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Handbook of Applied Hydrology
00_Singh_FM_pi-lvi.indd 1 8/26/16 4:35 PM

Editor-in-Chief
Vijay P. Singh, Ph.D., D.Sc., D. Eng. (Hon.), Ph.D. (Hon.), D. Sc. (Hon.), P.E., P.H., Hon.
D. WRE, Academician (GFA), is a Distinguished Professor and Caroline & William N. Lehrer
Distinguished Chair in Water Engineering in the Department of Biological and Agricultural
Engineering and Zachry Department of Civil Engineering at Texas A&M University. He holds
a B.Tech degree from U.P. University of Agriculture and Technology, a Master’s Degree from
the University of Guelph, a Ph.D. from Colorado State University, and a D.Sc. from the
University of the Witwatersrand. One of today’s leading experts in the field of hydrology, Dr.
Singh specializes in surface water hydrology, groundwater hydrology, hydraulics, irrigation
engineering, environmental quality, and water resources. He has published 25 books and has
edited over 58 books, and has published hundreds of journal articles. He has been the Editor-
in-Chief of the Journal of Hydrologic Engineering, ASCE; is currently serving as Editor-in-
Chief of Open Agriculture, and Journal of Agricultural research, and Journal of Groundwater
Research and is on the editorial boards of numerous journals. He is also serving as Editor-in-
Chief of Water Science and Technology Book Series as well as World Water Resources Book
series. He has received more than 75 national and international awards.

Handbook of Applied Hydrology
EDITED BY VIJAY P. SINGH
Second Edition to replace the classic 1963 edition edited by Ven Te Chow
New York Chicago San Francisco Athens London

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Dedicated to
Hydrologists and Water Scientists

Contents in Brief
Part 1 Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1
Part 2 Data Collection and Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1
Part 3 Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-1
Part 4 Hydrologic Processes and Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-1
Part 5 Sediment and Pollutant Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63-1
Part 6 Hydrometeorologic and Hydrologic Extremes . . . . . . . . . . . . 72-1
Part 7 Systems Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81-1
Part 8 Hydrology of Large Rivers and Lake Basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93-1
Part 9 Applications and Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125-1
Part 10 Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151-1
vii

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handbookofappliedhydrology

Contents
Preface xxxv
Foreword xxxix
Acknowledgments xli
Contributors xliii
International Advisory Board liii
Practitioner Advisory Board lv
Part 1. Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1
Chapter 1. The Hydrologic Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3

1.1 Characteristics of Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3
1.2 Definition of Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-4
1.3 Hydrologic Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-4
1.4 Components of the Hydrologic Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5
1.5 Schematic Representation of the Hydrologic Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5
1.6 Scales in Hydrologic Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-6
1.7 Impact of Climate Change on the Hydrologic Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-6
1.8 Influence of Human Activities and Land Use Changes on Hydrologic Cycle . . . 1-6
1.9 Relation Between Hydrologic Cycle and Carbon and Nitrogen Cycles . . . . . . . . 1-7
1.10 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-9
Chapter 2. Watersheds, River Basins, and Land Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1
2.2 Components of Watersheds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1
2.3 Delineation of a Watershed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-4
2.4 Watershed Hydrological Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-4
2.5 Characteristics of a Watershed That Impact on Hydrological Processes . . . . . . 2-4
2.6 River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-6
2.7 River Basin Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-6
2.8 Major River Basins in the World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-7
2.9 Land Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-7
2.10 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-8
Chapter 3. Water Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1
3.2 Hydrologic Fluxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1
3.3 Water on the Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1
3.4 Water Balance Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4
3.5 Natural and Anthropogenic Effects on the Water Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-7
3.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-9
PART 2. Data Collection and Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1
Chapter 4. Hydrometeors and Quantitative Precipitation Estimation 4-3

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3
4.2 Types of Hydrometeorological Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3
4.3 Remote Sensing of Precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3
4.4 Hydrometeorological Data Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4
4.5 Hydrometeorological Data Quality Assurance and Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5
4.6 Quantitative Precipitation Estimate, Data Use, Archiving, and Accessibility . . 4-6
ix

x Contents
Chapter 5. Streamflow Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1

5.1 Streamflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1
5.2 Types of Streamflow Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1
5.3 Streamgage Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1
5.4 Quality Assurance of Streamgage Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-6
5.5 Derived Streamflow Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-7
Chapter 6. Streamflow Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1

6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1
6.2 Rating Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1
6.3 Simple Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4
6.4 Complex Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6
6.5 Slope Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8
6.6 Rate of Change of Stage Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8
6.7 Dynamic-Flow Model Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10
6.8 Index-Velocity Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10
6.9 Shifting-Control Method for Dealing with Rating Complexities . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11
6.10 Uncertainty in Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13
Chapter 7. Hydrologic Information Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1

7.1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1
7.2
Hydrologic Data Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1
7.3
Service-Oriented Architectures for Integrating Distributed Hydrologic
Data and Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2
7.4 The CUAHSI Hydrologic Information System as an Example HIS . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3
7.5 HydroShare as a Next-Generation HIS Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5
7.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-8
Chapter 8. Remote Sensing Techniques and Data Assimilation for

Hydrologic Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1
8.2 Remote Sensing Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1
8.3 Remote Sensing in Hydrological Sciences: A Historical Perspective . . . . . . . . 8-1
8.4 Remote Sensing: Methods and Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2
8.5 Data Assimilation: Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3
8.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4
Chapter 9. Geographic Information Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1

9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1
9.2 Basic Principles of GIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1
9.3 Data Sources and Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2
9.4 Representation of Model Inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-5
9.5 Model/GIS Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-7
9.6 Current Status and Future Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-8
Chapter 10. Design of Hydrologic Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1

10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1
10.2 Hydrologic Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1
10.3 Necessity of Hydrologic Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1
10.4 Impact of Hydrologic Network Density on Streamflow Estimates . . . . . . . . . . 10-2
10.5 Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-2
10.6 Design of Hydrologic Networks: Methodologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-2
10.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-4
Part 3. Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-1
Chapter 11. Artificial Neural Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3

11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3
11.2 Historical Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3
11.3 Artificial Neural Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4
11.4 ANN Training and Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4

Contents xi
11.5 Drawbacks of ANN Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-5

11.6 Shortcomings in ANN Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-5
11.7 Future Direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6
Chapter 12. Fuzzy Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-1

12.1 Fuzzy Logic Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-1
12.2 Function of Fuzzy Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2
12.3 Fuzzy Rule-Based Modeling (Fuzzy Inference) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3
Acknowledgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-5
Chapter 13. Evolutionary Computing: Genetic Algorithms . . . . . . . . . 13-1

13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-1
13.2 Evolutionary Computing in Hydrology: An Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-1
13.3 Genetic Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-2
13.4 GA Applications in Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-3
13.5 Conclusion and Future Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-3
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-3
Chapter 14. Relevance Vector Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1

14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1
14.2 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1
14.3 Mathematical Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2
14.4 Application of RVM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-3
14.5 Examples from Hydrology and Future Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4
14.6 Miscellaneous Topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-6
Chapter 15. Harmonic Analysis and Wavelets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1

15.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1
15.2 The Continuous Wavelet Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1
15.3 Discrete Time Wavelet Transform and Multiresolution Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3
15.4 Signal Energy Repartition in the Wavelet Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3
15.5 Wavelet Analysis of the Time-Scale Relationship Between Two Signals . . . . . 15-4
15.6 Wavelet Cross Spectrum and Coherence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4
15.7 Applications of Wavelet Transforms in Hydrology and Earth Sciences . . . . . . 15-5
15.8 Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5
Chapter 16. Outlier Analysis and Infilling of Missing Records

in Hydrologic Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-1
16.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-1
16.2 Concepts and Methods for Outlier Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-2
16.3 Concepts and Methods for Handling Missing Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-3
16.4 Discussion and Concluding Remarks on Methods for Outliers and Infilling
of Missing Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-5
16.5 Future Research Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-6
Chapter 17. Linear and Nonlinear Regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-1

17.1 Linear and Nonlinear Regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-1
17.2 Measures for Goodness of Fit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4
17.3 Multiple Linear Regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-5
17.4 Nonlinear Regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-9
Chapter 18. Time Series Analysis and Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1

18.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1
18.2 Properties of Hydrological Time Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1
18.3 Time-Series Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2
18.4 Modeling of Continuous Time Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2
18.5 Univariate Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2
18.6 Univariate Periodic Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-4
18.7 Multivariate Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-6
18.8 Disaggregation Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-7
18.9 Nonparametric Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-7

xii Contents
18.10 Stochastic Simulation, Forecasting, and Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-8

18.11 Conceptual Stochastic Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-8
18.12 Final Remarks and Future Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-9
Chapter 19. Statistical Detection of Nonstationarity: Issues

and Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-1
19.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-1
19.2 Exploratory Methods for Detection of Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-2
19.3 Statistical Exploration of Nonstationarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-2
19.4 Effect of Nonconstant Error Variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-3
19.5 Effect of a Priori Filtering of Time Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-4
19.6 Distribution of a Breakpoint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-4
19.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-5
Chapter 20. Spatial Analysis and Geostatistical Methods . . . . . . . . . . 20-1

20.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-1
20.2 Data Types and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-1
20.3 Spatial Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-1
20.4 Heterogeneous Field Estimation and Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-3
20.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-7
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-7
Chapter 21. Frequency Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-1

21.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-1
21.2 Discrete Frequency Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-1
21.3 Classification of Continuous Frequency Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-2
21.4 Continuous Frequency Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-2
21.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-10
Chapter 22. Calibration, Parameter Estimation, Uncertainty, Data

Assimilation, Sensitivity Analysis, and Validation . . . . . . . . 22-1
22.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-1
22.2 Parameter Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-1
22.3 Parameter Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-3
22.4 Data Assimilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-5
22.5 Sensitivity Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-10
22.6 Validation Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-11
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-15
Chapter 23. Bayesian Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-1

23.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-1
23.2 The Bayesian Inference Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-1
23.3 Computational Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-4
23.4 Diagnostics to Scrutinize Model Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-6
23.5 Applications in Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-7
23.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-9
Chapter 24. Optimization Approaches for Integrated Water Resources

Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-1
24.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-1
24.2 Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-2
24.3 Challenges and Research Gaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-4
24.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-5
24.5 Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-5
24.6 Appendix: Literature Trend Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-5
Chapter 25. Nonparametric Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-1

25.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-1
25.2 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-1
25.3 Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-2
25.4 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-3
25.5 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-5

Contents xiii
Chapter 26. Predictive Uncertainty Assessment

and Decision Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-1
26.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-1
26.2 Forecasting in Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-1
26.3 Motivations for Converting Deterministic to Stochastic Prediction . . . . . . . . . 26-1
26.4 Predictive Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-2
26.5 Techniques Aimed at Assessing Predictive Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-4
26.6 Verification of the Estimated Predictive Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-9
26.7 Major Reasons Undermining the Operational Use of Predictive Uncertainty 26-9
26.8 Examples of Proper Use of Predictive Uncertainty to Improve Decisions . . . . 26-13
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-15
Chapter 27. Risk-Reliability Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1

27.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1
27.2 Measures of Reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1
27.3 Performance Function and Reliability Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2
27.4 Direct Integration Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2
27.5 First-Order Second-Moment Reliability Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-3
27.6 Time-Dependent (Dynamic) Reliability Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-5
27.7 Time-to-Failure Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-5
27.8 Monte Carlo Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-9
Chapter 28. Scaling and Fractals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-1

28.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-1
28.2 Scale-Invariant Sets and Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-1
28.3 Some Properties of H-SSSI Processes and MF Cascades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-2
28.4 Inference of Scaling for Stationary Multifractal Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-4
28.5 Processes with Limited Scale Invariance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-4
28.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-5
Chapter 29. Nonlinear Dynamics and Chaos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-1

29.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-1
29.2 Chaos Theory: A Brief History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-2
29.3 Chaos Concepts and Identification Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-2
29.4 Issues in Chaos Identification and Prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-5
29.5 Hydrologic Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-7
29.6 Final Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-8
Chapter 30. Copula Modeling in Hydrologic Frequency Analysis . . . 30-1

30.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-1
30.2 Description of Copula Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-1
30.3 Overview of Model Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-2
30.4 Multivariate Quantile and Return Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-5
30.5 An Illustration: The Fraser River at Hope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-5
30.6 Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-7
30.7 Resources and Further Specific References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-9
Chapter 31. Entropy Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-1

31.1 Origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-1
31.2 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-1
31.3 Forms of Entropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-2
31.4 Directional Information Transfer Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-3
31.5 Entropy under Transformation of Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-3
31.6 Informational Correlation Coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-3
31.7 Total Correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-3
31.8 Theory of Entropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-4
31.9 Methodology for Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-4
31.10 Hydrologic Modeling Using Entropy Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-7
31.11 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-8

xiv Contents
Chapter 32. Entropy Production Extremum Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-1

32.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-1
32.2 Background and Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-1
32.3 Maximum Entropy Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-4
32.4 Review of Applications in Hydrology and Hydraulics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-5
32.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-5
Chapter 33. Data-Based Mechanistic Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1

33.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1
33.2 The Main Stages of DBM Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2
33.3 Linear DBM Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-3
33.4 Time Variable and State-Dependent Parameter Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6
33.5 Hypothetico-Inductive DBM Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7
33.6 DBM Emulation Modeling of High-Order Simulation Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-8
33.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-11
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-11
Chapter 34. Decomposition Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-1

34.1 Introduction: Adomian’s Decompositions Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-1
34.2 Regional Flow in an Unconfined Aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-2
34.3 Propagation of Nonlinear Kinematic Flood Waves in Rivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-2
34.4 Nonlinear Infiltration in Unsaturated Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-4
34.5 Summary and Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-5
Chapter 35. Network Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-1

35.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-1
35.2 Network Theory: Concept and History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-2
35.3 Network Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-3
35.4 Network Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-4
35.5 Applications in Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-6
35.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-8
Chapter 36. Hydroeconomic Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-1

36.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-1
36.2 Estimating the Economic Value of Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-1
36.3 Water Demand Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-2
36.4 Considerations in the Design of Hydroeconomic Analysis Studies . . . . . . . . . . 36-3
36.5 Applications and Implementation of Hydroeconomic Analysis for
Management and Decision Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-5
36.6 Discussion of Challenges, Limitations, and Future Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-6
36.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-7
Part 4. Hydrologic Processes and Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-1
Chapter 37. Weather and Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-3

37.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-3
37.2 Hydrologic Engineering and Intersection with Weather and Climate . . . . . . . 37-3
37.3 Weather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-5
37.4 Observing Weather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-7
37.5 Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-7
37.6 Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-10
Chapter 38. Hydroclimatology: Global Warming and Climate Change 38-1

38.1Introduction: The Ambiguity of Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-1
38.2Natural and Human Influences on Present-Day Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-1
38.3Impacts of Climate Change on the Hydrological Cycle in the Twentieth and
Twenty-First Centuries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-2
38.4 Global Climate Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-3
38.5 Working with Climate Model Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-4
38.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-6

Contents xv
Chapter 39. Spatial and Temporal Estimation and

Analysis of Precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39-1
39.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39-1
39.2 Estimates of Mean Areal Precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39-1
39.3 Missing Precipitation Data Estimation Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39-4
39.4 Limitations of Estimation Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39-5
39.5 New Methods for Missing Data Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39-5
39.6 Summary of Issues for Missing Precipitation Data Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39-6
39.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39-7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39-8
Chapter 40. Snow Distribution and Snowpack Characteristics . . . . . 40-1

40.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-1
40.2 Processes Controlling Snow Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-1
40.3 Spatial Patterns of Snow at Various Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-2
40.4 Snowpack Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-2
40.5 Discussion and Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-3
Acknowledgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-4
Chapter 41. Time-Space Modeling of Precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-1

41.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-1
41.2 Stochastic Modeling of Precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-1
41.3 Deterministic Numerical Modeling of Time-Space Precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-3
41.4 Remote Sensing for the Modeling of Time-Space Precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-10
Chapter 42. Evapotranspiration and Evaporative Demand . . . . . . . . . 42-1

42.1 Introduction and History of Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42-1
42.2 Relevant Concepts and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42-3
42.3 Outstanding Problems and Directions for Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42-10
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42-14
Chapter 43. Rainfall Interception, Detention, and

Depression Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43-1
43.1 Canopy Interception Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43-1
43.2 Forest Floor Interception Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43-3
43.3 Detention and Depression Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43-3
43.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43-3
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43-3
Chapter 44. Watershed Geomorphological Characteristics . . . . . . . . . 44-1

44.1 Introduction and Literature Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44-1
44.2 Watersheds and Drainage Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44-2
44.3 Outstanding Problems and Directions for Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44-10
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44-11
Chapter 45. Infiltration Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45-1

