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A Thermo-Economic
Approach to Energy From
Waste
This page intentionally left blank
A Thermo-Economic
Approach to Energy From
Waste

ANAND RAMANATHAN
Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of
Technology, Tiruchirappalli, India

MEERA SHERIFFA BEGUM K.M.

Department of Chemical Engineering, National Institute of
Technology, Tiruchirappalli, India

AMARO OLIMPIO PEREIRA JUNIOR

Department of Energy Planning - PPE/COPPE, Federal University of
Rio de Janeiro - UFRJ, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

CLAUDE COHEN
Faculty of Economics and Administrative Justice Post-graduation
Program - PPGJA, Federal Fluminense University - UFF, Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil
Elsevier
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Contents

About the authors xi

Preface xiii
Acronyms and abbreviations xv

1. Pyrolysis of waste biomass: toward sustainable development 1

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Component of lignocellulosic biomasses 2
1.2.1 Cellulose 3
1.2.2 Hemicellulose 4
1.2.3 Lignin 4
1.2.4 Ash 5
1.2.5 Extractives 5
1.3 Types of pyrolysis 5
1.3.1 Slow pyrolysis 7
1.3.2 Intermediate pyrolysis 7
1.3.3 Fast pyrolysis 7
1.4 Mechanism of pyrolysis 8
1.4.1 Mechanism of cellulose pyrolysis 8
1.4.2 Mechanism of hemicellulose pyrolysis 9
1.4.3 Mechanism of lignin pyrolysis 9
1.5 Reactor configurations 10
1.5.1 Fluidized-bed reactor 10
1.5.2 Circulating fluidized-bed reactor 11
1.5.3 Ablative plate reactor 11
1.5.4 Auger/screw reactor 13
1.5.5 Rotating cone reactor 14
1.5.6 Cyclone/vortex reactor 14
1.6 Upgradation techniques for pyrolyzed bio-oil 15
1.6.1 Physical upgradation of crude bio-oil 16
1.6.2 Chemical upgradation of bio-oil 17
1.6.3 Catalytical upgradation of bio-oil 19
1.7 Energy recovery for heating or process applications 25
1.8 Conclusion 26
References 27

v
vi Contents

2. Biomass pyrolysis system based on life cycle assessment and

Aspen plus analysis and kinetic modeling 35
2.1 Introduction 35
2.2 Current Indian scenario of waste-to-energy conversion technologies 36
2.3 From biomass to biofuel through pyrolysis 38
2.4 Life cycle assessment methodology for pyrolysis-based bio-oil production 39
2.4.1 Steps followed for studying LCA 41
2.4.2 Setting require for LCA 42
2.4.3 Inventory data collection 44
2.4.4 Analysis of life cycle inventory 46
2.4.5 Impact assessment of LCA 46
2.4.6 Sensitivity analysis 48
2.5 Aspen plus approach to biomass pyrolysis system 49
2.6 Kinetics of biomass pyrolysis 51
2.7 Isoconversional techniques 54
2.8 Other kinetic models 55
2.9 Application of biomass pyrolysis products 56
2.9.1 Bio-oil applications 57
2.9.2 Biochar application 60
2.10 Conclusions 63
References 64

3. Biomass gasification integrated with Fischer
Tropsch reactor:

techno-economic approach 73
3.1 Introduction 73
3.2 Surplus biomass available in India 78
3.2.1 Conflicting applications for crop residue biomass 78
3.2.2 Biomass 79
3.2.3 Challenges in biomass utilization 80
3.2.4 Biomass to energy conversion processes 80
3.3 Pretreatment of biomass 81
3.3.1 Torrefaction 82
3.3.2 Types of pretreatment 84
3.4 Kinetics of biomass gasification for syngas generation 87
3.4.1 Gasification mechanism 89
3.4.2 Syngas conditioning 94
3.5 Gasification integrated with Fischer
Tropsch reactor 95
3.5.1 Bioenergy potential calculations and estimation 96
3.5.2 Fischer
Tropsch synthesis 96
3.5.3 Fischer
Tropsch catalysts 97
3.5.4 Fischer
Tropsch mechanism 97
 Contents vii

