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Printed in the United States of America

Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2016
S I D LO W / H E N S C H E N
9
GOVT PART I THE FOUNDATIONS OF OUR AMERICAN SYSTEM 2
1 America in the Twenty-First Century 2
2 The Constitution 24
3 Federalism 48
PART II OUR LIBERTIES AND RIGHTS 72

4 Civil Liberties 72
5 Civil Rights 98
PART III THE POLITICS OF DEMOCRACY 122

6 Interest Groups 122
7 Political Parties 144
8 Public Opinion and Voting 168
9 Campaigns and Elections 192
10 Politics and the Media 216
PART IV INSTITUTIONS 236

11 The Congress 236
12 The Presidency 262
13 The Bureaucracy 288
14 The Judiciary 310
PART V PUBLIC POLICY 334

15 Domestic Policy 334
16 Foreign Policy 356
Appendix A The Declaration of Independence A–1

Appendix B The Constitution of the United States A–3
Appendix C Federalist Papers No. 10 and No. 51 A–12
Alex Belomlinsky/DigitalVision Vectors/Getty Images
Appendix D Answers to Chapter Quiz Questions A–18

Appendix E Information on U.S. Presidents (Online)
Appendix F Party Control of Congress since 1900 (Online)
Notes N–1
Glossary G–1
Index I–1
Chapter in Review Cards 1–32
CONTENTS
Skill Prep: A Study Skills Module SP–1 1–4 b Liberalism 18

Take Action: A Guide to Political 1–4c The Traditional Political Spectrum 19
1–4d Beyond Conservatism and Liberalism 19
Participation TA–1
AMERICA AT ODDS: Must We Give Up Some of Our
Freedoms to Destroy ISIS? 3
JOIN THE DEBATE: Is Our Government Too Large? 12
2016 ELECTION 15
Part I PERCEPTION VERSUS REALITY: Do Immigrants Take

American Jobs? 17
AMERICA AT ODDS: America in the Twenty-First
THE FOUNDATIONS OF Century 21
OUR AMERICAN SYSTEM 2 2 THE CONSTITUTION 24

Blend Images/Getty Images
Introduction 26
Int
2–1 The Beginnings of American Government 26
2–
2–1a The First English Settlements 26
2–1b Colonial Legislatures 28
2–2 The Rebellion of the Colonists 28
2–
2–2a “Taxation without Representation” 29
2–2b The Continental Congresses 30
2–2c Breaking the Ties: Independence 30
2–3 The Confederation of States 33
2–
1
2–3a The Articles of Confederation 33
2–3b A Time of Crisis—The 1780s 34
AMERICA IN THE TWENTY-FIRST
2–4 Drafting and Ratifying the Constitution 36
CENTURY 2
2–4a Who Were the Delegates? 36
Introduction 4 2–4b The Virginia Plan 37
1–1 What Are Politics and Government? 4 2–4c The New Jersey Plan 37
1–1a Defining Politics and Government 4 2–4d The Compromises 37
1–1b Resolving Conflicts 5 2–4e Defining the Executive and the Judiciary 39
1–1c Providing Public Services 5 2–4f The Final Draft Is Approved 39
1–1d Defending the Nation and Its Culture 6 2–4g The Debate over Ratification 39
1–2 Different Systems of Government 7 2–4h Ratification 41
1–2a Undemocratic Systems 7 2–4i Did a Majority of Americans Support the
Constitution? 41
1–2b Democratic Systems 8
1–2c Other Forms of Government 10 2–5 The Constitution’s Major Principles of Government 41
2–5a Limited Government, Popular Sovereignty, and
1–3 American Democracy 10 the Rule of Law 42
1–3a The British Legacy 10 2–5b The Principle of Federalism 42
1–3b Principles of American Democracy 11 2–5c Separation of Powers 43
1–3c American Political Values 11 2–5d Checks and Balances 43
1–3d Political Values and a Divided Electorate 14 2–5e Limited versus Effective Government 44
1–3e Political Values in a Changing Society 15 2–5f The Bill of Rights 44
1–4 American Political Ideology 16 2–5g Amending the Constitution 44
1–4a Conservatism 16
iv Contents
AMERICA AT ODDS: Should We Call a New
Constitutional Convention? 25
JOIN THE DEBATE: Was the United States Meant to Be
a Christian Nation? 27
Part II
PERCEPTION VERSUS REALITY: The Slavery Issue 40 OUR LIBERTIES
THE REST OF THE WORLD: The Parliamentary
Alternative 45 AND RIGHTS 72
AMERICA AT ODDS: The Constitution 46
3 FEDERALISM 48
Introduction 50
3–1 Federalism and Its Alternatives 50
AFP/Getty Images
3–1a What Is Federalism? 50
3–1b Alternatives to Federalism 51
3–1c Federalism—An Optimal Choice for the
United States? 51
3–2 The Constitutional Division of Powers 54
3–2a
3–2b
3–2c
The Powers of the National Government 54
The Powers of the States 55
Interstate Relations 57
4 CIVIL LIBERTIES 72
Introduction 74
3–2d Concurrent Powers 58
3–2e The Supremacy Clause 59 4–1 The Constitutional Basis for Our Civil Liberties 74
3–3 The Struggle for Supremacy 59 4–1a Safeguards in the Original Constitution 74
4–1b The Bill of Rights 74
3–3a Early United States Supreme Court Decisions 59
4–1c The Incorporation Principle 75
3–3b The Civil War—The Ultimate Supremacy
Battle 61 4–2 Freedom of Religion 77
3–3c Dual Federalism—From the Civil War to 4–2a Laws on Religion in the Colonies 77
the 1930s 61 4–2b The Establishment Clause 79
3–3d Cooperative Federalism and the Growth of the 4–2c Prayer in the Schools 79
National Government 62
4–2d Evolution Versus Creationism 80
3– 4 Federalism Today 63 4–2e Aid to Parochial Schools 81
3–4a The New Federalism—More Power to the 4–2f The Free Exercise Clause 82
States 63
3–4b The Supreme Court and the New Federalism 64 4–3 Freedom of Expression 83
3–4c The Shifting Boundary between Federal and 4–3a The Right to Free Speech Is Not Absolute 84
State Authority 64 4–3b Subversive Speech 84
3– 5 The Fiscal Side of Federalism 66 4–3c Limited Protection for Commercial Speech 84
3–5a Federal Grants 66 4–3d Unprotected Speech 85
3–5b Federal Grants and State Budgets 67 4–3e Free Speech for Students? 86
3–5c Federalism and Economic Cycles 68 4–3f Freedom of the Press 86
3–5d Using Federal Grants to Control the States 68 4–4 The Right to Privacy 87
3–5e The Cost of Federal Mandates 68 4–4a The Abortion Controversy 87
3–5f Competitive Federalism 68 4–4b Do We Have the “Right to Die”? 88
AMERICA AT ODDS: Should Recreational Marijuana Be 4–4c Privacy and Personal Information 88
Legal? 49 4–4d Personal Privacy and National Security 90
THE REST OF THE WORLD: Canadian versus American
4–5 The Rights of the Accused 92
Federalism 53
JOIN THE DEBATE: Should Most Federal Lands Be 4–5a The Rights of Criminal Defendants 92
Transferred to the States? 56 4–5b The Exclusionary Rule 93
PERCEPTION VERSUS REALITY: The Best Government 4–5c The Miranda Warnings 94
Is Local Government 57
AMERICA AT ODDS: Federalism 70
Contents v
AMERICA AT ODDS: Do U.S. Citizens Really Need
Military-Style Rifles? 73
THE REST OF THE WORLD: Banning Americans from
Entering Britain—and Vice Versa 78
Part III
PERCEPTION VERSUS REALITY: The Availability of THE POLITICS OF
DEMOCRACY 122
Abortion 89
JOIN THE DEBATE: Is the Death Penalty a Cruel and
Unusual Punishment? 93
AMERICA AT ODDS: Civil Liberties 95
5 CIVIL RIGHTS 98
LightRocket /Getty Images

Andy Katz/Pacific Press/
Introduction 100
5–1 The Equal Protection Clause 100
5–1a Strict Scrutiny 100
5–1b Intermediate Scrutiny 101
5–1c The Rational Basis Test (Ordinary Scrutiny) 101
5–2 African Americans 101
6
5–2a Separate But Equal 102
5–2b Violence and Vote Suppression 102
INTEREST GROUPS 122
5–2c The Brown Decisions and School
Integration 102 Introduction 124
5–2d The Civil Rights Movement 103
6–1 Interest Groups and American Government 124
5–2e African Americans in Politics Today 105
6–1a The Constitutional Right to Petition the
5–2f Continuing Challenges 106 Government 124
5–3 Women 107 6–1b Why Interest Groups Form 124
5–3a The Struggle for Voting Rights 107 6–1c How Interest Groups Function in American
5–3b The Feminist Movement 108 Politics 127
5–3c Women in American Politics Today 109 6–1d How Do Interest Groups Differ from Political
Parties? 128
5–3d Women in the Workplace 109
6–2 Different Types of Interest Groups 129
5–4 Securing Rights for Other Groups 110
6–2a Business Interest Groups 129
5–4a Latinos 112
6–2b Labor and Professional Interest Groups 130
5–4b Asian Americans 113
6–2c Public-Interest and Other Types of Groups 132
5–4c American Indians 114
5–4d Obtaining Rights for Persons with 6–3 How Interest Groups Shape Policy 134
Disabilities 115 6–3a Direct Techniques 134
5–4e Gay Men and Lesbians 116 6–3b Indirect Techniques 136
5–5 Beyond Equal Protection—Affirmative Action 117 6–4 Today’s Lobbying Establishment 138
5–5a Affirmative Action Tested 118 6–4a Why Do Interest Groups Get Bad Press? 139
5–5b Strict Scrutiny Applied 118 6–4b The Regulation of Interest Groups 139
5–5c The Diversity Issue 118 6–4c The Lobbying Disclosure Act of 1995 140
5–5d State Actions 118 6–4d Recent Reform Efforts 141
AMERICA AT ODDS: Do the Police Use Excessive Force AMERICA AT ODDS: Are Farmers Getting a Deal That’s
against African Americans? 99 Too Good? 123
2016 ELECTION 106 THE REST OF THE WORLD: Land Seizures in China
JOIN THE DEBATE: Is “Political Correctness” a Real and India 125
Problem? 111 JOIN THE DEBATE: Should We Let Uber and Lyft Pick
AMERICA AT ODDS: Civil Rights 120 Up Passengers? 140
AMERICA AT ODDS: Interest Groups 142
vi Contents
7 POLITICAL PARTIES 144
8–2 Why People Vote as They Do 172
8–2a
8–2b
Party Identification 172
Perception of the Candidates 172
Introduction 146
8–2c Policy Choices 173
7–1 A Short History of American Political Parties 146 8–2d Socioeconomic Factors 173
7–1a The First Political Parties 146 8–2e Ideology 177
7–1b From 1796 to 1860 147
8–3 Public Opinion Polls 177
7–1c From the Civil War to the Great Depression 149
8–3a Early Polling Efforts 177
7–1d After the Great Depression 149
8–3b How Polling Has Developed 179
7–2 America’s Political Parties Today 150 8–3c Problems with Opinion Polls 180
7–2a Red States versus Blue States 150
8–4 Voting and Voter Turnout 183
7–2b Shifting Political Fortunes 151
8–4a Factors Affecting Voter Turnout 184
7–2c Realignment, Dealignment, and Tipping 153
8–4b The Legal Right to Vote 184
7–3 What Do Political Parties Do? 154 8–4c Attempts to Improve Voter Turnout 187
7–3a Selecting Candidates and Running 8–4d Laws That May Discourage Voting 187
Campaigns 154
8–4e Attempts to Improve Voting Procedures 188
7–3b Informing the Public 155
8–4f Who Actually Votes 189
7–3c Coordinating Policymaking 155
AMERICA AT ODDS: How Important Is It to Target
7–3d Checking the Power of the Governing Independents? 169
Party 156
THE REST OF THE WORLD: Anti-Immigration Politics
7–3e Balancing Competing Interests 156 in Europe 178
7–4 How American Political Parties Are Structured 156 PERCEPTION VERSUS REALITY: Do Politicians Always
7–4a The Party in the Electorate 157 Follow the Polls? 182
7–4b The Party Organization 158 2016 ELECTION 184
7–4c The Party in Government: Developing JOIN THE DEBATE: Should Felons Be Allowed to
Issues 160 Vote? 188
7–5 The Dominance of Our Two-Party System 161 AMERICA AT ODDS: Public Opinion and Voting 190
9
7–5a The Self-Perpetuation of the Two-Party
System 161
7–5b Third Parties in American Politics 162
CAMPAIGNS AND ELECTIONS 192
7–5c The Effects of Third Parties 164 Introduction 194
AMERICA AT ODDS: How Should the Republicans 9–1 How We Elect Candidates 194
Respond to Trump Voters? 145
9–1a Conducting Elections and Counting the
2016 ELECTION 153 Votes 194
PERCEPTION VERSUS REALITY: Demography Favors 9–1b Presidential Elections and the Electoral
the Democrats 155 College 194
JOIN THE DEBATE: Are Nonpartisan Elections a
Good Idea? 163 9–2 How We Nominate Candidates 195
AMERICA AT ODDS: Political Parties 165 9–2a Party Control over Nominations 196
9–2b A New Method: The Nominating
8
Convention 196
9–2c Primary Elections and the Loss of Party
PUBLIC OPINION AND VOTING 168 Control 196
Introduction 170 9–2d Nominating Presidential Candidates 199
8–1 How Do People Form Political Opinions? 170 9–3 The Modern Political Campaign 203
8–1a The Importance of Family 170 9–3a Responsibilities of the Campaign Staff 203
8–1b Schools and Churches 170 9–3b The Professional Campaign Organization 203
8–1c The Media 171 9–3c Opposition Research 203
8–1d Opinion Leaders 171 9–4 The Internet Campaign 204
8–1e Major Life Events 171 9–4a Fund-Raising on the Internet 205
8–1f Peer Groups 172 9–4b Targeting Supporters 206
8–1g Economic Status and Occupation 172 9–4c Support for Local Organizing 206
Contents vii
9–5 What It Costs to Win 207
9–5a
9–5b
Presidential Spending 207
The Federal Election Campaign Act 207 Part IV
9–5c
9–5d
Skirting the Campaign-Financing Rules 208
The Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 209
INSTITUTIONS 236
9–5e The Current Campaign-Finance
Environment 210
AMERICA AT ODDS: Does Money Really Buy
Elections? 193
PERCEPTION VERSUS REALITY: Is the Word Socialism
Still Poison in U.S. Political Campaigns? 202
Orhan Cam/Shutterstock.com
2016 ELECTION 205
JOIN THE DEBATE: Should We Let Political Contributors
Conceal Their Identities? 212
AMERICA AT ODDS: Campaigns and Elections 213
10 POLITICS AND THE MEDIA 216
11
Introduction 218
10–1 The Role of the Media in a Democracy 218 THE CONGRESS 236
10–1a Media Characteristics 218
10–1b The New Media and the Old 218 Introduction 238
10–1c The Media and the First Amendment 219 11–1 The Structure and Makeup of Congress 238
10–1d The Agenda-Setting Function of the Media 220 11–1a Apportionment of House Seats 238
10–1e The Medium Does Affect the Message 221 11–1b Congressional Districts 238
10–1f Ownership of the Media 222 11–1c The Representation Function of Congress 242
10–2 The Candidates and Television 223 11–2 Congressional Elections 243
10–2a Political Advertising 223 11–2a Who Can Be a Member of Congress? 244
10–2b Television Debates 224 11–2b The Power of Incumbency 244
10–2c News Coverage 225 11–2c Congressional Terms 245
10–2d “Popular” Television 225 11–3 Congressional Leadership, the Committee System,
10–3 Talk Radio—The Wild West of the Media 226 and Bicameralism 246
10–3a Audiences and Hosts 226 11–3a House Leadership 246
10–3b The Impact of Talk Radio 227 11–3b Senate Leadership 248
10–4 The Question of Media Bias 227 11–3c Congressional Committees 248
10–4a Partisan Bias 228 11–3d The Differences between the House and the
Senate 250
10–4b The Bias against Losers 229
11–4 The Legislative Process 251
10–4c A Changing News Culture 229
10–5 Political News and Campaigns on the Web 230 11–5 Investigation and Oversight 254
10–5a News Organizations Online 230 11–5a The Investigative Function 254
10–5b Blogs and the Emergence of Citizen 11–5b Impeachment Power 255
Journalism 230 11–5c Senate Confirmation 255
10–5c Podcasting the News 231 11–6 The Budgeting Process 256
10–5d Cyberspace and Political Campaigns 231 11–6a Authorization and Appropriation 257
AMERICA AT ODDS: In a Digital World, Do We Still Need 11–6b The Actual Budgeting Process 257
Print Media? 217
AMERICA AT ODDS: Should It Take Sixty Senators to
THE REST OF THE WORLD: Who Controls the Pass Important Legislation? 237
Internet? 220
THE REST OF THE WORLD: The Size of Congress—
JOIN THE DEBATE: Could We Lose Our High-Speed How the United States Stacks Up 241
Internet? 232
JOIN THE DEBATE: Was Banning Pork-Barrel Spending
AMERICA AT ODDS: Politics and the Media 234 a Mistake? 243
viii Contents
2016 ELECTION 246 13–2d Independent Regulatory Agencies 296
AMERICA AT ODDS: The Congress 259 13–2e Government Corporations 296
12
13–3 How Bureaucrats Get Their Jobs 298
13–3a The Civil Service 298
THE PRESIDENCY 262 13–3b Origins of the Merit System 298
Introduction 264 13–3c The OPM Hacking Scandal 299
12–1 Who Can Become President? 264 13–4 Regulatory Agencies: Are They the Fourth Branch
12–1a Perks of the President 264 of Government? 300
12–1b Presidential Age and Occupation 265 13–4a Agency Creation 300
12–1c Race, Gender, and Religion 266 13–4b Rulemaking 301
12–2 The President’s Many Roles 266 13–4c Policymaking 301
12–2a Chief Executive 266 13–5 Curbing Waste and Improving Efficiency 303
12–2b Commander in Chief 267 13–5a Helping Out the Whistleblowers 303
12–2c Head of State 267 13–5b Improving Efficiency and Getting Results 304
12–2d Chief Diplomat 268 13–5c Another Approach—Pay-for-Performance
12–2e Chief Legislator 268 Plans 305
12–2f Political Party Leader 269 13–5d Privatization 305
13–5e Government in the Sunshine 305
12–3 Presidential Powers 269
13–5f Government Online 305
12–3a The President’s Constitutional Powers 269
AMERICA AT ODDS: Is Federal Regulation
12–3b The President’s Inherent Powers 271 Excessive? 289
12–3c The Expansion of Presidential Powers 272 JOIN THE DEBATE: Are Government Workers Paid
12–4 Congressional and Presidential Relations 278 Too Much? 299
12–4a Advantage: Congress 278 PERCEPTION VERSUS REALITY: Must Apple Help the
FBI Hack a Terrorist’s iPhone? 307
12–4b Advantage: The President 279
AMERICA AT ODDS: The Bureaucracy 308
12–5 The Organization of the Executive Branch 280
12–5a The President’s Cabinet 280
12–5b The Executive Office of the President 281
12–5c The Vice Presidency and Presidential
14 THE JUDICIARY 310
Succession 283 Introduction 312
AMERICA AT ODDS: Should the New President Get 14–1 The Origins and Sources of American Law 312
Tough on the Middle East? 263 14–1a The Common Law Tradition 312
JOIN THE DEBATE: A Foreign-Born President? 265 14–1b Primary Sources of American Law 313
2016 ELECTION 268 14–1c Civil Law and Criminal Law 314
PERCEPTION VERSUS REALITY: Can the President 14–1d Basic Judicial Requirements 314
Really Fix the Economy? 275
14–2 The Federal Court System 316
AMERICA AT ODDS: The Presidency 285
14–2a U.S. District and Specialized Courts 316
13 THE BUREAUCRACY 288

