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ELECTRICAL WIRING
INDUSTRIAL Based on the 2017 National Electrical Code®
16th edition
STEPHEN L. HERMAN
Australia • Brazil • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States
Electrical Wiring Industrial, 16th Edition © 2018, 2015 Cengage Learning
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Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2016
Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x
1
CHAPTER Plans and Sitework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Construction Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Explanation of Plan Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Sitework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Testing the Site for Grounding Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Interpreting the Site Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Metrics (SI) and the NEC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2
CHAPTER The Unit Substation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
The High-Voltage Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Transformer Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Overcurrent Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Determining Transformer Fuse Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
The Transformer Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
The Low-Voltage Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
The High-Voltage Metering Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Service Entrances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Transformer Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3
CHAPTER Feeder Bus System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Feeder Ducts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
The Circuit-Breaker Cubicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Plug-In Busway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Bus Plugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4
CHAPTER Panelboards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Panelboards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Branch-Circuit Protective Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Panelboard Protective Device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Power Panelboards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
5
CHAPTER Trolley Busways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Three-Phase Trolley Busway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
The Trolley Busway Runs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Lighting in the Manufacturing Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Lighting in the Boiler Room . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
6
CHAPTER Using Wire Tables and Determining Conductor Sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Insulation Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Correction Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
iii
iv
More Than Three Conductors in Raceway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

Underground Conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Selecting Conductors for Equipment Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Calculating Conductor Sizes and Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Long Wire Lengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Calculating Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Parallel Conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Testing Wire Installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
The American Wire Gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
7
CHAPTER Signaling Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
The Master Clock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
The Program System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
The Paging System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
The Fire Alarm System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
8
CHAPTER Basic Motor Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Two-Wire Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Three-Wire Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Schematic Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Overload Relays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Schematics and Wiring Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Start–Stop Push-Button Control Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Forward–Reverse Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Basic Air-Conditioning Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Timing Relays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
9
CHAPTER Motors and Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
The Machines and Their Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Motor Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Single-Speed Squirrel-Cage Induction Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
The Wound-Rotor Induction Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Determining Direction of Rotation for 3-Phase Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Connecting Dual-Voltage 3-Phase Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Dual-Voltage Single-Phase Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Determining Direction of Rotation for Single-Phase Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Terminal Identification for Direct-Current Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Determining the Direction of Rotation of a Direct-Current Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Direct-Current Power Supplies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Variable-Frequency Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
10
CHAPTER Motor Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Motor Nameplate Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Motor Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Motor Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Direct-Current Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Single-Phase Alternating-Current Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Two-Phase Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Three-Phase Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Determining Conductor Size for a Single Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Overload Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Overload Heaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Protecting Large Horsepower Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Motor Starter Sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Determining Locked-Rotor Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Short-Circuit Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Multiple Motor Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
C0NTENTS v
11
CHAPTER Power Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Loading on Alternating-Current Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Power Factor Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
The Synchronous Condensers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
The Tie-In . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Correcting Power Factor with Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Correcting Motor Power Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Installing Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Testing Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
12
CHAPTER Ventilating, Air Conditioning, and Other Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
The Ventilator and Exhaust Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Special Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
The Cooling Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Liquid Chillers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
The Precipitation Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
13
CHAPTER System Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
System Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Circuit Breakers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Fuses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
14
CHAPTER Lightning Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Atomic Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
How Lightning Is Generated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Master Label . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Building Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Safety Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
15
CHAPTER Site Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Lamp Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Illuminance Selections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Power Limitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Luminaire Placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Electrical Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
16
CHAPTER Programmable Logic Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
Differences between Programmable Logic Controllers and
Personal Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Basic Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Installing Programmable Logic Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
The Differential Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
17
CHAPTER Developing a Program for a PLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
Assigning Inputs and Outputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Converting the Schematic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
18
CHAPTER Fiber Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Fiber Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
Fiber-Optic Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Fiber-Optic Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
vi
19
CHAPTER Hazardous Locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
Equipment Approval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
Intrinsically Safe Circuits and Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Seals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
Circuit-Breaker Panelboards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Luminaires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
Motor Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Flexible Cords and Receptacles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Hazardous Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Explosionproof Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
20
CHAPTER Harmonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
Harmonic Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
Circuit-Breaker Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
Bus Ducts and Panelboard Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
Determining Harmonic Problems on Single-Phase Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
Determining Harmonic Problems on 3-Phase Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
Dealing with Harmonic Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
Determining Transformer Harmonic Derating Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
Electrical Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
Code Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
Preface
Intended Use and Level

Electrical Wiring—Industrial is intended for use in industrial wiring courses at two-year
community and technical colleges. The text walks the reader step-by-step through an indus-
trial building, providing the basics on installing industrial wiring systems. An accompanying
set of plans at the back of the book shows students how the concepts learned in each chapter
are applied to an actual industrial building. This pairing of theory and application helps stu-
dents understand and meet requirements set forth by the National Electrical Code® (NEC®).
Subject and Approach

The sixteenth edition of Electrical Wiring—Industrial is based on the 2017 NEC. The NEC
is the basic standard for the layout and construction of electrical systems. To gain the greatest
benefit from this text, the learner must use the NEC on a continuing basis.
In addition to the NEC, the instructor should provide the learner with
applicable state and local wiring regulations as they may affect the indus-
trial installation.
In addition to the accurate interpretation of the requirements of the NEC, the successful
completion of any wiring installation requires the electrician to have a thorough understand-
ing of basic electrical principles, a knowledge of the tools and materials used in installations,
familiarity with commonly installed equipment and the specific wiring requirements of the
equipment, the ability to interpret electrical construction drawings, and a constant awareness
of safe wiring practices.
Electrical Wiring—Industrial builds upon the knowledge and experience gained from
working with the other texts in the Delmar Cengage Learning electrical wiring series and
related titles. The basic skills developed through previous applications are now directed
to industrial installations. The industrial electrician is responsible for the installation of
electrical service, power, lighting, and special systems in new construction; the change-
over from old systems to new in established industrial buildings; the provision of addi-
tional electrical capacity to meet the growth requirements of an industrial building; and
periodic maintenance and repair of the various systems and components in the building.
vii
viii PREFACE
Features This edition of Electrical Wiring—Industrial

An introduction to plans and sitework is the topic of was completed after all normal steps of revis-
the first chapter in the book, providing explanations ing the NEC NFPA 70 were taken and before
of identifying symbols and interpreting the plans in the actual issuance and publication of the 2017
order to help orient the student to the industrial job edition of the NEC. These steps include the
site. Examples are integrated into the text and take following:
the student step by step through problems, to illus- • The National Fire Protection Association
trate how to derive solutions using newly introduced (NFPA) solicits proposals for the 2017 NEC.
mathematical formulas and calculations. Industrial • Interested parties submit proposals to the
building drawings are included in the back of the NFPA.
book, offering students the opportunity to apply the
• Proposals are sent to Code-Making Panels
concepts that they have learned in each chapter as
(CMPs).
they step through the wiring process. Review ques-
tions at the end of each chapter allow students to test • CMPs and the Technical Correlating
what they have learned and to target any sections Committee review proposals.
that require further review. • Report on Proposals document is published.
• Interested parties submit comments on the
proposals to the NFPA.
New to this Edition
• CMPs and Technical Correlating Committee
• Updated to the 2017 National Electrical Code review comments.
• Extended coverage of motor installation • Report on comments document is published.
• Extended coverage of service entrances • Review of all Proposals and Comments is
conducted at the NFPA Annual Meeting.
• Additional information concerning transformers
• New motions are permitted to be made at the
• Instruction on selecting conductors for
NFPA Annual Meeting.
equipment
• Finally, the Standard Council meets to
• Additional information concerning motor
review actions made at the NFPA Annual
control symbols
Meeting and to authorize publication of the
To access additional course materials including NEC.
MindTap, please visit www.cengagebrain.com. At
Every effort has been made to be technically
the CengageBrain.com home page, search for the
correct, but there is the possibility of typographical
ISBN of your title (from the back cover of your
errors or appeals made to the NFPA board of direc-
book) using the search box at the top of the page.
tors after the normal review process that could result
This will take you to the product page where these
in reversal of previous decisions by the CMPs.
resources can be found.
If changes in the NEC do occur after the
printing of this book, these changes will be incor-
porated in the next printing.
The NFPA has a standard procedure to intro-
duce changes between Code cycles after the
actual NEC is printed. These are called Tentative
Interim Amendments, or TIAs. TIAs and cor-
rected typographical errors can be downloaded
from the NFPA website, http://www.nfpa.org, to
make your copy of the Code current.
PREFACE ix
Supplements platform, or a Learning Management System.

MindTap is a new personal learning experience that
The Instructor Companion Website contains an combines all your digital assets—readings, multi-
Instructor Guide in PDF format with answers to all media, activities, and assessments—into a singular
review questions included in the book. Two sets of learning path to improve student outcomes.
PowerPoint presentations are available as well: as MindTap Electricity for Electrical Wiring—
chapter presentations and a series of topical pre- Industrial has been specially designed for the 16th
sentations. To round out your resource package, edition to provide interactive learning activities,
we have included an Image Gallery, and Cengage study tools, and assessments ready to integrate with
Learning Testing Powered by Cognero. your learning management system.
Cengage Learning Testing Powered by Cognero To access additional course material, including
is a flexible, online system that allows you to: MindTap, please visit www.CengageBrain.com. At
• author, edit, and manage test bank content from the CengageBrain.com home page, search for the
multiple Cengage Learning solutions ISBN (from the back cover of the book), using the
search box at the top of the page. This will take
• create multiple test versions in an instant
you to the product page where the resources can be
• deliver tests from your LMS, your classroom, found.
or wherever you want.
To access the Instructor Companion Website
from SSO Front Door: About the Author
1. Go to http://login.cengage.com and log in using Stephen L. Herman has been both a teacher of
the Instructor e-mail address and password. industrial electricity and an industrial electrician
2. Enter author, title, or ISBN in the Add a title to for many years. He received his formal education
your bookshelf search box, and click Search. at Catawba Valley Technical College in Hickory,
3. Click Add to My Bookshelf to add Instructor North Carolina. After working as an industrial elec-
Resources. trician for several years, he became the Electrical
Installation and Maintenance instructor at Randolph
4. At the product page, click the Instructor Technical College in Asheboro, North Carolina.
Companion site link. After nine years, he returned to industry as an elec-
trician. Mr. Herman later became the lead Electrical
New Users Technology instructor at Lee College in Baytown,
Texas. After serving 20 years at Lee College,
If you’re new to Cengage.com and do not have a he retired from teaching and now lives with his
password, contact your sales representative. wife in Pittsburg, Texas. Mr. Herman has received
the Halliburton Education Foundation’s award for
excellence in teaching. He has been a guest speaker
Mindtap® Electricity for Electrical at professional organizations and has three times
Wiring—Industrial been a judge for the national motor control competi-
MindTap® is more than an eBook, a homework tion at Skills USA.
solution, a resource center, a course
delivery
Acknowledgments
The author and publisher wish to thank the following reviewers for their contributions:
Salvador P. Aranda Paul V. Westrom

Savannah Technical College New England Institute of Technology
Savannah, Georgia Greenwich, Rhode Island
Mike Brumback DeWain Belote

York Technical College Pinellas Tech Educational Center
Rock Hill, South Carolina St. Petersburg, Florida
Tom Hoops Les Brinkley

North Lake College Ashtabula County JVC
Irving, Texas Ashtabula, Ohio
Chad Kurdi Al Clay

Dunwoody College of Technology Pittsburg, Texas
Minneapolis, Minnesota
Warren Dejardin
Richard Moore Northeast Wisconsin Technical College
Wake Technical Community College Oneida, Wisconsin
Raleigh, North Carolina
Thomas Lockett
Alan Stanfield Vatterott College
Southern Crescent Technical College Quincy, Illinois
Griffin, Georgia
Acknowledgments xi
Special thanks to Mike Forister for his thorough technical review of the Code content, and to Diane
obsiger, Electrical Instructor at Delta College in University Center, Michigan, for her detailed technical
L
review of the 16th edition.
The author also wishes to thank the following companies for their contributions of data, illustrations, and
technical information:
Air-Temp Division, Chrysler Corporation Eaton Corp.Cutler-Hammer Products

