’
.. Foramen rotundum
’1、 4 Foramen spino喧um
5 Frontal crest
·. ‘
‘ 11 32 ”
11 Frontal sinus
Greatar wing of sphenoid bone
l "· 电‘ 11 Groove 旬r ante『ior ethmoidal nerve and
vessels
” Groove for inferior petrosal sinus
2.0 Groove for sigmoid sinus
21 Groove for superior petrosal sinus
22 Groove for superior sagi忧al sinus
23 Groove for transverse sinus
14 Grooves for middle meningeal vessels
, ZS Hiatus and groove for grea饱r petro锦l nerve
.. , 21 Hiatus and groove for lesser petrosal nerve
, ‘·、
37
43 27 Hypoglossal canal

w
, ..
,, 21 Internal acoustic meatus
,,
, 、 2 罩’ Internal occipital protuberance (position of
,, l ill" 21 四nfluence of sinuses)

...,
, 30 Jugular f。ran隙n
, I 20 罩’』ugum of sphenoid bone
32 l画”r wing of sphenoid bone
JJ 。αipital bone (cerebellar fossa)
问:F 34 Optic c1nal
33
”
35 。rbi制 part of frontal bone
P1rletal bone (postero--lnferlor angle only)
37 Petrous pa民 of temporal bone
36 JI 阿tuitary fossa (sella turcica)
罩， Posterior clinoid process
23 40 Pr曹chiasmatic W回ve
29 23
’
4 Squamous pa民 of temporal bone
42 Superior orbltal 何ssu罔
22 咽 Tagmen tympani
“ Trigeminal impression
45 Tube『tulum sellae
“ Venous (emissa『y)foramen

The •nterlor cranlal fossa (ACF) Is llmlted 阳市rlorly on each side by the free ma咱In

。
of the lesur wing of the sphenoid (32) with its anterior clinoid proc四川， and
centrally by the anterior margin of the pr民hiasmatic graove (40).
The middle cranial fCM圄a(MC盯 is butterfly-shaped and consi曲。f a central or median
part and right and left lateral pa『ts. The central pa民 includes the pituitary fossa 臼创
。n the upper surfac煌。f the body of the sphenoid. with the prechiasmatic groo鸭【40)
in fr。ntand the d。rsum sellae (8) wt由 its posterior clinoid processes (39) behind. Each
lateral part e：刷nds from the postertor border of the le嗣r wing of the sphenold (32)
to the gr创we for the superior pe晴rOAI sinus (2ηon 伽e upper edge of 盼Ut petrous
part of the temporal bone.
The po由rior cranial fossa 悦η， who锺 mostobvi。usfea也m is the foramen magnum
(1 ” ’ is behind the dorsum sellae (8) and the groo四s fo『 the superior petrosal sinuses
(21).
For σanial dural a忧achments and reflections. see page宦 5!Hi2.

Anosmia Skull base

fracture
’2 Sku ………
Skull bones of the left orbit
二民10
’ Anterior ethmoidal forilmen
2 Anterior lilcrlmal crest
’ Body of sphenoid bone,
forming medial wall
4 Fo篇a for laaimal 1姐E
5 Frontal nokh
’’
I Frontal process of maxilla,
ormlng medial wall
Greater wing of 置phenoid
bone, forming lateral wall
’
I Inferior orbital fissure
Infra-orbital foramen
，。 Infra-orb阳l groove
” Lacrtmal bone, forming
medial wall
’2 Leuer w ing of sphenoid
’ bone, fo『『ning roof
3 Ma咱inal tube民le
Sinus
pathology
ty
。
’54 Nasolaalmal canalfloor
’11 Muill画， forming
Optic canal
17 Orbital bo时er of zygomatic
bone, forming floor
11 Orbi饱l part of frontal bone,
forming 『oof
，，。rb忧al plate of ethmold
bone, forming medial wall
JG Orbital process of palatine
2’
22
bone, forming flo。F
Posterior ethmoidal foramen
Posterior laσIma I q哇，t
23
24
Superior orbital 何ssure
Supra。『bital foramen
25 Zyg。matic bone fo『ming
lateral wall
21 Zygomatico-orbital foramen
Nasal cavity lateral wall
I
In this mldllne sag忧国l s配tlon of the skull. with 曲， nasal
皿ptum removed, the superior and mlddle nasal conchae
have been dissected away t。帽veal the air 回lls of the
ethmoldal sinus, In par回cular 曲， e由moldal bulla t町．
’ Air cells of ethm。idal sinus 唱4 Nilsal bone
2 Cllvus 15 Nasal spine of frontal bone
31 Cribriform plate of ethmoid ”。”ning of maxillary sinus
bone <maxillary antrum)
17 Palatine proc醋。，f maxilla
4 Dorsum ellae
5 Ettun。idal bulla
• Front ill sinus
咽 Perpendicular plate of
palatine bone
7 Hori四川al p阳”。f palatine
bone
咽’ Pituitary 句“a (sell a tu rclca)
20 Pte巾，oid hamulus
I I『1ci'iive canal
9 Inferior meatus
罩’ Right sphenoidal 1inus
2J Semiluna『 hiatus
咽。 In饱rior n ’” l concha Z3 Sphenopalatine foramen
” Lateral pterygoid plate
12 Left sphenoldal sinus
Z4 uncina怡 proc筒。f ethmoid
bone
’31 Medial pterygoid plata
The roof of the nual cavity consists mainly of the cribriform plate
of the ethmoid bone (B3) wi由 the body of the sphenoid containing
the sphenoidal sinuses (B21 and 12) behind, and the n11sal bone
“
｛自14) and the n al spine of the fro附al bone (815) at the front.
The 伺oor of the cavity consists of the palatine proc1剖s of the
maxIlla 徊，ηand the horizontal plate of the palatlne bone (Bη．
The medial wall ls the nasal 隙，tum which is formed mainly by two
bone卜 the perpendlcular plate of the ethmold ilnd the vomer -
and th• septal cartilage.
The lateral wall consl悔。f the medial surface of the m;xllla w忧h
its l1rge opening 但16）. 刷erl叩ped from above by pa巾。f the
ethmoid (81, 5 and 24) and lacrimal bone！』 from behind by the
perpenditular plate of the palatine (818), and below by the inferior
ω阴阳（11 0).
~ku” Left orbit
individual bones
’ Ethmold
2 Frontal
I Nasal
7 Pala甘ne
.J l.Jlaimal I Sphenoid
4 Mandible
5 M拟illa ”’ Temporal
Zygomatic
 Skull: bon田 d 由e left o巾忧，z

Permanent teeth
from the left and in front
’Z Second
Fint (central) incisor
(lateral) incisor
5 s民ond premola『
6 First molar
Z 臼nine 1 Second molar
4 Fint premolar I Third molar 仙isdom tooth)

The corresponding teeth of the upper and lower jaWJ have simila『
names. In clinical dentistry, the teeth are usually identified by the
number窜’-8 (as listed here) rather than by name.
The third molar is sometimes called the wisdom to。th.

Upper and lower jaws

from the left and in front
。rthopantomogram in a &·year-old child

in a 牛y回r-old child with erupted decidu。us U刚h and

unerup幅d pennanent tee由

’ Fi陌t (central) incisor

deciduous dentition
of ’ Second (lateral) incisor of
peπnanent dentition
Z Second (latera I) incisor of 8 Canine of permanent
deciduous dentition dentition
’臼nine of deciduous 9 First premolar of permanent
dentition dentition
4 First molar of deciduous
dentition
’ O Second premolar of
permanent dentition
5 Second molar of deciduous ” Fir曹t molar of permanent
dentition dentition
I First (centraI) incisor of
permanent dentition
’2 Second molar of permanent
dentiti。n

The deciduous molars oαupy the pos民Ions of the premolars of the

permanl!!lnt dentition.

Edentulous mandible
in old agel from the left
’Z Angle
Body
J Mental foremen
4 R町nus

With the loss of teeth, the alveolar bone b民~mes resorbed, so that
the mental for.amen (3) and mandlbular canal lie near the upper
margin of the bone.
The angle (1) b创ween the ramus (4) and body (2) becomes more
obtu钮， resembling the infantile angle 阳 in E and F, above).