14–2b U.S. Courts of Appeals 317
14–2c The United States Supreme Court 318
14–3 Federal Judicial Appointments 319
Introduction 290
14–3a The Nomination Process 320
13–1 The Nature and Size of the Bureaucracy 290
14–3b Confirmation or Rejection by the Senate 321
13–1a The Uses of Bureaucracy 290
13–1b The Growth of Bureaucracy 290
14–4 The Courts as Policymakers 322
13–1c The Costs of Maintaining the Government 291 14–4a The Issue of Broad Language 323
13–1d Where Does All the Money Go? 292 14–4b The Power of Judicial Review 324
14–4c Judicial Activism versus Judicial Restraint 324
13–2 How the Federal Bureaucracy Is Organized 293
14–4d Ideology and the Courts 325
13–2a The Executive Departments 293
14–4e Ideology and Today’s Supreme Court 325
13–2b A Typical Departmental Structure 294
14–4f Approaches to Legal Interpretation 327
13–2c Independent Executive Agencies 295
Contents ix
14–5 Assessing the Role of the Federal Courts 328 15–4c Fiscal Policy 348
14–5a Criticisms of the Federal Courts 328 15–4d The Federal Tax System 349
14–5b The Case for the Courts 328 15–4e The Public Debt 351
AMERICA AT ODDS: Should the People Elect AMERICA AT ODDS: Do We Send Too Many People
Judges? 311 to Prison? 335
JOIN THE DEBATE: Should Congress Ever Refuse to JOIN THE DEBATE: What Should We Do about
Consider a Supreme Court Nominee? 323 Unauthorized Immigrants? 338
PERCEPTION VERSUS REALITY: The Supreme Court PERCEPTION VERSUS REALITY: Tax-Rate Cuts Allow
Legislates from the Bench 329 the Rich to Pay Lower Taxes 350
AMERICA AT ODDS: The Judiciary 331 AMERICA AT ODDS: Domestic Policy 353
16 FOREIGN POLICY 356
Part V
Introduction 358
Int
16–1 Who Makes U.S. Foreign Policy? 358
16
PUBLIC POLICY 334 16–1a The President’s Role 358

16–1b The Cabinet 359
16–1c Other Agencies 360
16–1d Powers of Congress 360
16–2 A Short History of American Foreign Policy 360
16
16–2a Isolationism 361
16–2b The Beginning of Interventionism 361
Natalia Bratslavsky/Shutterstock
16–2c The World Wars 361

16–2d The Cold War 362
16–2e Post–Cold War Foreign Policy 364
16–3 Problems Requiring the Use of Force 364
16
16–3a The Problem of Terrorism 364
16–3b The U.S. Response to 9/11—The War in
Afghanistan 366
16–3c The Focus on Iraq 366
15 DOMESTIC POLICY 334

16–3d Again, Afghanistan 367
16–3e The Civil War in Syria and the Growth of ISIS 368
Introduction 336 16–4 Diplomacy in an Unstable World 369
15–1 The Policy-making Process 336 16–4a The Israeli-Palestinian Conflict 369
15–1a Issue Identification and Agenda Setting 336 16–4b Weapons of Mass Destruction 372
15–1b Policy Formulation and Adoption 337 16–4c China—The Next Superpower? 374
15–1c Policy Implementation 337 AMERICA AT ODDS: How Much of a Threat Is
Putin’s Russia? 357
15–1d Policy Evaluation 338
THE REST OF THE WORLD: Europe under Siege 370
15–1e Policymaking and Special Interests 339
AMERICA AT ODDS: Foreign Policy 376
15–2 Health-Care Policy 339
15–2a Two Problems with U.S. Health Care 339 Appendix A The Declaration of Independence A–1
Appendix B The Constitution of the United States A–3
15–2b Medicaid and Medicare 340
Appendix C Federalist Papers No. 10 and No. 51 A–12
15–2c The Democrats Propose Universal Coverage 341
Appendix D Answers to Chapter Quiz Questions A–18
15–3 Energy and the Environment 342 Appendix E Information on U.S. Presidents (Online)
15–3a The Problem of Imported Oil 342 Appendix F Party Control of Congress since 1900 (Online)
15–3b Climate Change 343
Notes N–1
15–3c New Energy Sources 344
Glossary G–1
15–4 Economic Policy and Taxes 346 Index I–1
15–4a The Goals of Economic Policy 346 Chapter in Review Cards 1–32
15–4b Monetary Policy 346
x Contents
SKILL
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PREP
Welcome!
With this course and this
textbook, you’ve begun what we
hope will be a fun, stimulating,
A Study Skills Module and thought-provoking journey
into the world of American
government and politics.
In this course, you will learn about the foundation of the results when you study. You want to be able to under-
American system, culture and diversity, interest groups, stand the issues and ideas presented in the textbook, talk
political parties, campaigns, elections, the media, our about them intelligently during class discussions, and
governing institutions, public policy, and foreign policy. remember them as you prepare for exams and papers.
Knowledge of these basics will help you think critically This module is designed to help you develop the
about political issues and become an active citizen. skills and habits you’ll need to succeed in this course.
We have developed this study skills module to help With tips on how to be more engaged when you study,
you gain the most from this course and this textbook. how to get the most out of your textbook, how to
Whether you are a recent high school graduate or an adult prepare for exams, and how to write papers, this guide
returning to the classroom after a few years, you want will help you become the best learner you can be!
SP-1
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STUDY
PREP REPEAT
To read for learning, you have to read your textbook a
What does it take to be a successful student? You may number of times. Follow a preview-read-review process:
think success depends on how naturally smart you are. 1 . P R E V I E W: Look over the chapter title, section
However, the truth is that successful students aren’t headings, and highlighted or bold words. This will
born, they’re made. Even if you don’t consider yourself give you a good preview of important ideas in the
“book smart,” you can do well in this course by develop- chapter. Notice that each major section heading in this
ing study skills that will help you understand, remember, textbook has one or more corresponding Learning
and apply key concepts. Objectives. You can increase your understanding of the
material by rephrasing the headings and subheadings
in your textbook into questions, and then try to answer
Reading for Learning them. Note graphs, pictures, and other visual illustrations
Your textbook is the foundation for information in a of important concepts.
course. It contains key concepts and terms that are QUICK TIP! Log in to GOVT9 Online with the access
important to your understanding of the subject. For code in the front of your textbook to find interactive
this reason, it is essential that you develop good reading figures and tables from the chapters, to quiz yourself
skills. As you read your textbook with the goal of learning on the important material in the book.
as much of the information as possible, work on estab- 2 . R E A D : It is important to read with a few questions
lishing the following habits: in mind: What is the main point of this paragraph or
section? What does the author want me to learn from
FOCUS this? How does this relate to what I read before? Keep-
ing these questions in mind will help you be an attentive
Make an effort to focus on the book and tune out other reader who is actively focusing on the main ideas of the
distractions so that you can understand and remember passage.
the information it presents.
QUICK TIP! In GOVT9 Online, create StudyBits from Key
Terms and definitions, photos, figures, and your text
TAKE TIME
highlights. You can include notes in your StudyBits, and
To learn the key concepts presented in each chapter, you add your own tags—such as “Midterm Exam”—so you
need to read slowly, carefully, and with great attention. can collect them all later.
SP-2
Also during this phase, it is helpful to take notes The physical act of writing makes you a more effi-
while reading in detail. You can mark your text or write cient learner. In addition, your notes provide a guide to
an outline, as explained later in this module. Taking notes what your instructor thinks is important. That means you
will help you read actively, identify important concepts, will have a better idea of what to study before the next
and remember them. When it comes time to review for
exam if you have a set of notes that you took during class.
the exam, the notes you’ve made should make your
studying more efficient.
QUICK TIP! In GOVT9 Online, create practice quizzes
Make an Outline
from filtered StudyBits or use all quiz questions from As you read through each chapter of your textbook, you
the chapter to test yourself before exams. might want to make an outline—a simple method for
3 . R E V I E W: When reviewing each section of the text organizing information. You can create an outline as part
and the notes you’ve made, ask yourself this ques- of your reading or at the end of your reading. Or you can
tion: What was this section about? You’ll want to make an outline when you reread a section before moving
answer the question in some detail, readily identifying on to the next one. The act of physically writing an outline
the important points. Use the Learning Objectives in the for a chapter will help you retain the material in this text
text to help focus your review. and master it.
QUICK TIP! Tear out the Chapter Review cards in the To make an effective outline, you have to be selec-
back of the textbook for on-the-go review! tive. Your objectives in outlining are, first, to identify the
A reading group is a great way to review the chapter. main concepts and, second, to add the details that sup-
After completing the reading individually, group mem- port those main concepts.
bers should meet and take turns sharing what they Your outline should consist of several levels written
learned. Explaining the material to others will reinforce in a standard format. The most important concepts are
and clarify what you already know. Getting a different assigned Roman numerals; the second-most important,
perspective on a passage will increase your knowledge, capital letters; and the third-most important, numbers.
because different people will find different things impor- Here is a quick example.
tant during a reading.
Take Notes
Being engaged means listening to discover (and remem-
ber) something. One way to make sure that you are listen- I. What Are Politics and Government?
ing attentively is to take notes. Doing so will help you A. Defining Politics and Government
focus on the professor’s words and will help you identify 1. Politics and Conflict
the most important parts of the lecture. 2. Government and Authority
B. Resolving Conflicts
C. Providing Public Ser vices
1. Ser vices for All and Ser vices for Some
2. Managing the Economy
D. Defending the Nation and Its Culture
II. Different Systems of Government
A. Undemocratic Systems
1. Monarchy
2. Dictatorship
B. Democratic Systems
1. The Athenian Model of Direct Democracy
wavebreakmedia/Shutterstock
2. Direct Democracy Today

3. Representative Democracy
4. Types of Representative Democracy
C. Other Forms of Government
SP-3
Mark Your Text Researchers have shown Try These Tips
If you own your own textbook for Here are a few more hints that will
that the physical act of
this course and plan to keep it, help you develop effective study
you can improve your learning by marking, just like the skills.
marking your text. By doing so, ▸ Do schoolwork as soon as
you will identify the most impor-
physical acts of note-
possible after class. The longer
tant concepts of each chapter, and taking during class you wait, the more likely you will
at the same time, you’ll be making be distracted by television, the
a handy study guide for reviewing
increases concentration
Internet, video games, or friends.
material at a later time. Marking and helps you better ▸ Set aside time and a quiet,
allows you to become an active par-
retain the material. comfortable space where you
ticipant in the mastery of the mate-
can focus on reading. Your
rial. Researchers have shown that
school library is often the best place to work. Set
the physical act of marking, just like the physical acts of
aside several hours a week of “library time” to study
note-taking during class and outlining, increases con-
in peace and quiet. A neat, organized study space is
centration and helps you better retain the material.
also important. The only work items that should be on
your desk are those that you are working on that day.
WAYS O F M A R K I N G
▸ Reward yourself for studying! Rest your eyes
The most common form of marking is to underline and your mind by taking a short break every twenty
important points. The second-most commonly used to thirty minutes. From time to time, allow yourself
method is to use a felt-tipped highlighter or marker, in a break to do something else that you enjoy. These
yellow or some other transparent color. You can put a interludes will refresh your mind, give you more
check mark next to material that you do not understand. energy required for concentration, and enable you to
Work on better comprehension of the checkmarked study longer and more efficiently.
material after you’ve finished the chapter. Marking also
▸ To memorize terms or facts, create flash (or
includes circling, numbering, using arrows, jotting brief
note) cards. On one side of the card, write the ques-
notes, or any other method that allows you to remem-
tion or term. On the other side, write the answer or
ber things when you go back to skim the pages in
definition. Then use the cards to test yourself or have
your textbook prior to an exam.
a friend quiz you on the material.
QUICK TIP! Don’t forget about the StudyBit func- QUICK TIP! In GOVT9 Online, flash cards are available
tionality when highlighting in GOVT9 Online! for all key terms (with definitions). Create more flash
Change colors of your highlights to rate your under- cards from your StudyBits or anything in the online
standing of each StudyBit, and use them in your narrative, and rate your understanding on each while
review in the Studyboard. you study!
T W O P O I N T S TO R E M E M B E R ▸ Mnemonic (pronounced ne-mon-ik) devices

WHEN MARKING are tricks that increase our ability to mem-
▸ Read one section at a time before you do
orize. A well-known mnemonic device is the
any extensive marking. You can’t mark a phrase ROY G BIV, which helps people remem-
section until you know what is important, ber the colors of the rainbow—red, orange, yel-
and you can’t know what is important until low, green, blue, indigo, violet. You can create
you read the whole section. your own mnemonic devices for whatever you
▸ Don’t overmark. Don’t fool yourself into need to memorize. The more fun you have com-
thinking that you have done a good job ing up with them, the more useful they will be.
just because each page is filled with arrows, ▸ Take notes twice. First, take notes in class.
y lav Danilin/Shutterstock
terstock
tock
Vladyslav Danilin/Shutterstock.com
Shutters
circles, and underlines. Be selective in your Writing down your instructor’s key points will
lin/Shut
marking, so that each page allows you to see help you be a more active, engaged listener. Tak-
Danilin/
the most important points at a glance. You ing notes will also give you a record of what your
can follow up your marking by writing out
instructor thinks is important. Later, when you
Vladyslav
© Vladys
more in your subject outline.

have a chance, rewrite your notes. The rewrite
will act as a study session for you to think about
SP-4 the material again.
bikeriderlondon/Shutterstock.com
TEST
PREP
You have worked hard throughout the term, reading fill in the dots on a machine-graded answer sheet. Other
the book, paying close attention in class, and taking exams require underlining or circling. In short, you have
good notes. Now it’s test time, and you want to show to read and follow the instructions carefully.
mastery of the material you have studied. To be well
prepared, you should know which reading materials
and lectures will be covered. You should also know
Objective Exams
whether the exam will contain essays, objective ques- An objective exam consists of multiple-choice, true/
tions, or both. Finally, you should know how much time false, fill-in-the-blank, or matching questions that have
you will have to take the exam. The following steps can only one correct answer. Students usually commit one
help to reduce any anxiety you may feel, allowing you of two errors when they read objective exam questions:
to approach the test with confidence. (1) they read things into the questions that do not exist,
or (2) they skip over words or phrases. Most test ques-
tions include key words such as:
Follow Directions
Students are often in a hurry to start an exam, so they > ALL > NEVER
take little time to read the instructions. The instructions > A LWAYS > O N LY
can be critical, however. In a multiple-choice exam, for
example, if there is no indication that there is a penalty If you miss any of these key words, you may answer the
for guessing, then you should never leave a question question incorrectly even if you know the information
unanswered. Even if only a few minutes are left at the being tested.
end of an exam, you should guess on the questions that Whenever the answer to an objective question is not
you remain uncertain about. obvious, start with the process of elimination. Throw out
Additionally, you need to know the weight given the answers that are clearly incorrect. Typically, the easi-
to each section of an exam. In a typical multiple-choice est way to eliminate incorrect answers is to look for those
exam, all questions have equal weight. In other types of that are meaningless, illogical, or inconsistent. Often,
exams, particularly those with essay questions, different test authors put in some answers that make perfect sense
parts of the exam carry different weights. You should use and are indeed true, but do not answer the question
these weights to apportion your time. If the essay portion under study. Here are a few more tips that will help you
of an exam accounts for 20 percent of the total points on become an efficient, results-oriented student.
the exam, you should not spend 60 percent of your time ▸ Review your notes thoroughly as part of your exam
on the essays. preparation. Instructors usually lecture on subjects
Finally, you need to make sure you are marking the they think are important, so those same subjects are
answers correctly. Some exams require a No. 2 pencil to also likely to be on the exam.
SP-5
▸ Create a study schedule to reduce stress and give
yourself the best chance for success. At times, you
will find yourself studying for several exams at once.
When this happens, make a list of each study topic
and the amount of time needed to review that topic.
▸ Form a small group for a study session. Discuss-
ing a topic out loud can improve your understand-
ing of that topic and will help you remember the key
GaudiLab/Shutterstock
points that often come up on exams.
▸ Study from old exams. Some professors make old
exams available, either by posting them online or byy
putting them on file in the library. Old tests can givee
you an idea of the kinds of questions the professorr
likes to ask. WRITE
▸ Avoid cramming just before an exam. Cramming
g
tires the brain unnecessarily and adds to stress, which
h
PREP
can severely hamper your testing performance. Iff
you’ve studied wisely, have confidence that you willl
be able to recall the information when you need it.
▸ Be sure to eat before taking a test so you will have A key part of succeeding as a student is learning how
the energy you need to concentrate. to write well. Whether writing papers, presentations,
▸ Be prepared. Make sure you have everything you essays, or even e-mails to your instructor, you have to
will need for the exam, such as a pen or pencil. Arrive be able to put your thoughts into words and do so with
at the exam early to avoid having to rush, which will force, clarity, and precision. In this section, we outline
only add to your stress. Good preparation helps you a three-phase process that you can use to write almost
focus on the task at hand. anything.
▸ When you first receive your exam, make sure

that you have all the pages. If you are uncertain,
ask your professor or exam proctor. This initial scan
Phase 1: Getting Ready to Write
may uncover other problems as well, such as illegible First, make a list. Divide the ultimate goal—a finished
print or unclear instructions. paper—into smaller steps that you can tackle right
away. Estimate how long it will take to complete each
▸ With essay questions, look for key words such
step. Start with the date your paper is due and work
as “compare,” “contrast,” and “explain.” These will
backward to the present: For example, if the due date
guide your answer. Most important, get to the point
is December 1, and you have about three months to
without wasting your time (or your professor’s) with
write the paper, give yourself a cushion and sched-
statements such as “There are many possible reasons
ule November 20 as your targeted completion date.
for . . . .”
Then list what you need to get done by October 1 and
▸ Review your answers when you finish a test early. November 1.
You may find a mistake or an area where some extra
writing will improve your grade. P I C K A TO P I C
▸ Keep exams in perspective. Worrying too much To generate ideas for a topic, any of the following
about a single exam can have a negative effect on your approaches work well:
performance. If you do poorly on one test, it’s not the ▸ Brainstorm with a group. There is no need to cre-
end of the world. Rather, it should motivate you to do ate in isolation. You can harness the energy and the
better on the next one. natural creative power of a group to assist you.
SP-6
▸ Speak it. To get ideas flowing, There is no need to create in ▸ If your purpose is to move
start talking. Admit your confu- the reader into action, explain
sion or lack of clear ideas. Then
isolation. Brainstorm ideas exactly what steps to take,
just speak. By putting your for a topic with a group. and offer solid benefits for
thoughts into words, you’ll start doing so.
thinking more clearly. Ask for feedback from your
To clarify your purpose, state it
▸ Use free writing. Free writ- instructor or a friend as in one sentence—for example,
ing, a technique championed “The purpose of this paper is to
“T
by writing teacher Peter
you prepare an outline and discuss and analyze the role of
di
Elbow, is also very effective women and minorities in law
w
revise your first draft. enforcement.”
en
when trying to come up with a
topic. There’s only one rule in
free writing: Write without stopping.
ping Set a time limit—
limit BEGIN RESEARCH
say, ten minutes—and keep your fingers dancing
At the initial stage, the objective of your research is not
across the keyboard the whole time. Ignore the urge
to uncover specific facts about your topic. That comes
to stop and rewrite. There is no need to worry about
later. First, you want to gain an overview of the subject.
spelling, punctuation, or grammar during this process.
Say you want to advocate for indeterminate sentenc-
ing. You must first learn enough about determinate
R E F I N E YO U R I D E A and indeterminate sentencing to describe the pros and
After you’ve come up with some initial ideas, it’s time to cons of each one.
refine them:
MAKE AN OUTLINE
▸ Select a topic and working title. Using your
instructor’s guidelines for the paper, write down a list An outline is a kind of map. When you follow a map, you
of topics that interest you. Write down all of the ideas avoid getting lost. Likewise, an outline keeps you from
you think of in two minutes. Then choose one topic. wandering off topic. To create your outline, follow these
The most common pitfall is selecting a topic that is steps:
too broad. “Political Campaigns” is probably not a 1 . Review your thesis statement and identify the
useful topic for your paper. Instead, consider “The three to five main points you need to address in your
Financing of Modern Political Campaigns.” paper to support or prove your thesis.
▸ Write a thesis statement. Clarify what you
want to say by summarizing it in one concise
sentence. This sentence, called a thesis state-
ment, refines your working title. A thesis is the
main point of the paper—it is a declaration of
some sort. You might write a thesis statement
such as “Recent decisions by the Supreme
Court have dramatically changed the way that
political campaigns are funded.”
SET GOALS
Effective writing flows from a purpose. Think

about how you’d like your reader or listener to
Jamie Grill/Getty Images
respond after considering your ideas.