3.5.5 Biofuel synthesis from Fischer
Tropsch reactor 98

3.6 Techno-economic analysis of Fischer
Tropsch reactor with biomass gasification 100
3.7 Conclusion 101
References 101

4. Energy recovery from biomass through gasification technology 107

4.1 Introduction 107
4.2 Thermochemical conversion 108
4.2.1 Combustion 108
4.2.2 Pyrolysis 108
4.2.3 Gasification 109
4.2.4 Principles of anaerobic digestion 110
4.3 Production and use of aquatic biomass 111
4.3.1 Potential of biomass waste 111
4.4 Lignocellulose biomass pretreatment 112
4.4.1 Physical methods 112
4.4.2 Chemical methods 113
4.4.3 Biological pretreatment 114
4.5 Bioconversion and downstream processing of biomass-derived molecules’
conversion to chemicals 114
4.6 Energy recovery for heating or process applications 115
4.6.1 Steam cycle 115
4.6.2 Engine 115
4.6.3 Gas turbine 116
4.6.4 Biogas 116
4.7 Conversion of lignocellulosic biomass
derived intermediates lignin biorefinery
biogas from waste biomass 116
4.7.1 Hydrolysis 117
4.7.2 Acidogenesis 117
4.7.3 Acetogenesis 117
4.7.4 Methanogenesis 117
4.8 Parameters affecting anaerobic digestion process 117
4.8.1 Temperature 118
4.8.2 Solid to water content 118
4.8.3 pH level 118
4.8.4 Retention period 118
4.8.5 Organic loading rate 119
4.8.6 C/N ratio 119
4.9 The concept of gasification and its types of reactors 119
4.9.1 Fixed bed gasification 120
4.9.2 Updraft gasifier 122
viii Contents

4.9.3 Downdraft gasifier 122

4.9.4 Cross-flow gasifier 122
4.9.5 Fluidized bed gasification 122
4.9.6 Bubbling fluidized bed gasification 123
4.10 Life cycle analysis of gasification process 124
4.10.1 Scope of analysis and definition 124
4.10.2 Boundary system and analysis of related legislation 124
4.10.3 Proper selection of environmental performance indicators 124
4.10.4 Inventory analysis 124
4.10.5 Environmental impact assessment 126
4.10.6 Life cycle assessment 126
4.11 Aspen plus approach to the biomass gasification system 126
4.12 Conclusion 128
References 129

5. Life Cycle Assessment applied to waste-to-energy technologies 133

5.1 Introduction 133
5.2 What is life cycle assessment? 134
5.2.1 Historical development 135
5.2.2 Applications of LCA 136
5.2.3 Steps and procedures for an LCA study 138
5.2.4 Definition of the objective and scope 138
5.2.5 Analysis of the life cycle inventory 139
5.2.6 Life cycle impact assessment 139
5.2.7 Interpretation 140
5.3 Use of LCA to analyze waste-to-energy technologies 141
5.3.1 Main applications 141
5.4 Highlights in LCA studies for waste-to-energy technologies 142
5.4.1 Functional unit 142
5.4.2 Type of residue 143
5.4.3 Form of energy use 144
5.4.4 Energy recovery 144
5.4.5 Sensitivity and uncertainty analyses 144
5.5 Main results found in the literature 145
5.6 Conclusion 146
References 147

6. Waste disposal in selected favelas (slums) of Rio de Janeiro 149

6.1 Historical background 149
6.1.1 Some numbers about subnormal clusters 150
6.1.2 The favela of Catumbi 151
 Contents ix