。
’4 Skull: fetal
Skull of a full-term fetus
’ An恒rlor forr幅nelle
骨，m 由e front 2 Coronal suture
3 Elev，副ons over deciduous
from 甜、e le旬 and slightly bel。w teeth in body of mandible
4 』恒mal acoustic m四tus
5 Frontals民ure (met。pie
膏，m behind suture)
I Frontal tuberosity
7 Half of frontal bone
骨。m ab。ve I Lambdoid suture
’ Mastoid fontanelle
唱。 Maxi Ila
Cleft lip and
间恼怡
唱’ Occlpltal bone
唱2 Parietal tuberosity
咀问盲terior fontanelle
唱4 Ramus of mandible
恬饲g比恒l suture
唱I Sella 切relca
唱， Semicirc1』lar canals.
superior
唱a Sphenoidal fontanelle
唱， Stylomastoid fora『nen
ZO Symphysis menti
2’ T归npanic ring
 Skull: fetal 帽

Fetal skull radiographs frontal projection lateral projection

The fate at birth forms a relatively smalle『 proportion of the

cranium than in the adu比（about one回eighth compared with
one-half) because of 由e small size of the nasal cavity and maxillary
sinuses and the lack of erupted teeth.
The posterior fontanelle (C13, E13) closes about 2 months after

0 bi巾， the anterior fontanelle 队1, 01, F1) in 由E second year.

Owing to the lack of the mastoid process 阳hich does not d凹elop
until the second year), the 吉tyloma5toid foramen (B19) and the
eme咆ing facial nerve are relatively near the surface and
unprotected.

。
Resin cast of head and
neck arteries full-term fetus,
from the left
In this cast of fetal ar幅ries. no幅 in the front of the neck
the dense arterlal pa·阳rn lndl臼.ting the 由yrold gland t田，
and above and In front of It the fine vi回国Is outllnlng the
tongue {T).

Hydrocephalus Scalp wounds

’6 Skull

Skull coloured left half of the skull in sagittal section

A Superior na蝇l concha
B Middle nasal concha
C Inferior nasal concha
D Palatine bone
See page 17 旬r additional label
numbers.

NB: The perpendicular plate of 巾，

ethmoid has been removed to expose 由E
conch11e.

cleared specimen from the radiograph of facial bones,

front, illuminated from behind occipitofrontal view

Compare with 由e skull on page 1.

’2 Body of mandible
Crista galli 11
” Mastoid process
Maxillary sinus
3
4
Ethmoidal air cells
Frontal er臼t
Frontal 雷I nus
’’’ Ramus
2
S
Mental foramen
Nasal septum
5
I Greater wing of sphenoid
bone
’E Root ofoflower
4 mandlble
lateral incisor
11 Root of upper central incisor
1 Inferior nasal concha 17 Superior orbital 币ssure
8 Infra。由ital m町gin 18 Supra-orbital margin
’国”er wing of sphenold bone 19 Zygom剖le arch

Bio盼唱ut Mastoiditis
fractu nes of
the orbit
Sku II left haIf
of the skull in
sagi时al section

14

5
43

①
35

I
•I'
「，
。
e 飞
33 6 9
、、 i'-.. J」Z 30
44 7 37
20
26
，、
12 22 36 _,, ~
\
19 ,; 42
13
11
、 ‘”
＼已 ’‘

霄，一4‘、． 飞＆· ．
、．一
且

25

霄，， insideof the left half of the skull is s回n from the rig帆 with the bony
”
part of 由e nasal ptum (36 and 4日 pre回阳“－

’ Alv四lar proce筒。f maxilla 24 Mandibular foramen

25 Ma咱in of fora men magnum
’
2 Angle of mandible
Body of m1ndlble
4 Clivus
21 Ma由Id (postertor Inferior) angle of
parietal bone
5 Coronal suture 21 Medial pterygoid plate
6 Crista gall! of ethmoid bone 28 Mental protuberance
1 Donum sellae 29 Mylohyoid line
’除ternal o剧pital protuberance ，。 Nasal bone
’ Fro肉”I sinus ”。ccipital bone The bony part of the nasal 组ptum consists of 由－
10 Groove for mylohyoid nerwi 32 Occipital condyle

’”
Groove for sigmoid sinus
Z Groove for superior pet『'OSll I sinus
四 Groov唱 for transverse sinus
” Grooves for mlddle meningeal v副els
(anterior division)
’5 Horizontal plate of palatine bone
’ ‘ Hypoglossal canal
17 Incisive canal
11 Internal ac.o urtic meatus in petrous
part 。f temporal bone
” Internal oαipit&I protuberanca
20 umbdoid suture
’
2 uteral pteryg。id plate
ZZ Left sphenoidal sinus
23 Ungula
vomer (45) and the perpendicular plate of the
嚣。rbital part of frontal bone ethmoid bone (36). The a『嗣同or part of the
34 Palatine process of maxilla
35 Parietal bone
”’ tum consi由 d the septal cartilage (pages 60
H Perpendlcular pl抗店。f 创hmold
bone
and 61).
In this skull, the sphenoidal sinuses (42 and 22) are
'SI Pituitary fc描画｛坦Ila turcica) large, and the right one (42) has extended to the
left of the mldllne. The pltu批ary 伽雷SIαηproJec恒
311 Pol恒『ior nasal aperture (choana)
down into the left 剑nus (22).
嚣’ Plerion (encirded)
40 Pleryg。id hamulus of medial The groo蝇， for the mlddle menlngeal ”晦els (14)
”町·gold plate pa笛 upwards and badcw1rds. The cirde 钮’1) marks
4’阳mu量。f mandible
42 Right sphenoidal sinus
the region of the pteri凹， and corresponds to the
position shown on 由e outside of the skull on
43 Squamous pa『t of frontal bone
44 Squ圄『nous pa『t of temporal bone
page 4、
45 vomer

圃 回 Extradural Pituita『V
haemorrhage tumour
18 Skull b。nes: individual

Mandible

from the front

’
:Z
Alveolar part
Angle
唱4
唱5
Mental protuberance
Mental tubercle
3
4
Anterior border of ramus
Base
唱e Mylohyoid gro
唱， Mylohy。id line
’”
from behind
5 Body 咱I Neck
I Coronoid proce” 唱，。bliqu画 line
from the left and front 1 Dig astric fassa zo h百恒『ior borde『 of ramus
m 阿e『ygoid fovea

in国rnal view from the left

’
8 Head
Inferior border of ramus
唱。 Lingula
22
23
Ramus
Sublingual f。ssa
咱’ Mandibular foramen 24 Submandlbular fossa
咱:Z Mandibular notch :ZS Superior and in旬rior mental
咱3 Mental foramen spines (genial tubercles)

The head (8) and the neck (18, including the pteiygoid fovea, 21)
constitute the condyle.
The alveolar pa『t(1) 田ntains the sodt副s for the roots of the teeth.
The base (4) is the inferior bo『der of the body 例， and becomes
continuous with the in恰rior border t到 of the ramus (22).

Orthopant。m吨ram

Impacted Mastoiditis
wisdom to创h
 Skull bones: individual 19

Mandible muscle attachments

from the front The lateral pterygoid (A7) is a忧ached to the pterygoid fovea on
”
the neck of the mandible (and al to the capsule of the
temporamandibular joint and the artitular disc - see page 岖， A2.7,
from behind A28).
The medial pte叩，。id 但9，四） is attached to the medial su斤·ace of
from the left and front the angle of the mandible, below the groove 旬『 the mylohyoid
ne『ve.

internal view from 由e left Masse-恒『（CB) is attached to the lateral su『face of the 『·a mus.
Temporalis (C16) is attached over the coronoid process, extending
back as far as the deepest pa『t of the mandibular notch and
Green llne =capsular a阳chment of temporomandlbular downwards over the front of the ramus almost as far as the last
molar 阳侃h
Joi盹 blue llne = llmlt of at国chment of the oral mucous
membrane; pale green llne = llgament attachment Buαinator (C2) is attached opposite the 曲”em。lar teeth, at the
back reaching the pterygomandlbular raphe (C13).
’ A川剧。r belly of dlga由le ” Me刑alls
2 Buccinator ” Mylohyoid
Genloglossu，但却 Is a忧ached t。 the superior mental spine and
geniohyoid (B创 to the inferior mental spine.
3
4
Depressor anguli oris
Depre量sor labii inferioris ’
12 Platysma
3 Pterygomandibuler raphe and Mylohyold (11) Is attached to the mylohyold llne.
5
6
1
Genioglossus
Genlohyold
Lateral pterygold
’ superior constrictor
4 Sphenomandlbular llgament
’5 玩”omandlbular ligament
The attachment of the lateral temporomandlbular ligament to the
lateral aspect of the neck of the condyle rs not shown.