▸ If you want to persuade someone, make your
writing clear and logical. Support your asser-
tions with evidence.
SP-7
2 . Next, focus on the three to five major points that If you get stuck, ask for help.
support your argument and think about what minor
points or subtopics you want to cover in your paper. Most schools have writing
Your major points are your big ideas. Your minor
points are the details you need to fill in under each of resource centers where
those ideas. you can go for assistance
3 . Ask for feedback. Have your instructor or a class-
mate review your outline and offer suggestions for and guidance.
improvement. Did you choose the right points to sup-
port your thesis? Do you need more detail anywhere?
Does the flow from idea to idea make sense?
DO IN-DEPTH RESEARCH
Phase 2: Writing a First Draft
To create your draft, gather your notes and your out-
Dig in and start reading. Keep a notebook, tablet, or lap-
line (which often undergoes revision during the research
top handy and make notes as you read. It can help to
process). Then write about the ideas in your notes. It’s
organize your research into three main categories:
that simple. Just start writing. Write in paragraphs, with
1. Sources (bibliographical information for a source), one idea per paragraph. As you complete this task, keep
2 . Information (nuggets of information from a correctly the following suggestions in mind:
quoted source) ▸ Remember that the first draft is not for keeps.
3 . Ideas (thoughts and observations that occur to you as You can worry about quality later. Your goal at this
you research, written in your own words) point is simply to generate words and ideas.
▸ Write freely. Many writers prefer to get their first
You might want to use these categories to create three
draft down quickly and would advise you to keep
separate documents as you work. This will make it easy
writing, much as in free writing. You may pause to
to find what you need when you write your first draft.
glance at your notes and outline, but avoid stopping
When taking research notes, be sure to:
to edit your work.
▸ Copy all of the information correctly.
▸ Be yourself. Let go of the urge to sound “scholarly”
▸ Include the source and page number while gathering and avoid using unnecessary big words or phrases.
information. With Internet searches, you must also Instead, write in a natural voice.
record the date a site was accessed.
▸ Avoid procrastination. If you are having trouble get-
▸ Stay organized; refer to your outline as you work. ting started, skip over your introduction and just begin
writing about some of your findings. You can go back
later and organize your paragraphs.
▸ Get physical. While working on the first
draft, take breaks. Go for a walk. From
time to time, practice relaxation tech-
niques and breathe deeply.
▸ Put the draft away for a day. Schedule
time for rewrites, and schedule at least
one day between revisions so that you
can let the material sit. After a break,
problems with the paper or ideas for
improvement will become more evident.
Phase 3: Revising Your Draft

GaudiLab/Shutterstock
During this phase, keep in mind the saying,

“Write in haste; revise at leisure.” When you
are working on your first draft, the goal is to
produce ideas and write them down. During
SP-8
the revision phase, however, you need to slow down and
take a close look at your work. One guideline is to allow
50 percent of writing time for planning, researching, and
writing the first draft. Then use the remaining 50 per-
cent for revising.
Here are some good ways to revise your paper:
1. READ IT OUT LOUD. The combination of speaking
and hearing forces us to pay attention to the details. Is
the thesis statement clear and supported by enough
evidence? Does the introduction tell your reader
what’s coming? Do you end with a strong conclusion
that expands on your introduction rather than just
restating it?
2 . H AV E A F R I E N D LO O K O V E R YO U R PA P E R .
This is never a substitute for your own review, but a
friend can often see mistakes you miss. With a little
practice, you will learn to welcome feedback, because
Izabela Habur/iStockphoto.com
it provides one of the fastest ways to approach the
revision process.
3 . C U T. Look for excess baggage. Also, look for places
where two (or more) sentences could be rewritten as
one. By cutting text you are actually gaining a clearer,
more polished product. For efficiency, make the larger
6 . P R E PA R E. Format your paper following accepted
cuts first—sections, chapters, pages. Then go for the
smaller cuts—paragraphs, sentences, phrases, words. standards for margin widths, endnotes, title pages,
and other details. Ask your instructor for specific
4 . PA S T E . The next task is to rearrange what’s left of instructions on how to cite the sources used in writ-
your paper so that it flows logically. Look for con- ing your paper. You can find useful guidelines in the
sistency within paragraphs and for transitions from MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers. If
paragraph to paragraph and section to section. you are submitting a hard copy (rather than turning
5 . F I X . Now it’s time to look at individual words and it in online), use quality paper for the final version.
phrases. Define any terms that the reader might not For an even more professional appearance, bind your
know. In general, focus on nouns and verbs. Too paper with a plastic or paper cover.
many words add unnecessary bulk to your writing. 7 . P R O O F R E A D. As you ease down the home stretch,
Write about the details, and be specific. Also, check read your revised paper one more time, and look for
your writing to ensure that you: the following:
▸ Prefer the active voice. Write “The research ▸ A clear thesis statement.
team began the project” rather than “A project was
▸ Sentences that introduce your topic, guide the
initiated,” which is a passive statement.
reader through the major sections of your paper,
▸ Write concisely. Instead of “After making a and summarize your conclusions.
timely arrival and observing the unfolding events,
▸ Details—such as quotations, examples, and
I emerged totally and gloriously victorious,” be
statistics—that support your conclusions.
concise with “I came, I saw, I conquered.”
▸ Lean sentences that have been purged of needless
▸ Communicate clearly. Instead of “The speaker
words.
made effective use of the television medium, ask-
ing in no uncertain terms that we change our belief ▸ Plenty of action verbs and concrete, specific nouns.
systems,” you can write specifically, “The senatorial ▸ Spelling and grammar mistakes. Use contractions
candidate stared straight into the television camera sparingly, if at all. Use spell-check by all means,
and said, ‘Take a good look at what my opponent is but do not rely on it completely, as it will not catch
doing! Do you really want six more years of this?’ ” everything.
SP-9
Academic Integrity: date, article title, and the name of the magazine or
journal as well. If you found the article in an aca-
Avoiding Plagiarism demic or technical journal, also include the volume
Using another person’s words, images, or other origi- and number of the publication. A librarian can help
nal creations without giving proper credit is called identify these details.
plagiarism. Plagiarism amounts to taking someone else’s ▸ Cite online sources correctly. If your source is a
work and presenting it as your own—the equivalent of website, record as many identifying details as you can
cheating on a test. The consequences of plagiarism can find—author, title, sponsoring organization, URL,
range from a failing grade to expulsion from school. publication date, and revision date. In addition, list
To avoid plagiarism, ask an instructor where you the date that you accessed the page. Be careful when
can find your school’s written policy on this issue. Don’t using Internet resources, as not all sites are consid-
assume that you can resubmit a paper you wrote for ered legitimate sources. For example, many profes-
another class for a current class. Almost all schools will sors don’t regard Wikipedia as an acceptable source.
regard this as plagiarism even though you wrote the
▸ Include your sources as endnotes or footnotes
paper. The basic guidelines for preventing plagiarism
to your paper. Ask your instructor for examples of
are to cite a source for each phrase, sequence of ideas,
the format to use. You do not need to credit wording
or visual image created by another person. While ideas
that is wholly your own. Nor do you need to credit
cannot be copyrighted, the specific way that an idea is
general ideas, such as the suggestion that people use
expressed can be. You also need to list a source for any
a to-do list to plan their time. But if you borrow some-
idea that is closely identified with a particular person.
one else’s words or images to explain the idea, do give
The goal is to clearly distinguish your own work from the
credit.
work of others. There are several ways to ensure that you
do this consistently: ▸ When in doubt, don’t. Sometimes you will find
▸ Identify direct quotes. If you use a direct quote yourself working against a deadline for a paper, and
from another source, put those words in quotation in a panic, you might be tempted to take “shortcuts.”
marks. If you do research online, you might copy text You’ll find a source that expressed your idea perfectly,
from a website and paste it directly into your notes. but you must cite it or completely rephrase the idea
This is a direct quote. You must use quotation marks in your own words. Professors are experts at notic-
or if the quote is long, an indented paragraph. ing a change in tone or vocabulary that signals plagia-
rism. Often, they can simply Google a phrase to find
▸ Paraphrase carefully. Paraphrasing means restat-
its source online. Do not let a moment’s temptation
ing the original passage in your own words, usually
cause you to fail the course or face an academic integ-
making it shorter and simpler. Students who copy a
rity hearing.
passage word for word and
then just rearrange or delete
a few phrases are running a
serious risk of plagiarism.
Remember to cite a source
for paraphrases, just as you
do for direct quotes. When
you use the same sequence
of ideas as one of your
sources—even if you have
not paraphrased or directly
quoted—cite that source.
▸ Note details about each
source. For books, include
the author, title, publisher,
LOFTFLOW/Shutterstock
publication date, location

of publisher, and page num-
ber. For articles from print
sources, record the author,
SP-10
Rawpixel/Shutterstock.com
TAKE It’s easy to think of politics as
a spectator sport—something
ACTION
that politicians do, pundits
analyze, and citizens watch.
But there are many ways to
get engaged with politics, to
A Guide to Political Participation interact with the political
world and participate in it, and
even to effect change.
GET • Which Founder Are You? The National Constitutional Cen-

ter can help you with that. Go to constitutioncenter
INFORMED .org/foundersquiz to discover which Founding Fa-

ther’s personality most resembles your own.
• The U.S. Constitution is an important part of the

context in which American politics takes place. Do you
Find Out Where You know what the Constitution says? Take the Constitution
I.Q. Quiz: constitutionfacts.com. Was your score
Fit and What You Know higher than the national average?
• You already have some opinions about a variety of po-
litical issues. Do you have a sense of where your views • At the National Constitution Center, you can explore
place you on the political map? Get a feel for your ideo- the interactive Constitution and learn more about the
logical leanings by taking The World’s Smallest Political provisions in that document: constitutioncenter.
Quiz: theadvocates.org/quiz. org/interactive-constitution.
TA-1
Rich Koele/Shutterstock.com
GET
• Find out what those who want to become U.S. citizens
have to do—and what they have to know. Go to the U.S. CONNECTED
Citizenship and Immigration Services Web site at uscis.
gov/. What is involved in applying for citizenship?
Take the Naturalization Self-Test at https://my.uscis.
gov/prep/test/civics. How did you do? News
Keep up with news—print, broadcast, and online. Don’t
Think about How Your avoid certain news sources because you think you might
Political Views Have Been Shaped not agree with the way they report the news. It’s just as
important to know how people are talking about issues as
• Consider how agents of political socialization—your
it is to know about the issues themselves.
family, your schools, and your peers, for example—
have contributed to your political beliefs and atti- • One way to follow the news is to get your information
tudes. Then have conversations with people in your from the same place that journalists do. Often they
classes or where you live about the people, institu- take their cues or are alerted to news events by news
agencies such as the nonprofit cooperative Associated
tions, and experiences that influenced the way they
Press: ap.org.
view the political world. Try to understand how and
why your views might differ. • Installing a few key apps on your phone or tablet can
help you stay informed. Try downloading the Associ-
• Explore how your views on political issues compare
ated Press (AP) app for timely updates about news
with those of a majority of Americans. There are a around the world. There are tons of other great politi-
number of good polling sites that report public opin- cal apps—some are fairly polarizing, some are neutral,
ion on a range of topics. and still others are just plain silly.
o The Pew Research Center for the People & the
Press conducts monthly polls on politics and policy Blogs
issues: people-press.org.
The blogosphere affords views of politics that tend to be
o Public Agenda reports poll data and material on
slanted according to the political orientation of the blog
major issues: publicagenda.org.
sponsor. In the last several decades, blogs have surged
o The results of recent polls and an archive of past in popularity as a source for political news and opinion.
polls can be found at Gallup: gallup.com.
o The Roper Center for Public Opinion Research
is a leading archive of data from surveys of public
opinion: ropercenter.cornell.edu.
TA-2
Social Media
Staying connected can be as simple as following local,
national, or international politics on social media.
President Barack Obama, Senator Elizabeth War-
ren, House Speaker Paul Ryan, and even the White
House have Instagram accounts worth following. Most
politicians and political outlets are also on Twitter and
Facebook.
Check the Data

• It’s not always easy to figure out whether a news report
or public statement is accurate. PolitiFact, a project of
the Tampa Bay Times, is a good place to go to get the
facts: politifact.com. Check out the Truth-O-Meter,
Rawpixel.com/Shutterstock
and get it on your smartphone or tablet.
• A project of the Annenberg Public Policy Center,
factcheck.org is a nonpartisan, nonprofit “consumer
advocate” for voters that monitors the factual accuracy
of what political players are saying in TV ads, speeches,
and interviews.
Keep Up during Election Season Monitor Money and

• Project Vote Smart offers information on elections Influence in Politics
and candidates: votesmart.org.
The Center for Responsive Politics Web site is an excel-
• Nate Silver’s FiveThirtyEight features election anal- lent source for information about who’s contributing
ysis, in addition to covering sports and economics: what amounts to which candidates: opensecrets.org.
fivethirtyeight.com. You can also use the lobbying database to identify the top
• Stay connected to the horse-race aspect of electoral lobbying firms, the agencies most frequently lobbied, and
politics by tracking election polls. There are many the industries that spend the most on lobbying activities.
good sources:
o For a comprehensive collection of election polls, go Connect with Congress
to the RealClearPolitics website: realclearpolitics
.com/polls. RealClearPolitics is a good source for You can, of course, learn a lot about what’s going on in
other political news and opinions as well. Congress from the Web sites of the House of Representa-
tives and the Senate: house.gov and senate.gov. Look
o Polls for U.S. federal elections, including state-by-
up the names and contact information for the senators
state polls, can be found at electoral-vote.com.
and the representative from your area. If you want your
o HuffPost Pollster publishes pre-election poll voice to be heard, simply phone or e-mail your senators
results combined into interactive charts: elections or your representative. Members of Congress listen to
.huffingtonpost.com/pollster. During presiden- their constituents and often act in response to their con-
tial elections, additional maps and electoral vote stituents’ wishes. Indeed, next to voting, contacting those
counts can be found at HuffPost Politics Election who represent you in Congress is probably the most
Dashboard. effective way to influence government decision making.
• If you have the opportunity, attend a speech by a Check GovTrack to find out where your represen-
candidate you’re interested in. tative and senators fall on the leadership and ideology
charts, and learn about their most recently sponsored
bills and votes on legislation: govtrack.us.
TA-3
financial health, account-
ability and transparency,
and reporting of results.
Design Your
Own Ways to
Take Action
• Start a network to
match those who need
assistance and those
who want to help.
For example, there may
be people on your cam-
Dragon Images/Shutterstock
pus who, because of a
disability or recent injury,
need someone to help
carry belongings, open
doors, or push wheel-
chairs.
• Do you want to raise awareness about an issue? Is
there a cause that you think needs attention? Talk with
friends. Find out if they share your concerns. Turn your
GET discussions into a blog. Create videos of events you

think are newsworthy and share them online. Sign or
INVOLVED start a petition.
Join a Group on Campus

You probably see flyers promoting groups and recruiting
Take an Interest in Your members posted all over campus. Chances are, there’s a
Community—Offer to Help group organized around something you’re interested in
Every community—large and small—can use energetic or care about.
people willing to help where there is a need. Local non- Maybe it’s an organization that works to bring clean
profit agencies serving the homeless, battered women, water to remote parts of the world. The American Red
or troubled teens often welcome volunteers who are Cross may be looking for help with campus blood drives.
willing to pitch in. You’ll find groups organized around race, culture, or
The Internet also has abundant resources about political parties; groups that go on spring break trips to
nonprofits and charities and how you can get involved: serve communities in need; service organizations of all
kinds; and groups that focus on the environment. The
• Idealist.org is a great place to find organizations and
list goes on and on.
events that are looking for employees, interns, and
If you have an interest that isn’t represented by the
volunteers. Filter by type and area of focus (women,
groups on your campus, start your own. Your college
disaster relief, animals, etc.) to find a cause that
or university should have an office of campus life (or
fits you.
something similar) that can help you establish a student
• Tinyspark.org is a watchdog for nonprofits and organization.
charity organizations. It highlights individuals and
groups that are doing good things around the globe
and investigates those who may not be doing as much
Vote (but Don’t
good as you’d think. Tinyspark also has a podcast. Forget to Register First)
• Charitynavigator.org is another tool for check- • You can learn about the laws governing voting in your
ing on charities. It evaluates and rates charities on state by going to the Web site of the National Confer-
TA-4
ence of State Legislatures and its link to Voter lowest-level conventions (or, in some states, caucuses)
Identification Requirements: ncsl.org/research/ are open to anyone who shows up. Voting rights at a
elections-and-campaigns/voter-id. convention, however, may be restricted to those who
• Register: Enter “register to vote in [your state]” in a are elected as precinct delegates in a party primary.
search engine. The office in your state that administers In much of the country, precinct delegate slots go
voting and elections will have a Web site that outlines unfilled. If this is true in your area, you can become a
the steps you will need to follow. You can also find out precinct delegate with a simple write-in campaign, writ-
how to obtain an absentee ballot. ing in your own name and persuading a handful of friends
• If you want to view a sample ballot to familiarize your- or neighbors to write you in as well. Whether you attend
self with what you’ll see at the polls, you will probably a convention as a voting delegate or as a guest, you’ll
be able to view one online. Just enter “sample bal- have a firsthand look at how politics operates. You’ll hear
lot” in a search engine. Your local election board, the debates on resolutions. You might participate in electing
League of Women Voters, or your district library often delegates to higher-level conventions—perhaps even the
post a sample ballot online. national convention if it is a presidential election year.
• Vote: Familiarize yourself with the candidates and
issues before you go to the polls. If you’d like to
influence the way things are done in your Work for a Campaign
community, state, or Washington, D.C., Candidates welcome energetic volun-
you can do so by helping to elect local, teers. So do groups that are support-
state, and federal officials whose views
ing (or opposing) ballot measures.
you endorse and who you think would
While sometimes tiring and frus-
do a good job of running the govern-
trating, working in campaign poli-
ment. Make sure you know the loca-
tion and hours for your polling place. tics can also be exhilarating and very
rewarding.
Find the contact information
Support a Political Party
©
HF for a campaign you’re interested in on

L
Gr
ph a
Getting involved in political parties is as sim- ic s
/Sh
u t ter s
its website, and inquire about volunteer
t ock
ple as going to the polls and casting your vote for opportunities. Volunteers assemble mail-
the candidate of one of the major parties—or of a third ings, answer the telephone, and make calls to encour-
party. You can also consider becoming a delegate to a age voters to support their candidate or cause. Even if
party convention. Depending on the state, parties may you have little free time or are not comfortable talking
hold conventions by U.S. House district, by county, to strangers, most campaigns can find a way for you to
or by state legislative district. In many states, the participate.
Be Part of
Campus
Media
Do you have a nose
for news and do
you write well? Try
reporting for the
university newspa-
per. Work your way
up to an editor’s
position. If broad-
Joseph Sohm/Shutterstock
cast media are your

thing, get involved
with your college
radio station or go
on air on campus TV.
TA-5
Engage with Political Institutions,
Government Agencies, © baur/Shutterstock
and Public Policymakers— • You can take a virtual tour of the Supreme Court
at Home and Abroad at the Web site of the Oyez Project at IIT Chicago-Kent
• Visit the government websites for your state and College of Law: www.oyez.org/tour. You can also
community and learn about your representa- listen to Supreme Court oral arguments wherever you
tives. Contact them with your thoughts on matters are. Go to the Oyez site and check out ISCOTUSnow
that are important to you. Attend a city council meet- (blogs.kentlaw.iit.edu/iscotus/).
ing. You can find the date, location, and agenda on • Check with the study-abroad office at your college
your city’s website. And if you’re passionate about a or university. Studying abroad is a great way to expand
local issue, you can even sign up to speak. your horizons and get a feel for different cultures
• Check to see if internships or volunteer oppor- and the global nature of politics and the economy.
tunities are available close to home. Your U.S. There are programs that will take you almost any-
representative has a district office, and your U.S. sen- where in the world.
ators also have offices in various locations around the • Participate in the Model UN Club on your cam-
state. If you plan to be in Washington, D.C., and want pus (or start a Model UN Club if there isn’t one). By
to visit Capitol Hill, book a tour in advance through participatingg in Model UN,
your senators’ or representative’s offices. That’s also you will become aware
where you can obtain gallery passes to the House and tional issues
of international
Senate chambers. and conflictsts and gain
• Spend some time in Washington, D.C. Many col- hands-on experience
leges and universities have internship programs with in diplomacy.y.
government agencies and institutions. Some have
semester-long programs that will bring you into contact
with policymakers, journalists, and a variety of other
prominent newsmakers. Politics
and government will come alive,
and the contacts you make while
GET INFORMED.
ED.
participating in such programs can
often lead to jobs after graduation. GET CONNECTED.
ED.
• If you’re interested in the
GET INVOLVED.
ED.
ck
Supreme Court and you’re plan-

t te r s to
ning a trip to Washington D.C.,

s/ Shu
try to watch oral arguments. Go to the Court’s web-

C anla
site to access the link for oral arguments: supreme

m m el
court.gov. You’ll find the argument calendar and a

© Ro
visitor’s guide. (The secret is to get in line early.)