45.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45-1
45.2 Basic Equations for Vertical Infiltration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45-1
45.3 Classical Models for Point Infiltration into Vertically Homogeneous Soils . . . 45-2
45.4 Modeling of Point Infiltration into Vertically Nonuniform Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . 45-4
45.5 Models for Rainfall Infiltration over Heterogeneous Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45-5
45.6 Soil Conservation Service Runoff Curve Number Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45-6
45.7 Open Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45-6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45-7
Chapter 46. Soil Moisture and Vadose Zone Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46-1

46.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46-1
46.2 Continuum-Scale Models for Partially Saturated Flow in the Vadose Zone . . 46-2
46.3 Numerical Vadose Zone and Land Surface Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46-3
46.4 Soil Moisture across Spatial-Temporal Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46-5
46.5 Inverse Modeling—Soil Hydraulic Properties at the Model Grid Scale . . . . . . 46-8
46.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46-10
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46-11

xvi Contents
Chapter 47. Hydrogeologic Characterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-1

47.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-1
47.2 Borehole Samples and Groundwater Monitoring Wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-1
47.3 Investigation of Borehole Drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-1
47.4 Cone Penetrometry, Permeametry, and Electrical Conductivity Logging . . . . 47-2
47.5 Electrical Resistivity Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-2
47.6 Hydraulic Methods for in Situ Conductivity Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-2
47.7 Characterization of the Hydraulic Gradient and Flow Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-3
47.8 Recharge Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-3
47.9 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-3
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-3
Chapter 48. Groundwater Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48-1

48.1Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48-1
48.2Groundwater Model Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48-1
48.3Grid Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48-2
48.4Model Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48-3
48.5Case Study: Groundwater Modeling in Baton Rouge,
Southeastern Louisiana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48-3
48.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48-5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48-7
Chapter 49. Watershed Runoff, Streamflow Generation,

and Hydrologic Flow Regimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49-1
49.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49-1
49.2 Dominant Runoff Generation Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49-3
49.3 Infiltration Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49-6
49.4 Factors Affecting Runoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49-6
49.5 Poorly Understood Factors Affecting Runoff Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49-7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49-11
Chapter 50. Snowmelt Runoff Generation and Modeling . . . . . . . . . . 50-1

50.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50-1
50.2 Snow Accumulation Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50-1
50.3 Energy Budget of Snow Pack and Snowmelt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50-2
50.4 Simulation of Snow Accumulation Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50-3
50.5 Heat and Water Transfer in Melting Snow Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50-3
50.6 Spatial Variability of Snow Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50-4
50.7 Constructing General Model of Snowmelt Runoff Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50-4
50.8 Case studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50-6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50-9
Chapter 51. Glacial Melting and Runoff Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51-1

51.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51-1
51.2 Remote Sensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51-1
51.3 Application of Remote Sensing in Glacier Quantification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51-1
51.4 Glaciated Versus Nonglaciated Watersheds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51-3
51.5 Application in Streamflow Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51-3
51.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51-4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51-4
Chapter 52. Reservoir and Channel Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52-1

52.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52-1
52.2 Reservoir Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52-1
52.3 River Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52-2
52.4 The Classical Muskingum Flood Routing Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52-3
52.5 Nash Cascade Model for River Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52-4
52.6 Other Linear Storage Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52-4
52.7 Linear Diffusion Analogy Routing Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52-5
52.8 Nonlinear Routing Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52-5
52.9 Flow Routing Using Hydraulic Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52-6
52.10 Basis for the Development of Simplified Momentum Equations . . . . . . . . . . . 52-7
52.11 Simplified Hydraulic Flood Routing Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52-7
52.12 Kalinin–Milyukov Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52-9
52.13 Variable Parameter Muskingum Stage Routing Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52-12

Contents xvii
52.14 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52-14

Acknowledgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52-14
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52-15
Chapter 53. Waterlogging and Salinzation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53-1

53.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53-1
53.2 Salinity Features and Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53-1
53.3 Irrigation Induced Rises of the Watertable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53-2
53.4 Irrigation Induced Land Salinization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53-3
53.5 Land Salinization Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53-4
53.6 Salt Balance and Leaching Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53-4
53.7 Monitoring and Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53-5
53.8 Remedial Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53-5
53.9 New Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53-6
53.10 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53-6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53-7
Chapter 54. Surface Water–Groundwater Interactions:

Integrated Modeling of a Coupled System . . . . . . . . . . . . 54-1
54.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54-1
54.2 Surface Water Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54-2
54.3 Subsurface Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54-4
54.4 Soil Plant Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54-5
54.5 Coupling Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54-6
54.6 Scale Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54-7
54.7 Data Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54-9
54.8 Integrated Models and Watershed Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54-10
54.9 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54-10
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54-12
Chapter 55. Seawater Intrusion in Coastal Aquifers: Concepts,

Mitigation, and Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55-1
55.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55-1
55.2 Assumptions and Approaches for Modeling Seawater Intrusion . . . . . . . . . . . 55-1
55.3 Mitigation of Seawater Intrusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55-3
55.4 Case Study: The Nile Delta Aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55-3
55.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55-9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55-9
Chapter 56. Regional Land Subsidence Caused by the Compaction

of Susceptible Aquifer Systems Accompanying
Groundwater Extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56-1
56.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56-1
56.2 Detection and Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56-2
56.3 Analysis and Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56-7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56-9
Chapter 57. Hydraulic Fracturing and Hydrologic Impacts . . . . . . . . . 57-1

57.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57-1
57.2 Hydraulic Fracturing Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57-2
57.3 Risk of Groundwater Contamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57-4
57.4 Potential for Induced Seismicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57-6
57.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57-7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57-8
Chapter 58. Catchment Classification and Regionalization . . . . . . . . . 58-1

58.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58-1
58.2 Catchment Classification: A Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58-2
58.3 Classification Based on Chaos Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58-2
58.4 Classification Based on Network Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58-4
58.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58-5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58-7

xviii Contents
Chapter 59. Rainfall-Runoff Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59-1

59.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59-1
59.2 A Brief History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59-1
59.3 Computation of Runoff Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59-1
59.4 Determination of Peak Discharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59-3
59.5 Runoff Hydrograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59-3
59.6 Computation of Runoff Hydrograph by Hydraulic Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59-6
59.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59-8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59-8
Chapter 60. Continuous Watershed Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60-1

60.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60-1
60.3 Concepts and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60-3
60.4 Outstanding Problems/Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60-7
60.5 Future Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60-8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60-10
Chapter 61. Calibration and Evaluation of Watershed Models . . . . . . 61-1

61.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61-1
61.2 Calibration and Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61-2
61.3 Elements of a Calibration/Evaluation Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61-2
61.4 Historical Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61-2
61.5 Model Calibration and Evaluation Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61-3
61.6 Strategies for Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61-3
61.7 Desirable Properties of a Successful Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61-4
61.8 Preparation Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61-4
61.9 Calibration Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61-8
61.10 Evaluation Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61-8
61.11 Discussion and Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61-9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61-9
Chapter 62. Feasibility, Engineering, and Operations Models: Using

the Decision Environment to Inform the Model Design 62-1
62.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62-1
62.2 The Decision Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62-1
62.3 USACE Decision Environment Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62-2
62.4 Precision Dimensions of Decision Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62-2
62.5 Process Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62-3
62.6 Information Content Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62-5
62.7 Case Study: Picayune Strand-Restoration Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62-5
62.8 Future Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62-6
62.9 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62-6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62-7
Part 5. Sediment and Pollutant Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63-1

Chapter 63. Water Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63-3
63.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63-3
63.2 Water Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63-3
63.3 Water Quality Standards and Water Use Designations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63-3
63.4 Restoration of Water Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63-5
63.5 Sensor-Based Water Quality Monitoring Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63-8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63-9
Chapter 64. Soil Erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64-1

64.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64-1
64.2 Erosion by Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64-1
64.3 Erosion by Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64-1
64.4 Gravity-Induced Erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64-2
64.5 Tillage Erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64-3
64.6 Snowmelt Erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64-3
64.7 Irrigation-Induced Erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64-3
64.8 Erosion by Wind-Driven Rain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64-3
64.9 Erosion Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64-4
64.10 Erosion Assessment—Field and Laboratory Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64-4

Contents xix
64.11 Erosion Assessment—Equations and Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64-5

64.12 Erosion Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64-5
64.13 Erosion Control and Soil Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64-5
64.14 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64-6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64-6
Chapter 65. Channel Erosion and Sediment Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65-1

65.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65-1
65.2 Sediment Production and Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65-1
65.3 Partitioning of Sediment Loads in Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65-2
65.4 Bank Profile and Erosional Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65-3
65.5 Modes of Sediment Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65-5
65.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65-10
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65-10
Chapter 66. Sedimentation of Floodplains, Lakes, and Reservoirs . . . . . . 66-1

66.1 Floodplain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66-1
66.2 Lake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66-1
66.3 Reservoir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66-2
66.4 The Sedimentation Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66-5
66.5 Prediction of Sediments in Floodplains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66-7
66.6 Reservoir Trap Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66-7
66.7 Estimation of Sediment in Lakes and Reservoirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66-7
66.8 Protective Measure Against Sedimentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66-9
66.9 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66-9
Acknowledgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66-10
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66-10
Chapter 67. Pollutant Transport in Surface Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67-1

67.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67-1
67.2 Fundamental Processes Controlling Pollutant Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67-1
67.3 Pollutant Transport in Rivers and Streams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67-3
67.4 Pollutant Transport in Lakes and Reservoirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67-4
67.5 Pollutant Transport in Coastal Waters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67-7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67-9
Chapter 68. Pollutant Transport in Vadose Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68-1

68.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68-1
68.2 Water Potential in the Unsaturated Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68-1
68.3 Governing Equation of Flow in Vadose Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68-1
68.4 Deterministic Approach to Solute Transport in the Vadose Zone . . . . . . . . . . . 68-3
68.5 Codes for Numerical Solution of Vadose Zone Flow and Transport . . . . . . . . . 68-5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68-6
Chapter 69. Pollutant Transport in Groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69-1

69.1Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69-1
69.2Learn from the Field Work—A Case of
Saltwater Intrusion Observation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69-3
69.3 Reactive Solute Transport Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69-3
69.4 Dispersion Processes in Groundwater
(Sato and Lwasa, 2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69-5
69.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69-9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69-9
Chapter 70. Salinization and Salinity Management in Watersheds . . . . 70-1

70.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70-1
70.2 Salinization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70-1
70.3 Salinity-Related Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70-2
70.4 Salinity Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70-2
70.5 Salinity Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70-3
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70-4
Chapter 71. Transport of Biochemicals and Microorganisms . . . . . . . 71-1

71.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71-1
71.2 Biochemicals and Microorganisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71-1

xx Contents
71.3 Mathematical Model Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71-2

71.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71-6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71-6
Part 6. Hydrometeorologic and Hydrologic Extremes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72-1
Chapter 72. Atmospheric Rivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72-3

72.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72-3
72.2 Large-Scale Circulation and Moisture Sources and Pathways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72-4
72.3 Precipitation and Flooding Associated with ARs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72-4
72.4 Modeling of ARs and Associated Precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72-5
72.5 Projection of Future Changes in ARs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72-6
72.6 Future Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72-7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72-8
Chapter 73. Hydrometeorological Extremes

(Hurricanes and Typhoons) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73-1
73.1Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73-1
73.2Climatology of Heavy Rainfall and Flooding from Tropical Cyclones . . . . . . . . 73-1
73.3Remote Rainfall Associated with Tropical Cyclones: Predecessor
Rain Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73-2
73.4 Projected Increases in Rainfall Associated with Tropical Cyclones . . . . . . . . . . 73-2
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73-3
Chapter 74. Extreme Rainfall: Global Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74-1

74.1Introduction: The Importance of Studying Extreme Rainfall and
Related Difficulties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74-1
74.2 A Global Survey of Record Rainfall Depths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74-3
74.3 Approaches in Estimating Extreme Rainfall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74-7
74.4 The Concept of Probable Maximum Precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74-10
74.5 Probabilistic Approach to Extreme Rainfall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74-12
74.6 Ombrian (Intensity-Duration-Frequency) Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74-13
74.7 Summary and Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74-15
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74-16
Chapter 75. Floods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75-1

75.1 Introduction to Floods and Flooding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75-1
75.2 Flood Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75-1
75.3 Flood Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75-2
75.4 Estimation of Flood Magnitudes and Design Floods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75-4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75-5
Chapter 76. Flood Frequency Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76-1

76.1Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76-1
76.2Describing the Chance of Flood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76-1
76.3Looking at the Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76-3
76.4Fitting Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76-4
76.5Index Flood Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76-5
76.6Method of Moments, Bulletin 17B, and Bulletin 17C,
with the LP3 Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76-6
76.7 Uncertainty Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76-6
76.8 Estimation at Ungaged Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76-7
76.9 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76-7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76-7
Chapter 77. Regional Flood Frequency Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77-1

77.1 Introduction: The Regional Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77-1
77.2 Regional Estimation Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77-1
77.3 Delineation of Homogeneous Regions and Homogeneity Testing . . . . . . . . . . 77-1
77.4 Regional Transfer Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77-3
77.5 One-Step Regional Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77-4
77.6 Nonlinear Models in Regional Flood Frequency Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77-4
77.7 Multivariate Regional Flood Frequency Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77-5

Contents xxi
77.8 Nonstationary Regional Flood Frequency Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77-5

77.9 Regional Flood Frequency Analysis Based on Seasonality Measures . . . . . . . 77-6
77.10 Combination of Local and Regional Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77-6
77.11 Daily Streamflow Estimation at Ungauged Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77-6
77.12 Discussion and New Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77-7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77-7
Chapter 78. Risk, Reliability, and Return Periods and

Hydrologic Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78-1
78.1Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78-1
78.2Probabilistic- and Risk-Based Approaches to Hydrologic Design . . . . . . . . . . 78-2
78.3Multivariate Probabilistic- and Risk-Based Approaches to
Hydrologic Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78-7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78-9
Chapter 79. Drought Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79-1

79.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79-1
79.2 Drought, Aridity, and Water Scarcity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79-2
79.3 Drought Occurrences in the World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79-3
79.4 Drought Properties Based on Statistical Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79-3
79.5 Numerical Characterization of Drought Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79-4
79.6 Indices for Drought Characterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79-6
79.7 Outstanding Problems and Direction for Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79-8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79-10
Chapter 80. Low Flow and Drought Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80-1

80.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80-1
80.2 Need for Low Flow Hydrology Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80-1
80.3 Factors Affecting Low Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80-2
80.4 Low Flow Indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80-2
80.5 Methods of Low Flow Estimation in Ungaged Catchments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80-4
80.6 Drought Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80-4
80.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80-9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80-9
Part 7. Systems Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81-1
Chapter 81. Isotope Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81-3

81.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81-3
81.2 Isotopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81-3
81.3 Groundwater Dating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81-5
81.4 Sampling Methods and Isotope Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81-7
81.5 Isotope Applications in Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81-8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81-12
Chapter 82. Lake Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82-1

82.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82-1
82.2 Origin of Lakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82-1
82.3 Water Balance of Lakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82-1
82.4 Thermal Regime of Lakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82-2
82.5 Ice Growth on Lakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82-4
82.6 Circulation Processes in Lakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82-4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82-5
Chapter 83. Urban Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83-1

83.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83-1
83.2 The Effects of Urbanization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83-2
83.3 Other Aspects of Urban Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83-3
83.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83-3
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83-4
Chapter 84. Agricultural Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84-1

84.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84-1
84.2 Water Movement in the Root Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84-1
84.3 Evaporation and Transpiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84-3
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84-4

xxii Contents
Chapter 85. Forest Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85-1

85.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85-1
85.3 Principles of Forest Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85-2
85.4 Research Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85-3
85.5 Key Findings in Forest-Stream Water Quantity and Quality Relationships . . . 85-4
85.6 Future Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85-5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85-5
Chapter 86. Coastal Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86-1

86.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86-1
86.2 Overview of Coastal Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86-1
86.3 Movement of Water and Sediment in Coastal Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86-2
86.4 Mathematical Models of Water and Sediment Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86-6
86.5 Summary and Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86-7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86-8
Chapter 87. Wetland Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87-1

87.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87-1
87.2 Importance of Hydrology on Wetland Functioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87-1
87.3 Hydroperiod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87-2
87.4 Wetland Hydrologic Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87-2
87.5 Wetland Water Budget . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87-3
87.6 Wetland Hydraulics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87-5
87.7 Modeling Groundwater-Surface Water Interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87-6
87.8 Wetland Hydrology at the Watershed Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87-7
87.9 Anthropogenic and Climate Change Impacts on Wetlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87-7
87.10 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87-7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87-8
Chapter 88. Arid Zone Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88-1

88.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88-1
88.2 Precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88-1
88.3 Condensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88-1
88.4 Infiltration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88-1
88.5 Runoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88-2
88.6 Transmission Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88-3
88.7 Change in Storage (ΔS)-Groundwater Recharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88-3
88.8 Evapotranspiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88-4
88.9 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88-6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88-6
Chapter 89. Karst . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89-1