Allen-Bradley Co., Systems Division Edwards Co., Inc
Allen-Bradley Co., Drives Division ESE
Allis Chalmers G&W Electrical Specialty Co.
American Standard Co. General Electric Co.
ARCO Electrical Products Corp. Jensen Electric Company
Audisone Inc. Kellems Division, Harvey Hubble, Inc.
Biddle Instruments Wm. J. O’Connell and Stipes Publishing
Bulldog Electrical Products Co. Company
Burndy Co. Square D Company
Clarage Fan Co. Uticor Technology
Crouse-Hinds ECM Westinghouse Electric Corporation
Applicable tables and section references are reprinted with permission from NFPA 70-2017, the National
Electrical Code,® Copyright © 2016, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, Massachusetts 02269.
This reprinted material is not the complete and official position of the National Fire Protection Association on
the referenced subject, which is represented only by the standard in its entirety.
Chapter 1
Plans and Sitework
Objectives
After studying this chapter, the student should be able to
• read site plans to determine the location of the specific
items.
• select materials for electrical sitework.
• identify underground wiring methods.
• perform International System of Units (SI) to English
and English to SI conversions.
• calculate metric measurements.
• make measurements using a set of plans and a scale.
2 Chapter 1 Plans and Sitework
Construction Plans after the final grading. The responsibility of who

does the ditch-work (general contractor or electri-
An electrician who has previously wired a resi- cian) is usually agreed upon before the contract is
dence or a commercial building is familiar with awarded.
electrical floor plans and symbols. Although the Figure 1-1 gives the standard symbols used on
electrical plans and symbols are basically simi- construction site plans for contour lines and other
lar for an industrial building project, additional features.
emphasis is often placed on the sitework. The
electrician must continually coordinate and work
with the general foreman who is employed by the Benchmark
general contractor.
The benchmark (BM), as given on the site plan,
After the contract for the project is awarded,
is the reference point from which all elevations are
the electrical contractor must inspect the site plans
located. The benchmark elevation is established by
to determine the approximate location of the indus-
the surveyor responsible for the preliminary survey
trial building on the site, as well as the locations of
of the industrial site. This BM elevation is related to
underground wiring, raceways, and manholes. The
a city datum or to the mean sea level value for the
contractor then moves a trailer to the site and locates
site. The elevation is usually given in feet and tenths
it so that it will require a minimal amount of reloca-
of a foot. For example, an elevation of 123.4 ft is
tion during construction. This trailer is used to store
read as “one hundred twenty-three and four-tenths
materials and tools during the construction of the
feet.” Table 1-1 is used in making conversions from
building.
tenths of a foot to inches.
Building Location
Elevations
The building location is given on the site plan
by referring to existing points such as the center- The electrician must give careful attention to the
line of a street. If the electrical contractor and the elevations of the proposed building. These details
crew arrive on the site before the general contractor are shown on Sheet Z-1 of the enclosed plans for the
arrives, they are not required to “stake out” (locate) industrial building. These drawings provide valuable
the building. However, they should be able to deter- information concerning the building construction.
mine its approximate location. A site plan, such as Measurements on the elevations may be a plus or a
the one given on Sheet Z-1 of the industrial build- minus reference to the BM elevation as given on the
ing plans included in this text, shows the property site plan.
lines and the centerlines of the street from which
the electrician can locate the building and other site Invert Elevation
improvements.
When an invert elevation (INV) is given, this
quantity indicates the level of the lower edge of
Explanation of Plan Symbols the inside of a conduit entering the manhole (this
conduit is usually the lower one in an installation).
Contour Lines Refer ahead to Figure 1-19.
Contour lines are given on the site plan to
indicate the existing and the new grading levels. Measuring Building Plans
If the required underground electrical work is
to be installed before the grading is complete, It is sometimes necessary to determine lengths
trenches must be provided with enough depth to and dimensions from a set of building plans. Building
ensure that the installations have the proper cover plans are drawn to a specific scale, and can therefore
Chapter 1 Plans and Sitework 3
Standard format Other symbols Standard format Other symbols

symbols and indications symbols and indications
BM-1-680.0 Benchmark — BM EL. 680.0 Light standard

Number — Elevation
TB-1 Test boring — Number Existing tree to remain 10" Oak

10" diam. oak
350.0 Existing spot elevation to change + 350.0 Existing tree to be removed 10" Oak
10" diam. oak
352.0 Existing spot elevation to remain + 352.0 W Water main (size) 6" W
354.0 New spot elevation + 354.0 T Telephone line (underground)
Existing spot elevation +360.0 Power line (underground)

P
New spot elevation +362.0
240
240 G Gas main (size) 4" G
Existing contour to change . . .
240 O Fuel oil line (size) 1" O

Existing contour to remain 240
244 244 Sanitary sewer (size) 12" SAN

New contour SAS
406 Storm sewer (size)

STS 24" ST
Existing contour
New contour 404
COS Combined sewer (size) 18" S

108
Existing contour to change
Final contour or proposed contour 104 6" DR. T.
DRT Drain tile (size)
Fire hydrant FENCE

x x x x Fence (or required construction fence)
MH Manhole MH-4-680.0 CLL

Contract limit line
(Number — Rim elevation)
MH EL. 680.0
Manhole — Rim elev. — Inv. elev. PRL Property line
INV. EL. 675.5
CB Catch basin (Rim elevation) CB 680.0 Centerline (as of a street)
Curb inlet (Inlet elevation) 680.0 New building
Drainage inlet — Inlet elevation DR 680.0 Existing building to remain
Existing building to be removed

Power and/or telephone pole T P
FIGURE 1-1 Site plan symbols.
to measure distances requires determining the length

Table 1-1 represented by each mark on the ruler. If the ruler
Conversions of tenths of a foot to inches. is divided into 12 inches and each inch is divided
Tenths Decimal Fractional into 16 parts, each 1/16 inch mark would represent a
distance of 3.125 feet or 31/8 feet (50'/16).
0.1 ft 1.2 in. 13⁄16 in.
A device called a scale is generally used to make
0.2 ft 2.4 in. 23⁄8 in.
measurements of building plans. Scales physically
0.3 ft 3.6 in. 35⁄8 in.
look like a ruler, but are marked differently. There
0.4 ft 4.8 in. 413⁄16 in.
are two basic types of scales: architect and engineer.
0.5 ft 6 in. 6 in.
Architect scales use common fractions to determine
0.6 ft 7.2 in. 7 ⁄16 in.
3
lengths. House plans are generally drawn to a scale
0.7 ft 8.4 in. 83⁄8 in.
of 1/4" = 1', or 1/8" = 1'. This is the same as saying that
0.8 ft 9.6 in. 95⁄8 in.
the scale is 1" = 4', but commercial and industrial
0.9 ft 10.8 in. 10 ⁄16 in.
13
buildings are generally too large to be drawn to this
scale. If a building is 500 feet in length it would
require a minimum of 125 inches to draw the build-
be used to determine distances by measurement. ing at a scale of 1" = 4'. For this reason, plans for
Electrical contractors must sometimes use building commercial and industrial building are draw to a
plans to estimate the cost of materials such as con- much larger scale. An engineer scale would be used
duit, wire, and fittings in order to bid on a job. To esti- when working with a plan of this type. The engineer
mate lengths with a common ruler can be extremely scale contains scales that work with factors of 10,
difficult and inaccurate. The composite site plan such as 1" = 10', 1" = 30', and up to 1" = 60'. Scales
shown on page Z1 of the plans provided in the text are generally triangular shaped to permit six differ-
indicates a scale of 1" = 50'. Using a c ommon ruler ent scales on one measuring device, Figure 1-2.
1" = 10'
1" = 50'
1" = 20'
1" = 40'
1" = 30'
1" = 60'
FIGURE 1-2 Scales are triangular shaped to permit them to provide six different scale values.
Reading the Scale Above the 0 is a smaller number 12, and above
the 1 is a smaller number 11, and above the 2 is a
Reading a scale may seem difficult until you smaller number 10. These smaller numbers permit
understand a few basic principles. A portion of the the scale to be read from the opposite end. Like the
1" = 10' scale is shown in Figure 1-3. The scale is larger numbers, mentally add a zero to each. This
divided into 12 one-inch segments like a common scale represents a scale of 1" = 10'. Since it contains
ruler, but there are 10 marks between each of the a total of 12 inches, it can measure a total length of
1 inch divisions. To better understand how to use this 120 feet.
scale, mentally add a zero after the numbers shown. Because the composite site plan is drawn to
The number 1 becomes 10 and the number 2 becomes a scale of 1" = 50', the 1" = 50' scale will be dis-
20. Since this scale is designed to represent a scale of cussed next. Like the previous example, to better
1" = 10', the first inch mark would represent 10 feet. understand how to use this scale, mentally add a
There are 10 hash marks between 0 and 1. Each hash zero after each number. The 2 becomes 20 and the
mark, therefore, represents a distance of 1 foot. A 4 becomes 40. At a length of 1 linear inch the scale
larger hash mark midway between the inch marks is represents a distance of 50 feet, Figure 1-4. The
added for convenience. There are also 10 hash marks scale is divided by larger and smaller hash marks.
between the 1 and 2. Adding a mental zero after the 2 The space between each of the larger hash marks
would indicate that it represents a distance of 20 feet. represents a distance of 10 feet. There are 10 smaller
The first hash mark after the 1-inch mark or 10 feet hash marks between each of the larger. Each of the
mark would indicate a distance of 11 feet. small hash marks represents a distance of 1 foot.
1" 1"
11'
5' 10' 20'
1'
FIGURE 1-3 The 1" = 10' scale.
1"
40'
30'
20' 50'
10'
Figure 1-4 The 1" = 50' scale.
The smaller numbers show above the larger numbers Testing the Site for Grounding
permits the scale to be read from the opposite end. Requirements
The number above the 0 is 60. By mentally adding a
zero, 60 becomes 600. This scale can measure a total When determining the site for a building, one of the
distance of 600 feet. most important considerations is the system ground.
Proper grounding helps protect against transient cur-
rents, electrical noise, and lightning strikes. Several
methods can be used to test the electrical grounding sys-
Sitework
tem. The effectiveness of the grounding system greatly
There may be requirements for several different depends on the resistivity of the earth at the location of
types of electrical systems to be installed on the site the system ground. The resistivity of the earth varies
apart from the building itself. The electrician should greatly throughout the world and even within small
review the plans and specifications carefully to be areas. Many factors affect the earth’s resistivity such
aware of all requirements. It is then the responsibil- as soil type (clay, shell, sand, etc.), moisture content,
ity of the electrical contractor/electrician to ensure electrolyte content (acids, salts, etc.), and temperature.
that these requirements are met and that installations In theory, the system ground is considered to
are made at the most advantageous time and in a have a resistance of zero because it is connected to
fashion that will not conflict with sitework being system grounds everywhere, via the neutral con-
carried out by other trades. ductor, Figure 1-5. In actual practice, however, the
Neutral conductors
Service panel
Neutral bus
Grounding rod
FIGURE 1-5 All neutral conductors are bonded together, forming a continuous grounding system.
c urrent carrying capacity of the grounding system

can vary greatly from one area to another.
Testing
There are different methods for determining the
resistivity of the grounding system. An old method
used by electricians for many years is to connect a
100-watt lamp between the ungrounded (hot) con-
ductor and the grounding conductor, Figure 1-6. To
perform this test, the grounding conductor must be
disconnected from the neutral bus in the panel. The
brightness of the lamp gives an indication of the
effectiveness of the grounding system. Although this
test indicates whether the grounding system works, it
does not indicate the actual resistance of the system.
To measure the actual resistance of the grounding
Courtesy of AEMC® Instruments

system requires the use of special equipment such as
a ground resistance tester, Figure 1-7. There are three
main tests used to measure ground resistance: the
Wenner four-point test, the three-point fall-of-poten-
tial test, and the clamp-on ground resistance test.
FIGURE 1-7 Ground resistance tester.
The Wenner Four-Point Method
The Wenner four-point test is generally performed
before building construction begins. This method measures the ground resistance over a wide area. The
results are used in designing the grounding system to
ensure that it performs properly. This test requires the
use of a 4-pole ground resistance meter, four metal
rods, and conductors. The four rods are driven into
the ground in a straight line, with equal space between
each rod, Figure 1-8. To perform this test, the ground
resistance tester produces a known amount of current
Circuit breaker
between rods C1 and C2, producing a voltage drop
across rods P1 and P2. The amount of voltage drop
is proportional to the amount of current and ground
resistance. Readings are generally taken with probes
C1 and C2 spaced 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 40, 60, 80, and
100-watt lamp 100 feet apart. If possible, it is recommended to per-
form the test with the probes spaced 150 feet apart.
Grounding conductor The calculated soil resistance is the average of the
soil resistance from the surface to a depth equal to the
Grounding rod
space between the probes. If the probes are set 30 feet
apart, for example, each probe will provide an average
resistance measurement from the surface to a depth
of 30 feet. The tests should not only be made with the
FIGURE 1-6 A 100-watt lamp is used to test the
probes spaced different distances apart but also with
grounding system. the probes in different directions from a central point.
If the site is large enough, it is generally recommended
Ground resistance meter
C1 P1 P2 C2
Voltage drop
Current flow
FIGURE 1-8 The Wenner four-point test.
to perform the test along at least two sides, generally 3. a voltage probe that is inserted at various dis-
from one corner to the other. It should be noted that tances between the grounding rod and the cur-
underground structures such as metal water pipes rent probe (C). The voltage probe is placed in
can influence the readings. The best results will be a straight line between the grounding rod and
obtained by gathering as much data as possible. the current probe.
Ideally, the current probe (B) should be placed at

Three-Point Fall-of-Potential Test a distance that is at least 10 times the length of the
The fall-of-potential test requires the use of a grounding rod (A), Figure 1-9. If the grounding
ground resistance meter. It is performed after the rod is 8 feet in length, the current probe should be
installation of the grounding system and should be placed at least 80 feet from the grounding rod.
done annually to ensure the quality of the grounding To perform this test, the grounding rod must be dis-
system. Annual testing provides protection against connected (electrically isolated) from the neutral bus
the degradation of the system before damage to in the service panel. Failure to do so will completely
equipment and performance problems occur. invalidate the test. The meter provides a known amount
In the three-point fall-of-potential test, the three of current that flows from the current probe and back
points of ground contact are to the meter through the system grounding rod. The
resistance of the earth causes a voltage drop that is
1. the system ground (grounding rod) (point A); measured between the current probe and the voltage
2. a current probe placed some distance from the probe. The amount of voltage drop is proportional to
grounding rod (point B); and the amount of current flow and the ground resistance.
System grounding Voltage Current

rod (A) probe (C) probe (B)
FIGURE 1-9 The three-point fall-of-potential test.
Resistance readings should be taken at several loca- 3. The neutral conductor supplied by the utility
tions by moving the voltage probe a distance equal to company ties innumerable grounds together in
10% of the distance between the system grounding parallel. The clamp-on ground tester measures
rod and the current probe. If performed properly, the the effective resistance of the entire grounding
three-point ground resistance test is the most accurate system.
method of determining ground resistance. 4. Because this test is performed by a clamp-on
meter, there are no connections that have to
be broken or reconnected, resulting in a safer
The Clamp-On Ground
procedure, Figure 1-10.
Resistance Test
The clamp-on ground resistance tester, Figure 1-11,
The clamp-on ground resistance test requires the contains two transformers. One transformer induces
use of a special clamp-on ground resistance meter. a small fixed voltage at approximately 2 kHz on the
This test has several advantages over the three-point grounding conductor. If a path exists, the voltage will
fall-of-potential test. result in a current flow. The path is provided by the
grounding system under test, the utility neutral, and
1. The service grounding system does not have to the utility grounding system. The second transformer
be disconnected and isolated from the neutral inside the meter senses the amount of current at the
bus. unique frequency provided by the first transformer.
2. There are no probes that have to be driven into The amount of current is proportional to the induced
the ground or long connecting conductors. voltage and the resistance of the grounding system. The
Utility neutral
conductor
Neutral bus
Grounding electrode conductor
Courtesy of AEMC® Instruments