I Mass创町 11 Temporalis
’ Medial pterygoid

Fradured
maxilla
2。 Skull b。”es: individual

Frontal bone
external surface 骨唱，m the front

external surface from the left

from below

l阴阳rnal surface from above and behind (right half

”。t sh。1wn；“hmoldal n刨出 Is In怕rlor)

’ Anterior ethmoidal canal

(position of groo叫
咱3 问精terior ethmoidal canal
(po耐ion of groove)
2
3
Etnmoldal notch
Foramen caecum
”
咱E
Roof of ethmoldal air cells
Sagt忧alα唱st
4 fo5511 for lacrimal gland 唱6 Supe~iliary arch
5 Frontal ae民 17 Superior temporal line
I Frontal 墨I nus 咱a Supra-<irbltal margin
7 Frontal tuberosity 唱， Supra咱rbital notch or
I Glabella foramen
I Inferior temporal line 20 Trochlear 份”a~。r tubercle)
，。 Na11I spine 剖 Zy驭。matlc process
，，。由民al part
’Z Position of frontal notcn or
fora men

17
9

11
 如…

7 21

13
25

Right maxilla Right lacrimal bone

from the front 告。m below from 笛，e lateral (orbital) side

from the lateral side from above from 笛，e medial (na蝇。 side

from the medial side from behind ZI Lacrimal groove

30 Laaimal hamulus
剖 N H I I surface
’Z Anterior
Alveolar proce“
lacrimal crest
咱E I nfra唱，也ita l
唱e l nfra-o，也ita l
foramen
groove
.JZ 0『bita l surface
.JJ 问自rior lau imal crest
3
4
Anterior nasal spine
Anterior surface
”
咱a
Infra-orbital margin
lnfratemporal surface
5
6
Canin.e eminence
Canine fc”“
唱’
20
L.acrimal groove
Maxillary hiatus and sinus
Right nasal bone
1 Concha! crest 21 Midd le mea阳军
’ Ethmoidal ere钱
I Frontal proce “
22
2.1
Nasal aest
Nasal not伪
from the I•幅ral side

唱。 Greater pal抵ine canal 24 。rbi刷刷巾ce

(position of groove)
刊 Incisive c.ana1
咀 Incisive fona
咱S lnfertor meatus
咱4 Infra叫orbital canal
25 P1l1t lne process
26 Tuberosity
Z1 Une『1.1pted third molar
tooth
28 Zygom1tic process
from the medial side
J4 Internal su由ce and groove for anterior
et hmoidal ne附’
35 Lateral surface
22 Skull b。”es: individual
Right palatine bone
告，m the medial side
齿，m the lateral side
告，m the 衍，nt
1 Conchal crest
2 Ethmold;il crest
J Greater palatine groove
4 Horizontal plate
5 Lesser pa l抵i ne canals
• Maxillary pr。””
’ Na.s矗l crest
告，m behind A同iculati。n of the right maxilla and the
palatine b。ne, from the medial side
from above ’2 Maxillary
Horizontal plate of palatine
process of palatine
齿，m below I P1l1tine process of maxilla
• Orbital process
9 Perpendicular plate
，。 Posterior nasal spine
11 Pyramidal process
12 Sphenoidal process
臼 Sphenopa lati ne nαtch
Right temp。ral bone
……
33 14
\
14
33
11 13
2
矗矗’
29 12
37.-. ~
'- 36
’
1 1

external aspect
唱 Aqu@duct of 四stibull!
2 Arcuate l!minl!nCI!
’ 4 Grooves for branch筒。f
middle meningeal ves姐l量
21 Petrosquamous 由ssure
(from below)
3 Articular tubercle ’E 21 Petrotympanic fiss1』re
”
internal as d
4 Auditory (eustachian)
tube
5 Canal for tensor tympani
11
Hiatus and groove for
greate『 petrosal nerve
Hiatus and groove for
l臼ser petrosal nerve
’
2 Petrous part
30 Postglenoid tubercle
到 Sheath of styloid proce9
from above ‘ Canaliculus for tympanic
branch of
’S1
’19 Internal acoustic meatus
Jugular f.。“a
32 Squamotympanic 币ssure
33 Squamous part
glossopharyngeal ne『咽 Jugular surface 34 s咽。id proc四
from below 1 Carotid canal 20 Mandibular fo’” 35 Stylomastoid foramen
Cochl回『 cana.liculus 罩’ Mastoid c1naliculus for 36 Subarcuate 旬SSB
from the front
I
’ Edge of tegmen 句mpani
10 Extl!mal acuus岱E meatus
auricul1r branch of vagus 31 如prameatal triangle
JI Tegmen 句mpani
” Groove for middle
temporal a『tery
22
ZJ
nerve
M耐。id notch
Mastoid process
2’丁·rigeminal impression on
apex of petrous part
’2 Groove for sigmoid M 。cdpltil groove
Parletil n低价
40 TYmp制le part
制 Zygomatlc pr。cess
’ 到nus
J Groove for superior
petrosal sinus
25
21 Pi曲’饲uamous fissure
(from abov曹）
24 Skull b。”es: individual

Right parietal bone Right zygomatic bone

external surfa四 lateral surface

In幅rnal surface from 由e medlal side

’ Frontal (anterior) border

2 Frontal Cantero-superior) angle
from behind

3 Furrows for frontal branch of middle meningeal v曹“els

(anterior division) ’2 Frontal process
Marainal tubercle
1 Temporal process
8 Temporal surface
4 Furro附 for pa阳tal branch of middle meningul ve酬Is J M皿ilia『y borde『 I Zygoma创co-orbital 旬ramen
(posterior division) ．。rbltal border 咽。 Zygom抵lcofaclal foramen
5 Gro。” for sigmoid sinus at mastoid angle 5 。rbital su斤ace ”功，omatimtemporal foramen
S Inferior temporal llne Ii Temporal border
1 Mutoid (poltl!ro-inferior) angle
a Occipital (poste『ior) border
，。αIp Ital 刷刷刷uperlor) angle
唱。 Parieta l foramen
” Parietal tubef05ity
咀 Sag i阳I (superior) border
The zygomatic process of the 阳nporal bone 仰伊 4) and the
temporal proc.ess of the 习，。matlc bone~口， Dη 怡m the
咱J Sphenoidal (antero·inferior) angle zygomatic arch (page 4, 38).
咱4 Squamo娼l Onferior）恼，也r
咱 5 Superior temporal line
 如…

Sphenoid b。ne Vomer

from the front from below from the right

from behind from 由eleft from behind

from above and behind

’2 Anterior
Ala of vomer
d inoid proc幽
，。 Foramen
唱’ Groo鸭 for
spinosum
nasopalatine
，．。”ic: canal
，，。rbita l su rfac:e of gr，四ter
21 Scaphoid fossa
21 Sella u』阁”。p阳启町y 旬558)
3 Body with openings of ner鸭 and v曹ssels wing 30 Spine
sphenoldal slnu ’” 电2 ln1ra-恒mporala窜，tof grem.r 20 Po缸，tor border of vomer 2咱也iperlor orbital fissure
4 Carotid groove wing 21 Posterior clinoid process J2 Temporal surf晶.ce of greater
5 Cere.br1l surface of greater 咱Z lnfratemporal surface of 22 Prediiasm.tic groove wing
w ing greater wing 23 阳咽。id canal 33 Tube阳lum 始Hae
I Dorsum sellae 唱4 』ugum ”问erygold hamulus 34 Yagin创 process
7 Ethmoidal spine 唱5 Lateral F加巾，。id plate 25 内erygoid notch

’
a For1men ovale
Foramen rotundum
唱e LeHerwmg
咽’ Medial pte叩gold pl拭e
‘
2 Pterygoid proceu
27 Rostrum
26 Skull bones: individual

