Solution Manual for Chemistry 10th Edition by Whitten ISBN

1133610668 9781133610663
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2-1 (a) Stoichiometry is the description of the quantitative relationships among elements in a compound and
among substances as they undergo chemical change.
(b) Composition stoichiometry describes the quantitative relationships among elements in compounds,
e.g., in water, H2O, there are 2 hydrogen atoms for every 1 atom of oxygen. Reactionstoichiometry
describes the quantitative relationships among substances as they undergo chemical changes.
(Reaction stoichiometry will be discussed in Chapter 3.)

The common ions for each formula unit is listed below:

(a) MgCl2 contains Mg2+ and Cl- ions (b) (NH4)2CO3 contains NH4+ and CO32- ions
(c) Zn(NO3)2 contains Zn2+ and NO3- ions
2-5 Ethanol -CH3CH2OH Methanol-CH3OH

(space-filling; ball-and-stick) (space-filling; ball-and-stick)

Both are composed of hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen. Both have an oxygen and hydrogen on the end.
The ethanol molecule has an additional carbon and two hydrogens.
2-7 Organic compounds are those that contain carbon-to-carbon bonds, carbon-to-hydrogen bonds, or both.
Organic formulas given in Table 2-1 include: acetic acid- CH3COOH, methane- CH4, ethane- C2H6,
propane- C3H8, butane- C4H10, pentane- C5H12, benzene- C6H6, methanol- CH3OH, ethanol-
CH3CH2OH, acetone- CH3COCH3, diethyl ether- CH3CH2COCH2CH3.
2-9 Compounds from Table 2-1 that contain only carbon and hydrogen and are not shown in Figure 1-5:
Compound Ball and stick model Compound Ball and stick model
acetic acid- acetone-
CH3COOH CH3COCH3

2-1
methanol- diethyl ether-
CH3OH CH3CH2COCH2
CH3

2-2
2-11 (a) Formula weight is the mass in atomic mass units of the simplest formula of an ionic compound and
is found by adding the atomic weights of the atoms specified in the formula. The numerical amount
for the formula weight is the equal to the numerical amount for the mass in grams of one mole of
the substance.
(b) Molecular weight is the mass in atomic mass units of one molecule of a substance that is molecular,
rather than ionic. It is found by adding the atomic weights of the atoms specified in the formula.
The numerical amount for the molecular weight is the equal to the numerical amount for the mass
in grams of one mole of the substance.
(c) Structural formula is the representation that shows how atoms are connected in a compound.
(d) An ion is an atom or group of atoms that carries an electrical charge, which is caused by unequal
numbers of protons and electrons. A postive ion is a cation. A negative ion is an anion.

2-13 The formulas for (a) through (d) are given in Table 2-1.
(a) C4H10 (b) CH3CH2OH (c) SO3 (d) CH3COCH3 (e) CCl4

2-15 We can find most of the names of the appropriate ions in Table 2-2.
(a) magnesium chloride (b) iron(II) nitrate (c) sodium sulfate
(d) calcium hydroxide (e) iron(II) sulfate

2-17 Formulas are written to show the ions in the smallest ratio that gives no net charge. Compounds are
electrically neutral.
(a) NaOH, sodium hydroxide (b) Al2(CO3)3, aluminum carbonate
(c) Na3PO4, sodium phosphate (d) Ca(NO3)2, calcium nitrate
(e) FeCO3, iron(II) carbonate

2-19 (a) This chemical formula is incorrect. The atomic symbol for a potassium ion is K+, not P+.
The correct chemical formula for potassium iodide is KI.
(b) This chemical formula is correct.
(c) The chemical formula is incorrect. The symbol for a silver ion is Ag+. The correct chemical
formula for the carbonate ion is CO 32—. Therefore, the chemical formula for silver carbonate is
Ag2CO3.

2-21 (a) Al(OH)3 (b) MgCO3 (c) ZnCO3 (d) (NH4)2SO4 (e) ZnSO4

2-23 (a) CaCO3 (b) Mg(OH)2 (c) CH3COOH (d) NaOH (e) ZnO

? amu
2-25  58.693 x 2  117.386 amu/atom . The atomic weight of tin is 118.710 amu/atom.
atom

Tin, Sn, is the element with an atomic weight slightly over 117.386 amu.

2-27 (a) amu—a measurement of mass that is equal to exactly 1/12 of the mass of an atom of carbon-12.
(b) The mass of an atom of cobalt is almost twice that of an atom of aluminum (58.93/26.98).

2-29 Here we use the atomic weights to the number of places given in the periodic table in the inside front
cover of the text.

2-3
 (a) 1 x Ca = 1x 40.078 amu = 40.078 amu
1xS = 1x 32.066 amu = 32.066 amu
4xO = 4x 15.9994 amu = 63.9976 amu

FW = 136.142amu

(b) 3xC = 3 x 12.011 amu = 36.033 amu

8xH = 8 x 1.0079 amu = 8.0632 amu
FW = 44.096amu

(c) 6xC = 6x 12.011 amu = 72.066 amu

8xH = 8x 1.0079 amu = 8.0632 amu
1xS = 1x 32.066 amu = 32.066 amu
2xO = 2x 15.9994 amu = 31.9988 amu
2xN = 2x 14.0067 amu = 28.0134 amu
FW = 172.207amu

(d) 3xU = 3 x 238.0289 amu = 714.0867 amu

14 x O = 14 x 15.9994 amu = 223.9916 amu
2xP = 2 x 30.9738 amu = 61.9476 amu
FW = 1000.0259amu

1.76 g Ba 3.614 g Ba
2-31 The ratio of masses present is = 3.614 or . Based on the formula BaF2, this
0.487 g F 1.0 g F

1 atom Ba AW Ba 3.614
ratio represents . So the atomic mass ratio of Ba/F is or = 7.228
2 atoms F AW F 1.0/2
AW Ba
From a table of atomic weights, = 137.33 amu = 7.228
AW F 19.00 amu