6.2 Survey and study of solid waste in 37 slums and in Catumbi 153
6.3 Final considerations 165
References 168

7. Transesterification process of biodiesel production from nonedible

vegetable oil sources using catalysts from waste sources 171
7.1 Introduction 171
7.2 Biodiesel production as an alternative source of energy 172
7.3 Transesterification: reaction and mechanism 173
7.4 Catalysts 174
7.4.1 Chemical catalysts 174
7.4.2 Biochemical catalysts 177
7.4.3 Impact on kinetics of transesterification and modeling 177
7.5 Hydrocarbon feed stocks for biodiesel 182
7.5.1 Edible oils 182
7.5.2 Nonedible oils 182
7.6 Various novel technologies for biodiesel production 182
7.6.1 Ultrasonic-assisted biodiesel production 183
7.6.2 Micro reactive transesterification 184
7.6.3 Microwave-assisted biodiesel production 185
7.6.4 Reactive distilled transesterification 185
7.6.5 Supercritical technology of biodiesel production (noncatalytic) 187
7.7 Techno-economic analysis of biodiesel production 187
7.7.1 One-time costs 188
7.7.2 Raw material and operating cost 188
7.7.3 Fixed cost and maintenance cost 189
7.7.4 Cost calculation with respect to production rate 189
7.8 Perspectives and conclusion 190
References 190

Index 195
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About the authors

Dr. Anand Ramanathan is an associate professor in the

Department of Mechanical Engineering at the National
Institute of Technology, Trichy. Area of specialization involves
internal combustion engines, alternative fuels, waste-to-energy
conversion, emission control, and fuel cells. He is the recipient
of the Australian Endeavour Fellow and worked on solar fuels
at Australian National University at Canberra, Australia, from
July to October 2015. He has received various sponsored pro-
jects from GTRE-DRDO, DST-SERB, DST-YSS, DST-
UKERI, MHRD, and BRICS. He has received Indo-Brazil
collaborated project in the area of the thermochemical conversion process with life
cycle assessment under the SPARC scheme. He has contributed several paper publica-
tions in renowned international journals. He has filed seven Indian patents. He has
also contributed 12 book chapters in a renowned publication (Elsevier and Springer),
and involved in professionally related activities and administrative responsibilities to
serve the community.

Dr. Meera Sheriffa Begum K.M. graduated from Anna

University, Chennai. She has got industrial experience at
“Chennai Petroleum Corporation Ltd” (formerly Madras
Refineries Ltd) at R&D division as “MRL Research Fellow”
from 1991 to 1995. She is currently a professor at the
Department of Chemical Engineering. She has received many
best paper awards in international conferences, granted two
patents, published several publications in renowned interna-
tional journals, and coauthored three chemical engineering
textbooks published by PHI, India. She has contributed
research, sponsored, and consultancy projects toward sustainable
environment and energy funded by MHRD, DST and CSIR, and SPARC, and
undertaken research training at NUS, Singapore, through TEQIP. She has executed
industrial consultancy projects for wastewater treatment in Trichy Distilleries, dairy
industry, textile industry, and Tamil Nadu Paper, Ltd, using functional materials
toward sustainability and, also, blended biodiesel development and its execution on
Southern Railways.

xi
xii About the authors

Prof. Amaro Olimpio Pereira Junior is an economist, PhD

in energy planning from the Federal University of Rio de
Janeiro. He worked as a technical advisor of the Energy and
Environment Department at Energy Research Company
(EPE), in Brazil, is a visiting professor at University Pierre
Mendès-France in Grenoble, France, and at the University of
Texas at Austin, Texas. He also worked as Research Fellow at
CIRED (Centre International de Recherche sur
l’Environement et Dévélopement), France. Currently, he is an
associated professor of the Energy Planning Program of the
Institute of Graduate Studies in Engineering at Federal University of Rio de Janeiro
(PPE/COPPE/UFRJ), a researcher at CentroClima, and a member of the permanent
technical committee at LIFE. He is an author of books, book chapters, and several
papers in international journals.

Prof. Claude Cohen obtained her PhD in energy planning

from the Energy Planning Program at The Federal University
of Rio de Janeiro - PPE/UFRJ and a Master's degree in
Development Economics from the University of Paris X
Nanterre. She is currently an associate professor at the Faculty
of Economics at Federal Fluminense University - UFF, a per-
manent professor at the Administrative Justice Postgraduate
Program of Federal Fluminense University - PPGJA/UFF, and
the coordinator of the Innovation, Environment and
Sustainability Research Center of Federal Fluminense University
- NIMAS/UFF. She has experience in economics, with emphasis on environmental
and energy economics, working mainly on the following themes: sustainable develop-
ment, climate change, energy consumption patterns, energy consumption in favelas,
entrepreneurship and sustainable innovation. She is the author of book chapters, and
several papers in international journals.
Preface