Ethmoid bone Right inferior Maxilla

命om above nasalconcha Articul剧。”“’”M maxilla.
阴阳tine bone and inferior nasal
from the lateral side conch画， from the medial side
衡。m the lett

from the medlal side

衔。m the 衔。”t ’ Anterior 曹nd of inferior nasal concha
2 Ethmoldal proce雷窜。f Inferior nasal concha
from behind 3 Frontal process of m以ma
命唱，m the lef也 below and behind
4 Horiz帆tal plate of palatine
5 Lacrimal pr。””。f inferior nasal concha
唱 Anterior end 6 Palatine process of maxilla
’ A恼。f c:rista g踊Iii 2 Ethmoidal process 7 Perpendicular plate of palatine
2 Anterior ethmoldal 组roove 3 Lacrimal proce部 8 Posterior end of inferior nasal c:onc:ha
3 Cribriform plate 4 Maxillary pro份量$
4 Crist髓 9躏Iii 5 M帽dial 章urface
5 Et.hmoidal bulla 6 Posterior end
e Et.hmoidal labyrinth (containing ethmoidal air cell坊
’ Middle nasal concha
8 Orb比al plate
9 Perpendlcular plate
唱0 Posterior ethmoidal groove
” Superior nasal conch晶（meatus)
12 uncinate p民>eess