This calculation could not be done without knowledge of the formula or some other knowledge of the
relative numbers of atoms present.
34.02 g H2O2
2-33 ? g H2O2 = 1.24 mol H2O2 x = 42.2 g H2O2
1 mol H2O2
1 mol K2CrO4
2-35 (a) ? Formula Units K2CrO4 = 154.3 g K2CrO4 x
194.20 g K2CrO4
6.022 x 1023 For. Units K CrO
23
x 2 4
= 4.785 x 10 Form. Units K2CrO 4
1 mol K2CrO4
2 K+ ions
(b) ? K+ ions = 4.785 x 1023 Formula Units K2CrO4 x =
1 For. unit K2CrO4
2-4
 9.570 x 1023 K+ ions

2-5
 1 CrO 2- ion
(c) ? CrO42– ions = 4.785 x 1023 Formula Units K2CrO4 x 4
=
1 For. Unit K2CrO4

4.785 x 1023 CrO2- ions

(d) Each formula unit contains 2 K, 1 Cr, and 4 O atoms, or 7 atoms total.
7 atoms
? atoms = 4.785 x 1023 Formula units K2CrO4 x = 3.350 x 1024 atoms
1 For. Unit K2CrO4

6.438 g Ne
2-37 = 0.3190 mole Ne
20.1797 g Ne per mole

2-39 (a) No. The molecular formulas are different, so the mass of one mole of molecules (the molar
mass) is different.
(b) Yes. One mole of any kind of molecules contains Avogadro’s number of molecules.
(c) No. This is for the same reason given in (a).
(d) No. The formulas are different, so there are different numbers of atoms per molecule and,
hence, different total numbers of atoms in equal numbers of molecules.

2-41 Here we show values in the table on the right front inside cover. The bolded amounts represents the
amounts the students fill in.
Element Formula Mass of one mole
of molecules
(a) Br Br2 159.808 g
(b) O O2 31.9988 g
(c) P P4 123.8952 g
(d) Ne Ne 20.1797 g
(e) S S8 256.53 g
(f) O O2 31.9988 g
63.546 g Cu 1 mol Cu
2-43 ? g/atom Cu = x = 1.055 x 10-22 g/ 1 atom Cu
1 mol Cu 23
6.022 x 10 atoms Cu
1 mol CH4 16.043 g CH4
2-45 ? molecules C3H8 = 8.00 x 106 molecules CH4 x x
6.022 x 1023 molecules CH4 1 mol CH4
1 mol CH 1 mol C H 6.022 x 1023 molecules C H
2.91 x 106 molecules C 3H8
4 x x 38
38=
1 mol C3H8 44.096 g C3H8 mol C3H8

2-47 FW Fe3(PO4)2 = 357.49 amu

3 x 55.85 amu Fe 46.8% Fe
% Fe = x 100% =
357.49 amu
2-6
2-49
Element Mass of Moles of Element Divide by
Element Smallest
60.00
C 60.00 = 4.995 mol 4.995
12.011 1.667 = 3.00

H 13.33 13.33 13.23

1.0079 = 13.23 mol
1.667 = 7.94
O 26.67 26.67
1.667
15.9994 = 1.667 mol
1.667 = 1.00

Total 100.00

Smallest Whole-Number Ratio of Atoms is C3H8O, the simplest formula.

Formula weight of simplest formula = 60 amu.
Since the formula weight of the simplest formula (FW = 60.09 amu) is equal to the approximate
molecular weight given, the molecular formula is the simplest formula, C3H8O

2-51 (a) % O = 100 % total – [9.79% H + 79.12% C] = 11.09% O

2 x 16.00 amu x 100
So, MW = = 288.5 amu
11.09

(b) % O = 100 % total – [9.79% H + 79.12% C] = 11.09% O

Element Rel. Mass Rel. No. Divide by Multiply

Element of Atoms Smallest by 2
C 79.12 79.12 6.588 19
12.011 = 6.588 0.6934 = 9.50
H 9.79 9.79 9.71 28
1.0079 = 9.71 0.6934 = 14.00

O 11.09 11.09 .6934 2

= 0.6934 = 1.00
15.994 0.6934
Total 100.00
The simplest formula is C19H28O2. Given that each molecule contains two O atoms, the
molecular formula is C19H28O2 . As a check on the MW calculated above, the MW of this
formula is 288.2.

2-7
2-53 (a)
Element Rel. Mass Rel. No. Divide by
Element of Atoms Smallest

Cu 30.03 30.03 0.4725

63.55 = 0.4725 0.4725 = 1.00

C 22.70 22.70 1.890

12.011 = 1.890 0.4725 = 4.00

H 1.91 1.91 1.895

1.008 = 1.895 0.4725 = 4.01

O 45.37 45.37 2.836

= 2.836 = 6.00
16.00 0.4725

Total 100.00
The simplest formula is CuC4H4O6
(b)

Element Rel. Mass Rel. No. Divide by

Element of Atoms Smallest

N 11.99 11.99 0.8558

14.01 = 0.8558 0.8557 = 1.00

O 13.70 13.70 0.8563

16.00 = 0.8563* 0.8557 = 1.00

B 9.25 9.25 0.8557

10.81 = 0.8557 0.8557 = 1.00

F 65.06 65.06 3.424

= 3.424 = 4.00
19.00 0.8557

Total 100.00
The simplest formula is NOBF4
*More significant digits can be kept throughout the problem and rounded for the final answer.
2-55 (a)
Element Mass of Rel. No. Divide by
Element of Atoms Smallest

N 5.60 5.60 0.400

= 0.400 = 1.00
14.01 0.400
Cl 14.2 14.2 0.401
= 0.401
2-8
= 0.792
 35.45 0.400 = 1.00

H 0.800 0.800 0.792

1.01 0.400 = 1.98  2

The simplest formula is NClH2 or NH2Cl

2-9
 (b)
Element Rel. Mass Rel. No. Divide by
Element of Atoms Smallest

N 26.2 26.2 1.87

14.01 = 1.87 1.87 = 1.00
Cl 66.4 66.4 1.87

35.45 = 1.87 1.87 = 1.00

H 7.5 7.5 7.43

1.01 = 7.43* 1.87 = 3.97  4

Total 100.00

The simplest formula is NClH4 or NH4Cl

*More significant digits can be kept throughout the problem and rounded for the final answer.