Clamp-on
ground tester
Grounding rod
FIGURE 1-11 Ground resistance tester.
FIGURE 1-10 The clamp-on ground resistance

personnel from injury. Grounding is generally thought
test.
of as connecting a system to earth via a grounding
electrode, as shown in Figure 1-10. In reality, ground-
ing is connecting a circuit to a common point of refer-
meter uses the two known electrical quantities to calcu- ence. Almost all grounded systems are connected to
late the resistance of the grounding system. earth, which is a common point of reference, but the
The information gathered from these tests is earth generally does not provide the low-impedance
used to help determine the best grounding method path necessary to protect against ground-fault cur-
for the electrical installation. In some cases it rents. NEC 250.4(A)(5) states, The earth shall not be
may be necessary to employ multiple ground rods considered an effective ground-fault current path.*
connected together, Figure 1-12, or other types of Grounding not only provides a low-impedance
grounding electrodes as discussed in NEC 250.50, path for fault currents, but it also provides a common
250.52, and 250.53. point of reference for different electrical systems
and voltages, Figure 1-13. A low-impedance path
exists from the alternator supplying power to the last
Grounding and Bonding Considerations
device connected to the circuit. The alternator has
Many technicians and electricians pay little atten- an output of 13.8 kV, which is stepped up to 138 kV
tion to grounding and know only the basic require- for transmission. The voltage is stepped back down
ments specified by the National Electrical Code. to 13.8 kV at a unit substation. The plant substa-
However, grounding is one of the most important tion steps the voltage down to 480 volts to feed the
parts of any electrical installation. Proper grounding
protects circuits and equipment from destruction and *Source: NFPA 70-2017
plant bus system. Other 3-phase and single-phase

transformers are powered by the plant bus. A battery
backup system is used by an uninterruptable power
supply. All of these different power systems and
Utility neutral
conductor voltages are connected together via grounding con-
ductors. Grounding is also used to protect against
lightning, static electricity, and the influence of
Neutral bus high frequency. It should be noted, however, that
the grounding requirements listed in the National
Electrical Code are intended for direct current and
60-hertz AC systems. These requirements may not
provide an effective ground for high frequency.
Alternating current systems are subject to skin
Grounding electrode conductor effect, which is the tendency of electrons to move
toward the surface of a conductor, Figure 1-14.
The higher the frequency, the greater the skin
effect. At a frequency of 10 MHz, a 6 AWG cop-
per conductor may exhibit a resistance of several
thousand ohms. High-frequency circuits must be
Grounding rod
grounded with a conductor that contains a large sur-
face area, such as braided cable or wide copper tape.
Safety
Besides providing a common point of connection
FIGURE 1-12 It is sometimes necessary to for different systems and voltages, grounding plays
connect multiple grounding electrodes together. a large part in the safety of equipment and personal.
138 kV 13.8 kV
Alternator (Transmission Line) (Plant Service Entrance)
13.8 kV
480 V
(Plant Substation)
(Plant Bus System)
Battery
240/120 V 1 Phase Battery Back-up

208/120 V 3 Phase
FIGURE 1-13 A low-impedance ground is connected throughout the system.
30 A 16.5 A
16.5 A
13.85 A
FIGURE 1-16 One-stator windings develop a short

to the case of the motor.
The phase current will be 13.85 A (277/20).

Because the stator windings are connected in wye,
the line current will be the same as the phase cur-
rent. Now assume that one of the phase windings
develops a shorted winding to ground. If only part of
the winding is shorted, the motor may still operate
FIGURE 1-14 Alternating current causes electrons with an increase of current on two of the lines, and
to move toward the surface of the conductor. This the current may not be sufficient to cause the circuit
action is called skin effect.
breaker to open, Figure 1-16.
If the case of the motor is not grounded, there is
no complete circuit for current flow, which causes
When the grounding system is properly installed the case of the motor to exhibit a voltage of approxi-
and maintained, it provides a low-impedance path to mately 277 volts to ground. Anyone touching the
ground. A common saying among people in the elec- motor is in danger of electrocution. The resistance of
trical trades is that current follows the path of least the human body can vary from as low as 500 ohms
resistance. There is some truth to that idea, but it is to as high as 600,000 ohms. Assume that a person
not the whole truth. Current will behave in the man- touching the motor has a resistance of 1000 ohms
ner dictated by Ohm’s law. Assume that a 3-phase, to ground. That would produce a current flow of
480-volt motor is protected by a 30-ampere circuit approximately 277 mA, which is about three times
breaker. Also assume that the stator windings have the amount necessary to cause death.
an impedance of 20 ohms. If the stator windings are If the motor is properly grounded, Figure 1-17,
connected in wye, Figure 1-15, each winding will the grounding conductor will provide a very low-
have an applied voltage of 277 volts (480/1.732). impedance path to ground. The low-impedance
30 A 16.5 A
30 A 13.85 A
16.5 A
13.85 A
13.85 A
13.85 A
Grounding conductor
FIGURE 1-15 A 3-phase motor is connected to FIGURE 1-17 A grounding conductor provides a
480 volts. low-impedance path to ground.
grounding conductor forces the motor case to exist at are lengths of wire used to connect the equipment
ground potential, and the shock hazard is eliminated. to the grounding system. Some examples of where
Also, the current path to ground will very likely bonding jumpers are required are around impaired
cause enough current flow for the circuit breaker to connections such as reducing washers or oversized,
open. It should be noted that grounding conductors concentric, or eccentric knockouts. Metallic boxes,
should be installed in the same conduit as circuit con- raceways, cable trays, cable sheath, armored cable,
ductors; otherwise, the impedance of the grounding metal water pipes, and exposed parts of metal build-
conductor may increase due to inductance. ings are also required to be bonded, Figure 1-18.
Bonding
Interpreting the Site Plan
Bonding is used to connect the metal parts
of equipment or building structure to the ground- Notations that do not normally appear on a site plan
ing system. The NEC states that Bonding shall have been added to plan Z1 of the plans located in
be provided where necessary to ensure electrical the back of the text. These notations are aids used to
continuity and the capacity to conduct safely any locate specific spots on the plan. The notations are
fault current likely to be imposed.* Article 250 of identified by an asterisk followed by a number such
the NEC lists the requirements and specifications as *1, *2, and so on.
for the bonding of equipment. Bonding jumpers Refer to the Composite Site Plan. Note the
benchmark located in the southeast quadrant of the
*Source: NFPA 70-2017 plan. This is the point at which the surveyor began
Utility neutral
conductor
Bonding jumper
Neutral bus
Bonding jumper
Grounding electrode conductor Bonding jumper
Metal water pipe Grounding clamp
Grounding rod
FIGURE 1-18 Bond jumpers are used to connect electrical parts to ground.
measuring the elevations seen on the plan. Notice until the cables are pulled in. The telephone company
that some of the elevation lines have crossing hash later removes this cap and extends the conduit up the
marks. The hash marks indicate that that section of pole to the point of connection. The conduit is then
the elevation is to be changed. Locate the contour sealed with a special telephone fitting or with a com-
lines for 748 and 749. Parts of these lines have pound known as gunk. A long sweep conduit elbow
crossing hash marks and parts do not. Only the sec- or quarter bend is installed at the base of the pole. At
tions denoted with hash marks are to be changed. the lowest point of this fitting, a small V-groove is
The new elevations are shown with dark heavy cut or a 3⁄8 in. (9.5 mm) hole is drilled for moisture
lines. These dark heavy lines are shown to connect drainage. This drainage hole is known as a weep
at some point with the existing contour lines. The hole. A small dry well is then constructed below the
elevation of the connecting contour line indicates weep hole and is filled with rocks. A pull wire (fish
what the new elevation is intended to be. At position wire) is installed in the raceway from the pole to the
*1, located in the upper southwest quadrant, a heavy junction box at the point where it enters the building.
dark line connects with the 749 elevation line. The In general, 12-gauge galvanized wire is used as the
area indicated by the new contour line is to be 749. fish wire, but a nylon string will do as well.
Locate the new contour line connecting with the 749
contour line at *2. Trace this line to the point where it Direct Burial Wiring
intersects with the layout of the building. Notice that
the entire building is positioned in an area marked by The electrician may have a choice of several
these two new contour lines. This indicates that the methods of installing underground wiring. The selec-
building site is to be changed to a uniform 749 ft in tion of the method to be used depends on the type of
preparation for pouring the concrete slab. materials available and whether provisions are to be
The site plan indicates that the industrial building made for replacing the conductors. If direct burial
has an elevation of 751.5 ft. This is the elevation of cable is used, Figure 1-20, care must be taken to pro-
the poured concrete slab. The difference in elevation tect the cable from damage. For example, the cable
between the finished slab height and finished ground can be installed in the ground to a greater depth than
elevation is the thickness of the concrete slab. In this that at which normal digging takes place. Added pro-
example the concrete slab will be poured to a thick- tection is obtained by placing a treated board over the
ness of 30 in. cable to provide a shield against digging and probing
New spot elevations are used to indicate an near the cable. The cable should also be surrounded
elevation different from that marked by the plot by a layer of sand to prevent any abrasion of the
plan. For example, locate the new contour line at *3. cable by sharp stones and other objects in the soil.
This new contour line connects to the 747 contour
line. Now locate the new spot elevation at position Underground Raceways
*4. The arrow points to the curb inlet drain. The curb
inlet drain is located in an area that is indicated to be Although underground raceways are more
747 ft. The new spot elevation, however, shows that expensive to install, they provide many advantages
the curb inlet drain is to be 0.3 ft (90 mm) lower than that direct burial installations do not, such as permit-
the surrounding area. ting the removal of the original conductors and/or the
installation of new conductors with higher current or
voltage ratings. Underground raceways are available
Telephone Service in a number of different materials, including rigid
Telephone service is provided by conduit that metal conduit and rigid nonmetallic conduit.
runs from the telephone pole. The conduit runs Rigid metal conduit can be installed directly
underground at a minimum depth of 18 in. (450 mm) in the soil if (300.5 and 300.6 of the National
and then is run up the telephone pole for a distance of Electrical Code [NEC]):
8 ft (2.5 m), Figure 1-19. A temporary standard pole • ferrous conduits (iron or steel) do not rely
cap is installed to protect the equipment from water solely on enamel for corrosion protection;
A Treated pole
B
B Pole cap
C
C Fish wire
D Trade size 2 rigid metal conduit, intermediate metal conduit,

or schedule 80 pvc [NEC 300.5(D)(4)]
Minimum 8 ft (2.5 m)
E Long sweep ell
above finished grade
A
[NEC 300.5(D)(1)]
F Dry well
G Underground raceway
D
H Grade
H E
Minimum 18-in. (450-mm) cover (NEC Table 300.5)

Minimum of 1/6 of
total pole length
G F
FIGURE 1-19 Telephone service installation.
• the conduit is made of a material judged suit- large or sharply angular substances, or corrosive
able for the condition; and material.
• the conduit is not placed in an excavation that Special precautions should be taken when using
contains large rocks, paving materials, cinders, nonferrous conduit (aluminum) to prevent the c onduit
Finished grade
Fill dirt
24-in. (600-mm)
minimum
Treated running board

6 in. (150 mm) of sand
Cable approved for

direct burial
FIGURE 1-20 An installation of direct burial cable.
from contacting sodium chloride (salt) mixtures. conduit must be encased in not less than 2 in.
Concrete mixes often use such mixtures to lower (50 mm) of concrete.
the freezing temperature of the green concrete. The NEC Article 344 gives the installation require-
chemical reaction between the aluminum and the salt ments for rigid metal conduit and NEC Article 352
may cause the concrete to fracture or spall (chip or covers rigid polyvinyl chloride conduit type PVC.
fragment). When protection is desired or required for The minimum requirements for the installation
the type of raceway used, concrete is poured around of conduit and cables underground are given in NEC
the conduit, as shown in Figure 1-21, with at least Table 300.5. The general installation requirements
2 in. (50 mm) of cover in compliance with NEC Table are as follows.
300.5. For direct burial cables:
The use of rigid polyvinyl chloride conduit type • the minimum burial depth is 24 in. (600 mm);
PVC is covered in NEC Article 352. These conduits
may be used: • where necessary, additional protection is to
be provided, such as sand, running boards, or
• concealed in walls, floors, and ceilings; sleeves;
• under cinder fill; • a residential exception permits cable burial to a
• in locations subject to severe corrosive conditions; depth of only 12 in. (300 mm) with GFCI pro-
• in dry and damp locations; tection; NEC Table 300.5, column 4.
• exposed where not subject to physical damage; For rigid polyvinyl chloride conduit type PVC:
and • the minimum burial depth is 18 in. (450 mm);
• underground. • a 12 in. (300 mm) burial depth is permitted if a
If the electrical system to be installed operates 2 in. (50 mm) concrete cover is provided over
at a potential higher than 600 volts, the nonmetallic conduit;
Fill
6 in. (150 mm) minimum for rigid

metal conduit (RMC)
Earth 18 in. (450 mm) minimum for
other raceways
12 in. (300 mm) with concrete
encasement
2 in.
(50 mm)
minimum
Concrete encasements are

required for certain
types of raceways Plastic support permits concrete
to flow under and around raceway
FIGURE 1-21 Concrete encasement of raceways.
• a 24 in. (600 mm) burial depth is required in ber and size of raceways and conductors that are to
areas subjected to heavy vehicular traffic. be installed. The drain is an important part of the
For rigid conduit: installation because it removes moisture and allows
the manhole to remain relatively dry. If a storm sewer
• the minimum burial depth is 6 in. (150 mm);
is not available for drainage, the installation of a dry
• a 24 in. (600 mm) burial depth is required in well is an alternate choice.
areas subjected to heavy vehicular traffic.
Lighting Standards
Manholes
Most types of area lighting standards require
Underground raceways terminate in underground the installation of a concrete base, Figure 1-23. The
manholes similar to the one shown in Figure 1-22. manufacturer of the lighting standard should provide
These manholes vary in size depending on the num- a template for the placement of the anchor bolts. If
Manhole rim Manhole cover Grade elevation
Manhole
head
Backfill
SEE NEC ARTICLE 110 PART V
Cable rack
May be concrete
or brick
Invert elevation
Pulling ring
Trap Conduit
Drain
FIGURE 1-22 Typical manhole.
Grounding conductor
5/8 in. threaded anchor bolt
Grade
1 ft (305 mm) minimum
Trade size 2
rigid metal
conduit
3 ft (914 mm)
minimum
Bushing
5/8 in. x 8 ft copper