89.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89-1
89.2 Investigation and Characterization of Karst . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89-4
89.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89-10
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89-11
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89-11
Chapter 90. Cryospheric Hydrology: Mountainous Environment . . . 90-1

90.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90-1
90.2 Alpine Runoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90-1
90.3 Monsoon Dominated Asian Mountain Ranges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90-1
90.4 Glacier Runoff as a Resource . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90-1
90.5 Glacier Melting Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90-4
90.6 Glacier Melt Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90-5
90.7 Drainage and Storage Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90-5
90.8 Diurnal and Seasonal Variations in Glacier Meltwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90-6
90.9 Cryospheric Hydrology and Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90-7
90.10 Glacier Lake Outburst Floods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90-9
90.11 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90-10
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90-10

Contents xxiii
Chapter 91. Hydrology of Transportation Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91-1

91.1 Pathways in Nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91-1
91.2 Scales of Movement and Accumulation Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91-2
91.3 Soil and Groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91-3
91.4 Streams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91-4
91.5 Lakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91-5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91-6
Chapter 92. Large-Scale and Global Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92-1

92.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92-1
92.2 The Distribution of Water on Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92-1
92.3 The Global Water Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92-1
92.4 Numerical Modeling and Data Assimilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92-2
92.5 Global Water Cycle Variability, Predictability, and Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92-4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92-6
Part 8. Hydrology of Large River and Lake Basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93-1
Chapter 93. Amazon River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93-3

93.1Main Geographical Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93-3
93.2Amazon Hydrological Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93-3
93.3Environment, Economics and Potentialities of the Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93-5
93.4Impact of Anthropic Activities in the Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93-6
93.5Amazon Basin in the Context of Its Water Footprint
and Environmental Role . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93-6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93-6
Chapter 94. Paraná (Rio de la Plata) River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94-1

94.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94-1
94.2 Geographical Features and Main Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94-1
94.3 Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94-1
94.4 Hydrological Features and Water Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94-2
94.5 Variability and Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94-2
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94-4
Chapter 95. Orinoco River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95-1

95.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95-1
95.2 Regional Geological and Topographical Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95-1
95.3 Hydroclimatic Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95-1
95.4 The Main Stem and Its Major Tributaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95-2
95.5 Floodplains and Seasonal Sediment Regime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95-2
95.6 Delta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95-3
95.7 Regional Vegetation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95-4
95.8 Human Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95-4
95.9 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95-4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95-4
Chapter 96. Nile River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96-1

96.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96-1
96.2 Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96-3
96.3 Hydrology of the Nile Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96-4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96-9
Chapter 97. Congo River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97-1

97.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97-1
97.2 The State of Hydrological Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97-1
97.3 Climate Regimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97-2
97.4 Catchments Characteristics and Hydrological Similarities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97-2
97.5 Hydrogeochemical Processes and Sediment Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97-4
97.6 Hydrological Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97-4
97.7 Climate and Land Use Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97-5
97.8 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97-5
Acknowledgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97-5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97-5

xxiv Contents
Chapter 98. Zambezi River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98-1

98.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98-1
98.2 Physical Characterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98-1
98.3 Main Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98-1
98.4 Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98-3
98.5 Runoff Regime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98-3
98.6 Past Hydrological Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98-4
98.7 Hydrological Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98-5
98.8 Current Concerns and Future Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98-6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98-6
Chapter 99. Euphrates and Tigris River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99-1

99.1 General Characteristics of the Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99-1
99.2 Hydrology and Water Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99-1
99.3 Water Resources Developments in the Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99-3
99.4 Environmental Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99-3
99.5 Climate Change Impacts on Basin Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99-3
Acknowledgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99-3
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99-4
Chapter 100. Yangtze River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100-1

100.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100-1
100.2 Climate and Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100-2
100.3 Station Network and Water Conservancy Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100-4
100.4 Significant Water Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100-5
100.5 Research on the Yangtze River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100-5
100.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100-5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100-6
Chapter 101. Yellow River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101-1

101.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101-1
101.2 Climate and Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101-3
101.3 Station Network and Water Conservancy Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101-4
101.4 Significant Water Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101-5
101.5 Research on the Yellow River basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101-5
101.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101-6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101-6
Chapter 102. Mekong River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102-1

102.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102-1
102.2 Upper Mekong River (Langcang Jiang) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102-3
102.3 Lower Mekong River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102-5
102.4 Floods and Flood Forecasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102- 6
102.5 Mekong Delta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102- 8
102.6 Biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102- 8
102.7 Agriculture and Aquaculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102- 8
102.8 Mekong River Commission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102- 9
102.9 Environmental Threats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102- 9
102.10 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102- 9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102- 9
Chapter 103. Yenisei River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103-1

103.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103-1
103.2 Central and Lower Sections of the Yenisei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103-1
103.3 Upper Section of the Yenisei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103-1
103.4 Fluvial System of the Angara River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103-1
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103-4
Chapter 104. Lena River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104-1

104.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104-1
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104-4
Chapter 105. Brahmaputra River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105-1

105.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105-1
105.2 Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105-1

Contents xxv
105.3 Drainage Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105-2

105.4 Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105-4
105.5 Problems Faced, Projects Undertaken, and Future Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105-5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105-6
Chapter 106. Ganga River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106-1

106.1 Ganga River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106-1
106.2 Ganga River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106-1
106.3 Climate and Hydrology of the Ganga Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106-2
106.4 Floods and Droughts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106-2
106.5 Groundwater Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106-2
106.6 Hydropower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106-2
106.7 Sediments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106-3
106.8 Water Quality Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106-3
106.9 Major Water Resources Development Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106-3
106.10 Social and Environmental Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106-3
106.11 Future Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106-4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106-4
Chapter 107. Narmada Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107-1

107.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107-1
107.2 Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107-2
107.3 Major Tributaries and Sub-Basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107-2
107.4 Climate in Narmada Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107-3
107.5 Soils and Land Use in Narmada Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107-4
107.6 Water Resources of Narmada Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107-4
107.7 Major Water Resources Projects in Narmada Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107-5
107.8 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107-6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107-6
Chapter 108. Indus River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108-1

108.1 Introduction to Indus River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108-1
108.2 Physiography of Indus River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108-1
108.3 River Network and Principal Hydrologic Units of Indus River Basin . . . . . . . 108-1
108.4 Climate of Indus River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108-2
108.5 Hydrological Characteristics of Indus River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108-3
108.6 Indus Water Treaty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108-5
108.7 Major Water Resources Development Projects in Indus River Basin . . . . . . . 108-5
108.8 Groundwater Resources of Indus River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108-9
108.9 Climate Change in Indus River Basin and Its Hydrologic Consequences . . . 108-9
108.10 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108-10
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108-10
Chapter 109. The Mississippi River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109-1

109.1 Mississippi River Basin Physiography and Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109-1
109.2 Mississippi River Basin Climatology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109-1
109.3 Anthropogenic Changes in the River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109-2
109.4 Future Critical Challenges in the Mississippi River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109-4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109-5
Chapter 110. Colorado River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110-1

110.1 Introduction and Basin Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110-1
110.2 History of Water Resources Allocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110-1
110.3 Reservoirs and Other Water Management Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110-2
110.4 Development and Use of the Colorado River Simulation System . . . . . . . . . . 110-3
110.5 Hydrologic Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110-3
110.6 Generating Projected Future Flow Scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110-4
110.7 Future Priorities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110-4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110-4
Chapter 111. Columbia River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-1

111.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-1
111.2 Basin History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-1
111.3 River Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-2

xxvi Contents
111.4 Current and Future Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-4

111.5 Future Opportunities and Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-5
Chapter 112. St. Lawrence River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112-1

112.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112-1
112.2 Characteristics of the St. Lawrence River and Its Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112-1
112.3 Hydrological Characteristics of the River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112-4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112-5
Chapter 113. River Rhine Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113-1

113.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113-1
113.2 Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113-1
113.3 Water Balance in the Rhine Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113-4
113.4 Long-Term Variability of Hydrometeorological Variables in
the Rhine Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113-4
113.5 Discharge Characteristics in Longitudinal Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113-5
113.6 The Runoff Regime of the Rhine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113-6
113.7 Changes in the Runoff Characteristics of the Rhine Since the Beginning
of the Twentieth Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113-9
113.8 Changes in the Runoff Regime of the Upper Rhine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113-10
113.9 Changes in the Runoff Regime of the Middle and Lower Rhine . . . . . . . . . . . 113-10
113.10 Development in Extreme Runoff Situations: Flood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113-10
113.11 Development in Extreme Runoff Situations: Low Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113-10
Acknowledgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113-10
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113-10
Chapter 114. Danube River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114-1

114.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114-1
114.2 History of the River System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114-1
114.3 Climate, Drainage Characteristics, and Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114-2
114.4 Problem Faced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114-3
114.5 Scope of Future Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114-5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114-5
Chapter 115. Ob River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115-1

115.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115-1
115.2 Ob River Basin and Discharge Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115-1
115.3 Streamflow Characteristics and Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115-1
115.4 Water Temperature and Thermal Regime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115-4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115-5
Chapter 116. Po River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116-1

116.1River Basin Morphology and Geology, Geometry of the River Network . . . . 116-1
116.2Climate and Meteorology. Genesis of Extreme Events and Droughts . . . . . . 116-1
116.3Monitoring Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116-3
116.4Hydrological Balance in the Po River Basin: Exploitation
of Water Resources and Sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116-3
116.5 The River Regime: Variability, Seasonality, Long-Term Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . 116-3
116.6 History of Po River Floods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116-3
116.7 Flood Hazard Mitigation Along the Course of the Po River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116-4
116.8 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116-4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116-4
Chapter 117. River Thames Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117-1

117.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117-1
117.2 The Thames Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117-1
117.3 Hydrometric Measurement in the Thames Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117-1
117.4 Droughts and Alleviation Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117- 2
117.5 Floods and Flood Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117- 3
117.6 Research and Forecasting Initiatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117-4
117.7 Trends in Runoff Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117-4
117.8 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117-4

Contents xxvii
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117-6
Useful Websites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117-6
Chapter 118. Managing Water in an Arid Land: The Murray

Darling Basin, Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118-1
118.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118-1
118.2 The Murray Darling Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118-2
118.3 The Changing Hydrology of the Murray Darling Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118-3
118.4 Potential for Ecosystem Collapse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118-5
118.5 The Policy Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118-5
118.6 What Future Do We Want for the Basin Anyway? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118-6
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118-7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118-7
Useful Websites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118-9
Chapter 119. The Great Lakes System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119-1

119.1 Introduction to the Great Lakes Hydrological System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119-1
119.2 The Great Lakes Water Budget . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119-2
119.3 Great Lakes Water levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119-5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119-5
Chapter 120. The East African Great Lakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120.1

120.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120. 1
120.2 Lake Victoria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120. 1
120.3 Lake Tanganyika . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120. 3
120.4 Lake Malawi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120. 4
120.5 Lake Albert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120. 5
120.6 Lake Turkana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120. 6
120.7 Lake Kivu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120. 7
120.8 Lake Edward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120. 8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120. 9
Chapter 121. Aral Sea Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121-1

121.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121-1
121.2 Subsurface Flux Changes and Interactions with the Shrinking Sea . . . . . . . . 121-1
121.3 Surface Flux Changes and Interactions with Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121-2
121.4 Opportunities and Challenges for Water Quantity and
Quality Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121-3
121.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121-4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121-4
Chapter 122. Baltic Sea Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122-1

122.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122-1
122.2 Physiography and Hydroclimatology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122-1
122.3 Hydrology and Water Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122-4
122.4 Water Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122-6
122.5 Future Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122-8
122.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122-9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122-9
Chapter 123. Black Sea Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123-1

123.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123-1
123.2 Geographical Location and Basic Morphometric Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . 123-1
123.3 Hydrological Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123-1
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123-5
Chapter 124. The Caspian Sea Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124-1

124.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124-1
124.2 The Caspian Sea Watershed Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124-1
124.3 The Volga River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124-1
124.4 Physicogeographical Conditions of the Caspian Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124-3
124.5 Hydrometeorology and Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124-3
124.6 Physical Oceanography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124-3
124.7 Sea Level Variability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124-4

xxviii Contents
124.8 Marine Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124-4

124.9 Marine Biology and Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124-5
124.10 Ecological Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124-5
124.11 Oil Pollution of the Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124-6
124.12 Seismic Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124-7
124.13 Desertification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124-7
124.14 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124-7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124-7
PART 9. Applications and Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125-1
Chapter 125. Design Rainfall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125-3

125.1 Purpose of Design Rainfalls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125-3
125.2 Constructing Databases of Rainfall to Derive Design Rainfalls . . . . . . . . . . . . 125-4
125.3 AMS Versus PDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125-5
125.4 Appropriate Probability Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125-5
125.5 Regionalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125-6
125.6 Deriving Sub-Daily and Sub-Hourly IDF Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125-7
125.7 Scaling Relationships in Design Rainfalls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125-7
125.8 Developing Design Rainfall Grids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125-8
125.9 Uncertainty in Design Rainfall Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125-8
125.10 Design Temporal Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125-8
125.11 Design Spatial Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125-9
125.12 Implications of Temperature Linked Non-Stationarity on the Design Rain . 125-10
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125-11
Chapter 126. Probable Maximum Precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126-1

126.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126-1
126.2 Deterministic Method of Estimation of PMP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126-1
126.3 Probabilistic Method of Estimation of PMP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126-10
126.4 Generalized Versus Basin-Specific PMP Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126-13
126.5 All-Season Versus Seasonal PMP Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126-13
126.6 Orographic Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126-13
126.7 Spatial Variation of PMP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126-13
126.8 Temporal Distribution of PMP—Development of PMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126-14
126.9 Seasonal Variation of PMP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126-16
126.10 Cautionary Notes on the Procedures for Estimation of New Set of PMP . . . . 126-16
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126-17
Chapter 127. Runoff Prediction in Ungauged Basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127-1

127.1 The Prediction in Ungauged Basins Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127-1
127.2 Best Practice Recommendations for Predicting Runoff in
Ungauged Basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127-1
127.3 Prediction of Floods in Ungauged Basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127-2
127.4 Prediction of Low Flows in Ungauged Basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127-3
127.5 Prediction of Runoff Hydrographs in Ungauged Basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127-4
127.6 Where to Go from Here . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127-5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127-7
Chapter 128. Stochastic Streamflow Simulation and Forecasting . . . 128.1

128.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128. 1
128.2 Stochastic Simulation of Streamflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128. 1
128.3 Nonparametric Time Series Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128. 2
128.4 Multisite Streamflow Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128. 3
128.5 Nonstationary Streamflow Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128. 3
128.6 Streamflow Forecasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128. 4
128.7 Stochastic Weather Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128. 4
128.8 Software and Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128. 5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128. 5

Contents xxix
Chapter 129. Flood Forecasting and Flash Flood Forecasting—

Special Considerations in Hydrologic Modeling for
the Expressed Purpose of Flood and Flash
Flood Forecasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129-1
129.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129-1
129.2 Real-Time Data Requirements and Forecasts and Data Quality Control . . . . 129-1
129.3 Computational Efficiency and Latency Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129-3
129.4 Data Assimilation and/or Adjusting Model Inputs, States, and Outcomes . 129-3
129.5 Use of Future Weather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129-3
129.6 Requirements for Regulation Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129-3
129.7 Flood-Control and Water-Supply Reservoirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129-4
129.8 Reliability and Stability Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129-4
129.9 Understanding and Conveying Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129-4
129.10 Lead Time Considerations and Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129-4
129.11 Temporal (Time Step) Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129-4
129.12 Dissemination and Coordination with Customers, Partners, and the
General Public . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129-4
129.13 Applications Related to Flash Flooding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129-4
129.14 Special Temporal (Time Step) Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129-4
129.15 Automated Data-Analysis Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129-5
129.16 Automated Data Assimilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129-5
129.17 Ungaged Watershed Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129-5
129.18 Identification of Highly Vulnerable/at Risk Locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129-5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129-5
Chapter 130. Reservoir Operation Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130-1

130.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130-1
130.2 Reservoir Planning and Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130-1
130.3 Reservoir Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130-3
130.4 Future Trends in Reservoir Operation Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130-6
130.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130-6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130-7
Chapter 131. Floodplain Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131-1

131.1 Responses to Flood Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131-1
131.2 Evolution of Floodplain Management Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131-2
131.3 Concepts and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131-2
131.4 Certification in Floodplain Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131-3
131.5 Summary of Issues and Needed Advances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131-3

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131-3
Chapter 132. Storm Water Management, Best Management