2-57
Element Rel. Mass Rel. No. Divide by
Element of Atoms Smallest

C 65.13 65.13 5.422

= 5.423 = 13.00
12.01 0.417
H 7.57 7.57 7.51
= 7.51 = 18.01
1.008 0.417
Cl 14.79 14.79 0.4172
= 0.4172 = 1.00
35. 45 0.417
N 5.84 5.84 0.417
= 0.417 = 1.00
14.01 0.417
O 6.67 6.67 0.417
= 0.417 = 1.00
16.00 0.417

Total 100.00
The simplest formula is C13H18ClNO

2-10
2-59
Element Rel. Mass Rel. No. Divide by
Element of Atoms Smallest

C 67.30 67.30 5.604

12.01 = 5.604 0.330 = 17.00
H 6.930 6.930 6.875
= 6.875
1.008 0.330 = 20.83  21
= 1.322
O 21.15 21.15 1.322
0.330 = 4.01
16.00 = 0.330
N 4.62 4.62 0.330
0.330 = 1.00
14.01

Total 100.00
The simplest formula is C17H21O4N

2-61 (a) FW C14H18N2O5 = 294.34 amu

14 x 12.011 amu C
%C= x 100% = 57.13% C
294.34 amu
18 x 1.01 amu H
%H= x 100% = 6.18% H
294.34 amu
2 x 14.01 amu N
%N= x 100% = 9.520% N
294.34 amu
5 x 16.00 amu O
%O= x 100% = 27.18% O
294.34 amu

(b) FW SiC = 40.097 amu

70.05% Si
1 x 28.086 amu Si
% Si = x 100% =
40.097 amu

29.95% C
1 x 12.011 amu C
%C= x 100% =
40.097 amu

(c) FW C9H8O4 = 180.17 amu

9 x 12.01 amu C 8 x 1.01 amu H

%C= %H=
180.17 amu 180.17 amu

2-11
 4 x 16.00 amu O
%O=
180.17 amu x 100% = 59.99% C

x 100% = 4.48% H

x 100% = 35.52% O

2-12
2-63 (a) Hydrogen peroxide’s actual formula is H2O2; however, its simplest formula or lowest whole
number ratio is HO.
(b) Water’s actual formula is H2O, while its simplest formula is also H2O.
(c) Ethylene glycol’s actual formula is C2H6O2; however, its simplest formula is CH3O.
12.01 g C
2-65 ?g C = 2.92 g CO2 x 44.010 g CO2 = 0.797 g C
2(1.008 g H)
?g H = 1.22 g H2O x 18.0152 g H O = 0.137 g H
2

?g O = 1.20 g – 0.797 g – 0.137 g = 0.27 g O

Element Mass of Rel. No. Divide by

Element of Atoms Smallest

C 0.797 0.797 0.0664

= 0.0664 = 3.93  
12.01 0.0169
H 0.137 0.137 0.136
= 0.136 = 8.05
1.008 0.0169
O 0.27 0.27 0.0169
= 0.0169 = 1.00
16.00 0.0169
C4H8O
The simplest formula is
12.011 g C
2-67 ?mol C = 4.839 g CO2 x 44.010 g CO2 = 1.321 g C
2(1.0079 g H)
?g H = 3.959 g H2O x 18.0152 g H2O = 0.4430 g H

?g N = 3.302 g − (1.321 + 0.4430) = 1.538 g N

Element Mass of Rel. No. Divide by
Element of Atoms Smallest

C 1.321 1.321 0.1100

= 0.1100 = 1.002  
12.01 0.1098
H 0.4430 0.4430 0.4395
= 0.4395 = 4.003  
1.008 0.1098
N 1.538 1.538 0.1098
= 0.1098 = 1.00
14.0067 0.1098

The simplest formula is CH4N

2-13
The actual substance has a molar mass of 60.10 g/mol , which has a molar mass of 30.049 g/mol
60.10
=2
The molecular formula is C2H8N2 , 30.049

2-14
 24.3 g Mg
2-69 ? g Mg = 0.104 g MgO x 40.31 g MgO = 0.0627 g Mg
2 x 1.01 g H
? g H = 0.0231 g H2O x 18.02 g H2O = 0.00259 g H
28.1 g Si
? g Si = 0.155 g SiO2 x 60.1 g SiO = 0.0725 g Si
2

? g O = 0.301 g total – [0.0627 g Mg + 0.00259 g H + 0.0725 g Si] = 0.163 g O

Element Mass of Rel. No. Divide by

Element of Atoms Smallest
0.0627
Mg 0.0627 = 0.00258 0.00258
24.3 0.00258 = 1.00
H 0.00259 0.00259 = 0.00256 0.00256
1.01 0.00258 = 1.00
Si 0.0725 0.0725 = 0.00258
28.1 0.00258
0.00258 = 1.00
O 0.163 0.163
16.00 = 0.0102 0.0102
0.00258 = 3.96  4

The simplest formula is MgHSiO4

2-71 Calculate the amount of O for a given amount of H in each compound:

1 x 16.00 amu O
In H2O: = 7.92 amu O/amu H
2 x 1.01 amu H
2 x 16.00 amu O
In H2O2: = 15.84 amu O/amu H
2 x 1.01 amu H

The mass of O in these two compounds is in the ratio 7.92 : 15.84 or 1 : 2. The masses of O that combine
with a fixed mass of H in the two compounds are in the ratio of small whole numbers, 1 : 2. Alternatively,
the masses of H that combine with a fixed mass of O could be compared.