weld grounding rod
FIGURE 1-23 Typical concrete base for area lighting standard.
the manufacturer fails to provide a template for the and metric dimensions in their catalogs. Plans and
placement of anchor bolts, the electrician should specifications for governmental new construction
supply the general contractor with the template. and renovation projects have been using SI metric
The conduit installed in the base should be supplied measurements since January 1, 1994. You may not
with bushings on the ends to protect the cables. It feel comfortable with the metric system, but metric
is important that proper grounding be achieved at measurements are here to stay. You might just as
each lighting standard. A grounding conductor shall well get familiar with the metric system.
be installed with the supply conductors as the earth Some common measurements of length in the
cannot be the sole grounding path; see 250.54. This English system are shown with their SI metric equiv-
section also permits the installation of supplemen- alents in Table 1-2.
tary grounding electrodes as shown in Figure 1-23. The NEC and other National Fire Protection
It is mandatory that all conductive parts, includ- Association (NFPA) Standards are becoming inter-
ing the grounding electrode, base, bolts, and con- national standards. All measurements in the 2014
duits, be bonded together to achieve comprehensive NEC are shown with SI metric values first, followed
grounding. See 250.2, 250.134, and 250.54. by the inch-pound or English value in parenthe-
ses—for example, 600 mm (24 in.). The NEC often
refers to English units of measure as inch-pound
Metrics (SI) and the NEC because they are standard units of measurement in
the English system.
The United States is the last major country in the In Electrical Wiring—Industrial, ease in
world not using the metric system as the primary understanding is of utmost importance. Therefore,
system. We have been very comfortable using English values are shown first, followed by SI
English or U.S. customary values, but this is chang- metric values in parentheses—for example, 24 in.
ing. Manufacturers are now showing both English (600 mm).
A hard metric measurement is where a product

Table 1-2 has been redesigned to standard SI metric dimen-
English and metric comparisons. sions. No conversion from English measurement
English Units NEC SI Units SI Units units is involved. A hard conversion is where an
existing product is redesigned into a new size.
0.25 in. 6 mm 6.3500 mm
In the 2014 edition of the NEC, existing English
0.5 in. 12.7 mm 12.7000 mm
dimensions did not change. SI metric conversions were
0.62 in. 15.87 mm 15.8750 mm
made, then rounded off. Please note that when com-
1.0 in. 25 mm 25.4000 mm
paring calculations made by both English and metric
1.25 in. 32 mm 31.7500 mm
systems, slight differences will occur as a result of the
2 in. 50 mm 50.8000 mm
rounding off of values. These differences are not sig-
3 in. 75 mm 76.2000 mm
nificant, and calculations for both systems are therefore
4 in. 100 mm 101.6000 mm
valid. Where rounding off would create a safety hazard,
6 in. 150 mm 152.4000 mm
the metric conversions are mathematically identical.
8 in. 200 mm 203.2000 mm
For example, if a dimension is required to be
9 in. 225 mm 228.6000 mm
6 ft, it is shown in the NEC as 1.8 m (6 ft). Note
1 ft 300 mm 304.8000 mm
that the 6 ft remains the same, and the metric value
1.5 ft 450 mm 457.2000 mm
of 1.83 m has been rounded off to 1.8 m. This edi-
2 ft 600 mm 609.6000 mm
tion of Electrical Wiring—Industrial reflects these
2.5 ft 750 mm 762.0000 mm
rounded-off changes. In this text, the English mea-
3 ft 900 mm 914.4000 mm
surement is shown first—for example, 6 ft (1.8 m).
4 ft 1.2 m 1.2192 m
5 ft 1.5 m 1.5240 m
6 ft 1.8 m 1.8288 m Trade Sizes
6.5 ft 2.0 m 1.9182 m
Trade sizes of raceways or conduit refer to the
8 ft 2.5 m 2.4384 m
inside diameter of the conduit. A section of ½-in.
9 ft 2.7 m 2.7432 m
conduit, for example, would have an inside diameter
10 ft 3.0 m 3.0480 m
of ½ in. It is interesting to note that these measure-
12 ft 3.7 m 3.6576 m
ments are not correct.
15 ft 4.5 m 4.5720 m
Raceway sizes have always been an approxima-
18 ft 5.5 m 5.4864 m
tion. For example, there has never been a 1⁄2 in. race-
20 ft 6.0 m 6.0960 m
way! Measurements taken from the NEC for a few
22 ft 6.7 m 6.7056 m
types of raceways are shown in Table 1-3.
25 ft 7.5 m 7.6200 m
30 ft 9.0 m 9.1440 m
35 ft 11.0 m 10.6680 m
Table 1-3
40 ft 12.0 m 12.1920 m
50 ft 15.0 m 15.2400 m Trade size of raceways vs. actual inside
75 ft 23.0 m 22.8600 m
diameter.
100 ft 30.0 m 30.4800 m Inside Diameter
Trade Size (I.D.)
1
⁄2 Electrical Metal Tubing 0.622 in.
1
⁄2 Electrical Nonmetallic Tubing 0.560 in.
A soft metric conversion is when the dimensions 1
⁄2 Flexible Metal Conduit 0.635 in.
of a product already designed and manufactured to 1
⁄2 Rigid Metal Conduit 0.632 in.
the English system have their dimensions converted 1
⁄2 Intermediate Metal Conduit 0.660 in.
to SI metric dimensions. The product does not
change in size.
Table 1-4 Table 1-5

This table shows the metric designator for This table compares the trade size of a knockout
raceways through trade size 3. with the actual measurement of the knockout.
METRIC DESIGNATOR AND TRADE SIZE Trade Size Knockout Actual Measurement
Metric Designator Trade Size 1

⁄2 7
⁄8 in.
3
⁄4 13⁄32 in.
12 3
⁄8
1 13⁄8 in.
16 1
⁄2
21 3
⁄4
27 1
35 11⁄4 Conduit knockouts in boxes do not measure up
41 11⁄2 to what we call them. Table 1-5 shows trade size
53 2 knockouts and their actual measurements.
63 21⁄2 Outlet boxes and device boxes use their nomi-
78 3 nal measurement as their trade size. For example, a
4 in. 4 in. 11⁄2 in. does not have an internal cubic-
inch area of 4 in. 4 in. 11⁄2 in. 5 24 cubic inches.
Table 314.16(A) shows this size box as having an
You can readily see that the cross-sectional area of 21 in.3 This table shows trade sizes in two
areas, critical when determining conductor fill, are columns—millimeters and inches.
different. It makes sense to refer to conduit, race- Table 1-6 provides the detailed dimensions of
way, and tubing sizes as trade sizes. The NEC in some typical sizes of outlet and device boxes in both
90.9(C)(1) states that where the actual measured metric and English units.
size of a product is not the same as the nominal In practice, a square outlet box is referred to as
size, trade size designators shall be used rather than 4 3 4 3 11⁄2-inch square box, 40 3 40 3 11⁄20 square
dimensions. Trade practices shall be followed in all box, or trade size 4 3 4 3 11⁄2 square box. Similarly,
cases.* This edition of Electrical Wiring—Industrial a single-gang device box might be referred to as a
uses the term trade size when referring to conduits, 3 3 2 3 3-inch device box, a 30 3 20 3 30-deep
raceways, and tubing. For example, instead of 1⁄2 in. device box, or a trade size 3 3 2 3 3 device box. The
electrical metal tubing (EMT), it is referred to as box type should always follow the trade size numbers.
trade size 1⁄2 EMT. Trade sizes for construction material will not
The NEC also uses the term metric designa- change. A 2 3 4 is really a name, not an actual
tor. A 1⁄2 in. EMT is shown as metric designator dimension. A 2 3 4 stud will still be referred to as a
16 (1⁄2). A 1 in. EMT is shown as metric designa- 2 3 4 stud. This is its trade size.
tor 27 (1). The numbers 16 and 27 are the metric In this text, measurements directly related to the
designator values. The (1⁄2) and (1) are the trade NEC are given in both inch-pound and metric units.
sizes. The metric designator is the raceways’ In many instances, only the inch-pound units are
inside diameter—in rounded-off millimeters shown. This is particularly true for the examples of
(mm). Table 1-4 shows some of the more common raceway calculations, box fill calculations, and load
sizes of conduit, raceways, and tubing. A com- calculations for square foot areas, and on the plans
plete table is found in the NEC, Table 300.1(C). (drawings). To show both English and metric mea-
Because of possible confusion, this text uses only surements on a plan would certainly be confusing
the term trade size when referring to conduit and and would really clutter up the plans, making them
raceway sizes. difficult to read.
Because the NEC rounded off most SI metric
conversion values, a calculation using SI metric
*Source: NFPA 70-2017 units results in a different answer when compared
NEC® Table 1-6

Table 314.16(A) Metal Boxes
Minimum Maximum Number of Conductors*
Box Trade Size Volume (arranged by AWG size)
mm in. cm3 in.3 18 16 14 12 10 8 6
100 3 32 (4 3 1¼) round/octagonal 205 12.5 8 7 6 5 5 5 2

100 3 38 (4 3 1½) round/octagonal 254 15.5 10 8 7 6 6 5 3
100 3 54 (4 3 21∕8) round/octagonal 353 21.5 14 12 10 9 8 7 4
100 3 32 (4 3 1¼) square 295 18.0 12 10 9 8 7 6 3
100 3 38 (4 3 1½) square 344 21.0 14 12 10 9 8 7 4
100 3 54 (4 3 21∕8) square 497 30.3 20 17 15 13 12 10 6
120 3 32 (411∕16 3 1¼) square 418 25.5 17 14 12 11 10 8 5
120 3 38 (4 ∕16 3 1½)
11 square 484 29.5 19 16 14 13 11 9 5
120 3 54 (411∕16 3 21∕8) square 689 42.0 28 24 21 18 16 14 8
75 3 50 3 38 (3 3 2 3 1½) device 123 7.5 5 4 3 3 3 2 1
75 3 50 3 50 (3 3 2 3 2) device 164 10.0 6 5 5 4 4 3 2
75 3 50 3 57 (3 3 2 3 2¼) device 172 10.5 7 6 5 4 4 3 2
75 3 50 3 65 (3 3 2 3 2½) device 205 12.5 8 7 6 5 5 4 2
75 3 50 3 70 (3 3 2 3 2¾) device 230 14.0 9 8 7 6 5 4 2
75 3 50 3 90 (3 3 2 3 3½) device 295 18.0 12 10 9 8 7 6 3
100 3 54 3 38 (4 3 2 ∕8 3 1½)
1 device 169 10.3 6 5 5 4 4 3 2
100 3 54 3 48 (4 3 21∕8 3 17∕8) device 213 13.0 8 7 6 5 5 4 2
100 3 54 3 54 (4 3 2 ∕8 3 2 ∕8)
1 1 device 238 14.5 9 8 7 6 5 4 2
95 3 50 3 65 (3¾ 3 2 3 2½) masonry box/gang 230 14.0 9 8 7 6 5 4 2
95 3 50 3 90 (3¾ 3 2 3 3½) masonry box/gang 344 21.0 14 12 10 9 8 7 4
min. 44.5 depth FS — single cover/gang (1¾) 221 13.5 9 7 6 6 5 4 2
min. 60.3 depth FD — single cover/gang (23∕8) 295 18.0 12 10 9 8 7 6 3
min. 44.5 depth FS — multiple cover/gang (1¾) 295 18.0 12 10 9 8 7 6 3
min. 60.3 depth FD — multiple cover/gang (23∕8) 395 24.0 16 13 12 10 9 8 4
*
Where no volume allowances are required by 314.16(B)(2) through (B)(5).
Reprinted with permission from NFPA 70®, National Electrical Code®, Copyright © 2016, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy,
MA. This reprinted material is not the complete and official position of the NFPA on the referenced subject, which is represented only by the
standard in its entirety.
with the same calculation done using English units The difference is small, but nevertheless, there is a
of measure. For example, load calculations for a difference.
residence are based on 3 volt-amperes per square To show calculations in both units throughout
foot or 33 volt-amperes per square meter. this text would be very difficult to understand and
For a 40 ft 3 50 ft dwelling: would take up too much space. Calculations in
either SI metric units or English units are in compli-
3 VA 40 ft 50 ft 6000 volt-amperes ance with 90.9(D). NEC 90.9(C)(3) states that where
industrial practice is to express units in inch-pound
In SI metric units of measure, using the rounded- units, the inclusion of SI units shall not be required.
off values in the NEC: It is interesting to note that the examples in
Chapter 9 of the NEC use inch-pound units, not
33 VA 12 m 15 m 5940 volt-amperes metrics.
Guide to Metric Usage to the unit, such as kilo-, forms the new name kilo-
watt, meaning 1000 watts. Refer to Table 1-7 for
The metric system is a base-10 or decimal prefixes used in the numerical systems.
system in that values can be easily multiplied or Certain prefixes shown in Table 1-7 have a pref-
divided by 10 or powers of 10. The metric system erence in usage. These prefixes are mega-, kilo-, the
as we know it today is known as the International unit itself, centi-, milli-, micro-, and nano-. Consider
System of Units (SI) derived from the French term le that the basic metric unit is a meter (one). Therefore,
Système International d’Unités. a kilometer is 1000 meters, a centimeter is 0.01
In the United States, it is the practice to use meter, and a millimeter is 0.001 meter.
a period as the decimal marker and a comma to The advantage of the SI metric system is that
separate a string of numbers into groups of three recognizing the meaning of the proper prefix lessens
for easier reading. In many countries, the comma the possibility of confusion.
has been used in lieu of the decimal marker, and In this text, when writing numbers, the names
spaces are left to separate a string of numbers into are often spelled in full, but when used in calcula-
groups of three. The SI system, taking something tions, they are abbreviated. For example: m for
from both, uses the period as the decimal marker meter, mm for millimeter, in. for inch, and ft for
and the space to separate a string of numbers into foot. It is interesting to note that the abbreviation
groups of three, starting from the decimal point for inch is followed by a period (12 in.), but the
and counting in either direction. For example, abbreviation for foot is not followed by a period
12345.789 99. An exception to this is when there (6 ft). Why? Because ft. is the abbreviation for
are four numbers on either side of the decimal fort.
point. In this case, the third and fourth numbers
from the decimal point are not separated. For
example, 2015.1415. Summary
In the metric system, the units increase or
decrease in multiples of 10,100,1000, and so on. For As time passes, there is no doubt that metrics will be
instance, one megawatt (1,000,000 watts) is 1000 commonly used in this country. In the meantime, we
times greater than one kilowatt (1000 watts). need to take it slow and easy. The transition will take
By assigning a name to a measurement, such as time. Table 1-8 shows useful conversion factors for
a watt, the name becomes the unit. Adding a prefix converting English units to metric units.
Table 1-7
Numerical system prefixes.
Name Exponential Metric (SI) Script Customary
mega (10 )
6
1 000 000 one million 1,000,000
kilo (10 )
3
1 000 one thousand 1000
hecto (102) 100 one hundred 100
deka 10 ten 10
unit 1 one 1
deci (10 )
−1
0.1 one-tenth 1/10 or 0.1
centi (10−2) 0.01 one-hundredth 1/100 or 0.01
milli (10−3) 0.001 one-thousandth 1/1000 or 0.001
micro (10−6) 0.000 001 one-millionth 1/1,000,000 or 0.000,001
nano (10−9) 0.000 000 001 one-billionth 1/1,000,000,000 or 0.000,000,001
Table 1-8
Useful conversions and their abbreviations
1 inch (in.) 5 0.0254 meter (m) 1 square inch (in.2) 5 6.452 square centimeters (cm2)
1 inch (in.) 5 0.254 decimeters (dm) 1 square centimeter (cm2) 5 0.155 square inch (in.2)
1 inch (in.) 5 2.54 centimeters (cm) 1 square foot (ft2) 5 0.093 square meter (m2)
1 inch (in.) 5 25.4 millimeters (mm) 1 square meter (m2) 5 10.764 square feet (ft2)
1 foot (ft) 5 30.48 centimeters (cm) 1 square yard (yd.2) 5 0.8361 square meter (m2)
1 foot (ft) 5 0.3048 meter (m) 1 square meter (m2) 5 1.196 square yards (yd.2)
1 centimeter (cm) 5 0.3937 inch (in.) 1 kilometer (km) 5 1000 meters (m)
1 millimeter (mm) 5 0.03937 inch (in.) 1 kilometer (km) 5 0.621 mile (mi.)
1 meter (m) 5 3.2802 feet (ft) 1 mile (mi.) 5 1.609 kilometers (km)
Review Questions
All answers should be written in complete sentences, and calculations should be shown in detail.
1. In a set of construction drawings, where would an electrician find information about