• Become a virtual tourist. If you can’t make it to
Washington, D.C., for a semester-long program or
even a few days, take the U.S. Capitol Virtual Tour:
w w w.aoc.gov/vir tual-tours/capitolbldg/
tourfiles.
TA-6
Every day in America, almost 12,000 people turn age 18 and
become eligible to vote. Each vote makes a difference!
Rock the Vote! is the largest nonprofit and nonpartisan

organization providing the tools college students need to
get registered to vote. It also provides resources around
becoming a more active citizen.
Go to the website below and get involved. Let your voice

be heard!
Go to the Rock the Vote website below and ...
Blend Images/Getty Images
1
AMERICA IN THE
TWENTY-FIRST
CENTURY
LEARNING OUTCOMES After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
1-1 Explain what is meant by the terms politics and government.
1-2 Identify the various types of government systems.
1-3 Summarize some of the basic principles of American democracy and basic
American political values.
1-4 Define common American ideological positions, such as “conservatism” and

“liberalism.”
After finishing this chapter, go to PAGE 21 for STUDY TOOLS
2 PART ONE: The Foundations of Our American System
oneinchpunch/Shutterstock.com
Must We Give Up
Some of Our Freedoms
to Destroy ISIS?
The threat of terrorism in the homeland is here to stay. Syria. (An alternative is the Islamic State in Iraq and the
As of 2016, for the first time in years, terrorism became Levant—ISIL.)1 ISIS later shortened its name to the
the American public’s number-one concern. This devel- Islamic State. Uniquely among terrorist groups, it has
opment followed the massacres in Paris in November established a government in territory seized from Iraq
2015 (more than 130 dead) and shootings in San Ber- and Syria. In addition to fighting in these countries,
nardino, California, in December (14 dead). In Paris, the ISIS has told its followers worldwide through Twit-
terrorists were part of a group called ISIS, and the killers ter and other social media to kill residents of Western
in San Bernardino were inspired by ISIS as well. What, nations.
then, is ISIS? How much of our freedom and our privacy, if any,
The term ISIS represents the English initials of should we sacrifice in our attempts to defeat ISIS and
the group’s former name, the Islamic State in Iraq and other terrorist groups?
Security First
Some point out that the oldest purpose of government
is to protect its citizens from foreign and domestic Freedom Is Fragile—Don’t Crush It
violence. It follows that destroying ISIS is “job one.” We Others say that America has spent two centuries
should be willing to make sacrifices to defeat it. We will developing and protecting our freedoms, the most
have to accept additional “snooping” by espionage and important of which are found in the Bill of Rights.
law enforcement agencies such as the National Security Now is not the time to start revoking these free-
Agency (NSA). The government must use all possible doms. The Bill of Rights requires the government
means to analyze phone, e-mail, and social media data to obtain a warrant from a court before conducting
to identify terrorists. This will cost us some of our pri- searches. That warrant must “particularly describe
vacy. Remember, though: the NSA is not interested in the place to be searched, and the persons or things
99.9 percent of what Americans are doing, saying, or to be seized.” Given such language, how can the
thinking. government indiscriminately collect information on
No one thinks twice today about security measures every phone call, e-mail, and social media post?
when we fly. We accept that it is better to stop terrorists True, our freedoms can exist only when they are
from blowing up planes than to enjoy the freedom to protected by the government. But history shows
board a flight without a security check. Polls show that a that governments can also abuse their power and
majority of Americans worry that the United States won’t commit terrible crimes. We can recover from any par-
go far enough in monitoring potential terrorists. These ticular terrorist incident, but we might not be able to
citizens have got it right. recover from losses of our liberty.
Defeating ISIS is a laudable goal, but we must not
stifle our vibrant free society. Security at any cost is,
to say the least, a bad policy choice.
Where do you stand?
1. Most Muslims loathe and reject the term Islamic State
because it presents the group as the legitimate lead-
ers of Islam. Many call it Daesh, which is the equiva-
lent of ISIL in Arabic. Daesh resembles a number of Explore this issue online
Arab insults. Should Americans adopt this term? • You can find more detailed arguments for and
2. Many Americans are more afraid of a terrorist attack against NSA surveillance online. Look up “nsa pro
than a heart attack. Yet death from terrorism is very outline” using a search engine such as Google. You’ll
rare, while heart disease kills more of us than any- find both pro and con arguments from Debate
thing else. Why might relatively rare events often be Central, a project of the National Center for Policy
so frightening? Analysis.
CHAPTER 1: America in the Twenty-First Century 3

INTRO D U CTION such as its land, among themselves and how to bal-
ance individual needs and wants against those of society
generally.
Regardless of how Americans feel about government, one These perfect people would also have to decide how
thing is certain: they can’t live without it. James Madison to make these decisions. They would need to create a pro-
(1751–1836) once said, “If men were angels, no govern- cess for making rules and a form of government to enforce
ment would be necessary.” Today, his statement still holds those rules. It is thus not difficult to understand why gov-
true. People are not perfect. People need an organized ernment is one of humanity’s oldest and most universal
form of government and a set of rules by which to live. institutions.
Government performs a wide range of extremely As you will read in this chapter, a number of dif-
important functions. From the time we are born until ferent systems of government exist in the world today. In
the day we die, we constantly interact with various levels the United States, we have a democracy in which deci-
of government. Most (although not all) students attend sions about pressing issues ultimately are made politi-
government-run schools. All of us cally by the people’s representatives in
travel on government-owned streets “THE ULTIMATE RULERS government.
and highways. Many of us serve in the Because people rarely have iden-
military—a completely government- OF OUR DEMOCRACY tical thoughts and feelings about
controlled environment. A few of us issues, it is not surprising that in any
get into trouble and meet up with the
ARE . . . THE VOTERS democracy citizens are often at odds
government’s law enforcement sys- OF THIS COUNTRY.” over many political and social prob-
tem. Every citizen after reaching the lems. Throughout this book, you will
FRANKLIN D. ROOSEVELT
age of sixty-five can expect the govern- read about contemporary controver-
THIRTY-SECOND PRESIDENT
ment to help with medical and living OF THE UNITED STATES sies that have brought various groups
expenses. To fund all these functions, 1933–1945 of Americans into conflict with one
the government collects taxes. another.
In a representative democracy such as ours, it is Differences in political opinion are part and par-
politics that controls what the government decides to do. cel of a democratic government. Ultimately, these dif-
What combination of taxes and government services is ferences are resolved, one way or another, through
best? When should our leaders use military force against the American political process and our government
foreign nations or rebellions in foreign countries? As dis- institutions.
cussed in this chapter’s opening America at Odds feature,
how do we balance national security and civil liberties?
How the nation answers these and many other questions 1–1a Defining Politics
will have a major impact on your life—and participation and Government
in politics is the only way you can influence what happens.
Politics means many things to many people. There are
also many different notions about the meaning of gov-
1–1 WHAT ARE POLITICS ernment. How should we define these two central
concepts?
AND GOVERNMENT? Politics and Conflict To some, politics is an
expensive and extravagant game played in Washing-
LO Explain what is meant by the terms politics and ton, D.C., in state capitols, and in city halls, particularly
government.
during election time. To others, politics involves all of
Even if—contrary to Madi- the tactics and maneuvers carried out by the president
institution An ongoing son’s observation—people and Congress. Most formal definitions of politics, how-
organization that performs were perfect, they would ever, begin with the assumption that social conflict—
certain functions for society. still need to establish rules disagreements among people in a society over what the
social conflict to guide their behavior. society’s priorities should be—is inevitable. Conflicts will
Disagreements among people They would somehow have naturally arise over how the society should use its scarce
in a society over what the resources and who should receive various benefits, such
to agree on how to divide
society’s priorities should be.
up a society’s resources, as status, health care, and higher education. Resolving
such conflicts is the essence of
politics. Political scientist Harold
Lasswell perhaps said it best in his
classic definition of politics as the
process of determining “who gets
what, when, and how” in a society.2
Government and Authority
Disputes over how to distribute a
society’s resources inevitably arise
because valued resources, such as
Rawpixel.com/Shutterstock.com
property, are limited, while people’s
wants are unlimited. To resolve
such disputes, people need ways to
determine who wins and who loses,
and how to get the losers to accept
those decisions. Who has the legiti-
mate power—the authority—to Faculty member (center) with students. In what ways are teachers at state
make such decisions? This is where colleges and universities different from other government employees?
governments step in.
From the perspective of politi-
cal science, government can best be defined as the indi- Amendment to the Constitution grants individuals the
viduals and institutions that make society’s rules and also right to bear arms. In 2008 and 2010, the Court affirmed
possess the power and authority to enforce those rules. that such a right does exist.
Generally, in any country, government uses its authority Because of the Court’s stat- politics The process of
to serve at least three essential purposes: ure and authority as a gov- resolving conflicts over how
▸ It resolves conflicts, ernment body, there was society should use its scarce
resources and who should
little resistance to its deci-
▸ it provides public services, and receive various benefits, such
sion, even from gun control as public health care and
▸ it defends the nation and its culture against attacks by advocates. public higher education.
other nations.
government The indi-
1–1b Resolving Conflicts 1–1c Providing viduals and institutions that
make society’s rules and pos-
Public sess the power and authority
Governments decide how conflicts will be resolved
Services to enforce those rules.
so that public order can be maintained. Governments
power The ability to
have power—the ability to influence the behav- Another important purpose influence the behavior of
ior of others. Power is getting someone to do some- of government is to provide others, usually through the
thing that he or she would not otherwise do. Power public services—essential use of force, persuasion, or
may involve the use of force (often called coercion), services that many indi- rewards.
persuasion, or rewards. Governments typically also viduals cannot provide for authority The ability to
have authority, which they can exercise only if their themselves. Governments legitimately exercise power,
such as the power to make
power is legitimate. As used here, the term authority undertake projects that
and enforce laws.
means the ability to use power that is collectively recog- individuals usually would
nized and accepted by society as legally and morally cor- not or could not carry out public services
Essential services that
rect. Power and authority are central to a government’s on their own. These proj-
individuals cannot provide
ability to resolve conflicts by making and enforcing laws, ects include building and for themselves, such as
placing limits on what people can do, and developing maintaining roads, estab- building and maintaining
court systems to make final decisions. lishing welfare programs, roads, establishing welfare
programs, operating public
For example, the judicial branch of government— operating public schools,
schools, and preserving
specifically, the United States Supreme Court—resolved and preserving national national parks.
the highly controversial question of whether the Second parks. Governments also

provide such services as law enforcement, fire protec- continue to face economic hardships, they often have
tion, and public health and safety programs. As Abraham negative views about how well our government is “run-
Lincoln once stated: ning the ship.”
The legitimate object of government is to do for a com-
munity of people, whatever they need to have done, but 1–1d Defending the
cannot do, at all, or cannot, so well do, for themselves—in Nation and Its Culture
their separate, individual capacities. In all that the people
can individually do as well for themselves, government Historically, matters of national security and defense
ought not to interfere.3 have been given high priority by governments and have
demanded considerable time, effort, and expense. The
Services for All and Services for Some Some U.S. government provides for the common defense and
public services are provided equally to all citizens of the national security with its Army, Navy, Marines, Air Force,
United States. For example, government services such and Coast Guard. The departments of State, Defense,
as national defense and domestic law enforcement allow and Homeland Security, plus the Central Intelligence
all citizens, at least in theory, to feel that their lives and Agency, National Security Agency, and other agencies,
property are safe. Laws governing clean air and safe also contribute to this defense network.
drinking water benefit all Americans. As part of an ongoing policy of national security,
Other services are provided only to citizens who are many departments and agencies in the federal govern-
in need at a particular time, even though they are paid ment are constantly dealing with other nations. The
for by all citizens through taxes. Such services include Constitution gives our national government exclusive
health and welfare benefits. For example, a program power over relations with foreign nations. No individual
such as Social Security Disability Insurance provides a state can negotiate a treaty with a foreign nation.
source of income to people whose ability to work is lim- Of course, in defending the nation against attacks
ited by a notable disability. Americans contribute to the by other nations, a government helps to preserve the
program through the Social Security payroll tax regard- nation’s culture, as well as its integrity as an indepen-
less of whether they ever become disabled. dent unit. Failure to defend successfully against foreign
Managing the Economy One of the most crucial attacks may have significant consequences for a nation’s
public services that the government is expected to provide culture. For example, consider what happened in Tibet
is protection from hardship caused by economic reces- in the 1950s. When that country was taken over by the
sions or depressions. From 2008
on, this governmental objective
became more important than
almost any other, due to the
severity of the recession that
Photo by Petty Officer 1st Class Rob Simpson.S/ Department of Defense
began in December 2007.

One of the most damaging
consequences of the recession
has been high rates of unem-
ployment, which have con-
tinued into the present, even
though the recession officially
ended in June 2009 when eco-
nomic growth resumed. True,
the official unemployment rate
was 5.0 percent in early 2016,
down from a high of 10 percent.
Yet large numbers of discour-
aged workers remained out of An MH-60 Jayhawk helicopter hoists a Coast Guard officer from the water near San
the workforce and were not Diego. The U.S. Navy is vastly superior to any other naval force. What benefits do we
counted in the unemployment gain by our control of the high seas?
figures. When many Americans
People’s Republic of China, the conquering Chinese Historically, many monarchies were absolute
set out on a systematic program, the effective result of monarchies, in which the ruler held complete and
which was large-scale cultural destruction. unlimited power. Until the eighteenth century,
Attacks by foreign governments are not the only the theory of “divine right” was widely accepted in
threat that nations must address. Since the terrorist attacks Europe. This divine right theory, variations of which
on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon in 2001, had existed since ancient times, held that God gave
defending the homeland against future terrorist attacks those of royal birth the unlimited right to govern other
has become a priority of our government. Terrorists often men and women. In other words, those of royal birth
operate independently of any foreign authority, even if had a “divine right” to rule, and only God could judge
they are inspired from abroad. Examples include the Bos- them. Thus, all citizens were bound to obey their mon-
ton Marathon bombing in April 2013 and the massacre in archs, no matter how unfair or unjust they seemed
San Bernardino, California, in December 2015. to be. Challenging this power was regarded not only
as treason against the government but also as a sin
CRITICAL THINKING against God.
▸ Would it be a good idea to send U.S. ground forces to Most modern monarchies, however, are consti-
attack ISIS in Iraq or Syria, or would doing so lead to tutional monarchies, in which the monarch shares
even greater problems than we already face? Explain governmental power with elected lawmakers. Over
your answer. time, the monarch’s power has come to be limited, or
checked, by other government leaders and perhaps by a
constitution or a bill of rights. Most constitutional mon-
1–2 DIFFERENT SYSTEMS archs today serve merely as ceremonial leaders of their
nations, as in Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom
OF GOVERNMENT (Britain).
LO Identify the various types of government systems.

Dictatorship Undemocratic systems that are not
supported by tradition are called dictatorships. Often,
Through the centuries, the functions of government just a dictator is a single individual, although dictatorial
discussed have been performed by many different types of power can be exercised by a group, such as the Commu-
structures. A government’s structure is influenced by a num- nist Party of China. Dicta-
ber of factors, such as a country’s history, customs, values, tors are not accountable to autocracy A form of
geography, resources, and human experiences and needs. anyone else. government in which the
No two nations have exactly the same form of government. A dictatorship can be power and authority of
Over time, however, political analysts have developed ways the government are in the
totalitarian, which means hands of a single person.
to classify different systems of government. One of the most that a leader or group of
meaningful ways is according to who governs. Who has the leaders seeks to control monarchy A form of
autocracy in which a king,
power to make the rules and laws that all must obey? almost all aspects of social queen, or other aristocrat
and economic life. The is the highest authority in
1–2a Undemocratic Systems leadership establishes the the government. Monarchs
goals of society. Citizens usually obtain their power
Before the development of modern democratic systems, through inheritance.
must conform to the gov-
the power of the government was typically in the hands divine right theory
ernment’s dictates in all
of an authoritarian individual or group. When such The theory that a monarch’s
fields of endeavor—in the
power is exercised by an individual, the system is called right to rule was derived
economy, in literature and directly from God rather
autocracy. Autocrats can gain power by traditional or
entertainment, and even in than from the consent of
nontraditional means.
private conversation. Typi- the people.
Monarchy One form of autocracy, known as a cally, these collective goals dictatorship A form
monarchy, is government by a king or queen, an emperor benefit only the leaders, of government in which
or empress—or a person with some other aristocratic and are damaging to the absolute power is exercised
title, such as emir, grand duke, or prince. In a monar- nation as a whole. by an individual or group
whose power is not
chy, the monarch, who usually acquires power through Examples of the totali- supported by tradition.
inheritance, is the highest authority in the government. tarian form of government