Occipital bone
唱 Basilar part
external surface from below 2 c唱rebellarfo阳
3 Cerebral fo酬
internal surfa岖e 4 Condylar fossa (and
condylar canal In a and O
5 Condyle
6 External occipital ere吭
external surface from the right
and below 7 External occipital
protuberanc崛
8 Foramen magnum
bones of the base of the skull t Groove for inferior petros圃l
ii nus
orange, occipital; red,
temporal; blue, sphenoid
Skull b。肉es: individual 27
，。 Groove for 事lgmo!d sinus 2。 Jugular tubercle
” ~roove for 量t』perior 童agittal ’
2 Lambdoid margin
:ZZ Lateral angle
’ sinus
2 Groove tor van仰erse sinus
’罩”lghest nuchal l!ne
23 Lateral part
24 Mastoid margin
14 Hyp吨lo销自I canal 25 Pharyngeal 知berde
15 lnf'erior nuchal line 26 Squamous p咽rt
’”
6 Internal occip比al ere氏
Internal o“ip阳1
辜， Superior angle
28 Superior 川chal line
prαtuberance
’”8 Jugular
Jugular m恼
pro份“
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fruitless search, they go away back to their dead bodies lying, it may
be, among the blackened ruins of their desolated home. Then the
victors come forth, and taking up the weapons from their hiding-
places, wash them clean of blood and bring them back to the
village.125.1 But “as more or less of the soul-stuff of their slain foes
always sticks to the victors, none of their people may touch them
after their return to the village. They are strictly shunned by their
friends for several days. People go shyly out of their way. If any one
in the village gets a pain in his stomach, it is assumed that he has
sat down on the place of one of the warriors. If somebody complains
of toothache, he must have eaten a fruit which had been touched by
one of the combatants. All the leavings of the men’s food must be
most carefully put out of the way, lest a pig should get at them, for
that would be the death of the animal. Therefore the remains of their
meals are burnt or buried. The warriors themselves cannot suffer
much from the soul-stuff of the foes, because they treat themselves
with the disinfecting sap of a creeper. But even so they are not
secure against all the dangers that threaten them from this
quarter.”125.2
Among the tribes at the mouth of the Wanigela
Customs observed River, in British New Guinea, “a man who has
by manslayers in
British New Guinea. taken life is considered to be impure until he has
undergone certain ceremonies: as soon as
possible after the deed he cleanses himself and his weapon. This
satisfactorily accomplished, he repairs to his village and seats
himself on the logs of sacrificial staging. No one approaches him or
takes any notice whatever of him. A house is prepared for him which
is put in charge of two or three small boys as servants. He may eat
only toasted bananas, and only the centre portion of them—the ends
being thrown away. On the third day of his seclusion a small feast is
prepared by his friends, who also fashion some new perineal bands
for him. This is called ivi poro. The next day the man dons all his
best ornaments and badges for taking life, and sallies forth fully
armed and parades the village. The next day a hunt is organised,
and a kangaroo selected from the game captured. It is cut open and
the spleen and liver rubbed over the back of the man. He then walks
solemnly down to the nearest water, and standing straddle-legs in it
washes himself. All young untried warriors swim between his legs.
This is supposed to impart his courage and strength to them. The
following day, at early dawn, he dashes out of his house, fully armed,
and calls aloud the name of his victim. Having satisfied himself that
he has thoroughly scared the ghost of the dead man, he returns to
his house. The beating of flooring boards and the lighting of fires is
also a certain method of scaring the ghost. A day later his
purification is finished. He can then enter his wife’s house.”126.1 In
this last case the true nature of such so-called purifications is clearly
manifest: they are in fact rites of exorcism observed for the purpose
of banning a dangerous spirit.
Amongst the Omaha Indians of North America a
Customs observed murderer whose life was spared by the kinsmen of
by murderers
among the Omaha his victim had to observe certain stringent rules for
Indians. a period which varied from two to four years. He
must walk barefoot, and he might eat no warm
food, nor raise his voice, nor look around. He had to pull his robe
around him and to keep it tied at the neck, even in warm weather; he
might not let it hang loose or fly open. He might not move his hands
about, but had to keep them close to his body. He might not comb
his hair, nor might it be blown about by the wind. No one would eat
with him, and only one of his kindred was allowed to remain with him
in his tent. When the tribe went hunting, he was obliged to pitch his
tent about a quarter of a mile from the rest of the people, “lest the
ghost of his victim should raise a high wind which might cause
damage.”126.2 The reason here alleged for banishing the murderer
from the camp of the hunters gives the clue to all the other
restrictions laid on him: he was haunted by the ghost and therefore
dangerous; hence people kept aloof from him, just as they are said
to have done from the ghost-ridden Orestes.
Among the Chinook Indians of Oregon and Washington, “when a
person has been killed, an old man who has a guardian spirit is
asked to work over the murderer. The old man
Ceremonies takes coal and mixes it with grease. He puts it on
observed by
homicides among to the face of the murderer. He gives him a head
the Chinook ring of cedar bark. Cedar bark is also tied around
Indians. his ankles and knees and around his wrists. For
five days he does not drink water. He does not sleep, and does not
lie down. He always stands. At night he walks about and whistles on
bone whistles. He always says ‘ä ä ä.’ For five days he does not
wash his face. Then on the next morning the old man washes his
face. He takes off that coal. He removes the black paint from his
face. He puts red paint on his face. A little coal is mixed with the red
paint. The old man puts this again on to his face. Sometimes this is
done by an old man, sometimes by an old woman. The cedar bark
which was tied to his legs and arms is taken off and buckskin straps
are tied around his arms and his legs. Now, after five days he is
given water. He is given a bucket, out of which he drinks. Now food
is roasted for him, until it is burned. When it is burned black it is
given to him. He eats standing. He takes five mouthsful, and no
more. After thirty days he is painted with new red paint. Good red
paint is taken. Now he carries his head ring and his bucket to a
spruce tree and hangs it on top of the tree. Then the tree will dry up.
People never eat in company of a murderer. He never eats sitting,
but always standing. When he sits down to rest he kneels on one
leg. The murderer never looks at a child and must not see people
while they are eating.”127.1 All these measures are probably intended
to rid the murderer of the clinging ghost of his victim, and to keep
him in quarantine till the riddance has been effected.
While the spirit of a murdered man is thus
Ghosts of slain feared by everybody, it is natural that it should be
kinsfolk, fellow-
townsmen, and specially dreaded by those against whom for any
fellow-clansfolk reason he may be conceived to bear a grudge. For
especially dreaded. example, among the Yabim of German New
Guinea, when the relations of a murdered man
have accepted a bloodwit instead of avenging his death, they must
allow the family of the victim to mark them with chalk on the brow.
Were this not done, the ghost of their dead kinsman might come and
trouble them for not doing their duty by him; he might drive away
their pigs or loosen their teeth.128.1 The ghosts of murdered kinsfolk
and neighbours are naturally more formidable than those of
foreigners and strangers; for their wrath is hotter and they have more
opportunities of wreaking their anger on the hard-hearted friends
who either did them to death with their own hands or left their blood
unavenged. Indeed some people only fear the wraiths of such
persons, and regard with indifference all other ghosts, let them mow
and gibber as much as they like. Thus among the Boloki of the
Upper Congo “a homicide is not afraid of the spirit of the man he has
killed when the slain man belongs to any of the neighbouring towns,
as disembodied spirits travel in a very limited area only; but when he
kills a man belonging to his own town he is filled with fear lest the
spirit shall do him some harm. There are no special rites that he can
observe to free himself from these fears, but he mourns for the slain
man as though he were a member of his own family. He neglects his
personal appearance, shaves his head, fasts for a certain period,
and laments with much weeping.”128.2 Again, a Kikuyu man does not
incur ceremonial pollution (thahu) by the slaughter of a man of
another tribe, nor even of his own tribe, provided his victim belongs
to another clan; but if the slain man is a member of the same clan as
his slayer, the case is grave indeed. However, it is possible by
means of a ceremony to bind over the ghost to keep the peace. For
this purpose the murderer and the oldest surviving brother of his
victim are seated facing each other on two trunks of banana trees;
here they are solemnly fed by two elders with vegetable food of all
kinds, which has been provided for the purpose by their mothers and
sprinkled with the contents of the stomach of a sacrificed sheep.
Next day the elders proceed to the sacred fig-tree (mugumo), which
plays a great part in the religious rites of the Akikuyu. There they
sacrifice a pig and deposit some of the fat, the intestines, and the
more important bones at the foot of the tree, while they themselves
feast on the more palatable parts of the animal. They think that the
ghost of the murdered man will visit the tree that very night in the
outward shape of a wild cat and consume the meat, and that this
offering will prevent him from returning to the village and troubling
the inhabitants.129.1
The Bare’e-speaking Toradjas of Central
Ghosts of the slain Celebes are greatly concerned about the souls of
dreaded by the
Toradjas of Central men who have been slain in battle. They appear to
Celebes. think that men who have been killed in war instead
of dying by disease have not exhausted their vital
energy and that therefore their departed spirits are more powerful
than the common ruck of ghosts; and as on account of the unnatural
manner of their death they cannot be admitted into the land of souls
they continue to prowl about the earth, furious with the foes who
have cut them off untimely in the prime of manhood, and demanding
of their friends that they shall wage war on the enemy and send forth
an expedition every year to kill some of them. If the survivors pay no
heed to this demand of the bloodthirsty ghosts, they themselves are
exposed to the vengeance of these angry spirits, who pay out their
undutiful friends and relatives by visiting them with sickness and
death. Hence with the Toradjas war is a sacred duty in which every
member of the community is bound to bear a part; even women and
children, who cannot wage real war, must wage mimic warfare at
home by hacking with bamboo swords at an old skull of the enemy,
while with their shrill voices they utter the war-whoop.129.2 Thus
among these people, as among many more tribes of savages, a
belief in the immortality of the soul has been one of the most fruitful
causes of bloodshed by keeping up a perpetual state of war between
neighbouring communities, who dare not make peace with each
other for fear of mortally offending the spirits of the dead.130.1
But, whether friends or foes, the ghosts of all
Ghosts of all who who have died a violent death are in a sense a
have died violent
deaths are public danger; for their temper is naturally soured
dangerous. How the and they are apt to fall foul of the first person they
Karens propitiate meet without nicely discriminating between the
such ghosts.
innocent and the guilty. The Karens of Burma, for
example, think that the spirits of all such persons go neither to the