the location and placement of a building? ___________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. From information on the Composite Site Plan, where is the lowest area on the site and
what is the elevation? ___________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
3. What device is generally used to measure length on a plot or building plan?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
4. What would be the elevation, at the pole, of the bottom of a trench being dug to install
telephone service using rigid nonmetallic conduit? ____________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
5. Which of the methods for measuring ground resistance is used to measure resistance
over a wide area? _______________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
6. What is the difference, in SI units, between the lowest and the highest contours? _____
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
To answer the following questions, examine the composite site plan, the north and west elevations,
the site plan symbols, and the NEC.
7. What is the elevation of the manhole rim where the benchmark is established? _____
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
8. What is the elevation of the first floor of the industrial building? _________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
9. What is the vertical distance from the manhole rim to the first floor of the industrial
building? (Measure in decimal feet.) _______________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
10. What is the vertical distance from the manhole rim to the first floor of the industrial
building, measured in feet and inches accurate to 1⁄16 inch? ______________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
11. Where is the preferred area for location of the construction trailer? Why did you
choose that area? _______________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
12. It was determined that the rigid nonmetallic conduit for the telephone service could be
installed in a trench with a bottom elevation of 743.65 ft. If the conduit is allowed to
rise a distance of 1 ft, how deep is the trench at the building? ____________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
13. Refer to plan E1 on page 2 of the plans. What is the height of the boiler room floor?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
14. A cable containing two insulated conductors and a bare grounding wire is installed to a
lighting standard mounted on a base similar to the one shown in Figure 1-23. Assume
you are the electrician in charge. What instruction would you give to a first-year
apprentice who will make up the grounding connection? _______________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
15. Why is it necessary to have a good grounding system for the building? ____________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
16. What are the three most common methods of determining ground resistance? _______
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Chapter 2
The Unit Substation
Objectives
After studying this chapter, the student should be able to
• define the functions of the components of a unit
substation.
• select the proper size of high-voltage fuse.
• explain how to set transformer taps.
• describe how a ground detector operates.
• identify the proper metering connections.
• discuss the differences between wye and delta 3-phase
connections.
• calculate line and phase values of voltage and current for
wye and delta 3-phase connections.
• discuss different types of service-entrance connections.
2626
Chapter 2 The Unit Substation 27
Utility companies generally supply 3-phase power

to industrial customers. The requirements of the
industrial location determine the type of service-
entrance connection, voltage, and current capacity.
To understand the difference between single-phase
and 3-phase power, imagine a single-phase winding
and a rotating magnetic field, Figure 2-1.
The rotating magnet produces a single sine
wave. Three-phase power is produced by plac-
ing three different phase windings 120° apart. The Figure 2-3 The wye connection is made by
rotating magnetic field produces three separate sine connecting one end of each phase winding
waves 120° apart, Figure 2-2. together.
There are two major types of 3-phase connec-
tions: the wye, or star, and the delta. The wye con-
nection is made by connecting one end of each phase to the outside circuit. Schematically, the connection
winding together at a central point, Figure 2-3. looks like the letter Y or a three-point star.
In this example, it is assumed that the finish end The delta connection is formed by connecting
of each phase winding is connected together. The the finish end of a winding to the start end of another
start end of each winding is the point of connection winding, Figure 2-4.
If the connection is drawn schematically, it
looks like the Greek letter delta (Δ). Each of these
connections exhibits different characteristics. Three-
Phase winding phase connections have two different values for
voltage and current. One is the line-to-line value,
N
generally called the line value, and the other is the
phase value. In the wye connection, the line volt-
age and line-current values are the values associated
with the connected lines. The phase values of volt-
age and current are the values associated with each
S individual phase winding, Figure 2-5.
Magnet In a wye connection, the phase voltage is less
than the line voltage by a factor of the square root
Figure 2-1 Single-phase power is produced by
rotating a magnetic field across a single winding. of 3. In the example shown, a wye-connected load
is supplied by a 208-volt, 3-phase power source.
120° 120°
N
S
Magnet
120°
Figure 2-4 The delta connection is made by
Figure 2-2 Three-phase power is produced by connecting the finish end of one phase winding to
placing three phase windings 120° apart. the start end of another.
28 Chapter 2 The Unit Substation
Line Current Line Current

10 Amps 17.32 Amps
Line Voltage
480 Volts
Phase Current Phase Current

Line 10 Amps
10 Amps
Voltage
208 Volts Phase
Phase Voltage
Voltage
480 Volts
120 Volts
Figure 2-5 In a wye connection, the phase Figure 2-6 In a delta connection, the phase
voltage is less than the line voltage by a factor of voltage and line voltage are the same. The phase
the square root of 3. The line current and phase current is less than the line current by a factor of
current are the same. the square root of 3.
The voltage across each phase winding, however, is In a delta connection the line current is greater than
120 volts. the phase current by a factor of the square root of 3.
E(Line) I(Line) I(Phase) 13
E(Phase)
13 In a delta connection the line voltage and phase volt-
208 age are the same.
E(Phase)
1.732
E(Line) E(Phase)
E(Phase) 120 V
In a wye connection, the line voltage is greater than Power companies commonly supply high-voltage
the phase voltage by a factor of the square root of 3. service to large commercial or industrial buildings
Assume that a wye-connected load has a phase volt- and complexes. The customer owns the step-down
age of 277 volts. The line voltage connected to the transformers, metering, and switching equipment
load is 480 volts. necessary to supply the low-voltage loads. This
equipment is housed in a unit substation, Figure 2-7.
E(Line) E(Phase) 13 The unit substation consists of three compartments:
E(Line) 277 1.732 the high-voltage section, the transformer section,
and the low-voltage section.
E(Line) 480 V
In a wye connection, the line current and phase cur-
rent are the same. The High-Voltage Section
I(Line) I(Phase) The Pothead
In the delta connection, the phase current is less than The high-voltage section must include a means
the line current by a factor of the square root of 3, by which the incoming line can be terminated. A
Figure 2-6. In the example shown, a 3-phase delta load is device called a pothead provides a reliable method
connected to 480 volts. The line current supplying the load of terminating a high-voltage cable, Figure 2-7 and
is 17.32 amperes. The phase current is only 10 amperes. Figure 2-8. To connect the incoming lead-covered
I(Line) cable at the pothead, the cable is opened and the
I(Phase) conductors are bared for several inches. The wiping
13
sleeve of the pothead is cut off until the opening is
17.32
I(Phase) the correct size to receive the cable. The cable is then
1.732 inserted until the lead sheath is inside the sleeve.
I(Phase) 10 A The following steps are then completed in the order
Courtesy of ABB
High-voltage section Transformer section Low-voltage section
1 Pothead 2 Lightning arrester 3 High-voltage fused switch 4 Grounding bus 5 Transformer 6 Taps 7 Load-side terminals
8 Secondary bus 9 Neutral connections
Figure 2-7 Unit substation.
given: (1) The cable conductors are connected to the common. These devices are designed to provide a
terminals at the end of the porcelain insulators; (2) the low-impedance path to ground for any surge cur-
lead cable is wiped (soldered) to the wiping sleeve; rents such as those resulting from a lightning strike.
and (3) the pothead is filled with a protective and Surge arresters installed in accordance with the
insulating compound (usually made from an asphalt requirements of NEC Article 280 shall be installed
or resin base). The pothead installation is now ready on each ungrounded overhead service conduc-
for the external connections. Several precautions tor. See 230.209. The internal components of the
should be observed when the pothead is filled with arrester vary according to the type of arrester and
the selected compound. First, the correct compound the specific application. The electrician must ensure
is heated to a specified temperature (usually between that a good ground connection is made to the
250°F and 450°F). The pothead is then filled accord- arrester.
ing to the manufacturer’s instructions. Extreme care
must be taken to ensure that voids do not occur within
the pothead where moisture can accumulate. TIP: If the transformer section of the unit sub-
station is to be given a megohmmeter test, the
Lightning Arresters line connection to the arrester must be discon-
nected during the test to prevent a false ground
Lightning arresters, Figure 2-9, are installed reading. ●
on buildings in areas where lightning storms are
Load-side cable connections
Porcelain
insulators
Mounting
bracket
Fill plugs
Symbol
Courtesy of ABB
Wiping sleeve
Line-side cable
connection
Figure 2-8 Pothead.
High-voltage High-Voltage, Current-Limiting Fuses

terminal
High-voltage, current-limiting fuses are
installed as protective devices in power distribution
Spark
gap
systems such as the one installed in the industrial
building. The selection of the proper fuse is based
on several factors, including the continuous current
rating, voltage rating, frequency rating, interrupt
rating, and coordination. The fuse selected for
Porcelain
insulator a particular installation must meet the predeter-
mined voltage and frequency requirements listed.
Fuses are available for both 25- and 60-hertz sys-
tems and for voltage ratings of 2400 volts and up,
Figure 2-10.
Symbol
Continuous Current Rating
Ground High-voltage fuses are available with either an

terminal
N or an E rating. These ratings indicate that certain
Figure 2-9 Lightning arrester. standards established by the Institute of Electrical
and Electronic Engineers, Inc. (IEEE) and National
• select a fuse with the lowest rating that has a