2-73 If the M2O substance is 73.4% M by mass, then it is 26.6% Oxygen by mass.
15.9994 g O
This means that if you had one mole of M2O: 26.6 = x 100
x g M2 O

or that 60.148 would be the grams of M2O in a mole.

60.148 − 15.9994 = 44.15 as the mass of the 2 M atoms; each M is 22.07 g/mol
22.07 g M
So for MO: % M in MO = x 100 = 58.0 % M in MO
22.07 + 15.9994 g MO
2-15
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 Fig. 249.—Bregmaceros macclellandii.
A dwarf Gadoid, the only one found at the surface between the
Tropics. B. macclellandii scarcely exceeds three inches in length, is
not uncommon in the Indian Ocean, and has found its way to New
Zealand; specimens have been picked up in mid-ocean.
Murænolepis.—Body covered with lanceolate epidermoid
productions, intersecting each other at right angles like those of a
Freshwater-eel. Vertical fins confluent, no caudal being discernible; an
anterior dorsal fin is represented by a single filamentous ray; ventral
fins narrow, composed of several rays. A barbel. Jaws with a band of
villiform teeth; palate toothless.
One species (M. marmoratus) from Kerguelen’s Land.
 Chiasmodus.—Body naked; stomach and abdomen distensible.
Two dorsal fins and one anal; a separate caudal; ventral fins rather
narrow, with several rays. Upper and lower jaws with two series of
large pointed teeth, some of the anterior being very large and
movable; teeth on the palatine bones, but none on the vomer. Chin
without barbel.
This Gadoid (Ch. niger, Fig. 111, p. 311), inhabits great depths in
the Atlantic (to 1500 fathoms). The specimen figured was taken with
a large Scopeloid in its stomach.
Brosmius.—Body moderately elongate, covered with very small
scales. A separate caudal, one dorsal, and one anal; ventrals narrow,
composed of five rays. Vomerine and palatine teeth. A barbel.
The “Torsk” (B. brosme) is confined to the northern parts of the
temperate zone, and probably extends to the arctic circle.

Third Family—Ophidiidæ.
Body more or less elongate, naked, or scaly. Vertical fins
generally united; no separate anterior dorsal or anal; dorsal
occupying the greater portion of the back. Ventral fins rudimentary or
absent, jugular. Gill-openings wide, the gill-membranes not attached
to the isthmus.
Marine fishes (with the exception of Lucifuga), partly littoral, partly
bathybial. They may be divided into five groups.
I. Ventral fins present, attached to the humeral arch: Brotulina.
Brotula.—Body elongate, covered with minute scales. Eye of
moderate size. Each ventral reduced to a single filament, sometimes
bifid at its extremity. Teeth villiform; snout with barbels. One pyloric
appendage.
Five species of small size from the Tropical Atlantic and Indian
Ocean.
 Fig. 250.—Lucifuga dentata, from caves in Cuba.
Lucifuga are Brotula organised for a subterranean life. The eye is
absent, or quite rudimentary, and covered by the skin; the barbels of
Brotula are replaced by numerous minute ciliæ or tubercles. They
inhabit the subterranean waters of caves in Cuba, and never come
to the light.
Bathynectes.—Body produced into a long tapering tail, without
caudal. Mouth very wide, villiform teeth in the jaws, on the vomer and
palatine bones. Barbel none. Ventral fins reduced to simple or bifid
filaments, placed close together, and near to the humeral symphysis.
Gill-membranes not united; gill-laminæ remarkably short. Bones of the
head soft and cavernous; operculum with a very feeble spine above.
Deep-sea fishes, inhabiting depths varying from 1000 to 2500
fathoms. Three species are known, the largest specimen obtained
being seventeen inches long.

Fig. 251.—Acanthonus armatus.

Acanthonus.—Head large and thick, armed in front and on the
opercles with strong spines; trunk very short, the vent being below the
pectoral; tail thin, strongly compressed, tapering, without caudal. Eye
small. Mouth very wide; villiform teeth in the jaws, on the vomer and
palatine bones. Barbel none. Ventrals reduced to simple filaments
 placed close together on the humeral symphysis. Scales extremely
small. Bones of the head soft.
Only two specimens, thirteen inches long, of this remarkable
deep-sea form have been obtained, at a depth of 1075 fathoms, in
the Indian Ocean.
Typhlonus.—Head large, compressed, with most of the bones in
a cartilaginous condition; the superficial bones with large muciferous
cavities, not armed. Snout a thick protuberance projecting beyond the
mouth, which is rather small and inferior. Trunk very short, the vent
being below the pectoral; tail thin, strongly compressed, tapering,
without separate caudal. Eye externally not visible. Villiform teeth in
the jaws, on the vomer and palatine bones. Barbel none. Scales thin,
deciduous, small.
Also of this deep-sea fish two specimens only are known, 10
inches long, from a depth of 2200 fathoms in the Western Pacific.
Aphyonus.—Head, body, and tapering tail strongly compressed,
enveloped in a thin, scaleless, loose skin. Vent far behind the pectoral.
Snout swollen, projecting beyond the wide mouth. No teeth in the
upper jaw, small ones in the lower. No externally visible eye. Barbel
none. Head covered with a system of wide muciferous channels, the
dermal bones being almost membranaceous, whilst the others are in a
semi-cartilaginous condition. Notochord persistent, but with a
superficial indication of vertebral segments.

Fig. 252.—Aphyonus gelatinosus.