Practices, and Low-Impact Development . . . . . . . . . . . . 132-1
132.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132-1
132.2 The Need for Stormwater Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132-2
132.3 Specific BMPs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132-3
132.4 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132-4
132.5 Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132-4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132-4
Chapter 133. Flood Proofing and Infrastructure Development . . . . . 133-1

133.1 Introduction to Flood Proofing and Infrastructure Development . . . . . . . . . 133-1
Acknowledgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133-9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133-9
Chapter 134. Environmental Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134-1

134.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134-1
134.2 Evolution of Environmental Flow Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134-2
134.3 Trade-offs in Development and Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134-2
134.4 Estimation of Environmental Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134-2
134.5 Methodologies for Assessment of Environmental Flow Requirement . . . . . 134-3
134.6 Implementation of EF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134-6
134.7 Environmental Flows in IWRM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134-7
134.8 Future Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134-7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134-7

xxx Contents
Chapter 135. Drainage and Culvert Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135-1

135.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135-1
135.2 Fundamentals of Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135-1
135.3 Design Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135-4
135.4 Potential Impact of Climate Change on Culvert Design and Operation . . . . 135-6
135.5 Sustainable Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135-6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135-6
Chapter 136. Wetland and River Restoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136-1

136.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136-1
136.2 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136-1
136.3 The Restoration Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136-2
136.4 Approaches to Wetland and River Restoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136-3
136.5 Advancing the Science and Practice of Stream and Wetland
Restoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136-6
Acknowledgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136-7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136-7
Chapter 137. Institutional Framework for Water Management . . . . . 137-1

137.1 Sustainable Integrated Water Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137-1
137.2 Water Management in Texas: An Illustrative Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137-1
137.3 Water Management Communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137-1
137.4 Federal Agency Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137-3
137.5 State Water Resources Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137-4
137.6 Water Allocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137-4
137.7 Environmental Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137-5
137.8 Flood Mitigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137-6
137.9 Institutional Aspects of Computer Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137-6
137.10 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137-7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137-7
Chapter 138. Peak Water, Virtual Water, and Water Footprints:

New Definitions and Tools for Water Research
and Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138-1
138.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138-1
138.2 Peak Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138-2
138.3 Comparison of Peak Production in Oil and Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138-3
138.4 Water Transfers and the Concept of Virtual Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138-4
138.5 Water Footprints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138-6
138.6 Soft Water Paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138-7
138.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138-7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138-8
Chapter 139. Transboundary Water Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139-1

139.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139-1
139.2 Water Conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139-1
139.3 Sources of Water Conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139-2
139.4 International Water Conflicts Versus National Water Conflicts . . . . . . . . . . . . 139-2
139.5 Resolving Water Conflicts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139-2
139.6 The Importance of Institutional Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139-3
139.7 Hydro-Hegemony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139-3
139.8 International Water Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139-3
139.9 Third Party Involvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139-3
139.10 Future Directions and Ways to Address New Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139-4
139.11 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139-4
Acknowledgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139-4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139-4
Chapter 140. Integrated River Basin Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140-1

140.1 Integrated River Basin Management: A Framework and Process . . . . . . . . . . 140-1
140.2 Elements of IRBM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140-1
140.3 Historical Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140-2
140.4 Institutional Arrangements for IRBM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140-2
140.5 Technical Concepts and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140-4
140.6 Case Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140-5
140.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140-6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140-7

Contents xxxi
Chapter 141. Conflict Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141-1

141.1 Conflict Exists Everywhere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141-1
141.2 Game Theoretic Models for Conflict Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141-1
141.3 Graph Model for Conflict Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141-1
141.4 Fair Water Allocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141-2
141.5 Compliance Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141-4
141.6 Agent-Based Modeling and Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141-5
141.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141-5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141-5
Chapter 142. Long-distance Water Transfers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142-1

142.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142-1
142.2 Transfers Among Basins, Regions and
Countries—Achievements and Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142-1
Further Thoughts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142-6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142-6
Chapter 143. The Indian River-Linking Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143-1

143.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143-1
143.2 India’s Water Resources and the River-Linking Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143-1
143.3 Prognosis and Implication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143-5
143.4 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143-8
Acknowledgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143-8
Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143-8
Chapter 144. Irrigation Scheduling and Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144-1

144.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144-1
144.2 Soil-Plant-Atmosphere Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144-2
144.3 On-Farm Irrigation Scheduling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144-2
144.4 Canal Irrigation Scheduling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144-7
144.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144-8
144.6 Research Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144-8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144-8
Chapter 145. Rainwater Harvesting and Groundwater Recharge . . . 145-1

145.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145-1
145.2 Ancient Methods of Water Harvesting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145-1
145.3 Watershed Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145-2
145.4 Rainwater-Harvesting Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145-3
145.5 Assessment of Rainwater Harvesting Using Remote Sensing and GIS . . . . . 145-7
145.6 Rainwater Harvesting Studies a Global Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145-7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145-9
Chapter 146. Reuse-Reclaimed Water in Managed

Aquifer Recharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146-1
146.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146-1
146.2 Treatment Mechanisms in Natural Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146-1
146.3 Managed Aquifer Recharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146-2
146.4 Water Quality Considerations for Managed Aquifer Recharge . . . . . . . . . . . . 146-3
146.5 Surface Spreading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146-3
146.6 Injection Wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146-4
146.7 Recovery of Reclaimed Water through Aquifer Storage and Recovery . . . . . 146-5
146.8 Subsurface Geochemical Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146-6
146.9 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146-6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146-6
Chapter 147. River Bank Filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147-1

147.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147-1
147.2 River Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147-1
147.3 Potential of River Bank Filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147-2
147.4 Simulating RBF Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147-3
147.5 Optimizing Distance of Well from the River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147-6
147.6 River Bank Filtration Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147-6
147.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147-7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147-7

xxxii Contents
Chapter 148. Assessment of Climate Change Impacts on

Water Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148-1
148.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148-1
148.2 Climate Change Observations and Model-Based Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148-1
148.3 Observations and Projections of Climate Change Impact on Water
Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148-2
148.4 Aim of Modeling of Climate Change Impact on Freshwater Resources . . . . 148-3
148.5 Methodology of Modeling Climate Change Impacts on Water Resources . . 148-3
148.6 Hydrological Models for Climate Change Impact Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . 148-4
148.7 Model Selection, Calibration, and Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148-6
148.8 Examples of Applications of Hydrological Models for Climate
Change Impact Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148-7
148.9 Propagation of Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148-7
148.10 Gaps and Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148-9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148-10
Chapter 149. Human Impacts on Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149-1

149.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149-1
149.2 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149-2
149.3 Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149-4
149.4 Future Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149-7
Acknowledgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149-8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149-8
Chapter 150. Climate Change and Its Impacts on

Hydrologic Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150-1
150.1Climate Change: What Does It Mean? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150-1
150.2Causes of Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150-1
150.3Measure of Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150-3
150.4Impacts of Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150-3
150.5Impacts of Climate Change on
The Hydrologic Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150-3
150.6 Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150-7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150-7
Part 10. Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151-1
Chapter 151. Human-Hydrology Systems Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151-3

151.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151-3
151.2 Evolution of Human-Hydrology Systems Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151-3
151.3 Methods for Modeling Human-Hydrology Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151-4
151.4 Applications of Human-Hydrology Systems Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151-6
151.5 Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151-9
151.6 Future Directions and Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151-9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151-11
Chapter 152. Variability of Hydrological Processes and

Systems in a Changing Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152-1
152.1 Climate Change and the Water Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152-1
152.2 Human Activities and the Water Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152-1
152.3 Intensification of the Hydrological Cycle in a Changing Environment . . . . . 152-2
152.4 Sustainability, Hydrologic Risk, and Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152-3
152.5 Tracking Hydrologic Change: Trend and Predictability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152-3
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152-4

Contents xxxiii
Chapter 153. Extraterrestrial Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153-1

153.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153-1
153.2 The Origin of the Earth’s Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153-1
153.3 Water in Our Solar System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153-1
153.4 Water Beyond Our Solar System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153-3
153.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153-4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153-4
Chapter 154. Water Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154-1

154.1 Availability of Freshwater Around the World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154-1
154.2 Current State of Water Affairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154-1
154.3 Water Security—the Discourse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154-3
154.4 Global Availability of Groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154-3
154.5 Water Security as Part of Economic Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154-4
154.6 Managing Water in a Changing World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154-4
154.7 Meeting the Water Gap: Unlocking the Potential of Green Water . . . . . . . . . . 154-4
154.8 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154-5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154-5
Chapter 155. Social Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155-1

155.1 Water and Human Beings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155-1
155.2 What is Social Hydrology? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155-3
155.3 Great Hydraulic Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155-4
155.4 Nature’s Talk Back . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155-4
155.5 Evolution of Social Hydrology
as a New Discipline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155-6
155.6 Challenges ahead in Water Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155-7
155.7 Recent Trends and Developments
in Social Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155-8
155.8 Climate Change and Future Issues
in Social Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155-8
155.9 Future Direction in Social Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155-9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155-10
Chapter 156. Grand Challenges Facing the Hydrologic Sciences . . . . 156-1

156.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156-1
156.2 Quality-Differentiated Water Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156-1
156.3 Conversion Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156-2
156.4 Scoping the Greater Hydrologic System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156-2
156.5 Scoping Water Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156-3
156.6 Emerging Infrastructure Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156-3
156.7 Information Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156-4
156.8 Prioritization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156-4
156.9 Selected Priority Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156-5
156.10 From Research to Reality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156-6
156.11 Summary and Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156-6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156-6
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I-1

Preface
The original Handbook of Applied Hydrology, edited by V.T. Chow, was published in 1964.
The Handbook has had a major influence on hydrology. Since then it has been widely used as
a reference book and has inspired numerous hydrologists by its depth and breadth of coverage.
During the intervening period of over 50 years hydrology has witnessed phenomenal develop-
ment in both depth and breadth, with the result that it has become a full-fledged geophysical
science while still serving as basis for engineering applications. The development has occurred
along four main lines. First, the 1960s witnessed the birth of a digital revolution and the com-
puting prowess has since expanded exponentially. Now-a-days portable laptops are manifold
more powerful than a large computer that then filled an entire room. The enormous comput-
ing capability permitted the birth of digital or numerical hydrology. Beginning with the devel-
opment of the Stanford Watershed Model in 1966, a large number of watershed models,
simulating virtually the entire hydrologic cycle, were developed. One can easily count in the
world over one hundred watershed hydrology models in use these days. The development of
watershed models is still continuing, encompassing simulation of other aspects that are associ-
ated with hydrology, such as atmospheric or hydrometeorological processes, hydraulics, cli-
mate change, ecosystems, geo-biochemistry, and human interactions. Another area has been
the solution of hydrodynamic equations, be those of surface water, subsurface water, ground-
water, water quality, and so on. Because of computers, it is now possible to simulate any com-
ponent of the hydrologic cycle in great detail and do inverse modeling as well.
Second, a tremendous growth in the development of new methods of solution, both deter-
ministic and stochastic, has occurred. On the deterministic side, new transform techniques,
optimization techniques, artificial intelligence methods, data mining, and numerical schemes
were developed. On the stochastic side, developments have been even greater. Examples are
copula theory, entropy theory, chaos theory, network theory, fractals, scaling theory, Monte
Carlo simulation, and so on.
Third, techniques for novel data collection, processing, storage, archiving, retrieval, and
sharing have reached unprecedented heights. Remote sensing methods, such as radar and
satellite technologies are now providing spatial data that were not even imagined prior to 1964.
Information technology is providing means for dissemination of information in seconds, per-
mitting hydrology to get closer to people as for example is happening in applications at farm-
ing scalwe. Another example is social hydrology, an emerging area that is gaining wide
recognition these days.
Fourth, new theories and new concepts have been developed, facilitated greatly by the afore-
mentioned three areas. We have witnessed the evolution of new concepts in geomorphology
and, more importantly, application of these concepts in watershed hydrology, hydrogeological
characterization, hydrometeorology, cryosphere, glaciology, geo-bio-chemical transport, land
use change, climate change, ecosystems science, medical hydrology, and the list goes on. In
some areas, developments have been so large that together they have given rise to new branch-
es of hydrology that were not even heard of prior to 1964.
It is, therefore, now appropriate to pause and take a stock of where we were, where we have
been and where the multiple disciplines that make hydrology should be going. This philosophy
served as the motivation for preparing the layout for the second version of the Handbook of
Applied Hydrology. The word “Applied” is important here. The emphasis in this version has
been on the application at the expense of deep science and mathematics. With these consider-
ations in mind, the subject matter of the handbook is divided into ten parts each containing a
xxxv

xxxvi Preface
number of chapters. The First Part is on fundamentals and contains three chapters that deal
with the hydrologic cycle, watersheds, river basins, land use, and water balance. This part
attempts to set the context for the handbook. For the science and engineering of hydrology to
progress, data and their collection and accessibility are the foundation. Therefore, the Second
Part of this handbook deals with data collection and processing. It comprises seven chapters
that discuss hydrometeorological data, streamflow data, rating curves, hydrologic information
systems, remote sensing and geographical information systems. This part is concluded with a
discussion on design of hydrologic networks.
Hydrologic analyses and syntheses entails tools from mathematics, statistics, physics, biol-
ogy, chemistry, information science, and social-economic science. Like hydrology, these areas
have witnessed enormous developments. Fortunately, hydrologists have been quite savvy and
open minded to borrow techniques from other disciplines and apply them in hydrology. Thus,
Part Three spans sixteen chapters and presents these methods. These chapters deal with arti-
ficial neural networks; fuzzy logic; evolutionary computing; relevance vector machines; har-
monic analysis and wavelets; outlier analysis; infilling of missing records; regression analysis;
time series analysis; change detection and nonstationarity; spatial analysis and geostatistical
methods; frequency distributions; model calibration and validation; sensitivity analysis;
Bayesian methods; optimization methods; nonparametric methods; uncertainty analysis and
decision making; risk-reliability assessment; scaling and fractals; nonlinear dynamics and
chaos; copula modeling; entropy theory; entropy production extremum principles; data-based
mechanistic modeling; decomposition methods; network theory; and hydroeconomic analysis.
Experimental and field data and a variety of methods to analyze them have helped uncover
hydrologic mysteries and better understand and model hydrologic processes. Therefore, Part
Four containing twenty six chapters is focused on hydrologic processes and modeling.
Beginning with a discussion of weather and climate, these chapters go on to discuss hydrocli-
matology; spatial and temporal analysis of precipitation; snowpack characteristics; precipita-
tion modeling; evapotranspiration; interception; detention and depression storage;
geomorphological characteristics; infiltration; soil moisture and the vadose zone; hydrogeo-
logic characterization; groundwater modeling; watershed runoff; streamflow generation;
snowmelt runoff generation; glacial melting; reservoir and channel routing; water logging and
salinization; surface water-groundwater interaction; saltwater intrusion; land subsidence;
hydraulic fracturing; catchment classification; rainfall-runoff modeling; continuous watershed
modeling; and calibration and evaluation of watershed models. The concluding chapter deals
with feasibility, engineering, and process models.
With growing awareness of the environment, water, air and soil quality started to receive
increasing attention in the 1970s and onwards. To that end, sediment and pollutant transport
are dealt with in Part Five that comprises nine chapters. Beginning with a discussion of water
quality, the chapters go on to discuss soil erosion; channel erosion and sediment transport;
sedimentation of floodplains, lakes and reservoirs; pollutant transport in surface water, vadose
zone and ground water; and salinization and salinity management in watersheds. The con-
cluding chapter discusses transport of biochemicals and microorganisms.
The availability of data and appropriate statistical methods facilitated analysis of extremes.
Part Six, therefore, includes nine chapters that discuss hydrometeorological and hydrologic
extremes. The subject matter includes atmospheric rivers; hurricanes and typhoons; extreme
rainfall; floods; flood frequency analysis; regional hydrological modeling and regional fre-
quency analysis; risk, reliability, return periods and hydrologic design; drought characteristics;
and analysis of low flow and drought.
In hydrology, many schools of thought are applied. One school emphasizes systems
approach where intrinsic system details are not considered in detail. This school of thought
was pervasive in the 1950s through the 1970s but the subject is still of great importance.
Therefore, systems hydrology constitutes the theme of Part Seven which contains twelve chap-
ters. These chapters discuss isotope hydrology; lake hydrology; urban hydrology; agricultural
hydrology; forest hydrology; coastal hydrology; wetland hydrology; arid zone hydrology; karst
hydrology; cryospheric hydrology; hydrology for transportation systems; and large-scale and
global hydrology.