Symbol
Top minimum melting time of 0.1 second at 12 times
ferrule
the continuous current rating of the transformer;
• select a fuse with a continuous current rating of
1.6 times the continuous current rating of the
transformer;
• select a fuse that complies with NEC Article
Micarta 450.
tube
Transformer Protection
In general, fuses are selected for high-voltage
protection because they are less expensive than

other types of protection, are extremely reliable,
and do not require as much maintenance as do
Dry boric
acid cylinder circuit breakers. The protection will be further
enhanced if the protective device has the proper
interrupt rating.
The minimum interrupt rating permitted for a
fuse in a specific installation is the maximum sym-
metrical fault current available at the fuse location.
Power companies will provide the information
Fusible when requested and will recommend a fuse rating in
Bottom element excess of this value.
ferrule
Overcurrent Protection
Figure 2-10 Cutaway view of high-voltage fuse.
Interrupt Rating
As stated earlier, the maximum rating of over-
current devices for transformers rated at 1000 volts
Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) have or higher is set forth in NEC Table 450.3(A). To
been met. The N rating represents an older set of use this table, the percent impedance (%Z) of the
standards and indicates that a cable-type fuse link transformer must be known. This value is stamped
will open in less than 300 seconds at a load of 220% on the nameplate of transformers rated 25 kVA
of its rated current. and larger. See 450.11. The actual impedance of a
An E-type fuse rated at 100 amperes or less will transformer is determined by its physical construc-
open in 300 seconds at a current of 200% to 240% of tion, such as the gauge of the wire in the winding,
its rating. Above 100 amperes, an E-rated fuse will the number of turns, the type of core material, and
open in 600 seconds at a current of 220 to 264% of the magnetic efficiency of the core construction.
its rated current. The electrician should note, how- Percent impedance is an empirical value that can be
ever, that an E-rated fuse does not provide protection used to predict transformer performance. It is com-
in the range of one to two times the continuous load mon practice to use the symbol %Z to represent the
current rating. percent impedance. Percentages must be converted
The selection of the fuse with the correct to a decimal form before they can be used in a
continuous current rating to provide transformer mathematical formula.
protection is based on the following recommenda- When this conversion has been made, the symbol
tions: • Z will be used to represent the decimal impedance,
that is, the percent impedance in decimal form. The L1 L2

percent value is converted to a numerical value by
moving the decimal point two places to the left;
Variable AC Voltage
thus, 5.75% becomes 0.0575. This value has no Autotransformer
units, as it represents a ratio.
When working with any transformer, it is
important to keep in mind the full meaning of the
terms primary and secondary and high-voltage
and low-voltage. The primary is the winding that is AC Voltmeter
connected to a voltage source; the secondary is the
winding that is connected to an electrical load. The
source may be connected to either the low-voltage
or the high-voltage terminals of the transformer. High voltage winding
If a person inadvertently connects a high-voltage

source to the low-voltage terminals, the transformer TRANSFORMER
would increase the voltage by the ratio of the turns.
A 600-volt to 200-volt transformer would become
Low voltage winding
a 600-volt to 1800-volt transformer if the connec-
tions were reversed. This would not only create a
very dangerous situation but could also result in
permanent damage to the transformer because of
AC Ammeter
excessive current flow in the winding. Always be
careful when working with transformers, and never
touch a terminal unless the power source has been
Short circuit
disconnected.
The percent impedance is measured by con- Figure 2-11 Determining transformer impedance.
necting an ammeter across the low-voltage ter-
minals and a variable voltage source across the
high-voltage terminals. This arrangement is shown Example
in Figure 2-11. The connection of the ammeter is Assume that the transformer shown in
short-circuiting the secondary of the transformer. Figure 2-11 is a 2400/480-volt, 15 kVA
An ammeter should be chosen that has a scale with transformer. To determine the impedance of the
about twice the range of the value to be measured transformer, first calculate the full-load current
so that the reading will be taken in the middle of rating of the secondary winding. Given the trans
the range. If the current to be measured is expected former rating in VA, and the secondary voltage E,
to be about 30 amperes, a meter with a 0- to the secondary current I can be calculated:
60-ampere range would be ideal. Using a meter
with a range under 40 amperes or over 100 amperes
VA 15,000
may not permit an accurate reading. I 31.25 amperes
E 480
After the connections have been made, the volt-
age is increased until the ammeter indicates the Next, increase the source voltage connected to
rated full-load current of the secondary (low-voltage the high-voltage winding until there is a current
winding). The value of the source voltage is then of 31.25 amperes in the low-voltage winding. For
used to calculate the decimal impedance (•Z). The the purpose of this example, assume that voltage
•Z is found by determining the ratio of the source value to be 138 volts. Finally, determine the
voltage as compared to the rated voltage of the high- ratio of source voltage as compared to the rated
voltage winding. voltage.
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Princess, brought forward all his arguments, laying stress not only on
the wealth and personal charms of the Duke, but on the joy such an
alliance would give her father in the other world. Now Isabel had
previously sent secret messengers to report on the respective
appearance and bearing of Ferdinand and the French Duke, and the
comparison was hardly favourable to the latter, who was a weakling
with thin ungainly limbs and watery eyes. She could thus estimate
the worth of the Cardinal’s statements and replied firmly that “she
could not dispose of her hand in marriage save by the advice of the
leading nobles and knights of the kingdoms, and that having
consulted them she would do what God ordained.”
This was equivalent to a refusal; and the Cardinal, having exerted
his eloquence once more in vain, returned to France, nursing his
resentment and wrath. He left the Princess in a critical position; for
her brother could draw but one conclusion from her refusal of such
an advantageous match; and he and the Master of Santiago now
strained every effort to stop her marriage with the King of Sicily.
Unable to leave Andalusia themselves, they warned the citizens of
Madrigal that any favour shown to the Princess would be regarded as
an act of treachery to the Crown, while she was so surrounded by
spies and enemies that even her faithful lady-in-waiting, Beatriz de
Bobadilla, grew frightened and besought her to break off the
Aragonese alliance. Isabel knew that, once intimidated into doing
this, she would remain absolutely at her brother’s mercy, and she
therefore implored the Archbishop of Toledo to come to her
assistance before it was too late. A lover of bold and decisive actions,
that warlike prelate was soon at the gates of Madrigal at the head of
an armed force; and Isabel, refusing to listen to the threats of the
Bishop of Burgos, at once joined him, going with him to Valladolid,
the headquarters of the Admiral, Don Fadrique.
She had burned her boats, and it only remained for the man on
whom she had pinned her faith to play his part in the drama
adequately. Both Ferdinand and his father realized the seriousness of
the situation. If the treaty of Fuenterrabia had spelled trouble and
disaster for Castile, it had been the source of even greater evils in
Aragon; for the Catalans, far from returning to their old allegiance,
as they were advised, had continued to maintain their desperate
resistance in Barcelona. They had elected as their Count first one
prince of royal extraction and then another; each new puppet
doomed to ultimate failure, but leaving behind him a defiance
increasing in ferocity as it lost power in other ways.
Nor was chronic rebellion John II.’s only serious trouble. The
important counties of Roussillon and Cerdagne, pledged to Louis XI.
in return for troops, had been seized by that monarch, as soon as he
saw his neighbour too involved in difficulties to show practical
resentment; and the web of French diplomacy was now being spun
over Navarre, through the medium of the King of Aragon’s son-in-
law, the Count of Foix. Personal sorrows added their quota: the loss
of sight at a time when political clouds looked blackest, followed by
the death of Queen Joanna, whose courage and brains had made her
a fitting helpmate for her ambitious husband, whether in the council-
chamber or on the battlefield. John was indeed repaid with added
measure for the turbulence and treachery of his early days; but like
many men of his type he showed better in adversity than in success.
Doggedly he laid fresh plans, and Providence that seldom hates the
brave rewarded him by the recovery of his eyesight.
The realization of his son’s marriage with Isabel of Castile, always
favoured by him, was now his dearest ambition; for he believed that
the final union of the two kingdoms would mean the death-blow to
Louis XI.’s hopes of dominating the Pyrenees, as well as the building
up of the power of the Crown at home against unruly subjects. Such
designs were, however, of the future, while the immediate steps to
achieve them were fraught with danger.
Isabel, the bride-elect was at Valladolid, temporarily protected by
the Archbishop of Toledo and the Admiral; but to the north lay the
hostile Bishopric of Burgos, to the south-east a line of fortified
strongholds, all in the hands of the Mendozas, the chief supporters of
Joanna La Beltraneja and therefore enemies of the Aragonese match.
It only needed the return of Henry IV. from Andalusia to make her
position untenable.
Isabel and the Archbishop of Toledo therefore dispatched
messengers to Aragon in haste to insist that the King of Sicily should
come to Valladolid. They found him in Saragossa, and suggested
that, as every moment of delay increased the danger, he should
disguise himself and go to Castile with only a few adherents, thus
hoodwinking the Mendozas, who would never expect him to take this
risk, and who also believed the negotiations for the marriage to be at
a much earlier stage.
Notwithstanding his later reputation for a hard head and a cool
heart, Ferdinand in his youth possessed a certain vein of
adventurous chivalry. It was with difficulty that he had been
prevented from leading an entirely rash expedition to Isabel’s rescue
at Madrigal, and he now readily agreed to a scheme, whose chief
merit lay in its apparent impossibility.
Sending one of the Castilian messengers on before to announce his
coming, he and a few of the most trusted members of his household
boldly crossed the frontier. The rest were disguised as merchants,
Ferdinand himself as a servant; and at the inns where they were
forced to halt he played his part, waiting at table and tending the
mules. They did not stop often, riding in spite of the intense cold by
day and night; with the result that they arrived before they were
expected at the friendly town of Burgo de Osma. Ferdinand, whom
excitement had rendered less tired and sleepy than the others,
spurred forward as they came in sight of the gates, narrowly escaping
death at the hands of an over-zealous sentry. Soon, however, their
identity was explained, and amid the blowing of trumpets and joyful
shouts the young King was welcomed by his allies.
At Valladolid the news of his arrival into safe territory was the
signal for feasting and jousts, and preparations for the marriage were
pushed on apace. Ferdinand came by night to Valladolid, and, being
met at a postern gate by the Archbishop of Toledo was led to the
house where the Princess lodged.
Four days later, on October 18, 1469, the formal betrothal took
place. Isabel and Ferdinand as second cousins stood within the
prohibited degrees of consanguinity; but the Archbishop of Toledo
produced a bull, affording the necessary dispensation. This bore the
signature of Pius II., who had died in 1464, and authorized
Ferdinand to marry within the third degree of consanguinity, on the
expiration of four years from the date of the bull. Granted its
authenticity, the marriage was perfectly legal; but it is almost certain
the document was an elaborate forgery, constructed by John of
Aragon and the Archbishop to meet their pressing needs.[2] The
dispensation was essential to satisfy, not only Isabel, but any
wavering supporters of orthodox views. On the other hand, apart
from the haste required and known dilatoriness of the Papal Court,
Paul II., who at that time occupied the See of Saint Peter, was the
sworn ally of Henry IV.; and those who were negotiating the
Aragonese alliance recognized that there could be no successful
appeal to his authority.
2. See Clemencin, Elogio de Isabella, Illustracion II.
Another matter requiring delicate handling had been the marriage
settlement that, signed by Ferdinand and ratified by his father, was
read aloud at the betrothal ceremony by the Archbishop of Toledo. In
it Ferdinand declared his devotion to the Mother Church and
Apostolic See, and his undying allegiance to Henry IV. The document
then went on to say that the signatures of both husband and wife
must be affixed to all ordinances and public deeds; while the
remainder of the clauses were directed to allaying the suspicions of
those who feared that the King of Sicily might use his new position
for the good of Aragon rather than Castile. In them he promised not
to leave the kingdom himself without consent of the Princess, nor to
remove any children that they might have, whether sons or
daughters. He would not on his own account make peace nor war nor
any alliance. He would not appoint to offices any save natives of
Castile; while he pledged himself to take no new steps with regard to
the lands that had once belonged to his father but had since been
alienated.
After the ceremony was over, Ferdinand retired with the
Archbishop to his lodging in Valladolid; and the next day, October
19th, he and Isabel were married; and for six days the town kept
festival in honour of the event.
Henry learned of his sister’s marriage from the Master of Santiago,
and naturally nothing of the insolence of such proceedings towards
himself was lost in the telling. The news found him in broken health,
the result of his life-long self-indulgence, and with his vanity badly
wounded by the scorn and defiance he had encountered in
Andalusia. He was therefore in no mood for conciliation, and
received Isabel’s letters, explaining the necessity under which she
had acted and her assurances of loyalty, in gloomy silence, lending a
willing ear to the Master of Santiago’s suggestion that he might
retract the oath he had taken at the Toros de Guisandos.
Circumstances favoured such a course; for Louis XI., who looked
on the Castilian-Aragonese alliance with alarm as inimical to French
expansion, offered Isabel’s rejected suitor, Charles, now Duke of
Guienne, to the Infanta Joanna, the underlying condition being of
course that Henry should disinherit Isabel in her favour.
Negotiations were at once begun; and in 1470, the Cardinal of Arras
appeared at the Spanish Court charged with the final conclusion of
the terms. He had never forgiven the Infanta’s indifference to his
oratory; and, as diligent enquiry had made him cognizant of the fact
that Pius II.’s bull must be a forgery, he proceeded to denounce her
in words, according to Enriquez de Castillo, “so outrageous that they
are more worthy to be passed over in silence than recorded.”
Henry far from being shocked was obviously pleased; and, having
completed the agreement with the Cardinal, in October, 1470, he
publicly withdrew his oath, taken at the Toros de Guisandos, and
acknowledged the Infanta Joanna, then nine years old, as his
daughter and heir. Her formal betrothal to the Duke of Guienne
followed, and then the little Princess was handed over to the care of
the Master of Santiago, much to the indignation of the Marquis of
Santillana and the Mendozas, in whose keeping she had hitherto
been.
Henry now published a manifesto, in which he declared that his
sister had broken her oath in marrying without his consent, and had
aggravated her offence by her choice of an enemy of Castile, and by
not waiting to obtain a dispensation from the Pope. He had therefore
judged her unfit to succeed to the throne and had restored Doña
Joanna to her rights.
This document did not meet with general approval. Indeed the
principal towns of Andalusia, already disaffected, openly expressed
their refusal to consent to its terms. Yet to Isabel in Dueñas, where
her first child, a daughter named after herself, had been born in the
October of this year, the prospect seemed bleak enough. Her
difficulties in Castile were intensified by the ill-fortunes of John of
Aragon in his war against Louis XI. for the recovery of Roussillon
and Cerdagne; so that in spite of the critical position of affairs at
home, she was forced to let Ferdinand go to his father’s assistance.
Hiding her fears, she replied to Henry’s manifesto by a counter-
protest, in which she recalled her own moderation in refusing the
crown on her brother Alfonso’s death, and vindicated her marriage
as performed on the advice of the wiser and larger section of the
leading nobility. Henry, she declared had broken his oath, not only in
acknowledging Joanna, who was known to be illegitimate, as his
daughter and heiress; but long before, when he had failed to divorce
and send away the Queen as he had promised, and when he had tried
to force his sister to marry the King of Portugal against her will.
In the meanwhile, in spite of the flourish of trumpets with which
the betrothal had taken place, the French marriage hung fire. Gossip
maintained that the Duke of Guienne’s interest in Joanna had been
merely the result of pique at Isabel’s refusal; while Louis XI. had
used it as a temporary expedient against his enemy, the King of
Aragon. At any rate the French Prince was openly courting the
heiress, Mary of Burgundy, when death cut short his hopes in May,
1472.
Various bridegrooms were now suggested for the Infanta Joanna;
amongst them her own uncle the King of Portugal.
Henry IV. was at this time at Segovia, whose Alcayde, Andres de
Cabrera, husband of Isabel’s lady-in-waiting, Beatriz de Bobadilla,
had always been one of his faithful adherents. In the Alcazar was
stored a considerable sum of money; and the Master of Santiago now
advised the King to demand its surrender and also that of the
fortress, hoping to get them into his own hands, as he had done with
the Alcazar at Madrid. Cabrera, suspecting rightly a plot for his own
ruin, stoutly refused; and his enemy, after stirring up in the town a
rebellion which the Alcayde promptly quelled, left the city in disgust.
Henry, who loved Segovia, remained behind, unable to make up his
mind to any decisive action.
The favourite’s departure was the opportunity for which those
inclined to Isabel’s interests had long been waiting; and Beatriz de
Bobadilla urged her husband to effect a reconciliation between the
King and his sister. This plan met with the approval of no less
important a person than Pedro Gonsalez de Mendoza, Bishop of
Siguenza, whose material position had been lately increased, not
only by the Archbishopric of Seville, but also by receiving a long-
coveted Cardinal’s hat. At the time of the Aragonese marriage the
Mendozas had been amongst Isabel’s most formidable opponents,
but their enforced surrender of the Infanta Joanna to the Master of
Santiago after the French betrothal, had quite altered their views;
and the Cardinal of Spain, as Pedro Gonsalez was usually called, now
worked to secure Isabel’s accession, as the best means of ruining his
rival.
Another person, who had set himself to negotiate an agreement,
was the Papal Legate, Cardinal Rodrigo Borgia, by birth a Valencian.
John of Aragon’s old enemy, Paul II. had died in 1471; and Sixtus IV.,
his successor, when dispatching Cardinal Borgia to Castile, in 1473,
to demand a clerical subsidy, gave him at the same time a bull of
dispensation, which legalized Ferdinand and Isabel’s marriage, and
also affirmed the legitimacy of their daughter and her rights of
inheritance.
Isabel’s prospects had considerably brightened, and a bold action
on her part was to put them to the test. One day, Beatriz de
Bobadilla, who had secretly kept her informed of the current state of
affairs, disguised herself as a countrywoman and, mounted on an ass,
rode out to the city of Aranda, where her mistress was living. She
begged her to come to Segovia immediately; and, on a day arranged,
Isabel and the Archbishop of Toledo appeared in the city before
dawn and were received into the Alcazar. Henry was then in his
hunting-box in the woods outside, but that evening he returned to
the palace and saw his sister. With his usual impressionability he
echoed the joy of all around him, and embracing her informed her of
his goodwill and the pleasure her coming had given him. The next
day they rode through the city together, his hand on her bridle-rein;
and some little time afterwards Ferdinand, who had been hastily
summoned, was reconciled to his brother-in-law.
Andres de Cabrera, delighted at the success of his hazardous
scheme, arranged an elaborate dinner on the Feast of the Epiphany
of that year, 1474, in order to celebrate the occasion; but
unfortunately Henry, who was in delicate health, fell ill. Secret
supporters of the Master of Santiago cleverly suggested that he had
been poisoned, and that this had been the main object of the
reconciliation. Henry, thoroughly alarmed, in spite of all his sister’s
efforts to allay his fears, left Segovia, as soon as he was well enough
to bear the journey, joining the Master of Santiago and the Infanta
Joanna at Madrid.
All the old trouble and discord seemed destined to begin once
more, but in reality the labours of both schemer and dupe were
nearly at an end. Early in the autumn the Master of Santiago
hastened to Estremadura to gain possession of a certain fortress, and
there, on the eve of achieving his purpose, he fell ill and died.
Henry, though almost inconsolable at the news, transferred his
affections to his favourite’s son, the Marquis of Villena, confirming
him in all his father’s offices and titles and creating him Master of
Santiago. It was to be almost the last of the many honours and gifts
that he bestowed in the course of his long reign, for on December 11,
1474, a few weeks before his fiftieth birthday, he also died.
The same atmosphere of vacillation, in which he had moved in his
life, enveloped his death-bed. When questioned as to the succession,
the chronicler, Alonso de Palencia, declares that he equivocated,
saying that his secretary knew what he wished; other writers that he
confessed to a friar that the Princess Joanna was indeed his
daughter, and that he left a will to this effect. Enriquez del Castillo,
his chaplain and chronicler, makes no mention of Joanna’s name.
Henry’s personal beliefs and wishes had availed little in his own day,
and he may have guessed that they would carry no weight after his
death. One at any rate was fulfilled, and he was buried, as he had
asked, in the Church of Sancta Maria de Guadalupe, at the foot of his
mother’s tomb.
CHAPTER IV
ACCESSION OF ISABEL: THE PORTUGUESE
WAR
1475–1479
The news of Henry IV.’s death was the signal for Isabel’s
proclamation as Queen in Segovia. Riding through the crowded
streets, her palfrey led by two of the “regidores” of the city, she came
amid the shouts of the people to the principal square. Before her
walked four kings-at-arms, and after them Gutierre de Cardenas,
bearing a naked sword, emblem of the justice that should emanate
from kingship. In the square stood a high scaffold, hung with rich
embroidered stuffs, and on it a throne, raised by three steps from the
surrounding platform. Isabel ascended these and took her place; and
then, a king-at-arms having called for silence, a herald cried in a loud
voice: “Castile! Castile for the King Don Fernando and the Queen
Doña Isabel, his wife.” Those watching below took up the shout, and
amid cheers the royal standard was raised.
Ferdinand was in Aragon; but news had at once been sent him of
the King’s death, and in the meanwhile Isabel received the homage of
the great nobles and knights who were ready to pledge themselves to
her cause. Chief amongst them were the Admiral of Castile, the
Cardinal of Spain, his brother, the Marquis of Santillana, and the rest
of the Mendozas; while they brought with them Beltran de La Cueva,
Duke of Alburquerque, whose fortunes scandal would naturally have
linked with the cause of the Infanta Joanna.
Significant was the tardy appearance of the Archbishop of Toledo,
once so hot in Isabel’s cause. Now he came in the train of all the rest,
with little enthusiasm in his homage or in the oath he took in the hall
of the palace, his hand resting on a copy of the Gospels. On the 2d of
January he and the Cardinal of Spain rode out to meet the King of
Sicily, returning with him, one on either side, amid such crowds that
it was past sunset before they reached the palace.
He was a young man of twenty and two years ... [says Colmenares, the historian
of Segovia, commenting on Ferdinand’s appearance], of medium height, finely
built, his face grave but handsome and of a fair complexion, his hair chestnut in
shade but somewhat spare on the temples, his nose and mouth small, his eyes
bright with a certain joyful dignity, a healthy colour in his cheeks and lips, his head
well set on his shoulders, his voice clear and restful. He carried himself boldly both
on horse and foot.
His character, his new subjects could not fully gauge; but the
contrast with Henry’s vacillating puerility was obvious. Here at any
rate was a man, who would not fail in what he undertook through
indecision or lack of courage.
The Cardinal of Spain and Archbishop of Toledo proceeded to
draw up “Provisions” for the future government of the kingdom,
adjusting the exact relations of the sovereigns on the basis of the
marriage settlement. Royal letters and proclamations were to be
signed by both, the seals affixed to be stamped with the joint arms of
Castile and Aragon, the coinage engraved with the double likeness.
Justice was to be awarded by the two sovereigns, when together; by
each, when separated. Castile safeguarded her independence by
placing the control of the Treasury in the hand of the Queen, and by
insisting that the governors of cities and fortresses should do homage
to her alone. She alone, also, might appoint “corregidores” and
provide incumbents for ecclesiastical benefices, though the
nominations were to bear Ferdinand’s signature as well as her own.
FERDINAND OF ARAGON
FROM “ICONOGRAFIA ESPAÑOLA” BY