One specimen only of this most remarkable form is known; it is
5½ inches long, and was obtained at a depth of 1400 fathoms south
of New Guinea.
Of the remaining genera belonging to this group, Brotulophis,
Halidesmus, Dinematichthys, and Bythites are surface forms;
Sirembo and Pteridium inhabit moderate depths; Rhinonus is a
deep-sea fish.
II. Ventral fins replaced by a pair of bifid filaments (barbels)
inserted below the glossohyal: Ophidiinæ.
Ophidium.—Body elongate, compressed, covered with very small
scales. Eye of moderate size. All the teeth small.
Small fishes from the Atlantic and Pacific. Seven species are
known, differing from one another in the structure of the air-bladder
(see p. 145).
Genypterus is a larger form of Ophidium, in which the outer
series of teeth in the jaws and the single palatine series contains
strong teeth.
Three species from the Cape of Good Hope, South Australia,
New Zealand, and Chili are known. They grow to a length of five
feet, and have an excellent flesh, like cod, well adapted for curing. At
the Cape they are known by the name of “Klipvisch,” and in New
Zealand as “Ling” or “Cloudy Bay Cod.”
III. No ventral fins whatever; vent at the throat: Fierasferina.
These fishes (Fierasfer and Encheliophis) are of very small size
and eel-like in shape; the ten species known are found in the
Mediterranean, Atlantic, and Indo-Pacific. As far as is known they
live parasitically in cavities of other marine animals, accompany
Medusæ, and more especially penetrate into the respiratory cavities
of Star-fishes and Holothurians. Not rarely they attempt other
animals less suited for their habits, as, for instance, Bivalves; and
cases are known in which they have been found imprisoned below
the mantle of the Mollusk, or covered over with a layer of the pearly
substance secreted by it. They are perfectly harmless to their host,
and merely seek for themselves a safe habitation, feeding on the
animalcules which enter with the water the cavity inhabited by them.
IV. No ventral fins whatever; vent remote from the head; gill-
openings very wide, the gill-membranes not being united:
Ammodytina.
 The “Sand-eels” or “Launces” (Ammodytes) are extremely
common on sandy shores of Europe and North America. They live in
large shoals, rising as with one accord to the surface, or diving to the
bottom, where they bury themselves with incredible rapidity in the
sand. They are much sought after for bait by fishermen, who
discover their presence on the surface by watching the action of
Porpoises which feed on them. These Cetaceans, when they meet
with a shoal, know how to keep it on the surface by diving below and
swimming round it, thus destroying large numbers of them. The most
common species on the British coast is the Lesser Sand-eel (A.
tobianus); the Greater Sand-eel (A. lanceolatus), which attains to a
length of eighteen inches; A. siculus, from the Mediterranean,
scarcer in British seas. Two species live on the American coasts, A.
americanus and A. dubius; one in California, A. personatus.
Bleekeria from Madras is the second genus of this group.

Fig. 253.—Congrogadus subducens.

V. No ventral fins whatever; vent remote from the head; gill-
openings of moderate width, the gill-membranes being united below
the throat, not attached to the isthmus: Congrogadina.
Only two fishes belong to this group—Congrogadus from the
Australian coasts, and Haliophis from the Red Sea.

Fourth Family—Macruridæ.
Body terminating in a long, compressed, tapering tail, covered
with spiny, keeled, or striated scales. One short anterior dorsal; the
second very long, continued to the end of the tail, and composed of
very feeble rays; anal of an extent similar to that of the second
dorsal; no caudal. Ventral fins thoracic or jugular, composed of
several rays.

Fig. 254.—Scale of Macrurus

trachyrhynchus.

Fig. 255.—Scale of Macrurus

cœlorhynchus.
 Fig. 256.—Scale from the lateral line
of Macrurus australis.
This family, known a few years ago from a limited number of
examples, representing a few species only, proves to be one which
is distributed over all oceans, occurring in considerable variety and
great abundance at depths of from 120 to 2600 fathoms. They are, in
fact, Deep-sea Gadoids, much resembling each other in the general
shape of their body, but differing in the form of the snout and in the
structure of their scales. About forty species are known, of which
many attain a length of three feet. They have been referred to the
following genera:—
 Fig. 257.—Macrurus australis.
Macrurus.—Scales of moderate size; snout produced, conical;
mouth inferior.
Coryphænoides.—Scales of moderate size; snout obtuse,
obliquely truncated; cleft of the mouth lateral.
Macruronus.—Scales of moderate size, spiny; snout pointed;
mouth anterior and lateral, with the lower jaw projecting.
Malacocephalus.—Scales very small, ctenoid; snout short,
obtuse, obliquely truncated.
Bathygadus.—Scales small, cycloid; snout not projecting beyond
the mouth; mouth wide, anterior, and lateral.
Ateleopus from Japan and Xenocephalus from New Ireland are
genera belonging to the Gadoid Anacanths, but are very imperfectly
known.

Second Division—Anacanthini Pleuronectoidei.