1–2b Democratic Systems
“People often say that, in a The most familiar form of government to Americans is
democracy, decisions are made democracy, in which the supreme political authority
rests with the people. The word democracy comes from
by a majority of the people. Of the Greek demos, meaning “the people,” and kratia,
meaning “rule.” The main idea of democracy is that gov-
course, that is not true. Decisions ernment exists only by the consent of the people and
are made by a majority of . . . reflects the will of the majority. Figure 1–1 shows the
extent of democracy in the world today—with “demo-
the people who vote—a very cratic” defined as “free.”
different thing.”
The Athenian Model of Direct Democracy
~ WALTER H. JUDD, Democracy as a form of government began long ago. In
U.S. REPRESENTATIVE FROM MINNESOTA, 1943–1963 its earliest form, democracy was simpler than the system
we know today. What we now call direct democracy
include Adolf Hitler’s exists when the people participate directly in gov-
democracy A system of
Nazi regime in Ger- ernment decision making. In its purest form, direct
government in which the people
have ultimate political authority. many from 1933 to democracy was practiced in Athens and several other
The word is derived from the 1945 and Joseph Sta- ancient Greek city-states about 2,500 years ago. Every
Greek demos (“the people”) and lin’s dictatorship in the Athenian citizen participated in the governing assem-
kratia (“rule”).
Soviet Union (Russia) bly and voted on all major issues. Some consider the
direct democracy A system from 1929 to 1953. A Athenian form of direct democracy ideal because it
of government in which political more contemporary demanded a high degree of citizen participation. Others
decisions are made by the people
example of a totalitar- point out that most residents in the Athenian city-state
themselves rather than by elected
representatives. This form of ian dictator is the latest (women, foreigners, and slaves) were not considered
government was practiced in leader of North Korea, citizens. Thus, they were not allowed to participate in
some parts of ancient Greece. Kim Jong-un. government.
FIGURE 1–1 FREE AND UNFREE NATIONS OF THE WORLD, JANUARY 2016
In this classification of nations by Freedom House, green means free, yellow means partly free, and blue means unfree.
Bear in mind that these are the assessments of a single organization. Why might another organization come up with a
different system of classification?
Germany Russia
Canada
UK
France
Italy
USA
China
Japan
Mexico India
Pakistan
Philippines
Bangladesh
Nigeria
Indonesia
Brazil
Australia
Sources: Arch Puddington and Tyler Roylance, Freedom in the World 2016—Anxious Dictators, Wavering Democracies: Global Freedom under Pressure (Washington, D.C.:
Freedom House, 2016). Outline map adapted from Wikimedia.
would ignore the rights and
opinions of people in the
minority and would make deci-
sions without careful thought.
They believed that representa-
tive assemblies were superior
because they would enable
public decisions to be made in
a calmer and more deliberate
manner.
In a representative
democracy, the will of the
Erika J Mitchell/Shutterstock.com
majority is expressed through
smaller groups of individuals
elected by the people to act
as their representatives. These
representatives are responsi-
ble to the people for their con-
Citizens of Calais, Vermont, raise yellow cards to register duct and can be voted out of
their vote on Town Meeting Day. Some New England office. Our founders preferred to use the term republic,
towns use town meetings to engage in a form of direct which means essentially a representative system with
democracy. Why doesn’t the United States as a nation have one qualification.
direct democracy? A democratic republic, by definition, has no king or
queen. Rather, the people are sovereign. In contrast, a
representative democracy may be headed by a monarch.
Direct Democracy Today Clearly, direct democ- For example, as Britain evolved into a representative
racy is possible only in small communities in which citi- democracy, it retained its monarch as the head of state
zens can meet in a chosen place and decide key issues (but with no real power).
and policies. Nowhere in the world does pure direct
Types of Representative Democracy In the
democracy exist today. Some New England towns,
modern world, there are basically two forms of repre-
though, and a few of the smaller political subunits, or
sentative democracy: presidential and parliamentary.
cantons, of Switzerland still use a modified form of direct
In a presidential democracy, the lawmaking and law-
democracy.
enforcing branches of government are separate but
Another modern institution with some of the char-
equal. For example, in the
acteristics of direct democracy is the ballot proposal,
United States, Congress is
in which the voters themselves decide a specific ques- representative
charged with the power to
tion rather than letting their elected officials resolve democracy A form
make laws, and the presi- of democracy in which
the issue. Ballot proposals are used in many American
dent is charged with the the will of the majority is
states. In one type, the referendum, the legislature
power to carry them out. expressed through groups
sends a ballot proposal to the voters. The initiative dif- of individuals elected by
In a parliamentary
fers in that a question is placed on the ballot by gather- the people to act as their
democracy, the lawmaking
ing signatures, not by action of the legislature. A related representatives.
and law-enforcing branches
process is recall, an initiative to remove an elected offi- republic Essentially, a
of government are united.
cial immediately, before his or her term of office comes representative system in
In Britain, for example, which there is no king or
to an end.
the prime minister and the queen and the people are
Representative Democracy Although the cabinet are members of the sovereign.
founders of the United States were aware of the Athe- legislature, called Parlia- parliament The
nian model and agreed that government should be ment, and are responsible national legislative body
based on the consent of the governed, they believed that to that body. A parliament in countries governed by a
direct democracy would deteriorate into mob rule. They parliamentary system, such
thus both enacts the laws
as Britain and Canada.
thought that large groups of people meeting together and carries them out.
With these words, Abraham Lincoln underscored the
“The thing about democracy, most fundamental concept of American government: the
people, not the government, are ultimately in control.
beloveds, is that it is not neat,
orderly or quiet. It requires a 1–3a The British Legacy
certain relish for confusion.” In writing the U.S. Constitution, the framers incorpo-
rated two basic principles of government that had evolved
~ MOLLY IVINS, AMERICAN JOURNALIST, 1944–2007 in England: limited government and representative gov-
ernment. In a sense, then, the beginnings of our form of
government are linked to events that occurred centuries
1–2c Other Forms of Government
earlier in England. They are also linked to the writings of
Monarchy, dictatorship, and democracy are three of European philosophers, particularly the English political
the most common terms for describing systems of gov- philosopher John Locke (1632–1704). From these writ-
ernment, but there are others. For example, the term ings, the founders of our nation derived ideas to justify
aristocracy, which in Greek means “rule by the best,” their rebellion against Britain and their establishment of
describes a government run by members of old, noble a “government by the people.”
families. Aristocracies have rarely had complete power,
Limited Government At one time, the English
but have usually shared power with other forces, such as
monarch claimed to have almost unrestricted powers.
a monarch. Plutocracy, a somewhat similar form, means
This changed in 1215, when King John was forced by his
“government by the wealthy.” The term typically refers
nobles to accept the Magna Carta, or the Great Char-
to systems in which the rich have a disproportionate
ter. This monumental document provided for a trial by
influence.
a jury of one’s peers (equals). It prohibited the taking of
A difficult form of government for Americans to
a free man’s life, liberty, or property except through due
understand is theocracy—a term derived from the Greek
process of law. The Magna Carta also forced the king to
words meaning “rule by the deity” or “rule by God.” In a
obtain the nobles’ approval of any taxes he imposed on
theocracy, there is no separation of church and state.
them. Government thus became a contract between the
Rather, the government rules according to religious pre-
king and his subjects.
cepts. In Iran, the Council of Guardians, an elected group
The importance of the Magna Carta to England can-
of religious leaders, ensures that laws and lawmakers con-
not be overemphasized, because it clearly established
form to their interpretation of the teachings of Islam.
the principle of limited government—a government
on which strict limits are placed, usually by a constitu-
CRITICAL THINKING
tion. This form of government is characterized by insti-
▸ Chinese Communist leader Mao Zedong (1893–1976) tutional checks to ensure that it serves public rather than
once said, “Political power grows out of the barrel of a private interests. Hence, the Magna Carta signaled the
gun.” Was Mao right? Why or why not? end of the monarch’s absolute power. Although many
of the rights provided under the original Magna Carta
applied only to the nobility, the document formed the
1–3 AMERICAN DEMOCRACY basis of the future constitutional government for Eng-
land and eventually the United States.
LO Summarize some of the basic principles of American
democracy and basic American political values.
Representative Government In a representa-
tive government, the people, by whatever means, elect
individuals to make governmental decisions for all of the
“This country, with all its citizens. Usually, these representatives of the people are
limited government institutions, belongs to the
A form of government elected to their offices for specific periods of time. In Eng-
people who inhabit it. When-
based on the principle that land, as mentioned earlier, this group of representatives is
the powers of government ever they shall grow weary
of the existing government,
called a parliament. The English form of government pro-
should be clearly limited
either through a written they can exercise their con- vided a model for Americans to follow. Each of the Ameri-
document or through wide stitutional right to amend it, can colonies established its own legislature.
public understanding. or their revolutionary right to In 1689, the English Parliament passed the English
dismember or overthrow it.”4 Bill of Rights, which further extended the concepts of
limited and representative government. This document ▸ Equal protection of the law. The law must entitle all per-
included several important ideas: sons to equal protection.
▸ The king or queen could not interfere with parliamen- ▸ Majority rule and minority rights. The majority should
tary elections. rule, while guaranteeing the rights of minorities.
▸ The king or queen had to have Parliament’s approval to ▸ Voluntary consent to be governed. The people who
levy (collect) taxes or to maintain an army. make up a democracy must collectively (not individu-
ally) agree to be governed by the rules laid down by
▸ The king or queen had to rule with the consent of the
their representatives.
people’s representatives in Parliament.
These principles frame many of the political issues that
The English colonists in North America were also English
you will read about in this book. They also frequently
citizens, and nearly all of the major concepts in the Eng-
lie at the heart of America’s political conflicts. Does
lish Bill of Rights became part of the American system of
the principle of minority rights mean that minorities
government.
should receive preferential treatment in hiring and firing
Political Philosophy: Social Contracts and decisions to make up for past mistreatment? Does the
Natural Rights Our democracy resulted from principle of individual freedom mean that individuals
what can be viewed as a type of social can express whatever they want on the Inter-
contract among early Americans to create net, including hateful, racist comments?
and abide by a set of governing rules. Above all, how much should the gov-
Social-contract theory was devel- ernment do? We address that last
oped in the seventeenth and eigh- question in this chapter’s Join the
teenth centuries by philosophers
Corbis Yellow/RF/Corbis
Debate feature.
such as John Locke. According to Such conflicts over individ-
this theory, individuals voluntarily ual rights and freedoms and over
agree with one another, in a “social society’s priorities are natural and
contract,” to give up some of their inevitable. Resolving these conflicts
freedoms to obtain the benefits of is what politics is all about. The key
orderly government. The govern- point is that Americans are frequently
ment is given adequate power to secure able to reach acceptable compromises
the mutual protection and welfare of all because of their common political heritage.
individuals.
Locke also argued that people are born with 1–3c American
natural rights to life, liberty, and property. He theo-
Political
rized that the purpose of government was to protect social contract
those rights. If it did not, it would lose its legitimacy Values A voluntary agreement
and need not be obeyed. As you will read in Chapter 2, Historically, as the nations among individuals to create
when the American colonists rebelled against British a government and to give
of the world emerged, the that government adequate
rule, such concepts as natural rights and a government boundaries of each nation power to secure the mutual
based on a social contract became important theoreti- normally coincided with protection and welfare of all
cal tools in justifying the rebellion. the boundaries of a popula- individuals.
tion that shared a common natural rights
1–3b Principles of ethnic heritage, language, Rights that are not bestowed
and culture. From its begin- by governments but are
American Democracy inherent within every man,
nings as a nation, however, woman, and child by virtue
We can say that American democracy is based on at least America has been defined of the fact that he or she is a
five fundamental principles: less by the culture shared by human being.
▸ Equality in voting. Citizens must have equal opportuni- its diverse population than political culture
ties to express their preferences about policies and by the ideas that make up its The set of ideas, values, and
leaders. political culture. attitudes about government
A political culture and the political process
▸ Individual freedom. All individuals must have the great-
held by a community or a
est amount of freedom possible without interfering can be defined as a pat- nation.
with the rights of others. terned set of ideas, values,
JOIN
THE DEBATE
Is Our Government Too Large?
F
or much of America’s history, government believe that too many the strongest economic growth in its
there was little discussion about people spend too much time seek- history.
whether our government had ing government assistance rather More generally, liberals argue
grown too large. The government, than taking care of their problems by that we need the programs that a big
after all, wasn’t that big. Since the themselves or with the help of family government can provide. Medicare,
Great Depression of the 1930s, how- and friends. Medicaid, Social Security, and national
ever, the government has grown by Conservatives argue that govern- defense together make up well over
leaps and bounds. ment spending must be held back half of all federal spending. The first
Americans are at odds over the to avoid higher taxes. Even if the three programs assist people who
proper size of government. Indeed, government supports its spending by cannot get by with just the help of
the size of government lies at the borrowing, it will have to make up the family or friends. Most of the smaller
very heart of the differences between difference by imposing new taxes at programs, such as education and
Republicans and Democrats. Republi- some time in the future. The federal veterans’ benefits, serve equally impor-
cans have called for trillions of dollars budget deficit cannot rise forever, tant purposes.
in federal budget cuts over the next and most of us know that. Further, Liberals agree that government
decade. Democrats, however, believe the government is inefficient. Private should do whatever it can to limit
that cuts of this size may endanger citizens can almost always make wasteful spending. But when we must
important programs such as Medicare better use of funds than the govern- choose between higher taxes and
and Medicaid. (Medicare provides ment can, so taxing the people to eliminating crucial services, we will
health-care funding to the elderly, and allow government spending wastes simply have to pay for the benefits
Medicaid provides it to low-income resources. Finally, taxing some people we need. America can do this. Until
persons.) to support other people is fundamen- December 2012, when taxes on the
tally unfair. wealthiest increased, taxes were lower
Big Government
as a share of the economy than in any
Must Shrink We Need What the
year since the 1950s.
Many of those who believe that big Government Does
government must shrink admit that Liberals reject the argument that
government programs can help many taxation must injure the economy. In
people who need, for example, medi- the 1990s, Democrats under President
Critical Analysis
cal care or education. The problem is Bill Clinton raised taxes to reduce
that once government programs are the federal budget deficit. Conser- Are tax increases a legitimate
in place, they expand. The result is an vatives predicted disaster. In fact, policy option—or should they be
“assisted society.” Opponents of big America then experienced some of out of the question?
and ways of thinking about government and politics. nation, which will be discussed further in Chapter 2
Our political culture is passed from one generation to and presented in its entirety in Appendix A. The politi-
another through families, schools, and the media. This cal values outlined in the Declaration of Independence
culture is powerful enough to win over most new immi- include natural rights (to life, liberty, and the pursuit
grants. Indeed, some immigrants come to America pre- of happiness), equality under the law, government by
cisely because they are attracted by American values. the consent of the governed, and limited government
The ideals and standards that constitute American powers. In some ways, the Declaration of Indepen-
political culture are embodied in the Declaration of dence defines Americans’ sense of right and wrong.
Independence, one of the founding documents of this It presents a challenge to anyone who might wish to
set the wages and working conditions
of their employees? Should individuals
be free to smoke marijuana? Over the
years, Americans have been at odds over
these and many other issues that con-
cern liberty.
Equality The goal of equality has
always been a central part of American
political culture. The Declaration of
wavebreakmedia/Shutterstock.com
Independence confirmed the impor-
tance of equality to early Americans
by stating, “We hold these Truths to be
self-evident, that all Men are created
equal.” Because of the goal of equality,
the Constitution prohibited the govern-
ment from granting titles of nobility.
A young girl celebrates the Fourth of July. What function (The Constitution did not prohibit slavery, however—see
does “flag waving” have? Chapter 2.)
But what, exactly, does equality mean? Does it mean
simply political equality—the right to vote and run for
overthrow our democratic processes or deny our citi- political office? Does it mean that individuals should
zens their natural rights. have equal opportunities to develop their talents and
The rights to liberty, equality, and property are fun- skills? What about those who are poor, suffer from dis-
damental political values shared by most Americans. abilities, or are otherwise at a competitive disadvantage?
These values provide a basic framework for American Should it be the government’s responsibility to ensure
political discourse and debate because they are shared, that such individuals also have equal opportunities?
yet Americans often interpret their meanings quite dif- Although most Americans believe that all persons
ferently. The result of these differences can be sharp should have the opportunity to fulfill their potential,
conflict in the political arena. few contend that it is the government’s responsibility
to totally eliminate the economic and social differences
Liberty The term liberty can be defined as a state
that lead to unequal opportunities. Indeed, some con-
of being free from external controls or restrictions. In
tend that efforts to achieve equality, in the sense of
the United States, the Constitution sets forth our civil
equal treatment for all, are fundamentally incompatible
liberties (see Chapter 4), including the freedom to prac-
with the value of liberty.
tice whatever religion we choose and to be free from any
state-imposed religion. Our liberties also include the Property As noted earlier, the English philosopher
freedom to speak freely on any topic and issue. Because John Locke asserted that people are born with natural
people cannot govern themselves unless they are free rights and that among these rights are life, liberty, and
to voice their opinions, freedom of speech is a basic property. The Declaration of Independence makes a
requirement in a true democracy. similar assertion: people are born with certain “unalien-
Clearly, though, if we are to live together with others, able” rights, including the right to life, liberty, and the
there have to be some restrictions on individual liberties. pursuit of happiness. For
If people were allowed to do whatever they wished, with- Americans, property and liberty The freedom of
individuals to believe, act,
out regard for the rights or liberties of others, chaos would the pursuit of happiness are and express themselves
result. Hence, a more accurate definition of liberty would closely related. Americans as they choose so long as
be: the freedom of individuals to believe, act, and express place a great value on home doing so does not infringe
themselves as they choose so long as doing so does not ownership, on material pos- on the rights of other
individuals in the society.
infringe on the rights of other individuals in the society. sessions, and on their busi-
While almost all Americans believe strongly in liberty, nesses. Property gives its equality A concept that
holds, at a minimum, that all
differing ideas of what liberty should mean have led to owners political power and
people are entitled to equal
some of our most heated political disputes. Should women the liberty to do what they protection under the law.
be free to obtain abortions? Should employers be free to want—within limits.
Property and Capitalism. Private property in America while Bush was still president. The Republicans, in turn,
is not limited to personal possessions such as automo- enjoyed banner years in 2010 and 2014, based in part
biles and houses. Property also consists of assets that on the widespread belief that President Barack Obama
can be used to create and sell goods and services, such and the Democrats were going too far in an attempt to
as factories, farms, and shops. Private ownership of carry out their liberal party platform. Despite the earlier
wealth-producing property is at the heart of our capital- swing to the Democrats and the later Republican vic-
ist economic system. Capitalism enjoys such widespread tories, the underlying reality remained—the nation was
support in the United States that we can reasonably call closely divided in its political preferences.
it one of the nation’s fundamental political values. In
The 2012 Elections Republican successes in
addition to the private ownership of productive property,
2010 were backed up by the growth in new conserva-
capitalism is based on free markets—markets in which
tive movements such as the Tea Party. Founded after
people can freely buy and sell goods, services, and finan-
Barack Obama became president, the grassroots Tea
cial investments without undue constraint by the gov-
Party movement opposed current levels of government
ernment. Freedom to make binding contracts is another
and taxation, and also resisted political compromise. Tea
element of the capitalist system. The preeminent capi-
Party activism had its limits, however. By 2012, many
talist institution is the privately owned corporation.
moderate voters were apparently concerned that Repub-
Capitalism and Government. Although capitalism is lican threats to popular social programs outweighed
supported by almost all Americans, there is no equivalent Democratic fondness for “big government.”
agreement on the relationship between capitalism and Also, in a presidential election year such as 2012,
the government. Is it best for the government to leave more Democratic-leaning young people and minority
businesses alone in almost all circumstances—or would group members could be expected to vote. (Often, such
this lead to excessive inequality and unethical business voters stay home in midterm election years such as 2010
practices that injure consumers? As with the values of and 2014, when presidential candidates are not on the
liberty and equality, Americans are divided over what the ballot.) In the end, President Obama won reelection by
right to property should mean. a comfortable margin.
The Current Environment The political battles
1–3d Political Values of the twenty-first century have been intense. Public
opinion polls report that increasing numbers of Repub-
and a Divided Electorate
licans and Democrats consider the other party to be not
Differences among Americans in interpreting our col- merely misguided, but a danger to the country. The 2016
lectively held values underlie the division between the elections, therefore, were certain to be consequential,
Republican and Democratic parties. Election results in whether or not they were close.
the twenty-first century suggest that the voters are split For the Democrats, a key question was whether
right down the middle. Elections have often been close. In they could preserve social programs such as the Afford-
2000, for example, Repub- able Care Act, better known as “Obamacare.” (This pro-
capitalism An economic lican George W. Bush won gram was designed to substantially increase the number
system based on the private the presidency in one of of citizens with health-care insurance.) Republicans
ownership of wealth-
producing property, free the closest presidential sought to obtain sufficient control of the government
markets, and freedom of elections in U.S. history. In to lock in conservative policies for years to come. We
contract. The privately owned election years since 2000, describe the election results in this chapter’s Elections
corporation is the preeminent support for the two major 2016 feature.
capitalist institution.
parties has swung back Republican prospects were clouded by a division
Tea Party movement and forth, sometimes dra- in their ranks. For years, a core Republican objective
A grassroots conservative matically. The years 2006 had been cuts in tax rates, especially for upper-income
movement that arose in 2009
after Barack Obama became and 2008 were very good Americans. Republican leaders were willing to fund
president. The movement for the Democrats, at first such reductions by cutting programs such as Social
opposes big government and because of public dissatis- Security and Medicare. Many ordinary Republicans,
current levels of taxation, faction with the war in Iraq however, saw these programs as a right earned by years
and also rejects political
compromise.
and later because of the of paying taxes. For many of these people, opposition
economic crisis that struck to immigration was the number one issue. In contrast,
2016
ELECTION
I
n the 2016 elections, Republican the presidency, the nation might control of either chamber. The practi-
Donald J. Trump was elected the have continued on a course broadly cal consequences of the Republican
forty-fifth president of the United similar to that of the last six years, with sweep were not immediately clear.
States. The Republicans retained a Democratic president constrained That party was expected to pass much
control of the U.S. Senate and House by at least a Republican House of conservative legislation, but any new
of Representatives. For the first time Representatives. Clinton did, in fact, laws would need Trump’s approval. On
since December 2010, one party win the popular vote. American presi- many points, Trump’s nationalist poli-
was in full control of the national dential elections are decided in the tics differed from traditional Republi-
government. Trump was expected electoral college, however, and there can small-government conservatism.
to fill a vacancy in the United States Trump’s victory margin was decisive. Negotiations between Trump and the
Supreme Court, guaranteeing that Still, Democrats enjoyed a net gain Republicans in Congress were inevi-
the Republicans would enjoy a sym- of two senators and eight members table, but most observers expected
pathetic hearing from the judiciary. of the House, but this was far from them to succeed.
If Democrat Hillary Clinton had won enough to threaten Republican
business-oriented establishment Republicans often sup- often have a different sense of what equality should mean
ported immigration and steps to improve the status of than do Americans whose ancestors came from Europe.
illegal immigrants.
Race and Ethnicity The racial and ethnic makeup
of the United States has changed dramatically in the last
1–3e Political Values two decades and will continue to change, as shown in Fig-
in a Changing Society ure 1–2. Already, non-Hispanic whites are a minority in
California. For the nation as a whole, non-Hispanic whites
From the earliest English and European settlers to will be in the minority before 2050. Some Americans fear
the many cultural groups that today call America their that rising numbers of immigrants will threaten traditional
home, American society has always been multicultural. American political values and culture. Others are confident
Until recently, most Americans accepted that American that newcomers will adopt American values. Even as new
society included numerous ethnic and cultural groups, Hispanic and Asian citizens assimilate into American
but they expected that the members of these groups culture, they remain more likely to vote for Democrats
would abandon their cultural distinctions and assimilate than Republicans. In other words, demographic change
the language and customs of earlier Americans. One may provide a substantial future benefit to the Demo-
of the outgrowths of the civil rights movement of the cratic Party. In recent elections, however, this benefit has
1960s, however, was an emphasis on multiculturalism, been counteracted by another effect. A growing number
the belief that the many cultures that make up Ameri- of non-Hispanic whites—especially older ones—have
can society should remain distinct and be protected— been drawn to conservatism by their concern over the
and even encouraged—by our laws. changing nature of American society. We take a closer
Despite the growth in multiculturalism, Ameri- look at the immigration issue in this chapter’s Perception
cans of all backgrounds remain committed to the values vs. Reality feature.
described in the last few sections of this text. Inevitably,
however, different groups interpret these values in vary- An Older Society In 2010, Americans aged 65 or
ing ways, thus adding to our political divisions. African above made up 13 percent of the total population. By
Americans, for example, given their collective history, 2040, however, that figure is expected to exceed 21