VALENTIN CARDERERA Y SOLANO
It can be imagined that such a settlement would depend for its

success largely on the goodwill and tact of those called on to fulfil it;
and Ferdinand though he consented to sign his name to the
document did so with considerable reluctance. Many of the nobles in
Segovia, though mainly those of Aragonese birth, had professed their
annoyance that Ferdinand’s position should be in any way
subordinated to that of his wife. They declared that the Salic law,
excluding women from the royal succession, should hold good in
Castile as well as in France; and that, the Castilian House of
Trastamara having died out in the male line with Henry IV., the
crown should pass directly to the Aragonese branch, in the person of
King John and his son, the King of Sicily.
Loud was the indignation of Isabel’s Castilian supporters at this
suggestion. The Salic law, they maintained, had never been
acknowledged in Castile; on the contrary, cases could be cited in
which women had succeeded to the throne to the detriment of the
obvious male heir.
Thus, between arguments on the one side and the other, feelings
ran high, for Ferdinand himself inclined to a theory that flattered his
love of power and independence. Isabel, who had no intention of
ceding her rights, at length exerted her influence to win him to her
point of view.
“Señor,” she said, after a stormy council-meeting that had in the
end upheld her right of succession, “this matter need never have
been discussed, because, owing to the union that, by the Grace of
God, there is betwixt us, there can be no real disagreement.”
She then alluded to her duty of obedience as his wife; but perhaps
to Ferdinand her most convincing argument was the pertinent
suggestion that if the Salic law were acknowledged and they should
have no male heirs, their daughter Isabel could not lawfully succeed
them. It would ill have pleased Ferdinand to leave his possessions to
any of his Aragonese cousins. “The King,” we are told, “having heard
the Queen’s reasons was highly pleased, because he knew them to be
true; and both he and she gave orders that there should be no more
talk on this matter.”
The chronicler then goes on to remark on the complete concord
that ever afterwards existed between the sovereigns.
And when it was necessary that the King should go to look after affairs in one
part of the kingdom and the Queen in another, it never happened that he or she
issued a command that conflicted with those that the other gave. Circumstances
might separate them, but love held their wills joined.
Ferdinand and Isabel had shown their wisdom in refusing to let