Head and part of the body unsymmetrically formed.
This division consists of one family only:
 Pleuronectidæ.
The fishes of this family are called “Flat-fishes,” from their
strongly compressed, high, and flat body; in consequence of the
absence of an air-bladder, and of the structure of their paired fins,
they are unable to maintain their body in a vertical position, resting
and moving on one side of the body only. The side turned towards
the bottom is sometimes the left, sometimes the right, colourless,
and termed the “blind” side; that turned upwards and towards the
light is variously, and in some tropical species even vividly, coloured.
Both eyes are on the coloured side, on which side also the muscles
are more strongly developed. The dorsal and anal fins are
exceedingly long, without division. All the Flat-fishes undergo
remarkable changes with age, which, however, are very imperfectly
known and not yet fully understood, from the difficulty of referring
larval forms to their respective parents. The larvæ are, singularly
enough, much more frequently met in the open ocean than near the
coast; they are transparent, like Leptocephali; perfectly symmetrical,
with an eye on each side of the head, and swim in a vertical position
like other fishes. The manner in which one eye is transferred from
the blind to the coloured side is subject to discussion. Whilst some
naturalists believe that the eye turning round its axis pushes its way
through the yielding bones from the blind to the upper side, others
hold that, as soon as the body of the fish commences to rest on one
side only, the eye of that side, in its tendency to turn towards the
light, carries the surrounding parts of the head with it; in fact, the
whole of the fore-part of the head is twisted towards the coloured
side, which is a process of but little difficulty as long as the
framework of the head is still cartilaginous.
Flat-fishes when adult live always on the bottom, and swim with
an undulating motion of their body. Sometimes they rise to the
surface; they prefer sandy bottom, and do not descend to any
considerable depth. They occur in all seas, except in the highest
latitudes and on rocky, precipitous coasts, becoming most numerous
towards the equator; those of the largest size occur in the temperate
zone. Some enter fresh water freely, and others have become
entirely acclimatised in ponds and rivers. All are carnivorous.
 Flat-fishes were not abundant in the tertiary epoch; the only
representative known is a species of Rhombus from Monte Bolca.
The size and abundance of Flat-fishes, and the flavour of the
flesh of the majority of the species, render this family one of the most
useful to man; and especially on the coasts of the northern
temperate zone, their capture is one of the most important sources
of profit to the fishermen.
Psettodes.—Mouth very wide, the maxillary being more than one-
half of that of the head. Each jaw armed with two series of long,
slender, curved, distant teeth, the front teeth of the inner series of the
lower jaw being the longest, and received in a groove before the
vomer; vomerine and palatine teeth. The dorsal fin commences on the
nape of the neck.
This genus fitly heads the list of Flat-fishes, having retained more
of symmetrical structure than the other members of the family, and,
therefore, their eyes are as often found on the right as on the left
side. It seems to swim, not unfrequently, in a vertical position. Only
one species is known, Ps. erumei, common in the Indian Ocean.
Hippoglossus.—Eyes on the right side; mouth wide, the length
of the maxillary being one-third of that of the head. Teeth in the
upper jaw in a double series; the anterior of the upper jaw and the
lateral of the lower strong. The dorsal fin commences above the eye.
The “Holibut” (H. vulgaris) is the largest of all Flat-fishes, attaining
to a length of five and six feet, and a weight of several
hundredweights. It is found along the northern coasts of Europe, on
the coasts of Kamtschatka and California, particularly frequenting
banks situated at some distance from the coast, and at a depth of 50
to 120 fathoms.
Other genera, with nearly symmetrical mouth, in which the dorsal
fin commences above the eye, are Hippoglossoides (the “Rough
Dab”) and Tephritis.
Rhombus.—Eyes on the left side. Mouth wide, the length of the
maxillary being more than one-third of that of the head. Each jaw with
a band of villiform teeth, without canines; vomerine teeth, none on the
 palatines. The dorsal fin commences on the snout. Scales none or
small.
Seven species from the North Atlantic and Mediterranean, of
which the most noteworthy are the “Turbot,” Rh. maximus, one of the
most valued food-fishes, and growing to a length of three feet; the
“Turbot of the Black Sea,” Rh. mæoticus, the body of which is
covered with bony, conical tubercles, which are as large as the eye;
the “Brill,” Rh. lævis, represented on the North American coasts by
Rh. aquosus; the “Whiff,” or “Mary-sole,” or “Sail-fluke,” Rh.
megastoma; “Bloch’s Top-knot,” Rh. punctatus (described by Yarrell
as Rh. hirtus, and often confounded with the following species).
Phrynorhombus, differing from Rhombus in lacking vomerine
teeth. The scales are very small and spiny.
The “Top-knot” (Ph. unimaculatus) occurs occasionally on the
south coast of England, and is more common in the Mediterranean;
it is a small species.
Arnoglossus.—Mouth wide, the length of the maxillary being
more or not much less than one-third of that of the head. Teeth
minute, in a single series in both jaws; vomerine or palatine teeth
none. The dorsal fin commences on the snout. Scales of moderate
size, deciduous; lateral line with a strong curve above the pectoral.
Eyes on the left side.

Seven species from European and Indian Seas. The “Scald-fish”

(A. laterna) is common in the Mediterranean, and extends to the
south coast of England; it is a small species.
Pseudorhombus.—Mouth wide, the length of the maxillary being
more than one-third of that of the head. Teeth in both jaws in a single
series, of unequal size; vomerine or palatine teeth none. The dorsal
fin commences on the snout. Scales small; lateral line with a strong
curve anteriorly. Eyes on the left side. Interorbital space not concave.