percent. The aging of America means that in future years
FIGURE 1–2 DISTRIBUTION OF THE U.S. POPULATION
there will be more retired people collecting Social Secu-
BY RACE AND HISPANIC ORIGIN, rity, Medicare, and private pensions, compared with the
2010 TO 2050 number of working adults. Inevitably, the question of how
By 2050, minorities will constitute a majority to share the national income among the generations will
of the U.S. population. become an ever-greater problem. In many foreign coun-
tries, however, the aging population poses a much greater
threat than in the United States. Our population is
2050 47.3 26.5 8.4 12.8 5.0 expected to grow throughout the coming century. Nations
such as Germany, Japan, Russia, and even China can
expect to see their populations shrink, which will make it
much harder for them to support their older citizens.
2040 51.3 24.1 7.6 12.7 4.3
CRITICAL THINKING
▸ It’s an old saying: “Your freedom to swing your arm ends

where my nose begins.” Can you think of other examples
Year
2030 55.5 21.6 6.7 12.6 3.7 where one person’s liberty interests conflict with those of
another person?
2020 59.6 19.0 5.8 12.4 3.2 1–4 AMERICAN

POLITICAL IDEOLOGY
2010 63.7 16.3 4.7 12.2 3.0
LO Define common American ideological positions, such as
“conservatism” and “liberalism.”
In a general sense, ideology refers to a system of politi-

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
cal ideas. These ideas typically are rooted in religious or
Percent
philosophical beliefs about human nature, society, and
White Hispanic Asian Black Other government.
When it comes to ideology, Americans are often
Data for 2010 are from the 2010 census. Data for 2020 through 2050 are
Census Bureau projections.
placed in two broad political camps: conservatives and
Figures do not necessarily sum to 100%, because of rounding. Hispan- liberals. The term conservative originally referred to
ics may be of any race. The chart categories “White,” “Black,” “Asian,” and persons who wished to conserve—keep—traditional
“Other” are limited to non-Hispanics.
social and political habits and institutions. The term
“Other” consists of the following non-Hispanic groups: “American Indian,”
“Alaska Native,” “Native Hawaiian,” “Other Pacific Islander,” and “Two or liberal referred to those who wanted to be free from
More Races.” tradition and to establish new policies and practices. In
Sources: U.S. Bureau of the Census and authors’ calculations. today’s American political arena, however, these simple
definitions of liberalism and conservatism are incom-
plete. Both terms mean much more.
1–4a Conservatism
ideology Generally, a system of political ideas that are rooted Modern American conservatism does indeed value
in religious or philosophical beliefs concerning human nature, traditions—specifically, American ones. For much of
society, and government. U.S. history, business enterprise was largely free from
conservatism A set of political beliefs that include a limited government control or regulation. That freedom began
role for the national government in helping individuals and in the to break down during the administration of Franklin
economic affairs of the nation, as well as support for traditional
D. Roosevelt (1933–1945). Roosevelt’s New Deal pro-
values and lifestyles.
grams, launched in an attempt to counter the effects of
PERCEPTION VS.
Do Immigrants
REALITY Take American Jobs?
A
merica was founded by immi- The Reality as well as the top. With unemploy-
grants, and few restrictions Immigrants fill jobs, but they also create ment at 10 percent in 2009 and 2010,
on immigration existed until them. Economic growth can increase farmers on the West Coast still could
the twentieth century. Today, how- the amount of employment that is not find U.S. citizens willing to pick
ever, immigration is a major issue. A available. And economic studies show fruits and vegetables.
special concern is the large number that highly skilled immigrants promote Studies suggest that while low-
of unauthorized immigrants, also economic growth, increasing employ- skilled—and especially illegal—immi-
called illegal immigrants. There are ment even among high-tech workers. grants may have an impact on low-end
probably about 11.3 million of these The number of well-educated wages, those most likely to not be hired
people currently in the country. The immigrants from China, India, and are other low-skilled immigrants. These
number of unauthorized immigrants other Asian countries is growing rap- immigrants often speak English poorly,
has been stable since 2008 due to a idly. The annual number of immigrants if at all. That gives native-born citizens
collapse in rates of immigration from from Asia now exceeds the number an employment advantage in most
Mexico. (In fact, the annual number from Latin America. A quarter of the parts of the country. They can compete
of Mexican immigrants—legal and engineering and technology compa- successfully for jobs that require Eng-
illegal—returning home now exceeds nies started in the United States from lish competency, such as store-clerk
the number of new arrivals.) Still, many 1995 to 2005 had at least one founder positions. More immigration means
people fear that immigrants, whether who was foreign-born. Some of the more economic growth, and more of
legal or illegal, take jobs away from world’s brightest brains and most all kinds of jobs, including jobs that
American citizens. cutting-edge innovators come to the require English-speaking applicants.
United States to study—and often to
The Perception stay. Foreign students earn 44 percent
Many believe that increased immigra- of U.S. science and engineering doc- Should U.S. corporations
tion leads to more competition for torates. Yet many of these students are
Blog
such asOn
Facebook and Twitter
jobs. Low-skilled immigrants drive forced to leave the country after grad- Enter “immigration
attempt and american
to uphold American
down the wages of low-skilled citi- uation because there are not enough jobs” into an
principles ofInternet search
free speech
zens. Even highly skilled immigrants visas available for professionals. engine such asWhy
everywhere? Google. Onenot?
or why
can take jobs away from engineers Even low-skilled immigrants ben- result of the search will be an
and other educated individuals born efit the overall economy. The United informative New York Times
in the United States. States has jobs available at the bottom article with that exact title.
the Great Depression, involved the government in the The Conservative Movement The emergence of
American economy to an extent previously unknown. the conservative movement in the 1950s and 1960s was
Roosevelt gave conservatives a common cause: opposi- essential to the development of modern conservatism. Pre-
tion to the New Deal and to big government. One tra- viously, economic conser-
dition that conservatives sought to maintain, therefore, vatives were often seen as
conservative
was a version of capitalism that was free of government individuals who feared that movement
regulation or control. Another is that groups that held a government activity might An ideological movement
preeminent position in American society in the past— personally cost them wealth that arose in the 1950s and
1960s and continues to
such as business and religious leaders—should continue or power. The conservative
shape conservative beliefs.
to receive respect. movement, in contrast, was

1–4 b Liberalism
While modern American liberalism can
trace its roots to the New Deal programs of
Franklin D. Roosevelt, the ideology did not
take its fully modern form until the 1960s,
during the Johnson administration. Johnson
went well beyond the programs of Roosevelt
with new economic initiatives, such as Medi-
care and Medicaid. These programs—and
more recent health-care reforms—reflect
www.shutterstock.com
the strong liberal belief that the social and
economic outcomes that exist in the absence
of government action are frequently unfair.
Conservatives commonly accuse liberals of
Donald Trump introduces Indiana governor Mike Pence as
valuing “big government” for its own sake.
his vice-presidential running mate. How is Trump different Liberals reject that characterization and
from past Republican candidates? argue that big government is simply a neces-
sary tool for promoting the common welfare.
The Civil Rights Revolution In the 1960s, lib-
clearly ideological. It provided a complete way of view- erals in the Democratic Party were able to commit their
ing the world, and it attracted millions of followers who party firmly to the cause of African American equality, per-
were not necessarily motivated by narrow economic manently overriding those Democratic conservatives who
self-interest. The conservative movement emerged as a still supported legal segregation of the races. In a match-
major force in 1964, when Arizona senator Barry Gold- ing development, conservatives in the Republican Party
water won the Republican presidential nomination on began to appeal to traditionalist whites who were upset
a relatively radical platform. Goldwater was soundly by the African American civil rights movement. As the
defeated by Democrat Lyndon B. Johnson (1963–1969). party of Lincoln, the Republicans had once been the
In 1980, however, Republican Ronald Reagan became natural political home of African Americans. This was
the first “movement conservative” to win the White no longer true. Support for minority rights of all kinds
House. became an integral part of liberal ideology, while con-
servatism came to include skepticism toward minority
Conservatism Today A key element in conserva-
claims. As one example, consider the Black Lives Mat-
tive thinking is the belief that the distribution of social
ter movement that arose in 2015 following claims that
and economic benefits that would exist if the government
many police officers were too willing to use deadly force
took little or no action is usually optimum. Conservatives
against African Americans. Democratic presidential can-
believe that individuals and families should take respon-
didates expressed sympathy for the movement, but most
sibility for their own economic circumstances, and if that
Republican candidates accused it of being antipolice.
means that some people have less, so be it. Conserva-
tives also place a high value on the principle of order, Other Liberal Values The Vietnam War (1965–
on family values, and on patriotism. Conservatism has 1975) also influenced liberal thinking. Although Ameri-
always included those who want society and the govern- can participation in the conflict was initiated by President
ment to reflect traditional religious values, and Christian Johnson, liberals swung against the war more strongly
conservatives remain an important part of the conser- than other Americans. Liberalism therefore came to
vative coalition today. As include a relatively negative view of American military
liberalism A set of one result, many conser- initiatives abroad. (That distrust has declined in recent
political beliefs that include
the advocacy of active vatives continue to oppose years, however.)
government, including same-sex marriages, even Liberals strongly favor the separation of church and
government intervention though the United States state. They generally think that the government should
to improve the welfare of Supreme Court legalized avoid laws that endorse or impose traditional religious
individuals and to protect
civil rights.
such unions nationwide in values. Examples include laws that limit the rights of gays
June 2015.5 and lesbians. These beliefs sharply contrast with those of
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pane; un’altra ove ponevasi a fermentare su tavole disposte l’una
sull’altra lungo il muro, e quindi una terza ove riponevasi già cotto.
Presso era la stalla degli asini che giravano le mole, secondo il
metodo più usitato. In questo pistrino si trovarono quattro macine un
po’ più basse delle consuete d’altrove, formate da un cono concavo
che si volge su di un altro convesso, anfore di grano e farina, e sul
muro del Pistrino, vedesi un dipinto che esprimeva un sagrificio alla
Dea Fornace e diversi uccelli. È forse la panatteria migliore che si
scoperse finora.
Un altro forno publico è nel lato sinistro della casa di Fortunata
presso quella di Pansa, con tre mulini, sull’un dei quali leggesi Sex.
Sulla bocca del forno vi era un phallus colorito in rosso ed al di sopra
scritta la leggenda hic habitat felicitas, novella prova che
l’emblema non fosse unicamente a segno di mal costume, ma
piuttosto a felice augurio ed a scongiuro di disgrazia, come già ebbi il
destro di sostenere. Nella bottega attigua di panatteria esisteva una
pittura rappresentante un serpente, simbolo di una divinità custode,
e rimpetto una croce latina in basso rilievo. Sarebbe questo segno
un indizio del sospetto da me già espresso che la religione di Cristo
fosse già penetrata in Pompei? Faccio voti che i futuri scavi abbiano
ad offerire maggiori dati, che il sospetto e l’induzione abbiano a
mutare in certezza assoluta.
Sull’angolo della via del Panatico, un’altra panatteria ha un gran
forno con quattro mulini. Su due d’essi leggonsi le parole sex e
sohal in caratteri rossi e sopra il forno vedevasi una figura
rappresentante evidentemente un magistrato che distribuiva pane al
popolo.
Nella viottola della Fontana del Bue, si è pure trovato un pistrino con
tre macine, un gran forno a corrente d’aria e delle madie foderate di
piombo.
D’un’ultima panatteria terrò conto, scoperta nel 1868 ed
appartenente a Paquio Proculo, al quale apparteneva pure la casa.
Essa è nella Via Stabiana (Regione VII, Isola II). Il chiarissimo
Minervini lesse dipinta sulla parete sinistra della casa la seguente
epigrafe, che oggi è frammentata per la caduta dell’intonaco:
PROCVLE . FRONTONI
TVO . OFFICIVM . COMMODA
Questa raccomandazione, scrive il dotto signor G. De Petra,

illustrando nel Giornale degli Scavi la casa e il pistrino di P. Paquio
Proculo [284], così per la sua forma, come pel luogo dov’è scritta, mi
pare indubitato che Frontone la rivolgesse al padrone della casa, il
quale perciò doveva chiamarsi Proculo. Con tal cognome occorrono
più di frequente nei programmi pompejani due persone, P. Paquio
Proculo e Q. Postumio Proculo; ma considerando che in una
colonna dell’atrio è graffito il nome di Pacuia, la figlia di Paquio,
rimane provato che col nome di questo debba intitolarsi la casa.
Donde si fa ancora probabile che l’altra raccomandazione elettorale
publicata dal ch. Fiorelli (Giornale degli Scavi, 1862, p. 47, n. 4):
Sabinum aed (ilem) Procule fac, et ille te facient, fosse indirizzata
allo stesso P. Paquio, che pare sia stato un uomo assai influente e
popolare. Diffatti il ch. Garrucci (Bull. arch. Nap., n. 5, tom. II, p. 52)
fece nota questa epigrafe che sinora non trova riscontro di sorta fra
le reminiscenze elettorali: P. Paquium Proculum ii. Vir. i. d. d. r. p.
universi Pompejani fecerunt; nondimeno chi era questo Proculo, che
i Pompeiani unanimi sollevarono alla somma dignità di duumviro
giusdicente? Niente altro, come si vedrà, che un panattiere! Il qual
fatto ci autorizza a conchiudere, che in Pompei le magistrature
municipali non eran monopolio dei soli ricchi, e che questi
conoscevano di buona voglia (universi fecerunt) la convenienza di
farvi partecipare anche i più autorevoli e migliori cittadini di
condizione plebea. — Lezione buona pei nostri tempi, in cui le
elezioni amministrative e politiche sembrano infeudate
all’aristocrazia del sangue e del denaro: colpa precipua del popolo
stesso che si ostina, a parole, a gridar contro i ricchi e gli uomini di
grande autorità, ma in fatto è poi sempre lo stesso peccatore, che
religiosamente serba il suo stolido feticismo per chi tiene di classe a
sè superiore; salvo a ricominciare di poi le sue maledizioni contro gli
eletti proprj, che ignari de’ suoi bisogni, fanno leggi a sproposito e a
detrimento.
Anche all’ingresso della viottola della Fontana del Bue, sulla
muraglia a sinistra, una bella e ben conservata pittura di simboliche
serpi è sormontata, oltre che da un piccolo larario, anche da varie
iscrizioni, parte in oggi cancellate dalla rovina, fra le quali leggesi la
seguente, che ognor più avvalora e l’influenza e la ricchezza di
questo importantissimo panattiere in Pompei:
P. PAQVIVM PROCVLVM
II VIR . I . D . THALAMVS CLIENS [285].
Io non mi divagherò a descrivere la casa di questo P. Paquio