upper regions of bliss nor to the nether world of woe, but linger on
earth and wander about invisible. They make men sick to death by
stealing their souls. Accordingly these vampire-like beings are
exceedingly dreaded by the people, who seek to appease their
anger and repel their cruel assaults by propitiatory offerings and the
most earnest prayers and supplications.130.2 They put red, yellow,
and white rice in a basket and leave it in the forest, saying: “Ghosts
of such as died by falling from a tree, ghosts of such as died of
hunger or thirst, ghosts of such as died by the tiger’s tooth or the
serpent’s fang, ghosts of the murdered dead, ghosts of such as died
of small-pox or cholera, ghosts of dead lepers, O ill-treat us not,
seize not upon our persons, do us no harm. O stay here in this
wood. We will bring hither red rice, yellow rice, and white rice for
your subsistence.”130.3
However, it is not always by fair words and
The angry ghosts of propitiatory offerings that the community attempts
the slain are
sometimes forcibly to rid itself of these invisible but dangerous
driven away with intruders. People sometimes resort to more
noise and clamour. forcible measures. “Once,” says a traveller among
the Indians of North America, “on approaching in
the night a village of Ottawas, I found all the inhabitants in confusion:
they were all busily engaged in raising noises of the loudest and
most inharmonious kind. Upon inquiry, I found that a battle had been
lately fought between the Ottawas and the Kickapoos, and that the
object of all this noise was to prevent the ghosts of the departed
combatants from entering the village.”131.1 Again, after the North
American Indians had burned and tortured a prisoner to death, they
used to run through the village, beating the walls, the furniture, and
the roofs of the huts with sticks and yelling at the pitch of their voices
to drive away the angry ghost of the victim, lest he should seek to
avenge the injuries done to his scorched and mutilated body.131.2
Similarly among the Papuans of Doreh in Dutch New Guinea, when
a murder has been committed in the village, the inhabitants
assemble for several evenings successively and shriek and shout to
frighten away the ghost, in case he should attempt to come
back.131.3 The Yabim, a tribe in German New Guinea, believe that
“the dead can both help and harm, but the fear of their harmful
influence is predominant. Especially the people are of opinion that
the ghost of a slain man haunts his murderer and brings misfortune
on him. Hence it is necessary to drive away the ghost with shrieks
and the beating of drums. The model of a canoe laden with taro and
tobacco is got ready to facilitate his departure.”131.4 So when the
Bukaua of German New Guinea have won a victory over their foes
and have returned home, they kindle a fire in the middle of the
village and hurl blazing brands in the direction of the battle-field,
while at the same time they make an ear-splitting din, to keep at bay
the angry spirits of the slain.131.5 When the cannibal Melanesians of
the Bismarck Archipelago have eaten a human body, they shout,
blow horns, shake spears, and beat the bushes for the purpose of
driving away the ghost of the man or woman whose flesh has just
furnished the banquet.131.6 The Fijians used to bury the sick and
aged alive, and having done so they always made a great uproar
with bamboos, shell-trumpets, and so forth in order to scare away
the spirits of the buried people and prevent them from returning to
their homes; and by way of removing any temptation to hover about
their former abodes they dismantled the houses of the dead and
hung them with everything that in their eyes seemed most
repulsive.132.1 Among the Angoni, a Zulu tribe settled to the north of
the Zambesi, warriors who have slain foes on an expedition smear
their bodies and faces with ashes, and hang garments of their
victims on their persons. This costume they wear for three days after
their return, and rising at break of day they run through the village
uttering frightful yells to banish the ghosts of the slain, which
otherwise might bring sickness and misfortune on the people.132.2
In Travancore the spirits of men who have died
Precautions taken a violent death by drowning, hanging, or other
against the ghosts
of executed means are supposed to become demons,
criminals and other wandering about to inflict injury in various ways
dangerous persons. upon mankind. Especially the ghosts of murderers
who have been hanged are believed to haunt the
place of execution and its neighbourhood. To prevent this it used to
be customary to cut off the criminal’s heels with a sword or to
hamstring him as he was turned off.132.3 The intention of thus
mutilating the body was no doubt to prevent the ghost from walking.
How could he walk if he were hamstrung or had no heels? With
precisely the same intention it has been customary with some
peoples to maim in various ways the dead bodies not only of
executed criminals but of other persons; for all ghosts are more or
less dreaded. When any bad man died, the Esquimaux of Bering
Strait used in the old days to cut the sinews of his arms and legs “in
order to prevent the shade from returning to the body and causing it
to walk at night as a ghoul.”132.4 The Omaha Indians said that when
a man was killed by lightning he should be buried face downwards,
and that the soles of his feet should be slit; for if this were not done,
his ghost would walk.133.1 The Herero of South Africa think that the
ghosts of bad people appear and are just as mischievous as in life;
for they rob, steal, and seduce women and girls, sometimes getting
them with child. To prevent the dead from playing these pranks the
Herero used to cut through the backbone of the corpse, tie it up in a
bunch, and sew it into an ox-hide.133.2 A simple way of disabling a
dangerous ghost is to dig up his body and decapitate it. This is done
by West African negroes and also by the Armenians; to make
assurance doubly sure the Armenians not only cut off the head but
smash it or stick a needle into it or into the dead man’s heart.133.3
The Hindoos of the Punjaub believe that if a
Precautions taken mother dies within thirteen days of her delivery,
in India against the
ghosts of women she will return in the guise of a malignant spirit to
who die in torment her husband and family. To prevent this
pregnancy, some people drive nails through her head and
childbed, or soon
after it. eyes, while others also knock nails on either side
of the door of the house.133.4 A gentler way of
attaining the same end is to put a nail or a piece of iron in the clothes
of the poor dead mother,133.5 or to knock nails into the earth round
the places where she died, and where her dead body was washed
and cremated. Some people put pepper in the eyes of the corpse to
prevent the ghost from seeing her way back to the house.133.6 In
Bilaspore, if a mother dies leaving very young children, they tie her
hands and feet before burial to prevent her from getting up by night
and going to see her orphaned little ones.134.1 The Oraons of Bengal
are firmly convinced that any woman who dies in pregnancy or
childbirth becomes an evil and dangerous spirit (bhut), who, if steps
are not taken to keep her off, will come back and tickle to death
those whom she loved best in life. “To prevent her, therefore, from
coming back, they carry her body as far away as they can, but no
woman will accompany her to her last resting-place lest similar
misfortune should happen to her. Arrived at the burial-place, they
break the feet above the ankle, twist them round, bringing the heels
in front, and then drive long thorns into them. They bury her very
deep with her face downwards, and with her they bury the bones of a
donkey, and pronounce the anathema, ‘If you come home may you
turn into a donkey’; the roots of a palm-tree are also buried with her;
and they say, ‘May you come home only when the leaves of the
palm-tree wither,’ and when they retire they spread mustard seeds
all along the road saying, ‘When you try to come home pick up all
these.’ They then feel pretty safe at home from her nocturnal visits,
but woe to the man who passes at night near the place where she
has been buried. She will pounce upon him, twist his neck, and leave
him senseless on the ground, until brought to by the incantations of a
sorcerer.”134.2 Among the Lushais of Assam, when a woman died in
childbed, the relatives offer a sacrifice to her departed soul, “but the
rest of that village treat the day as a holiday and put a small green
branch on the wall of each house on the outside near the doorpost to
keep out the spirit of the dead woman.”134.3
Among the Shans of Burma, when a woman
Precautions taken dies with an unborn child, it is believed that her
in Burma against
the ghosts of spirit turns into a malignant ghost, “who may return
women who die in to haunt her husband’s home and torment him,
pregnancy or unless precautions are taken to keep her away. To
childbed.
begin with, her unborn child is removed by an
operation; then mother and child are wrapped in separate mats and
buried without coffins. If this be not done, the same misfortune may
occur again to the woman, in her future life, and the widower will
suffer from the attacks of the ghost. When the bodies are being
removed from the house, part of the mat wall in the side of the house
is taken down, and the dead woman and her baby are lowered to the
ground through the aperture. The hole through which the bodies
have passed is immediately filled with new mats, so that the ghost
may not know how to return.”135.1 The Kachins of Burma are so
afraid of the ghosts of women dying in childbed that no sooner has
such a death taken place than the husband, the children, and almost
all the people in the house take to flight lest the ghost should bite
them. They bandage the eyes of the dead woman with her own hair
to prevent her from seeing anything; they wrap the corpse in a mat
and carry it out of the house not by the ordinary door, but by an
opening made for the purpose either in the wall or in the floor of the
room where she breathed her last. Then they convey the body to a
deep ravine where foot of man seldom penetrates, and there, having
heaped her clothes, her jewellery, and all her belongings over her,
they set fire to the pile and reduce the whole to ashes. “Thus they
destroy all the property of the unfortunate woman in order that her
soul may not think of coming to fetch it afterwards and to bite the
people in the attempt.” When this has been done, the officiating
priest scatters some burnt grain of a climbing plant (shămien),
inserts in the earth the pestle which the dead woman used to husk
the rice, and winds up the exorcism by cursing and railing at her
ghost, saying: “Wait to come back to us till this grain sprouts and this
pestle blossoms, till the fern bears fruit, and the cocks lay eggs.” The
house in which the woman died is generally pulled down, and the
timber may only be used as firewood or to build small hovels in the
fields. Till a new house can be built for them, the widower and the
orphans receive the hospitality of their nearest relatives, a father or a
brother; their other friends would not dare to receive them from fear
of the ghost. Occasionally the dead mother’s jewels are spared from
the fire and given away to some poor old crones, who do not trouble
their heads about ghosts. If the medicine-man who attended the
woman in life and officiated at the funeral is old, he may consent to
accept the jewels as the fee for his services; but in that case no
sooner has he got home than he puts the jewels in the henhouse. If
the hens remain quiet, it is a good omen and he can keep the
trinkets with an easy mind; but if the fowl flutter and cackle, it is a
sign that the ghost is sticking to the jewels, and in a fright he restores
them to the family. The old man or old woman into whose hands the
trinkets of the dead woman thus sometimes fall cannot dispose of
them to other members of the tribe; for nobody who knows where the
things come from would be so rash as to buy them. However, they
may find purchasers among the Shans or the Chinese, who do not
fear Kachin ghosts.136.1