Preface xxxvii
Part Eight deals with the hydrology of large river basins and basins of lakes and seas span-
ning thirty-two chapters. The large river basins included are those of the Amazon River;
Parana (Rio de la Plata) River; Orinoco River; Nile River; Congo River; Zambezi River;
Euphrates and Tigris Rivers; Yangtze River; Yellow River; Mekong River; Yenisei River; Lena
River; Brahmaputra River; Ganga River; Narmada River; Indus River; Mississippi River;
Colorado River; Columbia River; St. Lawrence River; Rhine River; Danube River; Ob River;
Po River; Thames River; and Murray Darling River. The basins of the Great Lakes System and
the African Great Lakes are described in two chapters. The last four chapters on the basins of
the Aral Sea; the Baltic Sea; the Black Sea; and the Caspian Sea conclude this part.
Because the Handbook emphasizes application, Part Nine comprising twenty four chapters
is devoted to applications and design. Beginning with a discussion of design rainfall, the chap-
ters go on to discuss probable maximum precipitation; prediction in ungaged basins; stochas-
tic streamflow simulation and forecasting; flood forecasting and flash and real-time flood
forecasting; reservoir design, regulation and operation; floodplain management; stormwater
management and low impact development; flood proofing and infrastructure development;
environmental flows; drainage and culvert design; wetland and river restoration; institutional
framework for water management; virtual water, water footprint, and peak water; transbound-
ary water management; integrated river basin management; conflict resolution; long distance
water transfer; the Indian river linking program; irrigation scheduling and management;
rainwater harvesting and groundwater recharge; reuse-reclaimed water in managed aquifer
recharge; and river bank filtration. This part is concluded with a discussion on the assessment
of climate change impacts and water resources.
Where the multiple disciplines of hydrology progress to is partly conjectured in the con-
cluding Part Ten that deals with the future in seven chapters. These chapters discuss human
impacts on hydrology, climate change and its impact on the hydrologic cycle, human-hydrol-
ogy systems modeling, variability of hydrological processes and systems in a changing envi-
ronment, extraterrestrial water, and water security. This part is concluded with a discussion of
grand challenges.
It is hoped that the Handbook will become useful to college faculty, graduate students,
and researchers as well as practitioners in hydrology, water science and engineering, water
resources management, urban development, hydrometeorology, geosciences, environmental
and ecological sciences, and agricultural and forest sciences.
Vijay P. Singh
Texas A&M University
College Station, Texas

Foreword
Looking back when Ven Te Chow published his Handbook of Applied Hydrology in 1964, it was
without any doubt a landmark event for the water sector. Using his personal status as one of
the world’s leading water experts, he successfully managed to convince leading world authori-
ties on different aspects of water to contribute chapters in their areas of expertise. After the
book was published, it was universally acknowledged to be the most definitive and authorita-
tive text available on water resources management for well over a decade. This mammoth book
at 1,467 pages summarized and elaborated all the latest thinking and developments in different
areas of water.
It was a tribute to Chow’s encyclopaedic knowledge and versatility that he wrote several
chapters on very different topics himself. Later on, he confided to me that a few of the chapters
did not meet his high standards and thus he had to substantially rewrite them. Looked from
any direction, the depth and quality of the Handbook was a major contribution which ensured
that almost a generation of professionals used the text whenever they needed reliable informa-
tion on any aspect of water.
The Handbook was directly responsible for forging a lifelong friendship between Chow and
myself. When the book was published, I was starting my career at the University of Strathclyde,
Glasgow, as a lecturer. One of the British water journals requested me to write a review of all
the water texts available and suggest 3 to 4 that I considered the best and most useful. In the
mid-Sixties, it was possible to read all the texts on water that were available since the number
was rather limited.
After I published my assessment in late 1964, I received a letter from a somewhat annoyed
Chow since this list did not include his latest tome Handbook of Applied Hydrology. I explained
to him that I did not omit the book deliberately. I fact, I knew the book was published and
available in the United States. Thus, I had written to McGraw-Hill asking if I could get a copy
of the book for my assessment purposes. McGraw-Hill responded by saying that the book was
indeed available in the United States but it would not be available in the United Kingdom for
another six months.
Chow, being the gentleman he was, immediately apologized for his letter. Shortly thereafter,
I moved to Canada. In the sixties, when I was a Director in the Government of Canada, Chow
invited me to come to the University of Illinois and give a talk during a meeting of the hydrol-
ogy professors in Urbana.
In early 1970, when Chow was considering the possibility of creating an interdisciplinary
and multisectoral professional water association, the International Water Resources
Association, he contacted me and requested me if I could be a founding member and help him
to establish a Canadian chapter of the new Association. We remained very good friends until
his untimely death.
There have been exponential scientific and technological developments in all water-related
areas, especially during the post-1980 period. Thus, advances in knowledge had made the
Handbook obsolete by the early 1980s. It is indeed a tribute to Chow’s genius that the book had
remained useful for such a long period.
xxxix

xl Foreword
I am delighted that Prof. Vijay P. Singh, Caroline and William N. Lehrer Distinguished
Chair in Water Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, is completely
rewriting and updating Chow’s Handbook. Prof. Singh is a prominent international authority
in hydrologic sciences, and, in my view, he is easily within the top 0.1% of all global water-
related researchers. Only a person of Prof. Singh’s stature can undertake such a Herculean task.
Following Chow’s footsteps mean these are big shoes to fill. From the manuscript, it is obvi-
ous to me that Prof. Singh has not only filled the big shoes completely but he has achieved
almost the impossible with panache and style.
Even with knowledge advancing at a significantly higher rate at present, compared to when
Chow first published the book in 1964, I have no doubt that the new and updated version of
this Handbook will remain the authoritative text for at least a decade. The new text is a fitting
memory and tribute to Chow’s enduring legacy, and also a fitting confirmation of Prof. Singh’s
global stature.
Singapore
October 18, 2015
Asit K. Biswas
Distinguished Visiting Professor
Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy
National University of Singapore

Acknowledgments
This Handbook is a result of the collective effort of the authors who have contributed the
chapters. It has been my privilege and honor to have known most of the authors for a long
time. They have long been at the forefront of hydrologic research and teaching or practice and
their rich experience and knowledge are hopefully reflected in the chapters they have written.
Their contribution symbolizes their love of labor and their desire to contribute to advancing
hydrology, for their time and effort are ad honorem. I am much grateful to the authors for
accepting my invitation to write the chapters and their cooperation during the preparation of
the Handbook. Without them, this Handbook would not have come to fruition, and it clearly
belongs to them.
I would like to express my deep gratitude to the members of two advisory boards: aca-
demic and practitioners. When the Handbook was being conceptualized, I often turned to
them for their advice on the chapter layout and identifying potential chapter authors. They
were more than willing to help and responded to my request promptly.
The chapters were peer reviewed and finding three or more reviewers for each of 156 chap-
ters was a challenge. They are too numerous to mention here, but I am grateful for the review-
ers’ constructive reviews.
I would like to acknowledge my family (wife Anita, son Vinay, daughter Arti, and grandsons
Ronin, Kayden and Davin) for their support and affection while I worked on this handbook
project. Without them, my task of completing the handbook would have been much more
difficult.
Finally, I want to express my gratitude to the McGraw-Hill staff, particularly Lauren
Poplawski, who were always willing to help and provide advice and suggestions.
xli

Contributors
Benjamin Abban M. Babbar-Sebens

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering School of Civil and Construction Engineering
University of Tennessee Oregon State University
Knoxville, Tennessee Corvallis, Oregon
M. C. Acreman Daniel W. Baker

Centre for Ecology and Hydrology Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Crowmarsh Gifford Colorado State University
Wallingford, United Kingdom Fort Collins, Colorado
Emanuele Baratti
Lauren Adams
Department DICAM
Center for Watershed Sciences
University of Bologna
University of California, Davis
Bologna, Italy
Davis, California
Donald E. Barbe
Pradeep Aggarwal Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Isotope Hydrology Section University of New Orleans
Division of Physical and Chemical Sciences New Orleans, Louisiana
Department of Nuclear Sciences and Applications
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) Henry Barousse
Vienna, Austria Louisiana Department of Transportation and Development, Retired
Robert Bastian
Mohammad Z. Al-Hamdan
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Universities Space Research Association
Washington, D.C.
NASA/Marshall Space Flight Center
National Space Science and Technology Center Peter Bauer-Gottwein
Huntsville, Alabama Department of Environmental Engineering
Technical University of Denmark
Doug Alsdorf Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
Byrd Polar and Climate Research Center
The Ohio State University Hiroko Kato Beaudoing
Columbus, Ohio Earth System Science Interdisciplinary Center
University of Maryland
Devendra M. Amatya College Park, Maryland
Center for Forested Wetlands Research Beijing Normal University
Southern Research Station, USDA Forest Service Research and Development Centre
Cordesville, South Carolina Nippon Koei Co. Ltd.
(Consulting Engineers)
Daniel P. Ames Tsukuba, Japan
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Brigham Young University Kati Bell
Provo, Utah Water Reuse Global Practice Leader, MWH Global
Nashville, Tennessee
Michael Anderson
Joerg Uwe Belz
State Climatologist, California Department of Water Resources
Department of Hydrometry and Hydrological Survey Federal Institute of Hydrology
Sacramento, California
Koblenz, Germany
Mazdak Arabi Lars Bengtsson
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Department of Water Resources Engineering
Colorado State University Lund Institute of Technology
Fort Collins, Colorado Lund University
Lund, Sweden
Luis J. Araguas-Araguas
Isotope Hydrology Section Ronny Berndtsson
Division of Physical and Chemical Sciences Department of Water Resources Engineering
Department of Nuclear Sciences and Applications and Center for Middle Eastern Studies
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) Lund University
Vienna, Austria Lund, Sweden
Mustafa M. Aral Daniela Biondi

School of Civil and Environmental Engineering Institute of Hydraulic Construction
Georgia Institute of Technology University of Bologna
Atlanta, Georgia Bologna, Italy
Bhavna Arora Brian P. Bledsoe

Earth Sciences Division College of Engineering
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory University of Georgia
Berkeley, California Athens, Georgia
xliii

xliv Contributors
Günter Blöschl Yang Cheng

Centre for Water Resource Systems Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Institut für Wasserbau und Ingenieurhydrologie Syracuse University
Technische Universität Wien Syracuse, New York
Wien, Austria
Nannan Cheng
Istvan Bogardi State Key Laboratory of Soil Erosion and Dryland Farming on the Loess Plateau
Professor, Department of Meteorology Institute of Soil and Water Conservation
Eotvos University Chinese Academy of Sciences and Ministry of Water Resources
Budapest, Hungary Northwest Agriculture and Forest University
Department of Civil Engineering Yangling, China
University of Nebraska Lincoln
Lincoln, Nebraska Ekaterina V. Chuprina
Water Problems Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences
John D. Bolten Moscow, Russia
Hydrological Sciences Branch
NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Theodore G. Cleveland
Associate Professor, Department of Civil, Environmental, and Construction Engineering
André Bouchard Texas Tech University
Program Manager, National Hydrological Service Meteorological Service of Canada Lubbock, Texas
Environment and Climate Change Canada
Québec, Canada Walter Collischonn
Institute of Hydraulic Research
Armando Brath Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul
Department of Civil, Chemical, Environmental and Materials Engineering - DICAM IPH-UFRGS
ALMA MATER STUDIORUM - Università di Bologna Porto Alegre, Brazil
Bologna, Italy
Zhentao Cong
Juan Martín Bravo Department of Hydraulic Engineering
Instituto de Pesquisas Hidráulicas Tsinghua University
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul Beijing, China
IPH-UFRGS
Porto Alegre, Brazil James Connaughton
Richmond, California
Dmitry A. Burakov
Head of the Department of Environmental Engineering, Corrado Corradini
Krasnoyarsk State Agrarian University Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Krasnoyarsk, Russia University of Perugia
Perugia, Italy
Donald H. Burn
Alva Couch
Department of Computer Science
University of Waterloo
Tufts University
Waterloo, Canada
Medford, Massachusetts
Aaron R. Byrd
Research Civil Engineer, Coastal and Hydraulics Laboratory Norman H. Crawford
U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center President, Hydrocomp, Inc.
Vicksburg, Mississippi Menlo Park, California
James F. Cruise
Ximing Cai
University of Alabama in Huntsville
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Huntsville, Alabama
Urbana, Illinois
Allegra da Silva
Darryl Carlyle-Moses
Water Reuse Practice Leader - Rocky Mountain Region, MWH Global
Department of Geography and Environmental Studies
Denver, Colorado
Thompson Rivers University
Kamloops, Canada Baptiste Dafflon
Earth Sciences Division
Attilio Castellarin Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
Department of Civil, Chemical, Environmental and Materials Engineering - DICAM Berkeley, California
ALMA MATER STUDIORUM - Università di Bologna
Bologna, Italy Kumer Pial Das
Department of Mathematics
Serena Ceola
Lamar University
Department of Civil, Chemical, Environmental and Materials Engineering - DICAM
Beaumont, Texas
ALMA MATER STUDIORUM - Università di Bologna
Bologna, Italy Claus Davidsen
Department of Environmental Engineering
Cem P. Cetinkaya
Technical University of Denmark
Dokuz Eylül University
Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
Water Resources Management Research & Application Center (SUMER)
Izmir, Turkey Rodrigo Cauduro Dias de Paiva
Maria A. Charina Institute of Hydraulic Research
Water Problems Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul
Moscow, Russia Porto Alegre, Brazil
Fateh Chebana Zhi-Qiang Deng

Institut national de la recherche scientifique Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Centre Eau-Terre-Environnement Louisiana State University
Québec, Canada Baton Rouge, Los Angeles
Ji Chen Georgia Destouni

Department of Civil Engineering Department of Physical Geography
The University of Hong Kong Stockholm University
Hong Kong, China Stockholm, Sweden

Contributors xlv
Michael DeWeese Donald K. Frevert

National Weather Service Hydraulic Engineer and Team Leader, Retired
North Central River Forecast Center Technical Services Center
Chanhassen, Minnesota Bureau of Reclamation
Lakewood, Colorado
Daniel H. Doctor
Eastern Geology and Paleoclimate Science Center Devin L. Galloway
U.S. Geological Survey Water Mission Area
Reston, Virginia U.S. Geological Survey
Indianapolis, Indiana
Alessio Domeneghetti
Department of Civil, Chemical, Environmental and Materials Engineering - DICAM Timothy S. Gambrell
ALMA MATER STUDIORUM - Università di Bologna Executive Director, Mississippi River Commission U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Bologna, Italy Mississippi Valley Division
Vicksburg, Mississippi
A. S. Donigian, Jr.
Principal Consultant, AQUA TERRA Consultants Christian Genest
Mountain View, California Department of Mathematics and Statistics
Charles W. Downer McGill University
Research Civil Engineer, Coastal and Hydraulics Laboratory Montréal, Canada
U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center
Timothy R. Ginn
Vicksburg, Mississippi
Washington Sate University
André Dozier Pullman, Washington
Jorge Gironás
Colorado State University
Departamento de Ingeniería Hidráulica y Ambiental
Fort Collins, Colorado
Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile
Jim Dumont Santiago, Chile
Water Infrastructure Specialist
Peter H. Gleick
Salt Spring Island, Canada
Pacific Institute
Dipankar Dwivedi Oakland, California
Earth Sciences Division
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Narendra Kumar Gontia
Berkeley, California Principal and Dean, College of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, Junagadh
Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh
Walter L. Ellenburg Gujarat, India
University of Alabama in Huntsville Jonathan L. Goodall
Huntsville, Alabama Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
University of Virginia
A. Ercan Charlottesville, Virginia
Hydrologic Research Laboratory
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering David C. Goodrich
University of California USDA-ARS
Davis, California Southwest Watershed Research Center
Tucson, Arizona
Alvar Escriva-Bou
Research Fellow, Water Policy Center R. S. Govindaraju
Public Policy Institute of California Delon and Elizabeth Hampton Hall of Civil Engineering
San Francisco, California Purdue University
West Lafayette, Indiana
James S. Famiglietti
NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory Robert E. Griffin
California Institute of Technology Atmospheric Science Department
Pasadena, California Earth System Science Program
University of Alabama in Huntsville
Koren Fang
Huntsville, Alabama
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering
The University of New South Wales Neil S. Grigg
Sydney, Australia Professor, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Colorado State University
Liping Fang
Fort Collins, Colorado
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering
Faculty of Engineering and Architectural Science Andrew D. Gronewold
Ryerson University NOAA (Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory)
Toronto, Canada University of Michigan (Civil and Environmental Engineering)
Ann Arbor, Michigan
Bonifacio Fernandez
Departamento de Ingeniería Hidráulica y Ambiental Georges Gulemvuga
Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile Commission Internationale du bassin Congo-Oubangui-Sangha
Santiago, Chile Kinshasa-Gombe, Democratic Republic of the Congo
Stefan Finsterle Orhan Gunduz