The authors of this book have been encouraged in their writing by long-term system-
atic attempts to connect research and development achievements with real-world
applications. The waste-to-energy strategy is a hot topic that deserves to be explored.
People are committed to create various sorts of wastes until the world's economic con-
dition improves to a reasonable level. In this regard, the conversion of waste resources
into value-added products combined with a lifecycle assessment to evaluate the actual
environmental impact on thermochemical conversion processes.
The authors would like to thank Scheme for Promotion of Academic and Research
Collaboration, SPARC-MHRD (Project No SPARC/2018-2019/P965/SL) for provid-
ing valuable resources and support for the successful completion of this book.
Many industry persons and academic experts supported us in reviewing draft chap-
ters throughout the production of this new edition and created new graphics. We
would like to specifically acknowledge the following peoples: Mr. M. Dineshkumar,
Mr. R. Muthu Dinesh Kumar, Mr. G. Vigneshwaran, Mr. Guilherme Rodrigues
Lima, and Mrs. Giovanna Ferrazzo Naspolini who has contributed novel ideas, useful
data, and statistics for preparing this book.
The inspiration for this book is to cover waste-to-energy conversion techniques
from the initial concept to the final product based on recent results of long-term plan-
ning. The life cycle assessment technique aids in the design and development of an
eco-friendly process that minimizes greenhouse gas emissions. Waste processing has
the potential to become a source of energy that may be used to generate power,
cooking, and transport fuels or in fuel cell applications.
We believe that this book will give enough information on the action that must
be followed to implement the waste-to-energy project in the future.

Anand Ramanathan1, Meera Sheriffa Begum K.M.2, Amaro Olimpio Pereira

Junior3 and Claude Cohen4
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology,
Tiruchirappalli, India
2
Department of Chemical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli, India
3
Department of Energy Planning - PPE/COPPE, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro -
UFRJ, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
4
Faculty of Economics and Administrative Justice Post-graduation Program - PPGJA,
Federal Fluminense University - UFF, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

xiii
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Acronyms and abbreviations

TCC Thermochemical conversion

TRACI Tool for the Reduction and Assessment of Chemical and Other
Environmental Impacts
CH3CH2CH2CH2COOH Valeric acid
H2SO4 Sulfuric acid
S Sulfur
H2O Steam
SRT Solids retention time
NaOH Sodium hydroxide
Na2CO3 Sodium carbonate
RT Retention time
RKS Redlich
Kwong
Soave
CH3CH2COOH Propionic acid
lb Pound
PENG
ROB Peng
Robinson cubic equation of state
O3 Ozone
O2 Oxygen
NOx Oxide of nitrogen
OLR Organic loading rate
NO2 Nitrogen dioxide
N Nitrogen
HNO3 Nitric acid
MFV Minimum fluidization velocity
Mt Million tons
mm Millimeter
mL Milliliter
CH4 Methane
MJ/m3 Megajoule per meter cube
MT Mega tonnes
LHV Lower heating value
LCM Lignocellulosic material
LCA Life cycle assessment
kg Kilogram
IGCC Integrated gasification combined cycle
CML Institute of Environmental Sciences
H2 Hydrogen
HCl Hydrochloric acid
HC Hydrocarbon
HRT Hydraulic retention time
GHGs Greenhouse gases
g/m3 Gram per meter cube

xv
xvi Acronyms and abbreviations

GTI Gas Technology Institute

FERCO Future Energy Resources Corporation
FBG Fluidized-bed gasifier
FB Fluidized bed
FBG Fixed-bed gasifier
FT Fischer
Tropsch
ft. Feet
EB Enriched bed
DB Double bed gasification
DME Dimethyl ether
CFB Circulating fluidized bed
Cl Chlorine
CO Carbon monoxide
CO2 Carbon dioxide
C Carbon
CH3CH2CH2COOH Butyric acid
BFB Bubbling fluidized bed
Btu/ft.3 British thermal unit per cubic foot
BCC Biochemical conversion
BCL Battelle Columbus Laboratory
NH4 Ammonium
NH3 Ammonia
CH3COOH Acetic acid
BTL Biomass to liquid
BG
FT Biomass gasification-Fischer tropsch
CHP Combined heat and power
IGCC Integrated gasification combined cycle
NPV Net present value
1G First generation
EC Energy cane
CS Conventional sugarcane