the rift between them widen into an open quarrel. In a crisis the least
straw may turn the balance; and the condition of affairs required
their combined energies in the one scale. It is true that the majority
of nobles and knights had either in person, or by deputy, expressed
their allegiance; but there still remained a small though powerful
group, headed by the young Marquis of Villena, who maintained that
the Infanta Joanna was the rightful Queen.
That their objective was rather self-interest than any deep loyalty
to the little Princess was obvious from Villena’s letter, mentioning
the terms on which he and his followers would consent to submit.
For himself he demanded, first his acknowledgment as Master of
Santiago, next the confirmation of all lands, castles, and revenues
that had belonged to his father, including the Alcazar at Madrid, and
thirdly a yearly income of over two million maravedis to be paid by
the Crown. The Count of Plasencia, his ally, whom Henry IV. had
created Duke of Arévalo with the gift of that town (taken from the
widowed Queen Isabel for the purpose), sought also the confirmation
of his honours.
With regard to Joanna, whom Villena and his followers styled
“Princess of Castile,” they insisted that she should be suitably
married; and on this demand all negotiations ultimately broke down.
Ferdinand and Isabel were willing to grant the Marquis the
Mastership, in spite of the clamours of seven other candidates; they
agreed to the idea of Joanna’s marriage; but their stipulation that,
while this subject was under consideration, she should be handed
over to some trustworthy person, virtually put an end to all hopes of
reconciliation. Joanna was the Marquis’s trump card, and he had no
intention of playing her until he was certain of his trick, far less of
passing her into the hands of anyone, whom her rivals would
consider trustworthy.
Dazzled by the schemes he had planned, he believed it would be an
easy matter to secure Isabel’s ruin, and in this view he was
strengthened by the secret correspondence he had been carrying on
with his great-uncle, the Archbishop of Toledo. The latter’s conduct
is on the surface inexplicable; for, having maintained Isabel’s cause
with unswerving loyalty throughout the negotiations for her
marriage, when she was in danger of imprisonment and he of
incurring, on her account, not only papal censure but the loss of his
archbishopric, he had yet at the end of Henry IV.’s reign reconciled
himself to that monarch and his favourite the young Marquis of
Villena, to the weakening of his old allegiance. His tardy appearance
at Segovia, and the sulky manner he had adopted towards Ferdinand
and the Queen, were alike in keeping with a change of policy that in a
man of his ambitions seemed as shortsighted as it was
unaccountable. The explanation lies in Carrillo’s lack of self-control
that made his ambition the plaything of his besetting vice.
Like Juan Pacheco, he loved wealth, the more that he was in secret
an alchemist and squandered the revenues of his see in a vain
endeavour to make gold; but even the glitter of precious metals lost
its charm beside his lust for power and influence. He must be first.
This was the motive that had driven him to desert Henry IV., to
break with his nephew in the revolt of the League, and now, finally,
when the cause for which he had laboured was on the eve of success,
to renounce his allegiance to Isabel, because of his jealousy of her
new adviser the Cardinal of Spain.
In vain the Queen, who knew his character, tried to dissipate his
suspicions. Carrillo’s temperament set his imagination afire at the
least glimmer of insult or neglect; his manner grew morose and
overbearing, his desire for gifts and rewards every day more
rapacious. At length, when Ferdinand ventured to oppose his
demands, the Archbishop openly expressed his anger and, leaving
the Court, withdrew to his town of Alcalá de Henares, where he
began to plot secretly with Joanna’s supporters.
Between them he and the Marquis hatched a scheme, whose
success would, they hoped, make them the arbiters of Castile. This
was nothing less than a Portuguese alliance by which Alfonso V.,
married to his niece, would in her name cross the border, and aided
by his Castilian allies drive out Ferdinand and his Queen. With this
intention, the Marquis dispatched a letter to Alfonso full of showy
promises. The most important Castilian nobles, he declared,
including himself and all his relations, the Duke of Arévalo, and the
Archbishop of Toledo, were pledged to Joanna’s cause; while
numbers were only waiting to follow their example as soon as they
were reassured by the first victory. Furthermore, he guaranteed the
goodwill of fourteen of the principal towns in the kingdom; while,
alluding to the factions that convulsed the rest, he prophesied that
one side would be certain to adopt the Portuguese cause and with a
little help secure the upper hand. Victory was the more certain by
reason of the penniless state in which Henry IV. had left the treasury.
It was impossible that Ferdinand and Isabel could compete without
financial assistance against the wealth and well-known military
strength of Portugal.
Such arguments had a surface plausibility; though a statesman
might have asked himself if they did not take Fortune’s smiles too
much for granted. Was it safe to ignore the deep-rooted dislike that
Castile bore Portugal, or to assume the friendliness of the larger
towns, on whose possession the ultimate victory must depend?
Alfonso V. was not the type of man to ask uncomfortable questions.
He saw the object of his desire in a glamour that obscured the pitfalls
along the road on which he must travel; and where courage and
enthusiasm were the pilgrim’s main requisites he was rewarded by
success. Three times he had defeated the Moors beyond the sea; and,
dowered with the proud title “El Africano,” he now aspired to be the
victor of a second Aljubarrota. The rôle pleased his romantic and
highly strung nature for, while posing as the defender of injured
womanhood in the person of his niece, he could also hope to avenge
on Queen Isabel the slight his vanity had suffered from her persistent
refusal of his suit.
Practical-minded councillors shook their heads over his sanguine
expectations and pointed out the untrustworthy reputations of the
Marquis of Villena and the Archbishop of Toledo. That these same
men had sworn to Joanna’s illegitimacy and made it a cause of
rebellion against King Henry looked as if love of self rather than love
of justice were now their inspiration.
Isabel and the Cardinal of Spain wrote letters of remonstrance to
the same effect, begging Alfonso to submit the matter to arbitration;
but that credulous monarch chose to believe that their advice arose
merely from a desire to gain time, and therefore hurried on his
preparations for war.
In May, 1475, having collected an army of 5600 horse and 14,000
foot, he crossed the border and advanced to Plasencia. His plan of
campaign was to march from there northwards in the direction of
Toro and Zamora, as secret correspondence had aroused his hope of
winning both these strongholds. At Plasencia he halted, until the
Marquis of Villena and the Duke of Arévalo appeared with his niece,
and then he and Joanna were married on a lofty platform in the
centre of the city, the marriage awaiting fulfilment pending the
necessary dispensation from Rome. A herald, however, using the old
formula at once proclaimed the union: “Castile! Castile for the King
Don Alfonso of Portugal and the Queen Doña Joanna his wife, the
rightful owner of these kingdoms.”
From Plasencia the Portuguese at length marched to Arévalo,
where another delay, this time of two months, took place, Alfonso
determining to await the troops that had been promised him by his
Castilian allies. He had with him the chivalry of his own Court, young
hot-bloods, who had pledged their estates in the prospect of speedy
glory and pillage. In their self-confidence the easy theories of Villena
found an echo; and they loudly boasted that Ferdinand and his wife
would never dare to meet them, but were in all probability on the
road to Aragon. “Before gaining the victory they divided the spoil,”
comments Pulgar sarcastically.
The Castilian sovereigns were far from meditating flight. The war
had not been of their choosing, but, since it had been forced upon
them, they were ready to prosecute it to the end. For the moment
affairs looked threatening. Not only was their treasury practically
empty, and a hostile army on the march across their western border,
but news came from France that Louis XI., who had at first
expressed his pleasure at their accession, was now in league with
their enemies and intended to invade the provinces of Biscay and
Guipuzcoa; Villena and his companions were in arms; the
Archbishop of Toledo sulking in Alcalá de Henares.
To him the Queen determined to go and address a last appeal in
person, leaving her husband to watch the movements of the
Portuguese from Valladolid. Some of those at Court, who knew the
pitch of resentment and fury to which the old Primate had brought
his broodings, assured her that her mission would be in vain, saying
that it was beneath her dignity to thus humble herself to a subject.
Isabel replied that she counted as little on his service as she feared
his disloyalty, and that if he had been anyone else, she would most
certainly have weighed the matter more carefully, but she added, “I
would not accuse myself later with the thought that if I had gone to
him in person, he would have withdrawn from the false road he now
seeks to follow.”
She then set out southwards, accompanied by the Marquis of
Santillana newly-created Duke of Infantado, and the Constable of
Castile, the Count of Haro, sending the latter on in advance as they
drew near to Alcalá to announce her coming. Carrillo listened to the
Constable’s skilful reasoning in uneasy silence; but he was not to be
cajoled either by his conscience or by appeals to his vanity, and at
length burst into a storm of passion, declaring that it was his
intention to serve the King of Portugal, and none should turn him
from it. If Isabel entered Alcalá by one gate, he himself would leave
by another.
This was plain speaking; and the Queen, who had planned the
interview less from policy than out of regard for the old man, whose
restless jealousy she knew so well, continued on her way to Toledo,
where she intended to make preparations for the defence of
Estremadura and Andalusia.
Ferdinand, in the meanwhile, mustered his forces in Valladolid. So
great was the hatred of the Portuguese that many of the towns of Old
Castile sent citizens equipped at their own expense; while nobles in
mail, and ginetes, or lightly-armed horsemen, flocked to the royal
standard along with Biscayan archers and hardy mountaineers from
the north. Joined with the levies of Segovia and Avila, that Isabel had
collected on her journey to Toledo, the whole army mustered about
12,000 horse and 80,000 foot, as it advanced to the relief of the
citadel of Toro, both that town and Zamora having surrendered to
the Portuguese through the treachery of their respective governors.
The enthusiasm was general, and Ferdinand himself burned with the
desire to achieve some great deed.
Unfortunately Toro, flanked by fortresses in the power of the
Portuguese, and protected on the rear by the Douro, whence
provisions could be passed into the town, proved altogether too
strong for the besiegers. A stormy council-of-war was held in the
Castilian camp, it being decided that the only wise course would be
to retreat. This rumour spread, gradually taking the shape that the
nobles were forcing the King for their own ends to give up the siege;
and in a fury the ordinary soldiery rushed to the royal tent, swearing
to stand by Ferdinand in whatever act of daring he sought to do, and
above all to protect him from traitors. In bitterness of spirit they
learned that he also counselled retreat, and in disorderly fashion they
shook the dust of Toro from their feet and returned to Valladolid.
Their departure resulted in the surrender of the citadel to the
Portuguese, with whom the Archbishop of Toledo now openly allied
himself, rancorously declaring that he had called Isabel from her
spinning-wheel and would send her back to it again.
From Valladolid Ferdinand was summoned to Burgos. The city
was almost entirely in his favour, but the fortress and the church of
Santa Maria La Blanca were held by the men of the Duke of Arévalo,
whose catapults caused so much destruction that the inhabitants
declared unless help was given they must surrender. In one of the
principal streets alone, over three hundred houses had been burned,
while the firing never ceased by night or day.
Ferdinand and his illegitimate brother, Alfonso, Duke of
Villahermosa, were soon on the scenes, for Burgos was too important
a place to be lost; and earthworks and fortifications were hastily
constructed over against the citadel to prevent help reaching it from
the King of Portugal. All this, however, cost time, and, still more
disastrous, money; for the contents of the treasury in Segovia,
handed over by Andres de Cabrera, were exhausted, and the land,
impoverished by Henry IV.’s misgovernment, could obviously yield
few taxes.
The sovereigns, in deep gloom, called a meeting of the Cortes in
Medina del Campo, and laid their monetary difficulties before it.
How was the army to be paid? The problem was the harder for the
reckless generosity of the Portuguese, who gave fine promises of
lands and revenues to all who joined them, the fulfilment depending
on the success of the war. One solution was to permit the Castilian
troops to provide for themselves by pillage and robbery. This the
sovereigns at once rejected, nor would they consent to alienate the
few royal estates still remaining to them. A third suggestion was to
exact a loan from the Church, and it speaks well for the reputation
that Ferdinand and Isabel had already established, that the clergy at
once consented to this arrangement. In the end it was settled that the
Church should surrender half her silver plate to specified royal
officials, and that this should be redeemed at the end of three years
by the payment of thirty millions of maravedis.
The war now continued with unabated vigour, not only in the
north-west corner, occupied by Alfonso V., but throughout Castile
and even across the Portuguese border. On hearing of the
proclamation at Plasencia, Ferdinand and Isabel, by way of
retaliation, had added to their titles that of King and Queen of
Portugal. This encouraged their partisans in Galicia and
Estremadura to cross the frontier and seize certain of the enemy’s
strongholds, from which they raided the country round, carrying off
cattle and burning villages. In the neighbourhood of Toledo, those
who were discontented with the over-lordship of Archbishop Carrillo
and his nephew the Marquis of Villena took the opportunity to
proclaim their allegiance to Isabel, and in the latter’s name threw off
the yoke they hated. The Count of Paredes, an old warrior who had
fought against the Moors, and who was one of the candidates for the
Mastership of Santiago, joyfully went to their assistance with a large
body of troops, collecting his rival’s revenues at the point of the
sword, until the turmoil forced Villena to leave the King of Portugal
and hurry to the protection of his own estates.
He did not attempt to conceal his indignation with his ally,
insisting that Alfonso should go immediately to Madrid, that from
there he might aid those who had put their trust in him. To this the
King replied with equal bitterness that he saw no reason to risk the
loss of Toro and Zamora by leaving the north; nor was his conscience
burdened with the ill-luck of his allies, seeing that their help had
fallen far short of their promises. This was very true. But a small
portion of the nobles committed to Joanna’s cause had appeared
when expected at Arévalo, the majority of the defaulters not having
dared to leave their own territory, where Ferdinand and Isabel’s
partisans kept them occupied in the defence of their houses and
lands.
Isabel herself from Valladolid placed careful guard over the road to
Burgos, that the King of Portugal might not send relief to that citadel.
Ever since the beginning of the war, she had spared herself no pains
or trouble, in her effort to aid Ferdinand in his campaign. At one
time she had journeyed to Toledo to raise the levies of New Castile, at
another hastened northwards to rescue Leon from a governor
suspected of treachery; then again collected and dispatched troops to
the help of Guipuzcoa, where Louis XI. was endeavouring to win a
stretch of coveted seaboard. One evil result of the strain entailed by
such exertions had been her miscarriage in the summer of 1475. Her
daughter Isabel was now doubly precious; and her parents for her
better safety had sent her to Segovia, where she remained in the
charge of Andres de Cabrera, lately created for his services Marquis
of Moya.
While the siege of Burgos still delayed, Ferdinand succeeded in
gaining possession of the town of Zamora, after secret
correspondence with the captain who had guard of the main
entrance, a strongly fortified bridge. The Portuguese King was forced
to retreat to Toro, and the Castilians, entering at once, placed siege
to the citadel; Isabel supplied troops and artillery from Valladolid,
while each day fresh loyalists appeared from Galicia.
TOLEDO, LA PUERTA DEL SOL
FROM A PHOTOGRAPH BY
ANDERSON, ROME
Alfonso now found himself cut off from Portugal, and, aware that
his fortunes had not matched his hopes, began to try and negotiate
favourable terms of peace. These were still in keeping with his lofty
pretensions; for, in addition to a large sum of money and the

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More Than Three Conductors in Raceway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

Electrical Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370

Code Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376

Intended Use and Level

Subject and Approach

Features This edition of Electrical Wiring—Industrial

Supplements p­latform, or a Learning Management System.

Salvador P. Aranda Paul V. Westrom

Mike Brumback DeWain Belote

Tom Hoops Les Brinkley

Chad Kurdi Al Clay

Air-Temp Division, Chrysler Corporation Eaton Corp.Cutler-Hammer Products

Plans and Sitework

Construction Plans after the final grading. The responsibility of who

Standard format Other symbols Standard format Other symbols

BM-1-680.0 Benchmark — BM EL. 680.0 Light standard

TB-1 Test boring — Number Existing tree to remain 10" Oak

354.0 New spot elevation + 354.0 T Telephone line (underground)

Existing spot elevation +360.0 Power line (underground)

240 O Fuel oil line (size) 1" O

244 244 Sanitary sewer (size) 12" SAN

406 Storm sewer (size)

COS Combined sewer (size) 18" S

Fire hydrant FENCE

MH Manhole MH-4-680.0 CLL

CB Catch basin (Rim elevation) CB 680.0 Centerline (as of a street)

Curb inlet (Inlet elevation) 680.0 New building

Drainage inlet — Inlet elevation DR 680.0 Existing building to remain

Existing building to be removed

FIGURE 1-1 Site plan symbols.

to measure distances requires determining the length

FIGURE 1-3 The 1" = 10' scale.

Figure 1-4 The 1" = 50' scale.

c­ urrent carrying capacity of the grounding system

Courtesy of AEMC® Instruments

Ground resistance meter

FIGURE 1-8 The Wenner four-point test.

Ideally, the current probe (B) should be placed at

System grounding Voltage Current

FIGURE 1-9 The three-point fall-of-potential test.

Grounding electrode conductor

Courtesy of AEMC® Instruments

FIGURE 1-11 Ground resistance tester.

FIGURE 1-10 The clamp-on ground resistance

plant bus system. Other 3-phase and s­ingle-phase

240/120 V 1 Phase Battery Back-up

FIGURE 1-13 A low-impedance ground is connected throughout the system.

FIGURE 1-16 One-stator windings develop a short

The phase current will be 13.85 A (277/20).

Grounding electrode conductor Bonding jumper

Metal water pipe Grounding clamp

D Trade size 2 rigid metal conduit, intermediate metal conduit,

Minimum 18-in. (450-mm) cover (NEC Table 300.5)

FIGURE 1-19 Telephone service installation.

Treated running board

Cable approved for

FIGURE 1-20 An installation of direct burial cable.

Supplements platform, or a Learning Management System.

c urrent carrying capacity of the grounding system

plant bus system. Other 3-phase and single-phase