Earth Sciences Division Dokuz Eylul University
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Department of Environmental Engineering
Berkeley, California Izmir, Turkey
Faith A. Fitzpatrick Hoshin V. Gupta

Research Hydrologist, U.S. Geological SurveyWisconsin Department of Hydrology and Water Resources
Water Science Center University of Arizona
Tucson, Arizona
Darrell Fontane
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Semyon M. Guziy
Colorado State University Engineer, Krasnoyarsk Hydroproject Institute
Fort Collins, Colorado Krasnoyarsk, Russia

xlvi Contributors
Alan F. Hamlet Justin Huntington

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering and Earth Sciences Desert Research Institute
University of Notre Dame Division of Hydrologic Sciences
Notre Dame, Indiana Western Regional Climate Center
Reno, Nevada
Cameron Handyside
Earth System Science Center John C. Imhoff
University of Alabama in Huntsville Senior Scientist, AQUA TERRA Consultants
Huntsville, Alabama Ouray, Colorado
K. Ishida
Mohamed M. Hantush
Research Hydrologist, National Risk Management Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
University of California
Cincinnati, Ohio
Davis, California
Umesh Haritashya Sharad K. Jain
Department of Geology Water Resources Systems Division
University of Dayton National Institute of Hydrology
Dayton, Ohio Roorkee, India
Bekki Ward Harjo L. Douglas James
Senior Hydrologist, National Weather Service Fairfax, Virginia
Arkansas-Red Basin River Forecast Center
A. W. Jayawardena
Tulsa, Oklahoma
Department of Civil Engineering
Nilgun B. Harmancioglu The University of Hong Kong
Dokuz Eylul University Hong Kong, China
Water Resources Management Research & Application Center (SUMER) Research and Development Center
Izmir, Turkey Nippon Koei Co. Ltd. (Engineering Consultants)
Tsukuba, Japan
Julien J. Harou
School of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil Engineering Shanhu Jiang
The University of Manchester Lecturer, College of Hydrology and Water Resources
Manchester, United Kingdom Hohai University
Nanjing, China
Robert Hartman
Kenji Jinno
Hydrologist in Charge, California-Nevada River Forecast Center
Department of Urban & Environmental Engineering
National Weather Service
Graduate School of Engineering
Sacramento, California
Kyushu University
Hongming He Fukuoka, Japan
Institute of Soil and Water Conservation Fiona Johnson
Chinese Academy of Sciences and Ministry of Water Resources School of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Yangling, China The University of New South Wales
Janet S. Herman Sydney, Australia
Professor, Department of Environmental Sciences V. Jothiprakash
University of Virginia Department of Civil Engineering
Charlottesville, Virginia Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
Mumbai, India
Kith W. Hipel
Department of Systems Design Engineering Tijana Jovanovic
University of Waterloo Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Waterloo, Canada The Pennsylvania State University
State College, Pennsylvania
Yoshinari Hiroshiro
Department of Urban & Environmental Engineering Latif Kalin
Graduate School of Engineering Professor, School of Forestry and Wildlife Sciences
Kyushu University Auburn University
Fukuoka, Japan Auburn, Alabama
Jagath Kaluarachchi
Michael T. Hobbins
Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Research Hydrologist, Earth System Research Laboratory & Cooperative Institute
College of Engineering
for Research in Environmental Sciences
Utah State University
NOAA-Earth System Research Laboratory
Logan, Utah
Boulder, Colorado
Raghupathy Karthikeyan
Robert R. Holmes, Jr. Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering
Hydrologist and National Flood Hazard Coordinator, Office of Surface Water Texas A&M University
U.S. Geological Survey College Station, Texas
Rolla, Missouri
Laila Kasuri
Jeffery S. Horsburgh Lead Analyst and Senior Lecturer, Centre for Water Informatics and Technology
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Lahore University of Management Sciences
Utah State University Lahore, Pakistan
Logan, Utah Dmitri Kavetski
Chi Hua Huang School of Engineering
National Soil Erosion Research Laboratory University of Newcastle
West Lafayette, Indiana Callaghan, Australia
M. Levent Kavvas
Denis Arthur Hughes
Institute for Water Research
Rhodes University
Grahamstown, South Africa
Davis, California
Rui Hui Akira Kawamura
Center for Watershed Sciences Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
University of California, Davis Tokyo Metropolitan University
Davis, California Tokyo, Japan

Contributors xlvii
Soksamnang Keo Zbigniew W. Kundzewicz

State Key Laboratory of Soil Erosion and Dryland Farming on the Loess Plateau Institute of Agricultural and Forest Environment
Institute of Soil and Water Conservation Polish Academy of Sciences
Chinese Academy of Sciences and Ministry of Water Resources Poznan, Poland
Northwest Agriculture and Forest University
John Labadie
Yangling, China
Greg Kerr Colorado State University
Office of Water Programs Fort Collins, Colorado
University of Wyoming David Labat
Laramie, Wyoming Géosciences Environnement Toulouse
Toulouse, France
Martin Keulertz
Agricultural and Biological Engineering Venkataraman (Venkat) Lakshmi
Purdue University Department of Earth and Ocean Sciences
West Lafayetter, Indiana University of South Carolina
Columbia, South Carolina
Jongho Keum Upmanu Lall
Department of Civil Engineering Department of Earth and Environmental Engineering and
McMaster University Department of Civil Engineering and Engineering Mechanics
Hamilton, Canada Columbia Water Center
International Research Institute for Climate and Society
C. Prakash Khedun
Columbia University
Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering
New York, New York
College Station, Texas Alain Laraque
GET - UMR CNRS / IRD / UPS - UMR 5563 du CNRS, UMR234 de l'IRD
Max Kigobe Toulouse, France
College of Engineering, Design, Art and Technology (CEDAT) Magnus Larson
Makerere University Department of Water Resources Engineering
Kampala, Uganda Lund Institute of Technology
Lund University
Thomas R. Kjeldsen Lund, Sweden
Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering Se-Yeun Lee
University of Bath Climate Impacts Group, College of the Environment
Bath, United Kingdom University of Washington
Seattle, Washington
Barbara A. Kleiss
Director, Mississippi River Science & Technology Program U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Stanley A. Leake
Mississippi Valley Division Water Mission Area
Vicksburg, Mississippi U.S. Geological Survey
Tucson, Arizona
Randal Koster
Chiara Lepore
Global Modeling and Assimilation Office
Ocean and Climate Physics
NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University
Greenbelt, Maryland
Palisades, New York
Andrey Kostianoy L. Ruby Leung
Chief Scientist, Ocean Experimental Physics Laboratory Atmospheric Sciences and Global Change Division
P.P. Shirshov Institute of Oceanology Pacific Northwest National Laboratory
Moscow, Russia Richland, Washington
Benjamin Lord
Demetris Koutsoyiannis
Raleigh, North Carolina
Department of Water Resources and Environmental Engineering
School of Civil Engineering Yajie Lu
National Technical University of Athens State Key Laboratory of Soil Erosion and Dryland Farming on the Loess Plateau
Zographou, Greece Institute of Soil and Water Conservation
Chinese Academy of Sciences and Ministry of Water Resources
Peter Krahe Northwest Agriculture and Forest University
Contact person of subject group River Basin Modelling Department Yangling, China
Water Balance, Forecasting and Predictions Federal Institute of Hydrology
Jay R. Lund
Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany
Center for Watershed Sciences
Valentina Krysanova
Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research
Davis, California
Potsdam, Germany
Gil Mahe
Lev Kuchment IRD, Laboratoire Hydro Sciences
Laboratory of Water Cycle Montpellier, France
Water Problems Institute
D. R. Mailapalli
Russian Academy of Sciences
Agricultural and Food Engineering Department
Moscow, Russia
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
George Kuczera Kharagpur, India
School of Engineering Terry Marsh
University of Newcastle Centre for Ecology & Hydrology
Callaghan, Australia Wallingford, United Kingdom
Bhishm Kumar Philip Marsh

Ex Professional Staff, Isotope Hydrology Section Water Science Wilfrid Laurier University
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) Waterloo, Canada
Vienna, Austria José Pedro Matos
Ex Head, Hydrological Investigations Division Laboratoire de constructions hydrauliques (LCH)
National Institute of Hydrology Ecolepolytechniquefédérale de Lausanne (EPFL)
Roorkee, India Lausanne, Switzerland

xlviii Contributors
Larry W. Mays Dauren Mussabek

Arizona State University Department of Water Resources Engineering
Tempe, Arizona Lund University
Lund, Sweden
Richard H. McCuen
The Ben Dyer Professor of Civil & Environmental Engineering Kei Nakagawa
Civil and Environmental Engineering Department Nagasaki University
University of Maryland Graduate School of Fisheries Science and Environmental Studies
College Park, Maryland Nagasaki University
Nagasaki, Japan
Steven G. McNulty
Mohamed K. Nassar
Eastern Forest Environmental Threat Assessment Center
Southern Research Station, USDA Forest Service
University of California Davis
Raleigh, North Carolina
Davis, California
Alfonso Mejia Environmental Studies and Research Institute
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering University of Sadat City
The Pennsylvania State University Sadat, Egypt
State College, Pennsylvania Grey S. Nearing
Tarek Merabtene NASA/GSFC
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Hydrological Sciences Branch
College of Engineering Greenbelt, Maryland
University of Sharjah WaiWah Ng
Sharjah, United Arab Emirates Department of Civil Engineering
Lakehead University
Venkatesh Merwade
Thunder Bay, Canada
Lyles School of Civil Engineering
Purdue University John Nielsen-Gammon
West Lafayette, Indiana Department of Atmospheric Sciences
Guziy Semyon Mikhailovich College Station, Texas
Institute “Krasnoyarskgidroproekt”
Krasnoyarsk State Agricultural University Jun Niu
Krasnoyarsk branch of JSC “SibENTC” College of Water Resources and Civil Engineering
Krasnoyarsk, Russia China Agricultural University
Beijing, China
Pavol Miklanek
Robert K. Niven
Institute of Hydrology
School of Engineering and Information Technology
Slovak Academy of Sciences
The University of New South Wales
Bratislava, Slovakia
Canberra, Australia
Srikanta Mishra P. E. O’Connell
Institute Fellow & Chief Scientist, Energy & Environment School of Civil Engineering and Geosciences
Battelle Memorial Institute Newcastle University
Columbus, Ohio Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
Ashok K. Mishra Greg O’Donnell
Glenn Department of Civil Engineering School of Civil Engineering and Geosciences
Clemson University Newcastle University
Clemson, South Carolina Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
Natalia N. Mitina Robert Occhipinti

Water Problems Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences United States Army Corps of Engineers, Retired
Moscow, Russia Fred L. Ogden
Department of Civil and Architectural Engineering and
Iliana E. Mladenova
Haub School of Environment and Natural Resources
Hydrological Sciences Branch
University of Wyoming
NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
Laramie, Wyoming
Greenbelt, Maryland
N. Ohara
Binayak P. Mohanty Department of Civil and Architectural Engineering
Biological and Agricultural Engineering University of Wyoming
Texas A&M University Laramie, Wyoming
C. S. P. Ojha
Rabi H. Mohtar Department of Civil Engineering
Biological and Agricultural Engineering and Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
Zachry Department of Civil Engineering Roorkee, India
Taha B. M. J. Ouarda
iWATER Center,
Kazuro Momii Masdar Institute of Science and Technology
Professor, Faculty of Agriculture Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
Kagoshima University Hydro-Climate Modeling Lab
Korimoto, Japan INRS-ETE
Quebec, Canada
Alberto Montanari
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Higashi-Hiroshima, Japan
R. Morbidelli
Umed S. Panu
Perugia University
Lakehead University
Perugia, Italy
Thunder Bay, Canada
Biswajit Mukhopadhyay Simon Michael Papalexiou
National Practice Leader, Water Resources Department of Water Resources and Environmental Engineering
North American Infrastructure School of Civil Engineering
Jacobs Engineering Group, Inc. National Technical University of Athens
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Imperial clansmen, when inclined to take a line of their own, was
liable, as history had repeatedly proved, to involve the country in
destructive dissension. Her real object in inflicting punishment on the
Prince for treating the Throne with disrespect was to save him from
himself and from the imminent peril of his own folly. But now that
several Memorials had been sent in by Censors and others,
requesting that his errors be pardoned, the Throne could have no
possible objection to showing clemency and, the position having
been made clear, Prince Kung was restored to the position of
Chamberlain, and to the direction of the Foreign Office. The Prince,
in fact, needed a lesson in politeness and, having got it, Her Majesty
was prepared to let bygones be bygones, it being clearly understood
that, for the future, he should display increased energy and loyalty as
a mark of his sincere gratitude to their Majesties.
A week later, Tzŭ Hsi, in order to drive the lesson home, issued
the following Decree in the name of the Empresses Regent.
“We granted an audience this morning to Prince Kung in

order to permit him to return thanks for his re-appointment. He
prostrated himself humbly and wept bitterly, in token of his
boundless self-abasement. We naturally took occasion to
address to him some further words of warning and advice,
and the Prince seemed genuinely grieved at his errors and full
of remorse for misconduct which he freely acknowledged.
Sincere feeling of this kind could not fail to elicit our
compassion.
“It is now some years since we first assumed the burden of
the Regency and appointed Prince Kung to be our chief
adviser in the Government; in this position his responsibility
has been as great as the favour which we have bestowed
upon him. The position which he has occupied in special
relation to the Throne, is unparalleled; therefore we expected
much from him and, when he erred, the punishment which we
were compelled to inflict upon him was necessarily severe.
He has now repented him of the evil and acknowledged his
sins. For our part we had no prejudice in this matter, and were
animated only by strict impartiality; it was inconceivable that
we should desire to treat harshly a Councillor of such tried
ability, or to deprive ourselves of the valuable assistance of
the Prince. We therefore now restore him to the Grand
Council, but in order that his authority may be reduced, we do
not propose to reinstate him in his position as ‘adviser to the
Government.’ Prince Kung, see to it now that you forget not
the shame and remorse which have overtaken you! Strive to
requite our kindness and display greater self-control in the
performance of your duties! Justify our high confidence in you
by ridding your mind of all unjust suspicions and fears.”
In the autumn of this year, 1865, took place the burial of the late
Emperor, Hsien-Feng, the preparation of whose tomb had been
proceeding for just four years. With him was buried his consort
Sakota, who had died in 1850, a month before her husband’s
accession to the Throne; her remains had been awaiting burial at a
village temple, seven miles west of the capital, for fifteen years. As
usual, the funeral ceremonies and preparation of the tombs involved
vast expenditure, and there had been considerable difficulty in
finding the necessary funds, for the southern provinces, which, under
ordinary circumstances would have made the largest contributions,
were still suffering severely from the ravages of the Taiping rebellion.
The Emperor’s mausoleum had cost nominally ten million taels, of
which amount, of course, a very large proportion had been diverted
for the benefit of the officials of the Household and others.
The young Emperor, and the Empresses Regent proceeded, as in
duty bound, to the Eastern Tombs to take their part in the solemn
burial ceremonies. Prince Kung was in attendance; to him had fallen
the chief part in the preparation of the tomb and in the provision of
the funds, and Her Majesty had no cause to complain of any
scamping of his duties. The body of the Emperor, in an Imperial
coffin of catalpa wood, richly lacquered and inscribed with Buddhist
sutras, was borne within the huge domed grave chamber, and there
deposited in the presence of their Majesties upon its “jewelled
bedstead,” the pedestal of precious metals prepared to receive it. In
the place of the concubines and eunuchs, who in prehistoric days
used to be buried alive with the deceased monarch, wooden and
paper figures of life size were placed beside the coffin, reverently
kneeling to serve their lord in the halls of Hades. The huge candles
were lighted, prayers were recited, and a great wealth of valuable
ornaments arranged within the grave chamber; gold and jade
sceptres, and a necklace of pearls were placed in the coffin. And
when all was duly done, the great door of the chamber was slowly
lowered and sealed in its place.
Next day the Empresses Dowager issued a Decree in which
Prince Kung’s meritorious acts are graciously recognised, and their
Majesties’ thanks accorded to him for the satisfactory fulfilment of
the funeral ceremonies.
“Prince Kung has for the last five years been preparing the
funeral arrangements for his late Majesty and has shown a
due sense of decorum and diligence. To-day, both the late
Emperor and his senior consort have been conveyed to their
last resting place, and the great burden of our grief has been
to some extent mitigated by our satisfaction in contemplating
the grandeur of their tombs, and the solemn ceremonies of
their burial. No doubt but that the spirit of His Majesty in
Heaven has also been comforted thereby. We now feel bound
to act in accordance with the fraternal affection which always
animated the deceased Emperor towards Prince Kung, and to
bestow upon him high honours. But the Prince has repeatedly
declined to accept any further dignities, lest perchance he
should again be tempted to arrogance. His modesty meets
with our approval, and we therefore merely refer his name to
the Imperial Clan Court, for the selection of a reward. But we
place on record the fact that as Grand Councillor he has been
of great service to us, and has of late displayed notable
circumspection and self-restraint in all matters.
“The Decree which we issued last Spring was caused by
the Prince’s want of attention to small details of etiquette, and
if we were obliged to punish him severely, our motives have
been clearly explained. No doubt everyone in the Empire is
well aware of the facts, but as posterity may possibly fail to
realise all the circumstances, and as unjust blame might fall
upon the memory of Prince Kung, if that Decree were allowed
to remain inscribed amongst the Imperial Archives, thus
suggesting a flaw in the white jade of his good name, we now
command that the Decree in which we announced Prince
Kung’s dismissal from office be expunged from the annals of
our reign. Thus is our affection displayed towards a deserving
servant, and his good name preserved untarnished to all
time.”
The Empress Dowager was essentially a woman of moods, and