C Degree centigrade
FTIR Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy
cm21 Per centimeter
CH2 Methylene
NMR Nuclear magnetic resonance
ppm Parts per million
C6 C6 alditol
β-O-4 Lignin structure
wb Wet basis
mg/Nm3 Milligram per nanometer cube
SO2 Sulfur dioxide
IC Internal combustion
m/s Meter per second
H2O Water
kJ/g Kilojoule per gram
 Acronyms and abbreviations xvii

MJ/kg Megajoule per kilogram

kJ/g mol Kilojoule per gram per mole
kJ/mol Kilojoule per mole
HV Heating value
FTS Fischer
Tropsch synthesis
Fe Iron
Cu Copper
FeO Iron oxide
D2 Isotopes of hydrogen
T Temperature
P Pressure
SBCR Slurry bubble column reactor
bbl Barrel
IKIE Inverse kinetic isotope effect
kW Kilowatt
MJ/Nm3 Megajoule per nanometer cube
CaCO3 Calcium carbonate
MgCO3 Magnesium carbonate
HCN Hydrogen cyanide
H2S Hydrogen sulfide
E(j) Bioenergy potential of n crops at the jth state
CRs(i,j) Surplus residue potential of the ith crop at the jth state
$ Dollar
CnH2n+2 Alkane
CnH2n Alkene
WGS Water gas shift reaction
A Food in units
AGSN Subnormal clusters
AP1 Central Planning Area 1
CE/EU European Union
D Total number of households surveyed
E Packaging in units
IRT Total volume of irregularly disposed waste
NGOs Nongovernmental organizations
Pc Measured weight for food residues in gram
Pe Package specific weight in gram
R1 Total households disposing their waste in the waste basket
R2 Total households disposing their waste in the dumpster
UPP Pacifying Police Unit
VRI Percentage of households that answered yes to incorrect waste
disposal
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and antelopes and packs of wolves went scampering off, alarmed by
the noise of the boat. There were two large wolf hounds on board,
partly greyhounds, being sent up to one of the trading posts.
On one occasion while the boat was landed to cut wood they
were taken on shore and turned loose to chase a large wolf, seen
not far off. The dogs put after him, soon running at full speed, in our
view for a mile or more, overtaking the wolf, but declining to seize
him, not having been yet trained for coursing wolves.
At the Mandan village, on the right bank, just above the present
site of Bismarck, we found the first abode of Indians having the
resemblance of permanency, their houses being of earth, supported
by timbers on the inside, rounded up like a big potato hill, so as turn
the rain. At this point Lewis and Clark spent the winter of 1804–5, on
their famous journey across the mountains to the Pacific Ocean. The
Rees, some distance above on the left bank of the river, had houses
of similar construction, all the other tribes having portable lodges of
poles and rawhides.
Forts Berthold, Clark and Union were the main trading posts
above, and at each of these we found numbers of Indians collected
to meet the agents, and at which we landed of course to hold the
usual council and talk followed by the delivery of their proper share
of the goods provided for them. As we approached nearer the British
possessions the Indians were pretty well supplied with guns,
obtained from the British traders, a short, smooth bore, cheap-
looking affair, but handy enough for killing buffalo on horseback,
while running.
Some of our passengers busied themselves during our stay at
these places in purchasing bows and arrows, pipes, shields,
moccasins, etc., to be preserved as mementoes of the Indians. The
young Englishman, Mr. Lace, was particularly active in the
acquisition of these articles of Indian make, and so was the
barkeeper of the boat, who acquired a general assortment to take
back with him to St. Louis.
The Indians along the upper Missouri were not then confined to
reservations and, in fact, roamed unrestrained from the Platte to the
North far beyond our boundary into the British possessions, and from
the Mississippi to the crest of the Rocky Mountains, subsisting
mainly upon the flesh of the buffalo.
The long twilight of this high latitude enabled the boat to run in
clear weather almost if not quite as late as 10 o’clock, and little time
was lost by darkness, and we were also favored with several
magnificent displays of the Aurora Borealis, exceedingly brilliant,
lighting the entire northern half of the sky for hours at a time.
On reaching the spurs or detached ranges of the mountains that
appear on either side of the river, navigation was rendered more
difficult by the shoals and rapids over which the boat could hardly
have passed but from the fact that she had been lightened by the
discharge of the greater part of her cargo, at points below.
In the latter part of June we landed at Fort Benton, the head of
navigation on the Missouri, where the boat remained several days.
 CHAPTER III.
Fort Benton was established by the American Fur Company, I