The ghosts of women who die in childbed are
Precautions taken much dreaded in the Indian Archipelago; it is
in the Indian
Archipelago against supposed that they appear in the form of birds with
the ghosts of long claws and are exceedingly dangerous to their
women who die in husbands and also to pregnant women. A
childbed.
common way of guarding against them is to put an
egg under each armpit of the corpse, to press the arms close against
the body, and to stick needles in the palms of the hands. The people
believe that the ghost of the dead woman will be unable to fly and
attack people; for she will not spread out her arms for fear of letting
the eggs fall, and she will not clutch anybody for fear of driving the
needles deeper into her palms. Sometimes by way of additional
precaution another egg is placed under her chin, thorns are thrust
into the joints of her fingers and toes, her mouth is stopped with
ashes, and her hands, feet, and hair are nailed to the coffin.136.2
Some Sea Dyaks of Borneo sow the ground near
Attempts to lame cemeteries with bits of sticks to imitate caltrops, in
and otherwise
disable ghosts. order that the feet of any ghosts who walk over
them may be lamed.137.1 The Besisi of the Malay
Peninsula bury their dead in the ground and let fall knives on the
grave to prevent the ghost from getting up out of it.137.2 The
Tunguses of Turukhansk on the contrary put their dead up in trees,
and then lop off all the branches to prevent the ghost from
scrambling down and giving them chase.137.3 The Herbert River
natives in Queensland used to cut holes in the stomach, shoulders,
and lungs of their dead and fill the holes with stones, in order that,
weighed down with this ballast, the ghost might not stray far afield; to
limit his range still further they commonly broke his legs.137.4 Other
Australian blacks put hot coals in the ears of their departed brother;
this keeps the ghost in the body for a time, and allows the relations
to get a good start away from him. Also they bark the trees in a circle
round the spot, so that when the ghost does get out and makes after
them, he wanders round and round in a circle, always returning to
the place from which he started.137.5 The ancient Hindoos put fetters
on the feet of their dead that they might not return to the land of the
living.137.6 The Tinneh Indians of Alaska grease the hands of a
corpse, so that when his ghost grabs at people’s souls to carry them
off with him they slip through his greasy fingers and escape.138.1
Some peoples bar the road from the grave to
The way home prevent the ghost from following them. The
barricaded against
ghosts. Tunguses make the barrier of snow or trees.138.2
Amongst the Mangars, one of the fighting tribes of
Nepal, “when the mourners return home, one of their party goes
ahead and makes a barricade of thorn bushes across the road
midway between the grave and the house of the deceased. On the
top of the thorns he puts a big stone on which he takes his stand,
holding a pot of burning incense in his left hand and some woollen
thread in his right. One by one the mourners step on the stone and
pass through the smoke of the incense to the other side of the thorny
barrier. As they pass, each takes a piece of thread from the man who
holds the incense and ties it round his neck. The object of this
curious ceremony is to prevent the spirit of the dead man from
coming home with the mourners and establishing itself in its old
haunts. Conceived of as a miniature man, it is believed to be unable
to make its way on foot through the thorns, while the smell of the
incense, to which all spirits are highly sensitive, prevents it from
surmounting this obstacle on the shoulders of one of the
mourners.”138.3 The Chins of Burma burn their dead and collect the
bones in an earthen pot. Afterwards, at a convenient season, the pot
containing the bones is carried away to the ancestral burial-place,
which is generally situated in the depth of the jungle. “When the
people convey the pot of bones to the cemetery, they take with them
some cotton-yarn, and whenever they come to any stream or other
water, they stretch a thread across, whereby the spirit of the
deceased, who accompanies them, may get across it too. When they
have duly deposited the bones and food for the spirit in the cemetery
they return home, after bidding the spirit to remain there, and not to
follow them back to the village. At the same time they block the way
by which they return by putting a bamboo across the path.”139.1 Thus
the mourners make the way to the grave as easy as possible for the
ghost, but obstruct the way by which he might return from it.
The Algonquin Indians, not content with beating
Devices of the the walls of their huts to drive away the ghost,
North American
Indians to keep stretched nets round them in order to catch the
ghosts at bay. spirit in the meshes, if he attempted to enter the
house. Others made stinks to keep him off.139.2
The Ojebways also resorted to a number of devices for warding off
the spirits of the dead. These have been described as follows by a
writer who was himself an Ojebway: “If the deceased was a
husband, it is often the custom for the widow, after the burial is over,
to spring or leap over the grave, and then run zigzag behind the
trees, as if she were fleeing from some one. This is called running
away from the spirit of her husband, that it may not haunt her. In the
evening of the day on which the burial has taken place, when it
begins to grow dark, the men fire off their guns through the hole left
at the top of the wigwam. As soon as this firing ceases, the old
women commence knocking and making such a rattling at the door
as would frighten away any spirit that would dare to hover near. The
next ceremony is, to cut into narrow strips, like ribbon, thin birch
bark. These they fold into shapes, and hang round inside the
wigwam, so that the least puff of wind will move them. With such
scarecrows as these, what spirit would venture to disturb their
slumbers? Lest this should not prove effectual, they will also
frequently take a deer’s tail, and after burning or singeing off all the
hair, will rub the necks or faces of the children before they lie down
to sleep, thinking that the offensive smell will be another preventive
to the spirit’s entrance. I well remember when I used to be daubed
over with this disagreeable fumigation, and had great faith in it all.
Thinking that the soul lingers about the body a long time before it
takes its final departure, they use these means to hasten it
away.”140.1
The Lengua Indians of the Gran Chaco in South
Spirits of the dead America live in great fear of the spirits of their
greatly feared by
the Lengua Indians dead. They imagine that any one of these
of the Gran Chaco. disembodied spirits can become incarnate again
and take a new lease of life on earth, if only it can
contrive to get possession of a living man’s body during the
temporary absence of his soul. For like many other savages they
imagine that the soul absents itself from the body during sleep to
wander far away in the land of dreams. So when night falls, the
ghosts of the dead come crowding to the villages and lurk about,
hoping to find vacant bodies into which they can enter. Such are to
the thinking of the Lengua Indian the perils and dangers of the night.
When he awakes in the morning from a dream in which he seemed
to be hunting or fishing far away, he concludes that his soul cannot
yet have returned from such a far journey, and that the spirit within
him must therefore be some ghost or demon, who has taken
possession of his corporeal tenement in the absence of its proper
owner. And if these Indians dread the spirits of the departed at all
times, they dread them doubly at the moment when they have just
shuffled off the mortal coil. No sooner has a person died than the
whole village is deserted. Even if the death takes place shortly
before sunset the place must at all costs be immediately abandoned,
lest with the shades of night the ghost should return and do a
mischief to the villagers. Not only is the village deserted, but every
hut is burned down and the property of the dead man destroyed. For
these Indians believe that, however good and kind a man may have
been in his lifetime, his ghost is always a source of danger to the
peace and prosperity of the living. The night after his death his
disembodied spirit comes back to the village, and chilled by the cool
night air looks about for a fire at which to warm himself. He rakes in
the ashes to find at least a hot coal which he may blow up into a
flame. But if they are all cold and dead, he flings a handful of them in
the air and departs in dudgeon. Any Indian who treads on such
ashes will have ill-luck, if not death, following at his heels. To prevent
such mishaps the villagers take the greatest pains to collect and bury
all the ash-heaps before they abandon the village. What the fate of a
hamlet would be in which the returning ghost found the inhabitants
still among their houses, no Indian dares to imagine. Hence it
happens that many a village which was full of life at noon is a
smoking desert at sunset. And as the Lenguas ascribe all sickness
to the machinations of evil spirits and sorcerers, they mutilate the
persons of their dying or dead in order to counteract and punish the
authors of the disease. For this purpose they cut off the portion of
the body in which the evil spirit is supposed to have ensconced
himself. A common operation performed on the dying or dead man is
this. A gash is made with a knife in his side, the edges of the wound
are drawn apart with the fingers, and in the wound are deposited a
dog’s bone, a stone, and the claw of an armadillo. It is believed that
at the departure of the soul from the body the stone will rise up to the
Milky Way and will stay there till the author of the death has been
discovered. Then the stone will come shooting down in the shape of
a meteor and kill, or at least stun, the guilty party. That is why these
Indians stand in terror of falling stars. The claw of the armadillo
serves to grub up the earth and, in conjunction with the meteor, to
ensure the destruction of the evil spirit or the sorcerer. What the
virtue of the dog’s bone is supposed to be has not yet been
ascertained by the missionaries.141.1
The Bhotias, who inhabit the Himalayan district
A scapegoat for of British India, perform an elaborate ceremony for
ghosts.
transferring the spirit of a deceased person to an
animal, which is finally beaten by all the villagers and driven away,
that it may not come back. Having thus expelled the ghost the
people return joyfully to the village with songs and dances. In some
places the animal which thus serves as a scapegoat is a yak, the
forehead, back, and tail of which must be white. But elsewhere,
under the influence of Hindooism, sheep and goats have been
substituted for yaks.142.1
Widows and widowers are especially obnoxious
Precautions taken to the ghosts of their deceased spouses, and
by widows in Africa
against their accordingly they have to take special precautions
husbands’ ghosts. against them. For example, among the Ewe
negroes of Agome, in German Togoland, a widow
is bound to remain for six weeks in the hut where her husband lies
buried. She is naked, her hair is shaved off, and she is armed with a
stick with which to repel the too pressing familiarities of her
husband’s ghost; for were she to submit to them, she would die on
the spot. At night she sleeps with the stick under her, lest the wily
ghost should attempt to steal it from her in the hours of slumber.
Before she eats or drinks she always puts some coals on the food or
in the beverage, to prevent her dead husband from eating or drinking
with her; for if he did so, she would die. If any one calls to her, she
may not answer, for her dead husband would hear her, and she
would die. She may not eat beans or flesh or fish, nor drink palm-
wine or rum, but she is allowed to smoke tobacco. At night a fire is
kept up in the hut, and the widow throws powdered peppermint
leaves and red pepper on the flames to make a stink, which helps to
keep the ghost from the house.142.2