these Imperial Decrees simply reflect the fact, at the beginning of her
autocratic rule, as they did until its close. Four years later Prince
Kung was to incur her deep and permanent dislike by conspiring with
her colleague to deprive her of her favourite, the chief eunuch An Te-
hai.
V
TSENG KUO-FAN AND THE TAIPING REBELLION
(1864)
The first years of Yehonala’s Co-Regency, during which she was

steadily acquiring the arts and crafts of Government, and gradually
relegating her easy-going colleague to the background, were joyfully
associated in the minds of her subjects with the decline and final
collapse of the great rebellion which had devastated the best part of
the Empire since 1850. Chinese historians (a body of writers who
depend largely on each others’ writings for material) agree in
attributing the final deliverance from this scourge to the ability and
courage of the famous Viceroy Tseng Kuo-fan,[12] and for once their
praises are well-deserved, for this military scholar like his fellow
provincial and colleague, Tso Tsung-t’ang,[13] was a man of the
heroic breed of philosophers which, with all its faults, the Confucian
system has always produced, and continues to produce, to the great
benefit of the Chinese people, a man whose name ranks high among
China’s worthies, a household word for honesty and intelligent
patriotism.
It was one of the secrets of Tzŭ Hsi’s success as a ruler that she
recognised and appreciated merit whenever she found it, and
especially the merit of a military commander: it was only when she
allowed her superstitious tendencies to outweigh her judgment that
she failed. For the character and talents of Tseng Kuo-fan she had
the highest respect, due, no doubt, in the first instance to the effect
of his military despatches, stirring tales of camp and siege, on her
imaginative mind, but later to personal acquaintance with his sterling
qualities. With the single exception of Jung Lu, probably no high
official ever stood so high in her affectionate esteem, and Jung Lu
was a Manchu kinsman, while Tseng came from one of the
proverbially independent gentry families of Hunan. From a Chinese
narrative of the Taiping rebellion, we are able to obtain a very clear
impression, not only of Tseng’s character and of his conception of
patriotism but also of the remarkable and undisputed position of
autocratic power already at that time enjoyed by the youthful
Empress Tzŭ Hsi. Before turning to this narrative, however, certain
points in connection with the final defeat of the Taipings deserve to
be noted, events with which Englishmen were prominently identified,
but which, as recorded by British eye-witnesses, confirm our doubts
as to the historical value of Imperial Edicts and Chinese official
despatches.
The Emperor Hsien-Feng had died in exile and defeat at Jehol in
August 1861. The Summer Palace had been destroyed by the British
and French forces, peace had been restored, and the Co-Regency
of the Empresses Dowager had commenced. One of the first acts of
Prince Kung, in his capacity as “Adviser to the Government” after the
conclusion of the Peace Convention of October 1860, was to invoke
the aid of his country’s conquering invaders against the Chinese
rebels, whose strong position on the Yangtsze was causing the
Court ever increasing anxiety. It is an illuminating example of
Chinese methods of government, not without parallels and value to-
day, that even while the British and French forces were
concentrating at Shanghai for their invasion of north China, high
Chinese officials in the Yangtsze provinces had not hesitated to
invoke their aid against the rebels, and had been chagrined at a
refusal which appeared to them unwise since it ignored the interests
of British trade at its most important centre. The history of the “Ever-
Victorious Army” need not be referred to here. It kept the rebels in
check in the province of Kiangsu throughout the year 1862, and in
February 1863 the British Government sanctioned the lending of
“Chinese Gordon” to take command of that force, which was
speedily to turn the tide of war in favour of the Imperialists and
effectively to pave the way for Tseng Kuo-fan’s final restoration of
law and order. Soochow, the provincial capital, was regained in
December 1863, and in the following July the fall of the rebel capital
(Nanking) and the death of the rebel “King” practically ended the
insurrection. A considerable number of Europeans, including a
French Admiral, had given their lives to win back China for the
Manchu Dynasty, although at the outset public opinion was in favour
of strict neutrality and there were many, even then, who thought
China would be well rid of her degenerate rulers: nevertheless, the
triumphant Edict in which is recorded Tseng Kuo-fan’s capture of
Nanking contains no word of reference to Gordon and the invaluable
help which he rendered, and, as will be seen, Tseng’s only reference
to the British Commander is to accuse him of having recommended
the inhuman treatment of a defenceless prisoner. In accordance with
the invariable classical tradition, he ascribes his success to “the
consummate virtue and wisdom” of the late Emperor Hsien-Feng;
the tradition represents, in conventional phraseology, the Oriental
conception of the divine right of kings, and their infallibility (a
conception which we find reproduced almost verbatim in the modern
Japanese Generals’ modest reports of their greatest victories), and it
is incompatible in China with any reference to the existence, much
less the services, of foreign barbarians. The fact is worth noting, for
Tseng was an exceptionally intelligent and courageous man who
could, sooner than most men, have ventured on a new departure;
and he knew full well that this same Gordon, who had steadily driven
the rebels before him, cane in hand for over a year, had come hot-
foot to the task from the sacking of the Manchu sovereigns’ Summer
Palace!
But Yehonala’s joy at the fall of Nanking was unfeignedly great,
and the Decree in which, in the name of the boy Emperor, she
records the event and rewards the victors, is a brilliant example of
her literary style. We take the following extracts from this document,
as of permanent interest and throwing light on the character of Tzŭ
Hsi.
Decree on the Fall of Nanking.

“An express courier from Tseng Kuo-fan, travelling two
hundred miles a day, has just arrived, bearing the red banner
of decisive victory and a Memorial describing the capture of
Nanking, the suicide by burning of the rebel Prince, the
complete destruction of the Taiping host and the capture of
two of their leading commanders. Perusal of this Memorial fills
us with the deepest joy and gratitude, which all our people will
share. The leader of the long haired rebels[14] Hung Hsiu-
ch’uan first raised his standard of revolt in the thirtieth year of
Tao-Kuang (1850); from Kuangsi the movement spread
gradually through Hunan, Hupei and the Yangtsze provinces
to Chihli itself and Shantung, until scarcely a spot in the whole
Empire but bore the footprints of the rebel armies. In the third
year of Hsien-Feng (1853) they took Nanking and there
established the seat of their Government. Uncounted
thousands of our subjects have fallen victims to their savage
crimes. The cup of their guilt has indeed overflowed. Gods
and men alike hold them in abhorrence.
“Our Imperial father, in the majesty of his wrath, and in all
reverence to Heaven, began a punitive campaign against
them and named Kuan Wen, the Viceroy of Wu-Ch’ang, to be
his Imperial Commissioner for the war. This officer
successfully cleared the Hupei region of rebels and then
marched eastwards towards Kiangsu in order to extirpate
them there also. Later, Tseng Kuo-fan was made Viceroy of
Nanking and Imperial Commissioner for the campaign in
Kiangsu and Anhui, and he achieved great results,
proportionate to his high responsibility.
“On the death of our late father (1861), half the cities of
Kiangsu and Chekiang had been retaken by our forces, and it
was a source of grief to His Majesty, recorded in his
valedictory Decree, that he could not have lived to see the
end of the rebellion. Upon our succeeding to the goodly
heritage of the Throne, obeying our late father’s commands
and listening to the sage counsel of the Empresses Regent,
we promoted Tseng Kuo-fan to be an Assistant Grand
Secretary and gave him full powers as Commander-in-Chief
over the four provinces of Kiangsu, Kiangsi, Anhui and
Chekiang, so as to secure an undivided plan of campaign.
“Ever since his appointment he has adopted a policy of
masterful strategy in combination with the forces of P’eng Yu-
lin and Tseng Kuo-ch’uan,[15] attacking the rebels both by
land and by water. Over a hundred cities have been
recaptured and over a hundred thousand rebels, who were
advancing to the relief of Nanking, have been slain and ‘their
left ears cut off.’[16] Nanking was thus completely invested
and its relief became impossible. Early this month the outer
defences of the city were taken and some thirty thousand
rebels put to the sword, but their so-called King and his
desperate followers were still at bay in the inner city, fighting
fiercely to the end.
“Tseng Kuo-fan now reports that after the capture by our
troops of the outer city ramparts, the rebels greatly
strengthened the inner defences. Our men succeeded in
taking the ‘Dragon’s Elbow’ hill and a general bombardment
followed. Mining and counter-mining went on furiously in the
vicinity of the chief forts amidst desperate encounters. At
dawn on the 16th all our forces were collected, and by
springing a mine under the wall of the city a breach was made
some sixty yards in width. Our men rushed the gap, burst into
the city and were advancing on all sides when the rebels from
the wall exploded a magazine, and many of our men were
slain. A panic was only averted by our leaders cutting down a
number of those who were attempting to fly.
[Here follows a detailed description of the fighting, which we omit.]
“By 1 a.m. flames were bursting from the Palace of the

‘Heavenly King’ and the residences of other rebel leaders.
One of them rushed from the main Palace Hall with one
thousand followers and sought refuge in some houses near
the south gate of the city. After some seven hundred of his
men had been slain, he was captured, and on his person
were found two Imperial seals of jade and one official seal of
gold. At 3 a.m. about a thousand of the rebels, disguised in
our uniforms, escaped through the tunnel at the Gate of
Heavenly Peace but our cavalry pursued them and captured
or destroyed the whole force at Hu-Shu chen, where their
leader, the ‘Glorious Prince,’ was taken alive. On being
examined, this leader whose name was Li Wan-ts’ai, admitted
that seven of the so-called Princes of the Taipings had been
slain by our forces, while seeking to escape under cover of
darkness, on the night of our entrance into the city.
“According to the evidence of other rebels, the arch-leader
Hung Hsiu-ch’uan, had committed suicide by taking poison a
month before. He had been buried in the court-yard of his
Palace, and his son, the so-called Boy-Prince, had succeeded
to the usurped title. He also had committed suicide by burning
when the city fell. Another of their chiefs, one Li Hsiu-cheng,
had been wounded and was in hiding at a spot near by, where
our men found him together with the elder brother of the
‘Heavenly King.’ During these three days, over a hundred
thousand rebels were killed, of whom some three thousand
were their so-called Princes, generals, and high officers.
“This glorious victory is entirely due to the bountiful
protection of Heaven, to the ever-present help of our
Ancestors, and to the foresight and wisdom of the Empresses
Regent, who, by employing and promoting efficient leaders for
their armies, have thus secured co-operation of all our forces
and the accomplishment of this great achievement, whereby
the soul of our late father in Heaven must be comforted, and
the desire of all people fulfilled. For ourselves we feel utterly
unworthy of this crowning triumph, and we are truly distressed
at the thought that our late father could not live to witness this
consummation of his unfinished plans. This rebellion has now
lasted fifteen years, during twelve of which Nanking has been
held by the rebels. They have devastated about a dozen
provinces, and have captured some hundreds of cities. Their
final defeat we owe to our Generals, ‘who have been combed
by the wind and bathed in the rain,’ and who have undergone
every conceivable hardship in bringing about the destruction
of these unspeakable traitors. We are therefore bound to
recognise their exceptional services by the bestowal of
exceptional rewards. Tseng Kuo-fan first contributed to this
glorious end by raising a force of militia in Hunan and a fleet
of war-vessels with which he won great victories, saving his
province from complete ruin. He re-captured Wu-Ch’ang,
cleared the whole province of Kiangsi, and, advancing
eastwards, recovered city after city. That glorious success has
finally crowned our efforts is due chiefly to his masterly
strategy and courage, to his employment of able subordinates
and to his remarkable powers of organisation. We now confer
upon him the title of Senior Guardian of the Throne, a
marquisate of the first rank, hereditary in perpetuity, and the
decoration of the double-eyed peacock’s feather.
[Here follows a long list of officers rewarded, beginning with Tseng

Kuo-fan’s brother, above mentioned, who was given an earldom.]
“As soon as the troops have found the body of the usurper
known as the ‘Heavenly King,’ Hung Hsiu-ch’uan, let it be
dismembered forthwith and let the head be sent for exhibition
in every province that has been ravaged by his rebellion, in
order that the public indignation may be appeased. As to the
two captured leaders, let them be sent in cages to Peking, in
order that they may be examined and then punished with
death by the lingering process.”
A further Decree announced that the Emperor would go in person

to offer thanksgiving and sacrifice at all Imperial Temples and
shrines, and make sacrifice to deities of the chief mountains and
rivers of the Empire.
A Chinese diarist of the rebellion, referring to the manner in which
the ‘Heavenly King’ met his death, says:—
“From the moment that the Imperialists captured Ch’u-yung,

the rebels, pent up in Nanking like wild beasts in a cage, were
in a hopeless plight. From the commencement of the 4th
Moon, the city was completely invested, and without hope of
relief. They were living on reduced rations of one meagre
meal a day. The ‘Heavenly King’ caused roots and leaves to
be kneaded and rolled into pellets which he had served out to
his immediate followers, the rebel chiefs, saying, ‘This is
manna from Heaven; for a long time we in the Palace have
eaten nothing else.’ He gave orders that every household
should collect ten loads of this stuff for storage in the Palace
granaries; some of the more ignorant people obeyed the
order, but most of the rebels ignored it.
“The rebel Li Hsiu-ch’eng, known as the ‘Patriotic Prince,’
escaped from Ch’u-yung and made his way to Nanking. Upon
entering the city, he had drums beaten and bells rung as a
signal for the ‘Heavenly King’ and his followers to ascend to
the Throne Chamber for the discussion of the perilous
situation. Hung Hsiu-ch’uan came, and boastfully ascending
the Throne, spake as follows ‘The Most High has issued to
me his sacred Decree. God the Father, and my Divine elder
brother (Christ) have commanded me to descend unto this
world of flesh and to become the one true lord of all nations
and kindreds upon earth. What cause have I then for fear?
Remain with me, or leave me, as you choose: my inheritance
of this Empire, which is even as an iron girdle of defence, will
be protected by others if you decline to protect it. I have at my
command an angelic host of a million strong: how then could
a hundred thousand or so of these unholy Imperialists enter
the city’? When Li Hsiu-ch’eng heard this nonsensical
boasting, he burst into tears and left the hall.
“But before the middle of the 5th Moon, Hung Hsiu-ch’uan
had come to realise that the city was doomed, and on the
27th day, having abandoned all hope, he procured a deadly
poison which he mixed with his wine. Then raising the cup on
high, he cried, ‘It is not that God the Father has deceived me,
but it is I who have disobeyed God the Father.’ After repeating
this several times he drank the poison. By midnight the
measure of his iniquity was full, and, writhing in agony, he
died. Even his last words showed no true repentance,
although they amounted to an admission of guilt. When his
followers learned what had happened, they wrapped his body
in a coverlet of yellow silk, embroidered with dragons and
then, following the rule of their religion, buried it, uncoffined, in
a corner of the Palace ground. They then placed on the
Throne the rebel’s son, the so-called Boy-Emperor, but they
tried to keep secret the news of the ‘Heavenly King’s’ death. It
eventually leaked out, however, and the courage of the
besieged dropped to the last depths of despair.”
In his Memorial to the Throne, Tseng Kuo-fan described the

exhumation of the rebel Emperor’s body.
“Even the feet of the corpse were wrapped in dragon

embroideries,” he says; “he had a bald head and a beard
streaked with grey. After examining the body I beheaded it
and then burnt it on a large bonfire. One of the concubines in
the usurper’s palace, a woman named Huang, who had
herself prepared the body for burial, told me that the
‘Heavenly King’ seldom showed himself to his Court, so that
they were able to keep his death a secret for sixteen days. I
am sending his bogus seals to Peking that they may be
deposited in the Imperial Archives Department.”
The Memorial then proceeds:—
“The prisoner Li Hsiu-ch’eng, known as the ‘Patriotic