Proculo, che qui l’argomento ne sarebbe spostato: verrò invece
difilato al pistrino che vi è in essa, e che è nel lato destro. Vi si
riconosce la camera del panificium, e ciò si argomenta, scrive il De
Petra, dai cinque podii di fabbrica per sostegno di tre tavoloni di
legno su cui rimaneggiavasi la pasta, da varii recipienti per
conservar l’acqua, quali sono una vaschetta quadra fabbricata, un
gran dolio sepolto a metà nel suolo e un’anfora murata in uno de’
poggiuoli, infine dalle traccie degli assi di legno che sostenevano le
tavole su cui disponevansi i pani. Una porta priva di soglia dava il
passaggio da questo luogo a quello dov’è il forno; ma tra l’una e
l’altra stanza, per uno scopo limitato, cioè per la sola cottura del
pane, v’era una comunicazione anche più diretta e sollecita. Si
notarono tre molæ per isfarinare il grano, avendo una di esse la
base ricoperta da una lamina di piombo, la meta di una quarta mola
senza il catillus e la base circolare per una quinta; due serbatoj
d’acqua fabbricati, un pozzo con coperchio, un piccolo dolio
contenente calce e tre poggiuoli.
Il dipinto larario solito a incontrarsi nei pistrini, non è mancato in
questo, ma sventuratamente tornò a luce poco conservato. Sotto un
verdeggiante festone è la Dea Vesta ammantata con lo scettro nella
sinistra e il dritto braccio proteso sopra un focus. Dietro a Vesta è
l’asino, l’animale, come dissi, usato più spesso a girar le macine;
rimpetto alla Dea v’è un giovane in piedi che nella sinistra ha la
cornucopia, e stende la diritta sull’ara.
A sinistra del forno v’è un ampio locale in cui probabilmente si
conservavano saccula di grano o di farina.
Di questo P. Paquio Proculo e di sua moglie, nel tablinum della loro
casa, si rinvenne il ritratto dipinto sulle pareti gialle. Cedo la penna
all’egregio De Petra. «Questo dipinto, offre la volgare fisonomia di
Paquio, che ammantato dalla bianca toga magistrale, stringe nella
destra un volume col rispettivo titolo di colore rosso. Gli è a fianco la
sua donna, cui pendono sulla fronte i ricciolini sfuggiti alla fascetta
che le stringe i capelli; ha pendenti di perle alle orecchie, e rossa la
veste; avvicina alle labbre la punta dello stilo che tiene nella dritta ed
ha i pugillari aperti nella sinistra [286]. Donde si può inferire, che
l’anzidetta positura sia stata convenzionale nei ritratti, poichè
l’atteggiarsi dell’uomo e della donna trovasi ripetuto esattamente in
due scudetti publicati nelle Pitture d’Ercolano (tom. III, tav. 45) e in
quegli altri due che ornano il tablino d’una casa nella Regione
Settima, isola 10, propriamente quella che vien dopo la casa del
Balcone Pensile. Oltrecchè l’atteggiamento della donna si confronta
con la scrittrice dipinta nell’atrio della casa di Popidio Prisco (Reg.
VII, Is. 11, n. 20) e con un’altra delle Pitture d’Erc. (t. III, tav. 46) [287].
Quale simbolo dell’amor conjugale di P. Paquio e sua moglie,
vedevasi al di sopra dei loro ritratti un grazioso ed importante
quadretto, ora nel Museo, rappresentante Amore e Psiche
teneramente abbracciati. Il bacio e l’amplesso di essi, ovvio in tanti
altri monumenti, è ritratto in questa pittura pompejana in una
movenza nuova, sebbene non molto diversa delle altre conosciute.»
Nella Via degli Augustali, come dipendenza della Casa detta dei
Capitelli figurati, aprivasi poi una taberna da pasticciere, pistor
dulciarius, il quale, come ne fa sapere Apulejo, panes et mellita
concinnabat eduleia. Vi si videro parecchi mulinetti, pistrillæ, che un
sol uomo bastava a girare; ma destò la speciale attenzione il forno,
dalla forma del quale direbbesi a riverbero, costituendosi di due
cavità sovrapposte, accendendosi il fuoco nella cavità inferiore da
cui il calore ascendeva per un’apertura, nella cavità superiore, ove si
deponevano a cuocer le pasticcerie. Due pasticcetti si trovarono
negli scavi e si conservano nel Museo di Napoli.
Toccato de’ pistrini, vediamo ora le altre botteghe e spacci
pompejani di merci attinenti i cibi e gli alimenti.
Una taberna o venditorio d’olio si scoprì nel 1852 nella via di Stabia,
quasi all’angolo della viottola della Fontana del Bue. Il podio o banco
della bottega era di marmo cipollino e grigio antico, con in mezzo
dello specchio davanti un medaglione di porfido verde e due bei
rosoni. Su di esso vi erano incastrate otto belle ed ampie scodelle in
terra cotta. Nell’interno si ritrovò un pozzo, un fornello e l’ingresso
del ripostiglio dell’olio. La quantità degli ulivi che si coltivavano
nell’agro campano doveva necessariamente far luogo ad una
produzione assai abbondante di olio. Anche gli scavi hanno offerte
conserve nell’olio di grosse ulive, che dovevano probabilmente
aversi dalle famiglie pompejane fra le consuete ghiottornie.
Presso la casa di Cornelio Rufo e quella di Messinio nella Via di
Stabia evvi una casetta, che l’illustre Fioretti, seguendo le indicazioni
di Pompeo Festo e di Varrone, qualifica per un Ganeum, o Ganea,
specialmente per avervi vedute pitture ed iscrizioni licenziose [288].
Era la Ganea o il Ganeum, come meglio piaccia al lettore di
appellarlo, secondo essi, un ritrovo nascosto di meretrici, le camere
da letto delle quali erano a pian terreno, come i cenacoli nella parte
superiore delle case, ed io ne toccherò poi nel capitolo del Lupanare;
ma Bréton, nella sua Pompeja, avendo constatato nell’area del
peristilio sette grandi coppe, o giare, misure di capacità pei liquidi, e
sette dolii coi loro coperchi, senza manichi, fu indotto a credere che
questa casa potesse essere al contrario un magazzeno d’olio. Si
sono poi trovati negli scavi dei particolari mulini che si sono creduti
atti alla macinazione dei grani oleosi: l’uno fu rinvenuto nelle
vicinanze del Foro Triangolare o Nundinario.
Prima di entrare nel Foro Civile, sulla diritta, stava la taberna di un
venditore di latte. L’insegna di essa è in terra cotta e rappresenta
una capra. Sotto di essa vi si lesse questa iscrizione in caratteri
rossi, all’epoca del suo sterramento, ma che ora non si distinguono
più.
M. CASELLIVM AED. DIF. FAC.
FIDELIS...
Nel podio di materia di fabbrica, come d’uso nelle taberne di liquidi,

v’erano incassati dei vasi.
Nell’isola intorno al Tempio d’Augusto si constatarono diverse
botteghe di commestibili. Una di venditori di pesci salati, forse ciò
argomentandosi dai pesci che si videro dipinti sulle pareti, della
natura di quelli che si vendono nella salamoja, e già sappiamo che
Pompei era nota e famosa pel suo garo che sapeva preparare e del
quale ho già intrattenuto il lettore sulla fine del Capitolo Quinto.
Un’altra di fruttivendolo, nè in questa si errò di certo, poichè vi si
accogliessero fichi secchi in abbondanza, uva passa, susine, frutta
in vasi di vetro, lenti, semi di canape; oltre una ciambella, vari
frammenti di pasta e di pane, molto denaro, una staderina e varie
bilancie. I fruttivendoli in Pompei dovevano essere di molti, così
essendo lecito di pensare dalla iscrizione che fu letta sul pilastro che
separa la Fullonica, di cui dirò qui appresso, dalla Casa della gran
Fontana, scritta, come il più spesso, in caratteri rossi e che sembra
riferirsi al magistrato, del quale abbiam veduto come la statua
decorasse il teatro:
M. HOLCONIVM PRISCVM II VIR. I. D.
POMARI VNIVERSI CVM HELVIO
VESTALE ROGANT [289]
I fruttivendoli pompejani si raccomandano ancora in altre due

iscrizioni, che si lessero nella strada ove è l’arco di trionfo. L’una è
così concepita:
IVLIVM SABINVM AEDILEM
POMARII ROGANT
e l’altra così:
MARCVM CERRINIVM AEDILEM
POMARII ROGANT
Ciò che vuol essere osservato si è che in queste botteghe, che sono
circostanti al Tempio di Augusto, si sono rinvenuti molti oggetti
preziosi e d’arte, fra quali una statuetta di bronzo rappresentante
una Vittoria con armille d’oro alle braccia; un’altra in marmo; Venere
che si asciuga i capelli, come sorgesse allora dalle spume dell’Ionio
mare, colla parte inferiore velata da un drappo dipinto in rosso; una
bella tazza d’alabastro, anelli d’oro, gemme, sistri isiaci, un vaso di
vaghissimo lavoro, amuleti, strigili e diverse monete.
Sarà negli ulteriori scavi che verrà dato indubbiamente di scoprire
taberne d’altre cose mangerecce, e soprattutto lanienae, o botteghe
da beccai e macelli, la principale opera e materia prima dei quali
veniva somministrata dai templi, per le continue vittime che vi si
immolavano, per lo più in buoi, giovenche e pecore; e se agli Dei si
bruciavano ciocche di lana e qualche inutile interiora, tutt’al più
spruzzate da vino e mescolate di fiori, il meglio veniva accortamente
goduto dai sacerdoti pel loro uso, e venduto nuovamente ai gonzi, di
cui si costituisce la maggior parte del pubblico, che a ragion di
divozione avevano fatto prima l’offerta. I macellai dell’antichità erano
adunque principalmente i sacerdoti.
Della bottega del Chirurgo e del Seplasarius o farmacista e di quella
di prodotti chimici, ho già detto nel Capitolo delle Scuole; di quella
dello scultore mi occuperò nel venturo delle Belle Arti, come anche
del mercante de’ colori; perocchè meglio vi si trovino in essi collocati,
come materia che a que’ capitoli ha tutto il suo riferimento.
Nella stradicciuola di Mercurio, gli scavi trovarono nel 1853 un
Myropolium, o bottega da profumiere, detta anche, come la vediam
nominata in Varrone e Svetonio, unguentaria taberna [290]. Già
superiormente ho toccato dello spreco di profumi, aromi ed unguenti
che si faceva a quei tempi di grande effeminatezza in Roma e in
tutto l’orbe a lei soggetto. Non era soltanto, cioè, del mondo
muliebre; ma pur degli uomini. All’uscire del letto, prima d’entrare nel
bagno, nel bagno e dopo, era costume di ugnersi e di profumarsi;
altrettanto facevasi nelle case prima del pasto e avanti comparire in
pubblico e prima di coricarsi; ogni occasione era buona per
ispargersi il corpo e le vestimenta di odorose essenze, per ungere i
capelli e perfino per profumare camere ed appartamenti. Già abbiam
veduto nel capitolo dell’Anfiteatro come si facesse eziandio all’aperto
assai gitto di croco: si può pertanto argomentare cosa dovesse
essere negli appartamenti chiusi: a suo luogo vedremo,
specialmente nel triclinio e ne’ funerali.
Ma più che tutto, era nell’amore che di profumi si abusava, come
eccitanti e preparatori allo stesso. È noto, scrive Dufour [291], che il
muschio, il zibetto, l’ambra grigia e gli altri odori animali portati nelle
vesti, nei capelli, in tutte le parti del corpo esercitano un’azione
attivissima sul sistema nervoso e sugli organi della generazione. Nè
solo adoperavano esternamente detti profumi, ma non temevano di
far entrare aromi e spezie in quantità nel giornaliero loro alimento;
onde a ciò si voglia ascrivere quell’appetito e prurito continuo che
tormentava la romana società e che la spingeva in tutti gli eccessi
dell’amor fisico.
La lussuria asiatica portò seco tali profumi e d’allora in poi, così
prodigioso fu il consumo delle sostanze aromatiche, che parve non
bastare quanto inviava la Persia, l’Arabia e tutto l’Oriente insieme.
S’era insomma venuto a tal punto, da aver ragione Plauto, quando
nella Mostellaria usciva in questi accenti:
Quia ecastor mulier recte olet, ubi nihil olet.

Nam istæc veteres, quæ se unguentis unctitant, inter poles,
Vetulæ, edentulæ, quæ vilia corporis fuco occulunt,
Ubi sese sudor cum unguentis consociavit, illico
Itidem olent, quasi cum una multa jura confudit cocus.
Quid oleant nescias, nisi id unum, ut male olere intelligas [292].
Profumi e cosmetici assumevano il nome dal paese onde venivano:

così furono celebrati l’unguento di Cipri, il balsamo di Mende, il
nardo d’Achemenis, il malobutrum di Sidone, distillato in olio pei
capelli, l’olio d’Arabia, quello della Siria, il mirobolano di Arabia;
l’opobalsamum della Giudea, il cinnamomo dell’India, la maggiorana
di Cipri, la mirra dell’Oronte e l’iride di Illiria, che Ovidio raccomanda
nel suo Poemetto De Faciei medicamine, e del quale facciamo uso
noi pure rinchiudendolo in seriche borse o sacchetti, che poniamo,
per profumarla, per mezzo la biancheria.
Altri profumi e unguenti pigliavano il nome dal loro inventore; come
la Niceroziana ricordata da Marziale, odore inventato da Nicerote, e
il Foliatum, manipolato da Folia, amica di Gratidia, che Orazio
stigmatizzò nelle sue Odi, coprendola delle più infami accuse e
vituperi, col nome di Canidia.
V’era poi l’unguento dipelatorio, detto dropax unguentum,
l’odontatrimna per i denti, le pastiglie dette diapasmata contro l’alito
cattivo, e vie via molti altri unguenti che sarebbe troppo lungo
l’enumerare.
Malgrado questo bisogno che si provava dell’arte e dei prodotti del
profumiere e del cosmeta, questi bottegai erano nel comune
disprezzo, forse perchè a questo piccolo commercio s’applicassero
cortigiane e cinedi, lenoni e mezzane, quando l’età toglieva loro ogni
attrattiva e possibilità di continuare nel loro infame mestiere, o
mancava la clientela, e così a donna ingenua ossia nata libera, il
nome solo di profumatrice e cosmeta sarebbe giustamente suonato
come la più fiera ingiuria.
Nelle case de’ ricchi eravi sovente il laboratorio dell’unguentarius, a
cui s’applicavano schiavi o liberti, e le cosmete e gli unguentarii
valevano eziandio per le molteplici operazioni, che già conosciamo,
de’ privati balinei.
La gente onesta e della buona società teneva a disonore il mostrarsi
publicamente nei myropolii o taberne unguentarie, e però quando vi
accedevano o sceglievano le ore prime del mattino o quelle della
sera, e tiravano il lembo della toga sul volto: non così gli sfaccendati
che traevano a questi luoghi, non che alle tonstrinæ o botteghe da
barbiere, od a quelle de’ medici e de’ banchieri, per raccogliervi
novelle e chiacchierare, come Plauto ne fa sapere quando
nell’Epidico fa che Apecide dica aver cercato ovunque di Perifane:
Dii immortales, utinam conveniam domi

Periphanem! per omnem urbem quem sum defessus quærere:
Per medicinas, per tonstrinas, in gymnasia atque in foro,
Per myropolia, et lanienas, circumque argentarias
Rogitando sum raucus factus [293].
Spettava a’ profumieri l’imbalsamazion de’ cadaveri e la vendita

degli aromi pei sagrifici, e nel myropolium di Pompei diffatti le
insegne o pitture che vi stavano nell’ingresso ed ora scomparse, e le
quali condussero a constatare od almeno a far credere essere quella
una taberna unguentaria, rappresentavano l’una un sagrificatore che
conduceva all’altare un toro; l’altra quattro uomini che portavano una
enorme cassa, intorno alla quale stavano sospesi alcuni vasi.
Superiormente poi vedevansi dipinte alcune persone intente a
profumare un cadavere, prima d’essere portato al rogo.
Dal profumiere, passiamo a vedere la taberna del barbiere nella Via
di Mercurio. È picciolissima: a destra vi è un podio, sopra di esso
due nicchie simili a quelle che altrove servirono a larario, ma che qui
più probabilmente avranno giovato per collocarvi cosmetici, vasi di
profumi, pettini e novaculæ o lame di metallo molto affilate colle quali
radevano i capelli della testa o i peli della barba, come i nostri rasoi.
In mezzo alla bottega v’è un sedile in materia da fabbrica, dove
l’avventore si sarà seduto, e in un dietro bottega sta il fornello, che
avrà servito per riscaldare l’acqua. Non saprei spiegare come e
perchè si trovassero in questa seconda camera gli avanzi di un
mulino.
Circa questo mestiere del barbiere, tonsor, poco è a dirsi. Lo si
faceva consistere nel tagliare i capelli, nel radere la barba, nel
pareggiare le ugne e nello svellere i peli parassiti colle pinzette,
volsellæ. I ricchi usavano a tutto ciò nella propria casa di uno
schiavo o di liberto; il popolo veniva alla bottega. A radersi
frequentemente la barba, si cominciò tardi in Roma, nell’anno cioè
454, della sua fondazione, alla venuta dalla Sicilia del primo
barbiere: avanti di costui la si lasciava crescere generalmente. Nelle
tonstrinæ, — così chiamate le botteghe di barbieri, e noi diremmo
barbierie, — era assai frequente che vi esercitassero tal mestiere le
donne, dette però Tonstrices; e Plauto, fedel pittore di que’ vecchi
costumi, nel Truculentus, accenna appunto alla Sura barbiera:
. . . tonstricem Suram
Novisti nostram, quæ modo erga ædes habet [294].
e Marziale acerbamente morde la moglie d’un barbiere che stava

presso alla Suburra, e la quale co’ suoi artificii carpiva denaro alla
gente:
Sed ista tonstrix, Ammiane, non tondet;

Non tondet, inquis? ergo quid facit? radit [295].
Non di meglio del resto aveva trattato lo stesso poeta, Marziale, il

barbiere Eutrapelo nel seguente epigramma:
Eutrapelus tonsor dum circuit ora Luperci

Expungitque genas; altera barba subit [296].
Lo che dimostra che di buoni e grami barbieri ve ne erano allora