think in the year 1832. That same year the first steamboat ascended
the river to that locality, owned by the company. When we reached
the fort it was in charge of Alexander Culbertson, a prominent
employee of the fur company. Fifty-four years before this it took
Lewis and Clark nearly a year to make the journey from St. Louis to
the Great Falls, thirty miles above Fort Benton.
The remainder of the boat’s cargo, including the work oxen,
plows, harrows, etc., intended for the Blackfoot Agency, was
unloaded and the merchandise piled up on the river bank, a part
being stored in the fort, while arrangements were being made by
Colonel Vaughn for transportation to the Blackfoot Agency, on Sun
River, the supervision of which kept the colonel very busy for several
days.
The long voyage up the Missouri, together with my experience
and observation, gathered along the way, had convinced me that I
would not enjoy spending the whole winter at the Blackfoot Agency,
so I determined to return on the boat.
Mr. Lace, who had come up with the intention of going out to the
mountains, was so discouraged with the prospects of hunting under
existing conditions, that he also resolved to return on the boat. There
was no way of his getting back to the States at a later date in that
year, except to float down the river, a mode of traveling that had no
attractions for him. Mr. Holbrook, the young Harvard graduate, who
was traveling merely for recreation and health, had no intention of
remaining, so the boat was not entirely bereft of passengers.
On meeting Colonel Vaughn seven years afterwards, when he
was living on a ranch not far from Helena, Montana, he told me of his
distressing experience and narrow escape from death he had
encountered in a blizzard during the winter of 1858–9. While
hibernating quietly and comfortably at the Sun River Agency, a
courier or voyageur, arrived from Fort Benton, bringing the
intelligence that a band of Indians from over on the Marias River had
come in to Fort Benton, who were in a state of destitution and
threatened starvation, and that it was absolutely necessary for him to
visit the fort and have rations issued to them or they would starve.
He at once made preparations and started on horseback,
accompanied by his interpreter, a Canadian Frenchman, long a
resident of the Indian country. They started on a morning in February
when the weather was clear and pleasant, with but little snow lying
on the ground, not enough to hide the roadway or render riding
difficult.
At midday the sky became overcast, the clouds sweeping down
from the north, and they were soon enveloped by a heavy fall of
snow, driven and whirled about by a terrific wind, in fact, the worst
kind of a blizzard. The path was soon covered and the snow so
dense and drifting rapidly soon rendered progress slow and difficult,
the ravines being filled with snow when this blizzard began. Both
Colonel Vaughn and the interpreter were perfectly acquainted with
the route, but they lost their reckoning even before they were
overtaken by darkness. The blizzard continued unabated during that
night and all the following day, and all this time they wandered about
completely bewildered by dense snow and severe cold. At last,
during the second night, they were apprised of their locality from the
sound of the Great Falls of the Missouri, and were farther from Fort
Benton than when the snow first struck them. By this time, both men
and horses were nearly worn out and benumbed with cold. When
within hearing of the falls they stopped under an overhanging rock
which sheltered them from the snow and wind, but drowsiness set in,
the certain precursor of death under such circumstances, so they
rode out again into the storm, the colonel taking the lead, and kept
their horses moving. Calling to the interpreter he answered not, and
after this the colonel himself lost consciousness, and while he
retained his seat in the saddle, he ceased to exercise any control
over the horse, and the horse left to his own guidance, carried the
colonel back to the agency, reaching there after daylight, the
morning of the third day, with him almost dead.
The men at the agency went out, lifted him down, carried him
into the house and proceeded to restore him to life again, eventually
their efforts proving successful.
The horse of the interpreter arrived at the agency before the
colonel, and when the colonel had so far regained his faculties as to
be able to talk, he told them where he had last seen the interpreter
near the Great Falls. Some Indians put off in search of him, and his
body was recovered by them, found sitting erect in the snow, frozen
solidly—almost as solid as the granite boulders surrounding it.
The stage of water being good, the boat descended the river