Prince,’ was minutely cross-examined by myself, and his
statement, which he wrote out with his own hand, extends to
some thirty thousand words. He narrated in detail the first
causes of the rebellion and described the present position of
the rebels still at large in Shensi and elsewhere. He strongly
advised that we should not be too hard on the defeated rebels
from Kuangtung and Kuangsi, on the ground that severity
would only lead to an increase of the anti-dynastic feeling in
those provinces. It seems to me that there is much sense in
his advice.
“All my staff were most anxious that Li Hsiu-ch’eng should
be sent to Peking in a cage, and even the foreigner Gordon,
when he called to congratulate me, strongly urged this
course. But it seems to me that the high prestige of our
Sacred Dynasty needs no such sending of petty rebels to
Peking as trophies or prisoners of war. The ‘Heavenly King’s’
head is now being sent round those provinces which were laid
waste by the rebellion, and this should suffice. Besides, I feel
that there would be some risk of Li starving himself to death
on the journey, or that a rescue might even be attempted, for
this Li was extraordinarily popular with the common people.
After the fall of the city, some peasants gave him shelter, and
when he was finally captured the people of the village where
he was taken decoyed and slew one of our men in revenge.
After he had been put in his cage here, another rebel leader,
the so-called ‘Pine Prince,’ was brought into camp. As soon
as he caught sight of Li, he went down on his knees and
saluted him most respectfully, I therefore decided to behead
him and the sentence was duly carried out on the 6th instant.
“The two elder brothers of the ‘Heavenly King’ were men of
a cruel and savage nature, who committed many foul and
impious crimes. Li detested them both heartily. When
captured, they were in a dazed state, and could only mumble
‘God the Father, God the Father.’ As I could get no
information from them, and as they were sick unto death, I
had them both beheaded, two days before the execution of Li
Hsiu-ch’eng. I am now in receipt of your Majesties’ Decree,
approving my action and ordering me to forward the heads of
the three rebel chiefs to the various provinces in order that
public indignation may be appeased. I have duly suspended
the heads from long poles, and the sight of them has given
great and general satisfaction.
“And now, victory being ours, I am led to the reflection that
this our Dynasty surpasses all its predecessors in martial
glory and has suppressed several rebellions by achievements
which shed lustre on our history. The Ssŭ-ch’uan and Hupei
rebellion of half a century ago was, however, limited to four
provinces, and only some twenty cities were held by the
rebels. The insurrection of Wu San-kuei, in the reign of K’ang-
Hsi, overran twelve provinces, and the rebels captured some
three hundred cities and towns. But this Taiping rebellion has
been on a scale vaster than any before, and has produced
some great leaders in its armies. Here in Nanking not a single
rebel surrendered. Many burned themselves alive rather than
be taken. Such things are unparalleled in history, and we feel
that the final happy issue is due to the consummate virtue and
wisdom of his late Majesty, which alone made victory
possible. By dint of careful economy in the Palace, he was
able to set aside large sums for the equipment of adequate
forces. Most careful in his choice of leaders, he was lavish of
rewards; all wise himself, yet was he ever ready to listen to
the advice of his generals. Your Majesties the Empresses and
the Emperor have faithfully carried out and even amplified
these principles, and thus you have succeeded in wiping out
these usurpers and have shed great glory on your reign. We,
who so unworthily hold your high command, grieve greatly
that His Majesty did not live to see his work crowned with
triumph.”
For four years after the collapse of the rebellion, Tseng Kuo-fan
remained at Nanking as Viceroy. (The Hunanese still regard that post
as belonging by prescriptive right to a Hunanese official.) His only
absence was during a brief expedition against the Mahomedan
rebels in Shantung. In September 1868 he was appointed Viceroy of
Chihli, and left for Peking at the end of the year, receiving a
remarkable ovation from the people of Nanking. In Peking he was
received with great honours, and in his capacity of Grand Secretary
had a meeting with the Council on the morning after his arrival,
followed immediately by an Audience, to which he was summoned
and conducted by one of the Princes. The young Emperor was
sitting on a Throne facing west, and the Empresses Regent were
behind him, screened from view by the yellow curtain, Tzŭ An to the
left and Tzŭ Hsi to the right of the Throne. In the Chinese narrative of
the rebellion to which we have already referred, the writer professes
to report this audience, and several that followed, practically
verbatim, and as it affords interesting information as to the manner
and methods of Tzŭ Hsi on these occasions, the following extracts
are worthy of reproduction. It is to be observed that the writer, like all
his contemporaries, assumes ab initio that the Empress Tzŭ An,
though senior, is a negligible quantity and that the whole interest of
the occasion lies between Tzŭ Hsi and the official in audience.
Upon entering the Throne room, Tseng fell upon his knees, as in
duty bound, and in that position advanced a few feet, saying “Your
servant Tseng Kuo-fan respectfully enquires after Your Majesties’
health.” Then removing his hat and performing the kowtow, he
humbly returned thanks for Imperial favours bestowed upon him.
These preliminaries completed, he rose and advanced a few steps to
kneel on the cushion prepared for him below the daïs. The following
dialogue then took place:—
Her Majesty Tzŭ Hsi. When you left Nanking, was all your
official work completed?
Tseng. Yes, quite completed.
Tzŭ Hsi. Have the irregular troops and braves all been
disbanded?
Tseng. Yes, all.
Tzŭ Hsi. How many in all?
Tseng. I have disbanded over twenty thousand irregulars
and have enrolled thirty thousand regulars.
Tzŭ Hsi. From which province do the majority of these men
hail?
Tseng. A few of the troops come from Hunan, but the great
majority are Anhui men.
Tzŭ Hsi. Was the disbandment effected quite quietly?
Tseng. Yes, quite quietly.
Then follow numerous questions regarding Tseng’s previous

career, his family, &c. As soon as the questions cease, after waiting
a few minutes, the audience is at an end, and Tseng kowtows and
retires. On each occasion, and they were many, the Empress had
evidently worked up her questions carefully from study of reports and
despatches, and invariably put them in the short sharp form
indicated; always peremptory, de haut en bas and Cæsarian, this
woman “behind the screen,” addressing the veteran who had saved
China for her rule.
After describing Tseng’s important position at the Court banquet
given to high officials, Manchu and Chinese, on the 16th day of the
1st Moon (at which six plays were performed and the dishes “passed
all reckoning”), the narrative gives an account of his farewell
audience, at which Her Majesty closely cross-examined him as to his
plans for the reorganisation of the naval and military forces of Chihli.
He held the post of Chihli Viceroy for a little over a year. The
viceregal residence in those days was at Pao-ting fu, so that when
the Tientsin massacre occurred (1870) he was not directly to blame,
though officially responsible. In June of that year the Nanking
Viceroy was assassinated, and Tseng was ordered to resume duty at
that post, his place in Chihli being taken by Li Hung-chang, who held
it for twenty-four years. Tseng, whose health was failing,
endeavoured to have his appointment to Nanking cancelled, but Tzŭ
Hsi would take no excuses. She issued a Decree in which she laid
stress on the arduous nature of the work to be done at the southern
capital and Tseng’s special fitness for the post which he had so ably
administered in the past. “Even if his eyesight troubles him,” she
said, “he can still exercise a general supervision.”
Before leaving for the south, Tseng celebrated his sixtieth birthday,
receiving many marks of Imperial favour and rich gifts. The Empress
sent him a poem of congratulation in her own handwriting, and a
tablet bearing the inscription “My lofty pillar and rock of defence,”
together with an image of Buddha, a sandalwood sceptre inlaid with
jade, a dragon robe, ten rolls of “auspicious” silk, and ten of crape. At
his farewell audience the following interesting conversation took
place:—
Tzŭ Hsi. When did you leave Tientsin?

Tseng. On the 23rd.
Tzŭ Hsi. Have the ringleaders in the massacre of foreigners
been executed yet?
Tseng. Not yet. The Consul told me that the Russian
Minister was coming to Tientsin and that the French Minister
was sending a deputy to witness the executions, so that the
decapitations could not be summarily carried out.
Tzŭ Hsi. What date has Li Hung-chang fixed for the
executions?
Tseng. On the day of my departure, he sent me word that
he expected to dispose of them yesterday.
Tzŭ Hsi. Have the Tientsin populace calmed down?
Tseng. Yes, things are now quite settled and orderly.
Tzŭ Hsi. What made the Prefect and Magistrate run away
to Shun-Tê after the massacre?
Tseng. When first removed from their posts, they knew not
what sentence would be decreed against them, so they boldly
and shamelessly ran away from the city.
Tzŭ Hsi. Have you quite lost the sight of your right eye?
Tseng. Yes, it is quite blind; but I can still see with the left.
Tzŭ Hsi. Have you entirely recovered from your other
maladies?
Tseng. Yes, I think I can say that I have.
Tzŭ Hsi. You appear to kneel, and to rise from that posture
quite briskly and freely, as if your physique were still pretty
good?
Tseng. No; it is not what it used to be.
Tzŭ Hsi. That was a strange thing, the assassination of Ma
Hsin-yi (the late Viceroy of Nanking), was it not?
Tseng. Extraordinary.
Tzŭ Hsi. He was a first-rate administrator.
Tseng. Yes, he took great pains, and was honest and
impartial.
Tzŭ Hsi. How many regular troops have you raised in
Chihli?
Tseng. Three thousand. The former Viceroy had four
thousand men trained under the old system. I had intended to
raise three thousand more, making a total force of ten
thousand. I have arranged with Li Hung-chang to carry out
this programme.
Tzŭ Hsi. It is of vital importance that we should have a force
of properly trained troops in the south. You must see to this.
Tseng. Yes. At present peace prevails, but we must be
prepared for all possible emergencies. I propose to build forts
at several places on the Yangtsze.
Tzŭ Hsi. It would be a fine thing if we could secure
ourselves properly against invasion. These missionary
complications are perpetually creating trouble for us.
Tseng. That is true. Of late the missionaries have created
trouble everywhere. The native converts are given to
oppressing those who will not embrace Christianity (literally
“eat the religion”) and the missionaries always screen the
converts, while the Consuls protect the missionaries. Next
year, when the time comes for revising the French Treaty, we
must take particular pains to reconsider carefully the whole
question of religious propaganda.
In November Tseng had his farewell audience, and Tzŭ Hsi never
saw him again. A month later he took over the seals of office at his
old post, one of his first acts being to try the assassin of his
predecessor, who was condemned to death by the slicing process. In
the following summer he went for a cruise of inspection and visited
various places of interest, noting with satisfaction the complete
restoration of law and order in the districts which had been for so
long the scene of the Taipings’ devastations. On one occasion,
seeing the gaily decked “flower-boats” and listening to the sounds of
their revelries, he joyfully exclaimed: “I am glad to have lived to see
my province as it was before the rebellion.” In December he moved
into the Viceregal residence which he had known as the Palace of
the Taiping “Heavenly King.” But he was not long to administer that
high office, for in the early part of 1872 he had a first stroke of
paralysis. A few days later, going in his chair to meet a high official
arriving from Peking, and reciting, as was his wont, favourite
passages from the classics, he suddenly made a sign to his
attendants, but speech failed him and he could only mumble. In his
diary that same evening, he wrote:—“This illness of mine prevents
me from attending to my work. In the 26th and 27th years of Tao-
Kuang (1846-7) I found that efforts at poetical composition brought
on attacks of eczema and insomnia. Now it is different. I feel all
dazed and confused. Spots float before my eyes and my liver is
disordered. Alas, that I can neither obtain a speedy release, like the
morning dew which swiftly passes away, nor hope for the restoration
of energies to enable me to perform my duty. What sadder fate than
thus to linger on, useless, in the world!” On the next day he wrote:
—“My strength is rapidly failing, and I must leave behind me many
unsettled questions and business half completed. The dead leaves
of disappointed hopes fill all the landscape, and I see no prospect of
settling my affairs. Thirty years have passed since I took my degree,
and I have attained to the highest rank; yet have I learned nothing,
and my character still lacks true solidity. What shame should be mine
at having reached thus uselessly old age!” Next day, while reading a
despatch, he had another stroke. Rallying, he told his eldest son,
Tseng Chi-tsê, to see to it that his funeral ceremonies were
conducted after the old usages, and that neither Buddhist nor Taoist

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New York Chicago San Francisco Athens London

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Handbook of Applied Hydrology, Second Edition

The pages within this book were printed on acid-free paper.

Sponsoring Editor Copy Editor

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Part 1 Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1

Part 2 Data Collection and Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1

Part 3 Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-1

Part 4 Hydrologic Processes and Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-1

Part 5 Sediment and Pollutant Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63-1

Part 6 Hydrometeorologic and Hydrologic Extremes . . . . . . . . . . . . 72-1

Part 7 Systems Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81-1

Part 8 Hydrology of Large Rivers and Lake Basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93-1

Part 9 Applications and Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125-1

Part 10 Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151-1

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Part 1. Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1

Chapter 1. The Hydrologic Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3

Chapter 2. Watersheds, River Basins, and Land Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1

Chapter 3. Water Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1

PART 2. Data Collection and Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1

Chapter 4. Hydrometeors and Quantitative Precipitation Estimation 4-3

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Chapter 5. Streamflow Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1

Chapter 6. Streamflow Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1

Chapter 7. Hydrologic Information Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1

Chapter 8. Remote Sensing Techniques and Data Assimilation for

Chapter 9. Geographic Information Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1

Chapter 10. Design of Hydrologic Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1

Part 3. Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-1

Chapter 11. Artificial Neural Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3

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11.5 Drawbacks of ANN Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-5

Chapter 12. Fuzzy Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-1

Chapter 13. Evolutionary Computing: Genetic Algorithms . . . . . . . . . 13-1

Chapter 14. Relevance Vector Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1

Chapter 15. Harmonic Analysis and Wavelets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1

Chapter 16. Outlier Analysis and Infilling of Missing Records

Chapter 17. Linear and Nonlinear Regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-1

Chapter 18. Time Series Analysis and Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1

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18.10 Stochastic Simulation, Forecasting, and Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-8

Chapter 19. Statistical Detection of Nonstationarity: Issues

Chapter 20. Spatial Analysis and Geostatistical Methods . . . . . . . . . . 20-1

Chapter 21. Frequency Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-1

Chapter 22. Calibration, Parameter Estimation, Uncertainty, Data

Chapter 23. Bayesian Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-1

Chapter 24. Optimization Approaches for Integrated Water Resources

Chapter 25. Nonparametric Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-1

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Chapter 26. Predictive Uncertainty Assessment

Chapter 27. Risk-Reliability Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1

Chapter 28. Scaling and Fractals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-1

Chapter 29. Nonlinear Dynamics and Chaos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-1

Chapter 30. Copula Modeling in Hydrologic Frequency Analysis . . . 30-1

Chapter 31. Entropy Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-1

Chapter 1. The Hydrologic Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3

Chapter 2. Watersheds, River Basins, and Land Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1

Chapter 8. Remote Sensing Techniques and Data Assimilation for

Chapter 16. Outlier Analysis and Infilling of Missing Records

Chapter 19. Statistical Detection of Nonstationarity: Issues

Chapter 22. Calibration, Parameter Estimation, Uncertainty, Data

Chapter 24. Optimization Approaches for Integrated Water Resources

Chapter 26. Predictive Uncertainty Assessment

Chapter 39. Spatial and Temporal Estimation and

Chapter 43. Rainfall Interception, Detention, and

Chapter 49. Watershed Runoff, Streamflow Generation,

Chapter 54. Surface Water–Groundwater Interactions:

Chapter 55. Seawater Intrusion in Coastal Aquifers: Concepts,

Chapter 56. Regional Land Subsidence Caused by the Compaction

Chapter 62. Feasibility, Engineering, and Operations Models: Using

Chapter 73. Hydrometeorological Extremes

Chapter 78. Risk, Reliability, and Return Periods and