A tropical genus with a few outlying species, represented chiefly

in the Indo-Pacific, and also in the Atlantic. Seventeen species.
Rhomboidichthys.—Mouth of moderate width or small. Teeth
minute, in a single or double series; vomerine or palatine teeth none.
Eyes separated by a concave more or less broad space. The dorsal
 fin commences on the snout. Scales ciliated; lateral line with a strong
curve anteriorly. Eyes on the left side.
A tropical genus, but also represented in the Mediterranean and
on the coast of Japan. Sixteen species, the majority of which are
prettily coloured and ornamented with ocellated spots; in some
species the adult males have some of the fin-rays prolonged into
filaments.
Other genera with nearly symmetrical mouth, in which the dorsal
fin commences before the eye, on the snout, are Citharus,
Anticitharus, Brachypleura, Samaris, Psettichthys, Citharichthys,
Hemirhombus, Paralichthys, Liopsetta, Lophonectes, Lepidopsetta,
and Thysanopsetta.
Pleuronectes.—Cleft of the mouth narrow, with the dentition
much more developed on the blind side than on the coloured. Teeth in
a single or in a double series, of moderate size; palatine and vomerine
teeth none. The dorsal fin commences above the eye. Scales very
small or entirely absent. Eyes generally on the right side.
This genus is characteristic of the littoral fauna of the northern
temperate zone, a few species ranging to the Arctic circle. Twenty-
three species are known, of which the following are the most
noteworthy: P. platessa, the “Plaice,” ranging from the coast of
France to Iceland; P. glacialis, from the Arctic coasts of North
America; P. americanus, the transatlantic representative of the
Plaice; P. limanda, the common “Dab;” P. microcephalus, the
“Smear-dab;” P. cynoglossus, the “Craig-fluke;” P. flesus, the
“Flounder.”
Rhombosolea.—Eyes on the right side, the lower in advance of
the upper. Mouth narrower on the right side than on the left; teeth on
the blind side only, villiform; palatine and vomerine teeth none. The
dorsal fin commences on the foremost part of the snout. Only one
ventral which is continuous with the anal. Scales very small, cycloid;
lateral line straight.
This genus represents Pleuronectes in the Southern Hemisphere,
but consists of three species only, which occur on the coasts of New
Zealand, and are valued as food-fishes.
 Other genera, with narrow unsymmetrical mouth, in which the
upper eye is not in advance of the lower, and which have pectoral
fins, are Parophrys, Psammodiscus, Ammotretis, Peltorhamphus,
Nematops, Læops, and Poecilopsetta.
Solea.—Eyes on the right side, the upper being more or less in
advance of the lower. Cleft of the mouth narrow, twisted round to the
left side. Villiform teeth on the blind side only; vomerine or palatine
teeth none. The dorsal fin commences on the snout, and is not
confluent with the caudal. Scales very small, ctenoid; lateral line
straight.
“Soles” are numerously represented in all suitable localities within
the temperate and tropical zones, with the exception of the southern
parts of the southern temperate zone, in which they are absent.
Some enter or live in fresh water. Nearly forty species are known.
British are S. vulgaris, the common “Sole;” S. aurantiaca, the
“Lemon-sole,” which is rather a southern species, and inhabits, on
the south coast of England, deeper water than the common Sole; S.
variegata, the “Banded Sole,” with very small pectoral fins; and S.
minuta, the “Dwarf-Sole.”—Allied to Solea are Pardachirus and
Liachirus from the Indian coasts.
Synaptura.—Eyes on the right side, the upper in advance of the
lower. Cleft of the mouth narrow, twisted round to the left side; minute
teeth on the left side only. Vertical fins confluent. Scales small,
ctenoid; lateral line straight.
Twenty species; with the exception of two from the Mediterranean
and coast of Portugal, all belong to the fauna of the Indian Ocean.—
Closely allied is Aesopia.
Gymnachirus.—Mouth very small, toothless. Scales none, lateral
line straight. Eyes on the right side. The dorsal fin commences on the
snout; caudal free. Pectorals rudimentary or entirely absent.
Two species from the Tropical Atlantic.
Cynoglossus.—Eyes on the left side; pectorals none; vertical fins
confluent. Scales ctenoid; lateral line on the left side double or triple;
upper part of the snout produced backwards into a hook; mouth
unsymmetrical, rather narrow. Teeth minute, on the right side only.
 Abundant in the Indian seas, and especially on the flat sandy
shores of China. About thirty-five species are known, which rarely
exceed a length of eighteen inches. They are easily recognised by
their long narrow shape (which has been compared to a dog’s
tongue) and the peculiar form of their snout.
To complete the list of Pleuronectoid genera, the following have
to be mentioned: Soleotalpa and Apionichthys, Soles with
rudimentary eyes; Ammopleurops, Aphoristia, and Plagusia, which
are closely allied to Cynoglossus, the latter genus having the lips
provided with tentacles.

Fourth Order—Physostomi.
All the fin-rays articulated, only the first of the dorsal and pectoral
fins is sometimes ossified. Ventral fins, if present, abdominal, without
spine. Air-bladder, if present, with a pneumatic duct (except in
Scombresocidæ).