rapidly, running twenty miles an hour and making few landings.
At the Ree village below the mouth of the Yellowstone, a stop
was made to take on a large stock of buffalo robes, a half day being
required to load them, and in order to hasten the work, twenty or
thirty squaws were hired to aid in transferring the bales of robes from
a warehouse on a hill, two hundred yards perhaps from the river
bank, to the boat. These squaws, although of comparatively small
stature, to the bucks, would shoulder up or put on top of their heads
a bale of robes, and walk with it, apparently, with ease, laughing and
chattering with their companions as they went. All the while the
bucks were sitting or standing around, smoking their pipes, looking
on with composure and satisfaction. It did not comport with their
notions of dignity and propriety to engage in any such ignoble work
themselves, in fact the Indian bucks have never yet been able to
appreciate the “nobility” of labor.
Somewhere about Fort Pierre, while the boat was running, four
buffalo bulls were seen grazing quietly in the bottoms some distance
from the river bank. The captain gave orders for landing the boat
immediately. Tied up to the guards on the lower deck were a couple
of Indian ponies being sent down to some point below, as a present
from some chief, to his friends or relations (giving presents being a
very general custom among them), and as was stated when the
horses were brought on board, the horses were extra good buffalo
horses, fleet of foot and trained to the chase.
Among the passengers at that time was a solitary Sioux warrior,
going down on a visit, as he said. He had been with us for a day or
two, and it had been whispered around that he was a bad character
where he belonged. He was athletic and devilish-looking, but there
was little about his person to distinguish him from the general run of
Indian bucks and warriors. He had an ordinary bow and quiver of
arrows slung over his back.
The captain ordered one of the horses brought forward quickly,
and, with the aid of a dozen deck hands, the horse was put ashore.
Just as soon as the buffalo were seen this Indian volunteered with
great alacrity to go after them, and as yet they were grazing
undisturbed.
Having had experience in killing buffalo on horseback the
previous year, on the Santa Fé Trail, I suggested the propriety of
giving the Indian a pair of Colt’s navy revolvers, which I had used
effectively, but he declined them, signifying by signs that his bow and
arrow would answer the purpose better than the pistols, and we soon
discovered that he was a skillful buffalo hunter. The moment the
horse was on the river bank he mounted him, bareback, without any
trappings whatever save a short piece of rope tied around the
horse’s neck. We stood on the hurricane deck looking on, and it
immediately became apparent to us that the Indian well understood
the business at hand, needing no instructions whatever from us. The
horse at once showed speed and activity, the Indian, expertness in
riding him, swaying and guiding him without even using the rope,
galloping off, not towards the buffalo, but down the river bank, to a
point where he had the wind of the game, then turning towards them,
he got right up on them almost before they started. In a moment he
was abreast of one of them and sent an arrow into its side half its
length. Then the horse, it seemed, of his own will fell back to the
rear, then sprang forward on the opposite side when a second arrow
was shot into the buffalo deep enough to produce inward bleeding.
The animal being mortally wounded ran only a half-mile when
tumbled down to die. We had an unobstructed view of the whole
proceeding from the hurricane deck of the boat. A striking
performance, demonstrating the prowess of the Indian. The buffalo
was butchered and brought on board, furnishing fresh meat for
several days.
 Transcriber’s Notes
Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made
consistent when a predominant preference was found in the
original book; otherwise they were not changed.
Simple typographical errors were corrected; unbalanced
quotation marks were remedied when the change was
obvious, and otherwise left unbalanced.
Illustrations in this eBook have been positioned between
paragraphs and outside quotations. In versions of this eBook
that support hyperlinks, the page references in the List of
Illustrations lead to the corresponding illustrations.
Transcriber added the Table of Contents and the List of
Illustrations. Page numbers in the List of Illustrations match
the positions in this eBook, not the ones in the original book.
 *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OVER THE
SANTA FÉ TRAIL, 1857 ***

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