come ve ne hanno di presente. L’epigramma adunque avrà sempre
la propria attualità.
Di sarti finora gli scavi non rivelarono botteghe; di calzolajo se ne
sospettò alcuna giusta quel che ne dirò tra breve, e così di tal’altre
industrie e mestieri attinenti il vestire, e quel che si sterrerà per lo
avanti, riguardando la parte più abitata dalla gente operaja, verrà
forse facendo al proposito interessanti rivelazioni. Certo che nè le
vestimenta, nè i calceamenti erano a que’ dì complicati come di
presente, da richiedere specialità di artieri. L’importante quanto ai
primi era la finezza della stofa onde si facevano tonache e mantelli,
pepli e toghe e studio nel portarle onde si acquistasse grazia ed
eleganza. Gli schiavi, le donne bastavano all’uopo e forse ognuno,
anche del popolo, in sua casa poteva dalle proprie donne farsi
preparare tutto quello che appunto riguardasse il vestimento. Circa
alle vestimenta poi della gente rustica, ne abbiamo in Marco Porcio
Catone, De Re Rustica, ricordati i nomi: Tunicæ, saga, centones,
centiculi, manicæ de pellibus; e cuculli o cuculliones, pilei e galeri a
berrette o cappelli che si portavano in testa, ed erano in tutti di pelli
lanute. In quanto ai secondi, cioè a’ calzolai, si può dirne qualche
parola, perchè in taluna pittura pompejana si vide riprodotta la forma
di qualche calzare, ma sarà tra breve, come dissi, quando visiteremo
la bottega del cuojajo o conciatore di pelli.
Presso le Prigioni, che abbiamo nell’undecimo Capitolo di
quest’opera trovate nel Foro Civile Pompejano, vedesi un locale che
fu designato siccome un ampio magazzeno in cui si vendevano tele
e stofe ad uso proprio del vestire. Così fu interpretato l’uso di questo
locale, fidandosi alla quantità dei buchi che vi si videro, che
dovevano aver servito a sostenere gli armadj che contenevano
quelle merci. Una pittura scoperta in Pompei, scrive Bonucci, fa per
avventura allusione a questo Foro ed a questo magazzeno.
Rappresenta un uomo in piedi, che tiene nelle mani un pezzo di
stofa ch’egli offre ad una donna seduta. Questa mostra il desiderio di
comperarla, ma fa osservare al mercante un difetto che si trova nel
mezzo della merce, e il mercante cerca dissuaderla con ragioni che
accompagna con gesti. Le due giovanette sedute, la servente che è
dietro di esse, il gruppo di due altre donne che parlano con un uomo,
e da ultimo i panneggiamenti che si scoprono nel fondo del quadro,
possono indicare il luogo di che facciamo parola.
Tele e lane servivano alla confezione degli abiti: solo negli ultimi
tempi, cioè a quelli dell’Impero, le matrone, comperandola a
carissimo prezzo, usavano della seta che derivavano dall’Asia; ma
questa consideravasi come merce di smoderatissimo lusso,
perocchè costasse come l’oro. Ho già notato le maraviglie che si
fecero quando nel circo vennero distesi velarii di seta: erano esse in
ragione della preziosità e rarità della stofa.
Nel Vicolo del Panatico, al lato destro, vi è un piccolo stabilimento di
lavanderia: per tale venne riconosciuto, abbenchè tutto vi fosse
rovinato e nulla di particolare offra ad essere riferito. Due altre
lavanderie pure non di grande importanza, stanno nel Vicolo della
Maschera: più vasta è quella in Via del Lupanare e detta di Narciso,
scoperta nel 1862 e così denominata da una superba statuetta di
bronzo che si conserva al Museo, rappresentante infatti questo
personaggio mitologico nell’atto che ascolta la voce lontana della
Ninfa Eco, che vien considerata come una delle migliori rarità trovate
negli scavi, sì che Dognée giungesse a dire: Les fouilles n’eussent-
elles déterré que ce seul bronze, l’importation des principes
immortelles de l’art grec dans le vieux monde romain eût été
démontrée par une trace glorieuse dont la splendeur indique
incontestablement l’illustre origine [297]. È una bottega, in cui si
veggono vasche diverse di pietra, in due delle quali era l’acqua
condotta da un tubo di piombo con un robinetto. Sotto di queste due
vasche è un fornello; ma giustamente osserva Bréton, siccome il
piombo non può sopportare un fuoco di troppo ardente, si deve
supporre, che in questi due fornelli non si ponesse che della brace
destinata solo a tener caldo il liquido, nel quale si lavavano le stofe
di lana o di lino. Al disopra del lavatojo, nella muraglia, vi sono dei
buchi, ne’ quali erano infissi dei chiodi per la biancheria. Il suolo
della bottega ha un certo pendìo verso un lato, per ivi condurre le
acque che vi scorrevano per uscire sulla via. A destra della bottega,
è una cameretta, in mezzo alla quale è una tavola di marmo
rettangolare d’un solo piede ornato d’un corno d’abbondanza e d’una
pàtera con tracce di pitture. In fondo della stessa, scendendo quattro
gradini, si entra in una vasta corte in cui si vedono le traccie dei
chiodi cui si saran dovute accomandare le corde onde distendervi le
biancherie ad asciugare.
Nella bottega sull’angolo della Via degli Augustali e del Lupanare,
designata per quella del Conciapelli, coriarius o, come potrebbe
essere, d’un calzolajo, giusta l’opinione di Fiorelli e di Overbeck,
appartenente a Nonio Campano soldato della IX Coorte pretoriana,
come era scritto in grandi caratteri rossi sulla bianca parete di essa,
se non abbiamo speciali oggetti a rimarcare, tranne alcuni utensili
propri a questo mestiere, l’argomento però ci obbliga a ricordare
l’uso precipuo de’ suoi prodotti, cioè quello de’ calzari e scarpe.
Sutor chiamavasi l’artefice che cuciva in cuojo, adoperando la lesina,
subula, e introducendo la setola, seta; onde sutrina la bottega di lui.
Dalla diversa qualità del lavoro, dicevasi sutor crepidarius, o sutor
caligarius, o anche calcearius; onde la parola nostra calzolajo.
Facevansi pure da’ calzolai romani i coturni, ed erano essi stivali di
greco modello, di cuoio, usualmente portato da’ cacciatori e copriva
l’intero piede e la gamba sino al polpaccio, allacciandosi sul davanti
ed arrovesciato in cima con una ritoccatura, ed una suola diritta atta
ad uno o all’altro piede, utroque actus pedi, come scrive Servio
scoliaste di Virgilio [298]. Uno stivale dello stesso genere, dice Rich,
ma ornato con più cura, è assegnato talora dagli artisti greci a talune
delle loro divinità, in ispecie a Diana, Bacco e Mercurio e dai Romani
nello stesso modo alla Dea Roma ed ai loro imperatori, come un
segno di divinità. Così furono adottati da Marco Antonio, quando si
attribuì il carattere e gli attributi di Bacco [299]; ma però non eran
portati dai Romani come parte del loro vestiario consueto. Cicerone
biasima l’insolenza d’un Tuditano, che si mostra in pubblico cum
palla et cothurnis [300]. Il coturno portato dagli attori tragici sulla
scena, abbiam già visto avesse la suola di sughero. — I cacciatori,
oltre il coturno, portavano anche l’ocrea, specie di moderne uose.
Ocrea era anche la gambiera che copriva lo stinco dal malleolo sino
a poco sopra il ginocchio: per lo più era di metallo e se ne scoprirono
degli esemplari in Pompei.
Crepida, era un calzare che si componeva d’una suola alta, ornata di
una bassa striscia di cuojo che copriva solo il fianco del piede, ma
aveva un certo numero d’occhielli, ansæ, sul suo orlo superiore,
attraverso i quali passava una correggia piatta, amentum, per
allacciarla sul piede. Propriamente era peculiare del vestiario
nazionale greco ed usato dai due sessi e si considerava come la
calzatura conveniente a portarsi col pallium e colla chlamys. Le
crepidæ carbatinæ erano poi le più ordinarie di tutte le calzature in
uso fra gli antichi e particolari ai contadini delle regioni meridionali.
Consistevano in un pezzo quadrato di cuojo per suola, poi rivoltato
all’insù a’ canti e sopra le dita, legato sul collo del piede attorno la
parte più bassa della gamba con coreggiuoli passati attraverso dei
buchi sugli orli.
Calceus era una piccola scarpa o calzaretto, per lo più portato dalle
donne. Ne’ dipinti Pompejani si videro tre distinti modelli di essi: tutti
per altro giungono a’ malleoli, con suola e tacco basso e così senza,
come con laccetti. Calceus invece era uno stivaletto fatto sopra
forma così per il piè destro, come per il sinistro, in maniera da
coprire interamente il piede, a differenza dei sandali e delle pianelle
che non ne coprivano se non solo una porzione. Come poi vediamo
pur oggidì usarsi dalle nostre signore, aggiungere tacco a tacco per
render alta la persona; così per le Romane, ad esempio delle
Greche, invece d’una, usavano di due e tre suole, onde la solea
pigliava allora il nome di fulmenia, sincope di fulcimenia. Di queste
duplici e triplici suole giovavansi inoltre, come faremmo noi adesso,
per difenderci dalla umidità. V’era il calceus patricius che portavano i
senatori, di qualità diversa da quella degli altri cittadini; di dove la
frase di Cicerone calceos mutare [301], per significare che alcuno
diventava senatore, e s’allacciavano con istringhe che s’incrociavano
sul collo del piede e poi s’avvolgevano attorno alla gamba sino al
principio del polpaccio; il calceus repandus, scarpa con una larga
punta ricurva in su o indietro. — Calceamentum e calceamen erano
poi termini generici per esprimere ogni maniera di copertura del
piede.
Da obstragulum, che era quella striscia di cuojo o correggia con cui
la crepida si allacciava attorno al piede e che passava tra il pollice e
il dito vicino e che da persone affettate si portava talora tempestata
di perle, come lasciò Plinio ricordato [302], derivò obstrigillum, ch’era
una particolare sorta di scarpa, che aveva i quartieri, per i laccetti,
cuciti alla suola da ciascun lato. Di queste scarpe se n’ha esempio in
una pittura pompejana.
Sandalum era una pantufola squisitamente ornata, che portata dalle
donne greche, venne poi introdotta dalle signore di Roma. Pare che
fosse d’una forma intermedia tra il calceolus e la solea, avendo un
suolo ed un tomajo sopra le dita e la parte davanti del piede, ma
lasciando scoverte le calcagna e la parte di dietro, come una
pantufola nostra.
Finalmente v’era la solea, della forma più semplice del sandalum,
consisteva in una semplice suola sotto la pianta del piede, legata
con un correggiuolo attraverso il collo del piede stesso, come a un
dipresso sono i sandali degli odierni cappuccini e si portava da ambo
i sessi. V’era poi la solea spartea, o stivale fatto di ginestra
spagnuola, ma non era ad uso degli uomini, ma delle bestie da
soma, a proteggere i loro piedi quando malati.
La solea tuttavia non si portava fuori di casa: altrimenti sarebbe stata
sconveniente o indizio di affettazione o di moda straniera, come
avvertì Seneca ed anche Cicerone [303].
Perones, Sculponeæ e Soleæ ligneæ, erano nomi con cui si
designavano i sandali e scarpe da famigli. I primi due indicavano
calzari fatti di cuojo; le soleæ ligneæ erano, come esprime il loro
aggettivo, di legno.
E qui s’arresta la mia erudizione in fatto di calzoleria romana e
pompejana.
Non però di quanto riguarda l’arte del coriarius, o cuojajo, perocchè
ad essa spettassero quelle altre opere che or si direbbero da sellajo.
Mi sbrigherò a dirne, sommariamente, ricordandone le sole
denominazioni de’ relativi arnesi.
Lorea si chiamavano le briglie, o corregge; le redini più propriamente
dicevansi habenæ; capistrum la cavezza, ma più precisamente
quella dell’asino; helcia, i tiragli, co’ quali cavalli o asini si
attaccavano al timone; erano essi o lorata, o spartea, o cannabina;
stragula, la fornitura, ephippia, la sella; clitellæ, il basto; soleæ, le
staffe.
E poichè avviene di ricordare tanti oggetti di selleria, porgo qui le
denominazioni di juga lignea, o gioghi per appajare i buoi; oreæ, il
morso; frenum, il freno; murices, lupi, lupata si chiamavano altri freni
di ferro asprissimi, atti a diverse nature di giumenti.
Or passiamo alla ricerca delle altre taberne che coi loro prodotti
contribuivano al vestimento, o piuttosto alla varietà e mantenimento
di esso.
Presso la casa di Olconio eravi una bottega da tintore, che i latini
chiamavano taberna offectoris, perchè, secondo spiega Pompeo
Festo, colorum infectoris. Distinguevansi, secondo lo stesso
scrittore, gli offectores dagli infectores: questi erano qui alienum
colorem in lanam conjiciunt: offectores qui proprio colori novum
officiunt [304]. Nulla in questa bottega si rinvenne di particolare: nel
fondo di essa eravi il laboratorio, con un fornello e vasche rivestite di
cemento assai duro, ma pur guasto evidentemente dagli acidi che
venivano usati nel tingere.
Nè io di più mi vi soffermerò, da che egual materia mi chiami a più
largamente trattare della Fullonica.
L’arte dei fulloni, che Plinio vuole sia stata trovata da Nicia
megarese, consisteva nel purgare, lavare ed anche tingere i panni.
Trattando dell’edificio di Eumachia nel Capitolo XI di quest’opera, ho
già fatto un rapido cenno dell’importanza di quest’arte in Pompei,
che vi aveva anzi una speciale corporazione. Che una congenere vi
fosse anche in Roma lo si raccoglie dalle Inscriptiones publicate dal
Fabbretti, ricordando come quel collegio litigasse assai lungamente
a proposito delle fontane [305]. Infatti non poteva a meno che essere
numerosa la classe de’ folloni, per la necessità che dell’arte loro
sentivasi per la politura delle vestimenta. Riccio ne dà informazioni
dei folloni, da cui rivelasi come di essi si giovasse allora come
adesso noi de’ nostri lavandaj e cavamacchie per rinettare ed
imbiancare gli abiti, dopo averli portati, effetto che ottenevano col
pestare co’ piedi i panni in larghe tinozze di acqua mischiata con
orina e terra di Sardegna. I nostri cavamacchia di presente vi
sostituiscono l’ammoniaca. Allora, onde procacciarsi tanta materia
quanta ne bastasse all’uopo, ponevansi vasi agli angoli delle Vie,
come già notai nel Capitolo appunto che tratta delle Vie; onde aveva
ragione Marziale di mordere la puzzolente Taide, dicendola più fetida
del vaso d’un follone:
Tam male Thais olet, quam non fullonis avari

Testa vetus, media sed modo fracta via [306].
Il panno così lavato e netto distendevasi sulla cavea viminea, o

graticcio semicircolare, con sottoposta fumigazione di zolfo, come si
deduce da un passo di Apulejo [307]; dopo di che passava al
cardatore, che col cardo fullonicus, vi risollevava il pelo, d’onde poi
mettevasi allo strettojo per quella che or direbbesi cilindratura. Fin
dall’anno 354 di Roma, la legge fatta dal Censore Flaminio, riferita
da Plinio, aveva prescritta una maniera in parte diversa dall’or detta,
con cui i folloni dovevano condursi per ben eseguire il loro lavoro.
Così si esprimeva: «Si lavin dapprima le stofe di lana colla terra di
Sardegna disciolta; si faccia quindi una fumigazione di zolfo, poi si
purghi con terra di Cimolo, di buon colore, riconoscendosi la falsa in
ciò che lo zolfo si rode e s’annerisce. La vera terra di Cimolo ravviva
i colori impalliditi dal zolfo. La terra chiamata saxum è la più
conveniente alle stofe bianche quand’esse sono state solforate: esso
è però nocevole alle stofe colorate. In Grecia in luogo della terra di
Cimolo, si serviva del gesso tinfaico di Etolia.»
L’antica Fullonica di Pompei era sulla Via di Mercurio e riusciva su
quella a cui essa medesima diè il nome: la sua pianta chiarisce
l’importanza di questo stabilimento scoperto e sterrato negli anni
1835 e 1836.
È una grand’area, chiusa da tre lati da largo portico fiancheggiato da
pilastri con archi. In fondo della corte si trovano quattro bacini alti,
ma alquanto inclinati per lo scolo delle acque e dinnanzi ad essi un
lungo banco di pietra, all’estremità del quale disposti due altri piccoli
bacini e muricciuoli sono per collocarvi le vaschette. Era qui che si
imbiancavano le stofe. All’ingiro de’ portici eran le camere dei folloni:
il proprietario doveva alloggiare nell’appartamento più distinto. Vi si
rinvenne un forno co’ suoi accessorj. Il piano superiore doveva avere
delle gallerie coperte; le colonne di esse caddero indubbiamente
nell’occasione dei cataclisma.
Una fontana elegantissima di marmo, dei pozzi con condotti esterni
dovevano somministrare ai bacini e vasche dei lavoratori acqua in
abbondanza. Presso alla fontana vi son pitture su d’un pilastro che
or sta al Museo, rappresentante le operazioni diverse de’ folloni. In
colori ancor vivi veggonsi quattro giovani operai che colle gambe
nude pestano in altrettante conche i panni, cui per tal modo tolgono il
sucidiume. Più su si vede uno schiavo che reca un utensile per
disseccare i drappi: un altro è occupato a passare il cardo fullonicus
di ferro su di un drappo sospeso. Sull’altro lato del pilastro è figurato
uno strettojo ornato di ghirlande; poi una bella dama che sembra dar
degli ordini ad una donna e ad uno schiavo e presso a loro sono
distese delle stofe a disseccare. Sul pilastro vicino è dipinto un
altare, fiancheggiato da due serpenti, un Bacco ed un Apollo.
Si ritrovò nello stabilimento di questa Fullonica molto sapone, lutus
fullonicus, parecchi vasi pieni di calce, delle caldaje e delle mestole
per rivolgere il sapone e lavorarlo. In un ripostiglio si rinvennero
cinque vasi di vetro, l’uno contenente un liquore che si disperse per
inavvertenza, un altro contenente un succo vegetale con olio e un
terzo contenente delle olive, galleggianti nell’olio, d’una
conservazione prodigiosa. Taluna di queste olive serbavano ancora il
picciuolo ed apparivan sì recenti, che sembravan raccolte di fresco.
Per Nuova Fullonica si designa un vasto edificio sull’angolo del
Vicolo della Maschera e si trovarono infatti molti fornelli ricoperti di
piombo e vasche rivestite di cemento; ma Bréton si domanda: se
non sia piuttosto una lavanderia più importante di quelle che per tali
vennero denominate, e si dichiara disposto ad accogliere questa
seconda supposizione.
Dopo le Fulloniche, occupiamoci delle due fabbriche di sapone che
si trovarono finora: l’una nel 1788 presso al mercante di pesci salati,
e nella bottega si vide molto sapone per terra ed anche molta calce
di buona qualità, ma impietrita. In un’altra camera attigua vi erano
sette vasche a livello del suolo per la fabbricazione; l’altra nella Via
degli Augustali, sull’angolo della viottola, che nulla offrì di
rimarchevole, all’infuori d’un gran forno diroccato.
Una importante corporazione erano in Pompei gli orefici, aurifices:
essi abbiamo già veduto nel Capitolo Quarto come in una iscrizione
pregassero ad essi propizio l’edile Cajo Cuspio Pansa, e pur senza
di questa particolarità, le mille preziosità d’oro raccolte negli scavi e
l’eleganza dei lavori, imporrebbero di aggiungere loro la massima
riputazione. Collane, monili baccati o di pallottole vermiglie,
braccialetti, orecchini, sigilli, falere, anelli e cento altre bazzicature
muliebri, sono tutte eseguite col gusto più squisito e l’arte moderna
ha ritratto da quegli oggetti molti esemplari alle proprie produzioni. Vi
si facevano anche dagli orefici oggetti da toletta, istromenti pei
sagrifici, statuette di numi e massime di lari, pàtere, coppe, utensili
ed altre moltissime cose, delle quali il Museo Nazionale di Napoli
ribocca e va fra i Musei del mondo ammiratissimo.
E sì leggiadre cose eseguivansi dalla oreficeria di allora, che a rigore
avrebbesi da me dovuto riserbarne la parola al capitolo vegnente,
che s’intratterrà dell’Arti. E lodatissimi artisti si ricordarono dalle
storie, di origine greca, o non mai usciti di Grecia, le opere de’ quali
erano ricercatissime in Italia. Così ci giunse la fama di un Pasitele,
che non metteva mano a nessun lavoro d’importanza senza prima
averne abozzato il modello in argilla od in cera, conformemente al
metodo raccomandato da Lisippo. Di lui si vantò assaissimo la
perfezione di un piccolo gruppo d’argento da lui condotto, il quale
rappresentava Roscio bambino lattante e la sua nutrice, che fremeva
nello scorgerlo avvolto fra le spire di un serpente nella sua culla.
Zopiro, altro orefice di non minore celebrità, non uscì mai di Grecia:
ma di lui Plinio ci lasciò descritte due tazze d’argento, nelle quali
aveva dimostrata la sua rara valentía: su l’una veggonsi Oreste
uccisore della madre, ed accusato di tale delitto da Erigone innanzi
all’Areopago, su l’altra lo stesso Oreste assolto da quell’augusto
tribunale, per l’intervento di Minerva, che opponendosi alla fatale
sentenza, gli accordava il proprio suffragio.

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Government - eBook PDF

America in the 21st Century

WEAK RATE AND

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Printed in the United States of America

PART II OUR LIBERTIES AND RIGHTS 72

PART III THE POLITICS OF DEMOCRACY 122

PART IV INSTITUTIONS 236

PART V PUBLIC POLICY 334

Appendix A The Declaration of Independence A–1

Appendix D Answers to Chapter Quiz Questions A–18

Skill Prep: A Study Skills Module SP–1 1–4 b Liberalism 18

Part I PERCEPTION VERSUS REALITY: Do Immigrants Take

OUR AMERICAN SYSTEM 2 2 THE CONSTITUTION 24

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10 POLITICS AND THE MEDIA 216

13 THE BUREAUCRACY 288

16 FOREIGN POLICY 356

PUBLIC POLICY 334 16–1a The President’s Role 358

16–2c The World Wars 361

15 DOMESTIC POLICY 334

2. Direct Democracy Today

T W O P O I N T S TO R E M E M B E R ▸ Mnemonic (pronounced ne-mon-ik) devices

more in your subject outline.

▸ When you first receive your exam, make sure

Effective writing flows from a purpose. Think

respond after considering your ideas.

Phase 3: Revising Your Draft

During this phase, keep in mind the saying,

publication date, location

GET • Which Founder Are You? The National Constitutional Cen-

INFORMED .org/foundersquiz to discover which Founding Fa-

• The U.S. Constitution is an important part of the

Check the Data

Keep Up during Election Season Monitor Money and

GET discussions into a blog. Create videos of events you

INVOLVED start a petition.

Join a Group on Campus

HF for a campaign you’re interested in on

cast media are your

Supreme Court and you’re plan-

ning a trip to Washington D.C.,

try to watch oral arguments. Go to the Court’s web-

site to access the link for oral arguments: supreme

court.gov. You’ll find the argument calendar and a

visitor’s guide. (The secret is to get in line early.)

Rock the Vote! is the largest nonprofit and nonpartisan

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1-2 Identify the various types of government systems.

1-4 Define common American ideological positions, such as “conservatism” and

After finishing this chapter, go to PAGE 21 for STUDY TOOLS

2 PART ONE: The Foundations of Our American System

CHAPTER 1: America in the Twenty-First Century 3

4 PART ONE: The Foundations of Our American System

CHAPTER 1: America in the Twenty-First Century 5

began in December 2007.

6 PART ONE: The Foundations of Our American System

LO Identify the various types of government systems.

CHAPTER 1: America in the Twenty-First Century 7