First Family—Siluridæ.
Skin naked or with osseous scutes, but without scales. Barbels
always present; maxillary bone rudimentary, almost always forming a
support to a maxillary barbel. Margin of the upper jaw formed by the
intermaxillaries only. Suboperculum absent. Air-bladder generally
present, communicating with the organ of hearing by means of the
auditory ossicles. Adipose fin present or absent.
A large family, represented by numerous genera, which exhibit a
great variety of form and structure of the fins; they inhabit the fresh
waters of all the temperate and tropical regions; a few enter the sea
but keep near the coast. The first appearance of Siluroids is
indicated by some fossil remains in tertiary deposits of the highlands
of Padang in Sumatra, where Pseudeutropius and Bagarius, types
well represented in the living Indian fauna, have been found. Also in
North America spines referable to Cat-fishes have been found in
tertiary formations.
 The skeleton of the typical Siluroids shows many peculiarities.
The cranial cavity is not membranous on the sides, but closed as in
the Cyprinidæ, by the orbitosphenoids and the ethmoid that unite
with the prefrontals, carrying forward the cranial cavity to the nasal
bone, without leaving a membranous septum between the orbits. But
the supraoccipital is greatly developed, and in many the post-
temporal is united by suture to the sides of the cranium. In numerous
members of the family the skull is enlarged posteriorly, by dermal
ossifications, to form a kind of helmet which spreads over the nape;
the lateral angles of this production are formed by the suprascapulæ,
augmented and fixed by suture, and the median part is the extension
of the supraoccipital, which is generally very large, is connected
anteriorly with the frontal, and passing backwards between the
postfrontals, the parietals, the mastoids, and the suprascapulæ,
goes past them all on to the nape. The mastoids interpose between
the postfrontals and the parietals, so as to come in contact with the
supraoccipital, and the parietals but little developed are pressed to
the back part of the cranium, and in some instances wholly
disappear.
The suprascapula most frequently unites to the mastoid by an
immovable suture, which includes the parietal when that bone is
present, and extends even to the supraoccipital. It gives out besides
two processes, one of them resting on the exoccipital and basi-
occipital, or wedging itself between them, and the other going to the
first vertebra; sometimes a plate from the exoccipital supports the
same vertebra. This vertebra, though it presents a pretty continuous
centrum beneath, is in reality composed of three or four coalescent
vertebræ, as we ascertain by its diapophyses, by the circular
elevations of the neural canal, and by the holes for the exit of the
pairs of spinal nerves. There is great variety in the development of
the various processes of the bones we have mentioned, and there is
no less in the magnitude and connections of the first three
interneurals.
In general in the species which have a strong dorsal spine the
second and third interneurals unite to form a single plate, the
“buckler;” the great spine is articulated to the third interneural, and
there is only the vestige of a spine on the second interneural in form
of a small oval bone, forked below, whose function is to act as a bolt
or fulcrum to the great spine when the fish wishes to use it as an
offensive weapon. The great spine itself is joined by a ring to a
second spine, which belongs to the third interneural. This articulation
by ring exists in Lophius and a few other fishes not of this family.
The first interneural does not carry a ray, and it varies much in
the species whose helmet is continuous with the buckler, as in many
of the Bagri and Pimelodi. In these cases the supraoccipital,
extending backwards, conceals the first interneural, passing over it
to touch with its point the buckler formed by the second and third
interneurals. In other instances, as in Synodontis and Auchenipterus,
the supraoccipital and second interneural, forking and expanding,
inclose and join themselves to the first interneural, but leave a larger
or smaller space in the middle of the nuchal armour which they
contribute to form. When the point of the supraoccipital does not
reach quite to the second interneural, the first interneural remains
free from connection, and occasionally shows as a narrow plate
interposed between the other two; in such a case the helmet is not
continuous with the buckler.
The neural spines of the coalescent centra, which form the
apparently single first vertebra, concur also in sustaining the nuchal
plate-armour and the first great dorsal spine. They carry the
interneurals, are joined to them by suture, and one of them is often
inclined towards the occiput to assist in sustaining the head; in fact,
this part of the skeleton is constructed to give firm mutual support.
The shoulder-girdle of the Siluroids is also formed to give
resistance to the strong weapon with which it is frequently armed.
The post-temporal, as we have said above, is often united by suture
to the cranium, and it obtains support below by one or two processes
that are fixed on the basioccipitals and on the diapophysis of the first
vertebra.
In most osseous fishes the clavicle completes the lower key of
the scapular arch in joining its fellow by suture or synchondrosis
without the intervention of the coracoid; but in the Siluroids the
coracoid descends to take part in this joint, and sometimes even to
occupy the half of the suture, which is not unfrequently constructed
of very deep interlocking serratures. The solidity of this base of the
pectoral spine is further augmented by the intimate union of the
coracoid and scapula, which often extends to junction by suture, or
even to coalescence; and these bones, moreover, give off two bony
arches—the first a slender one, arising from the salient edge of the
coracoid near the pectoral fin, and going to the interior face of the
scapular that is applied to the interior surface of the ascending
branch of the clavicle; the second and broader supplementary arch
is often perforated by a large hole; it also emanates from the same
salient edge of the radius, but proceeds in opposite direction to the
inferior edge of the clavicle, a little before the insertion of the pectoral
spine. The two arches give attachments to the muscles that move
this spine; in the Synodontes and many Bagri the upper arch
remains in a cartilaginous or ligamentous condition, while in
Malapterurus it is the lower arch that does not ossify, but both are
fully formed in the Siluri and many other Siluroids more closely allied
to that typical genus. The postclavicle is also wanting in the
Siluroids. The pterygoid and entopterygoid are reduced to a single
bone, the symplectic is wholly wanting, and the palatine is merely a
slender cylindrical bone. The sub-operculum is likewise constantly
absent in all the Siluroids.
The great number of different generic types has necessitated a
further division of this family into eight subdivisions:
I. Siluridæ Homalopteræ.—The dorsal and anal fins are very
long, nearly equal in extent to the corresponding parts of the
vertebral column.

a. Clariina.
Clarias.—Dorsal fin extending from the neck to the caudal,
without adipose division. Cleft of the mouth transverse, anterior, of
moderate width; barbels eight; one pair of nasal, one of maxillary, and
two pairs of mandibulary barbels. Eyes small. Head depressed; its
upper and lateral parts are osseous, or covered with only a very thin
skin. A dendritic accessory branchial organ is attached to the convex
side of the second and fourth branchial arches, and received in a
 cavity behind the gill-cavity proper. Ventrals six-rayed; only the
pectoral has a pungent spine. Body eel-like.
Twenty species from Africa, the East Indies, and the intermediate
parts of Asia; some attain to a length of six feet. They inhabit muddy
and marshy waters; the physiological function of the accessory
branchial organ is not known. Its skeleton is formed by a soft
cartilaginous substance covered by mucous membrane, in which the
vessels are imbedded. The vessels arise from branchial arteries, and
return the blood into branchial veins. The vernacular name of the
Nilotic species is “Carmoot.”
Heterobranchus differs from Clarias only in the structure of the
dorsal fin, the posterior portion of which is adipose.
The geographical range of this genus is not quite co-extensive
with that of Clarias, inasmuch as it is limited to Africa and the East-
Indian Archipelago. Six species.

b. Plotosina.
Plotosus.—A short dorsal fin in front, with a pungent spine; a
second long dorsal coalesces with the caudal and anal. Vomerine
teeth molar-like. Barbels eight or ten; one immediately before the
posterior nostril, which is remote from the anterior, the latter being
quite in front of the snout. Cleft of the mouth transverse. Eyes small.
The gill-membranes are not confluent with the skin of the isthmus.
Ventral fins many-rayed. Head depressed; body elongate.
 Fig. 258.—Mouth of Cnidoglanis
megastoma, Australia.
Three species are known from brackish waters of the Indian
Ocean freely entering the sea. Plotosus anguillaris is distinguished
by two white longitudinal bands, and is one of the most generally
distributed and common Indian fishes.—Copidoglanis and
Cnidoglanis are two very closely allied forms, chiefly from rivers and
brackish waters of Australia. None of these Siluroids attain to a
considerable size. Chaca, from the East Indies, belongs likewise to
this sub-family.

Fig. 259.—Cnidoglanis microcephalus.