Among many tribes of British Columbia the conduct of a widow
and a widower for a long time after the death of their spouse is
 regulated by a code of minute and burdensome
Precautions taken restrictions, all of which appear to be based on the
by widows and
widowers in British notion that these persons, being haunted by the
Columbia against ghost, are not only themselves in peril, but are
the ghosts of their also a source of danger to others. Thus among the
spouses.
Shushwap Indians of British Columbia widows and
widowers fence their beds with thorn bushes to keep off the ghost of
the deceased; indeed they lie on such bushes, in order that the
ghost may be under little temptation to share their bed of thorns.
They must build a sweat-house on a creek, sweat there all night, and
bathe regularly in the creek, after which they must rub their bodies
with spruce branches. These branches may be used only once for
this purpose; afterwards they are stuck in the ground all round about
the hut, probably to fence off the ghost. The mourners must also use
cups and cooking vessels of their own, and they may not touch their
own heads or bodies. Hunters may not go near them, and any
person on whom their shadow were to fall would at once be ill.143.1
Again, among the Tsetsaut Indians, when a man dies his brother is
bound to marry the widow, but he may not do so before the lapse of
a certain time, because it is believed that the dead man’s ghost
haunts his widow and would do a mischief to his living rival. During
the time of her mourning the widow eats out of a stone dish, carries
a pebble in her mouth, and a crab-apple stick up the back of her
jacket. She sits upright day and night. Any person who crosses the
hut in front of her is a dead man. The restrictions laid on a widower
are similar.143.2 Among the Lkungen or Songish Indians, in
Vancouver Island, widow and widower, after the death of husband or
wife, are forbidden to cut their hair, as otherwise it is believed that
they would gain too great power over the souls and welfare of
others. They must remain alone at their fire for a long time and are
forbidden to mingle with other people. When they eat, nobody may
see them. They must keep their faces covered for ten days. For two
days after the burial they fast and are not allowed to speak. After that
they may speak a little, but before addressing any one they must go
into the woods and clean themselves in ponds and with cedar-
branches. If they wish to harm an enemy they call out his name
when they first break their fast, and they bite very hard in eating.
That is believed to kill their enemy, probably (though this is not said)
by directing the attention of the ghost to him. They may not go near
the water nor eat fresh salmon, or the fish might be driven away.
They may not eat warm food, else their teeth would fall out.144.1
Among the Bella Coola Indians the bed of a mourner is protected
against the ghost of the deceased by thorn-bushes stuck into the
ground at each corner. He rises early in the morning and goes out
into the woods, where he makes a square with thorn-bushes, and
inside of this square, where he is probably supposed to be safe from
the intrusion of the ghost, he cleanses himself by rubbing his body
with cedar-branches. He also swims in ponds, and after swimming
he cleaves four small trees and creeps through the clefts, following
the course of the sun. This he does on four subsequent mornings,
cleaving new trees every day. We may surmise that the intention of
creeping through the cleft trees is to give the slip to the ghost. The
mourner also cuts his hair short, and the cut hair is burnt. If he did
not observe these regulations, it is believed that he would dream of
the deceased, which to the savage mind is another way of saying
that he would be visited by his ghost. Amongst these Indians the
rules of mourning for a widower or widow are especially strict. For
four days he or she must fast and may not speak a word, else the
dead wife or husband would come and lay a cold hand on the mouth
of the offender, who would die. They may not go near water and are
forbidden to catch or eat salmon for a whole year. During that time
also they may not eat fresh herring or candle-fish (olachen). Their
shadows are deemed unlucky and may not fall on any person.144.2
Among the Thompson Indians of British
Precautions taken Columbia widows or widowers, on the death of
by widows and
widowers among their husbands or wives, went out at once and
the Thompson passed through a patch of rose-bushes four times.
Indians. The intention of this ceremony is not reported, but
we may conjecture that it was supposed to deter
the ghost from following for fear of scratching himself or herself on
the thorns. For four days after the death widows and widowers had
to wander about at evening or break of day wiping their eyes with fir-
twigs, which they hung up in the branches of trees, praying to the
Dawn. They also rubbed their eyes with a small stone taken from
under running water, then threw it away, while they prayed that they
might not become blind. The first four days they might not touch their
food, but ate with sharp-pointed sticks, and spat out the first four
mouthfuls of each meal, and the first four of water, into the fire. For a
year they had to sleep on a bed made of fir-branches, on which rose-
bush sticks were also spread at the foot, head, and middle. Many
also wore a few small twigs of rose-bush on their persons. The use
of the rose-bush was no doubt to keep off the ghost through fear of
the prickles. They were forbidden to eat fresh fish and flesh of any
kind for a year. A widower might not fish at another man’s fishing-
place or with another man’s net. If he did, it would make the station
and the net useless for the season. If a widower transplanted a trout
into another lake, before releasing it he blew on the head of the fish,
and after chewing deer-fat, he spat some of the grease out on its
head, so as to remove the baneful effect of his touch. Then he let it
go, bidding the fish farewell, and asking it to propagate its kind. Any
grass or branches upon which a widow or widower sat or lay down
withered up. If a widow were to break sticks or branches, her own
hands or arms would break. She might not cook food nor fetch water
for her children, nor let them lie down on her bed, nor should she lie
or sit where they slept. Some widows wore a breech-cloth made of
dry bunch-grass for several days, lest the ghost of her dead husband
should have connexion with her. A widower might not fish or hunt,
because it was unlucky both for him and for other hunters. He did not
allow his shadow to pass in front of another widower or of any
person who was supposed to be gifted with more knowledge or
magic than ordinary.145.1 Among the Lillooet Indians of British
Columbia the rules enjoined on widows and widowers were
somewhat similar. But a widower had to observe a singular custom
in eating. He ate his food with the right hand passed underneath his
right leg, the knee of which was raised.146.1 The motive for
conveying food to his mouth in this roundabout fashion is not
mentioned: we may conjecture that it was to baffle the hungry ghost,
who might be supposed to watch every mouthful swallowed by the
mourner, but who could hardly suspect that food passed under the
knee was intended to reach the mouth.
 Among the Kwakiutl Indians of British Columbia we are told “the
regulations referring to the mourning period are
Precautions taken very severe. In case of the death of husband or
by widows and wife, the survivor has to observe the following
widowers among
the Kwakiutl rules: for four days after the death the survivor
Indians. must sit motionless, the knees drawn up toward
the chin. On the third day all the inhabitants of the
village, including children, must take a bath. On the fourth day some
water is heated in a wooden kettle, and the widow or widower drips it
upon his head. When he becomes tired of sitting motionless, and
must move, he thinks of his enemy, stretches his legs slowly four
times, and draws them up again. Then his enemy must die. During
the following sixteen days he must remain on the same spot, but he
may stretch out his legs. He is not allowed, however, to move his
hands. Nobody must speak to him, and whosoever disobeys this
command will be punished by the death of one of his relatives. Every
fourth day he takes a bath. He is fed twice a day by an old woman at
the time of low water, with salmon caught in the preceding year, and
given to him in the dishes and spoons of the deceased. While sitting
so his mind is wandering to and fro. He sees his house and his
friends as though far, far away. If in his visions he sees a man near
by, the latter is sure to die at no distant day; if he sees him very far
away, he will continue to live long. After the sixteen days have
passed, he may lie down, but not stretch out. He takes a bath every
eighth day. At the end of the first month he takes off his clothing, and
dresses the stump of a tree with it. After another month has passed
he may sit in a corner of the house, but for four months he must not
mingle with others. He must not use the house door, but a separate
door is cut for his use. Before he leaves the house for the first time
he must three times approach the door and return, then he may
leave the house. After ten months his hair is cut short, and after a
year the mourning is at an end.”147.1
Though the reasons for the elaborate restrictions thus imposed on
widows and widowers by the Indians of British Columbia are not
always stated, we may safely infer that one and all they are dictated
by fear of the ghost, who, haunting the surviving spouse, surrounds
him or her with a dangerous atmosphere, a contagion of death,
which necessitates his seclusion both from the people themselves
and from the principal sources of their food supply, especially from
the fisheries, lest the infected person should poison them by his
malignant presence. We can, therefore,
Social ostracism of understand the extraordinary treatment of a
widowers in New
Guinea dictated by widower by the Papuans of Issoudun in British
fear of the ghosts of New Guinea. His miseries begin with the moment
their dead wives. of his wife’s death. He is immediately stripped of
all his ornaments, abused and beaten by his wife’s
relations, his house is pillaged, his gardens devastated, there is no
one to cook for him. He sleeps on his wife’s grave till the end of his
mourning. He may never marry again. By the death of his wife he
loses all his rights. It is civil death for him. Old or young, chief or
plebeian, he is no longer anybody, he does not count. He may not
hunt or fish with the others; his presence would bring misfortune; the
spirit of his dead wife would frighten the fish or the game. He is no
longer heard in the discussions. He has no voice in the council of
elders. He may not take part in a dance; he may not own a garden. If
one of his children marries, he has no right to interfere in anything or
receive any present. If he were dead, he could not be ignored more
completely. He has become a nocturnal animal. He is forbidden to
shew himself in public, to traverse the village, to walk in the roads
and paths. Like a boar, he must go in the grass or the bushes. If he
hears or sees any one, especially a woman, coming from afar, he
must hide himself behind a tree or a thicket. If he wishes to go
hunting or fishing by himself, he must go at night. If he has to consult
any one, even the missionary, he does it in great secrecy and by
night. He seems to have lost his voice, and only speaks in a whisper.
He is painted black from head to foot. The hair of his head is shaved,
except two tufts which flutter on his temples. He wears a skull-cap
which covers his head completely to the ears; it ends in a point at the
back of his neck. Round his waist he wears one, two, or three
sashes of plaited grass; his arms and legs from the knees to the
ankles are covered with armlets and leglets of the same sort; and
round his neck he wears a similar ornament. His diet is strictly
regulated, but he does not observe it more than he can help, eating
in secret whatever is given him or he can lay his hands on. “His