NRICH

1
RESEARCH

HERITAGE

2 0 2 0
NEWS ON
KOREAN

volume
01
9 772765 066903
ISSN 2765-1797(Online)
ISSN 2765-0669 (Print)
 Editorial Director
JI Byongmok

Editor
Kim Samki

Assistant Editor
Lee Kyeongmin, Moon Suree

Head of Advisory Board

Lim Jongdeock
CONTENTS
Translation & Revision DIRECTOR’S MESSAGE 2
Kim Yonghee, Daniel Svoboda
NRICH HISTORY 4
Design
April05, Inc. FEATURES ARTICLE 6

COLUMN 40
Date of Publication
November 30, 2020 NRICH NEWS 52

Published by
 National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage
132 Muni-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, Republic of Korea

Tel
82-42-860-9114

Fax
82-42-861-5233 18
www.nrich.go.kr | nrich@korea.kr

A Historical New Beginning for an

Ancient Stone Pagoda

Front 41
Gold earings and necklaces excavated from Jjoksaem site.
Back
Mounted jar excavated from Tomb B6, Jjoksaem

Gyeongju National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage, 2020,

Jjoksaem vs Tapdong: the Age of
Wooden Chamber Tomb Covered by Stone.

Tomb No. 63 at the Ancient Tombs

in Gyo-dong and Songhyeon-dong,
Changnyeong
Printed in Korea.
Copyrightⓒ 2020 National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage
No part may be reproduced by any process without written permission.

You can also download the magazine at our website.

 7 12

The Center of Silla’s Tumuli Culture The Study of the Royal Tombs of the
Joseon Dynasty brings a new perspective
for a World Heritage Site with the
framework of Korean history

24 30 34

Tracking Eurasia’s Ancient Cultural Research Project to Restore the The Stupa of State Preceptor Jigwang
Network Technology of Ancient Big Jar coffins from Beopcheonsa Temple Site, Wonju

44 46 49

A Forgotten Vignette of History Unveils Science, Shielding Cultural Heritage High-Tech Fibers
Its Memorable Moments from Disasters
 Foreword
Greetings “One fruit of the NRICH’s efforts for public engagement
is the publication of the magazine NRICH.”
Do you know much about Korea?
More often than not, this is the question
Koreans ask when traveling overseas or
when engaging in conversation with for-
eigners visiting Korea. This is the kind of
question we ask to see how to go about
introducing Korea to foreigners during a
conversation, or perhaps a question born
out of pure curiosity about how much they
know about us.
As implied in the question, com-
pared to state of things in the 20th cen-
tury, Korea is witnessing today evolution
in culture, art, industry, and other diverse
realms, which, meanwhile, has made “Ko-
rea as a brand” better known around the
world. A small country in Asia, Korea has
now become a global household name, an
undeniable phenomenon I believe, made
possible by “our unique culture” handed
down through prolonged history that
spans more than five millennia.
Following the tradition of holding
culture in high regard, the Korean Gov-
ernment established the Cultural Heritage
Administration (CHA), a dedicated ad-
ministrative institution in CHA rge of the
preservation and management of cultural
heritage. The National Research Institute
of Cultural Heritage (NRICH), an organi-
zation under the CHA, specializes in com-
prehensive research on all aspects of cul-
tural heritage. Over the past 50 years, the
NRICH has conducted research pertaining
to the excavation and preservation of ar-
CHA eological remains as well as to the
Administrator of Cultural investigation and utilization of artistic and
Heritage Administration
architectural cultural heritage. In addition
Chung Jaesuk to such efforts, the organization has re-
2
cently been studying the preservation and
management of natural heritage as well as
preventative measures to protect cultural
heritage properties against the risks posed
by natural disasters.
In the past, cultural heritage was
considered the exclusive asset of a particu-
lar people or country; however, such her-
itage is now regarded as a common asset
for all humanity that deserves to be jointly
protected. Furthermore, the significance
and value of cultural heritage grows with
time. That is why countries around the
world strive to protect their own tangible
and intangible cultural heritage through
the World Heritage system. In this vein,
research on each country’s cultural her-
itage is being carried out across national
borders, with diverse specialized institu-
tions around the globe sharing relevant in-
formation, discussing research outcomes,
and growing in tandem. In Korea, this role
is undertaken by the NRICH.
One fruit of the NR ICH ’s efforts
toward the common good of the inter-
national community is the publication of
the eponymous magazine NRICH . We
at the CHA are very pleased to announce
this news, and it is our hope that the
publication will be conducive to the re-
search and development of the cultural
heritage of humankind. At the same time,
we expect that, based on its accumulated
achievements over the years, the NRICH
will firmly establish its role as a globally
recognized cultural heritage research in-
stitution.
 Foreword
Director General of National
Institute of Cultural Heritage
Dr. JI Byongmok
“We launched this newsletter to share
the latest achievements on Korean cultural heritage.”
Korea, the Land of the Morning
Calm! Although Korea had long been
known as the Land of the Morning Calm,
the epithet is now fading into oblivion.
From the Paleolithic Period, hun-
dreds of thousands of years ago, through
to modern times, Korea has preserved its
own unique history and culture. Today,
electronics and automobiles from Korea’s
global giants, such as Samsung and Hyun-
dai, can be seen everywhere on the planet,
along with the name “Korea.” Further-
more, K-pop and other impressive cultural
and artistic activities by Korean youth have
grown into global sensations.
Unfortunately, the history and cultur-
al heritage of Korea remain almost a mys-
tery to the world. Some resources introduce
Korea through outdated, decades-old
information; others contain erroneous in-
formation. International visitors may have
heard about one or two cultural heritage
properties of Korea, such as Seokguram
Grotto, Hunminjeongeum (The Korean
Alphabet), and Gyeongbokgung Palace.
However, apart from these exceptions,
information about the latest research and
findings has remained mostly inaccessible.
This was mainly due to linguistic barriers,
but there was also a genuine lack of prop-
er means to deliver such information. To
this end, we inaugurated this newsletter
to share with the world the latest research
achievements on Korean cultural heritage
and to help people around the world better
understand Korea’s past and present.
Moving forward, the National Re-
search Institute of Cultural Heritage
(NRICH), established in 1969, will strive
to take on a leading role in this endeavor.
3
Our institution is involved in all aspects of
cultural heritage research in Korea, includ-
ing archaeology, art history, architectural
history, conservation science, and natural
heritage. Researchers at our headquarters
in Daejeon and in our seven regional offic-
es are collaborating at this very moment on
the study and research of Korea’s precious
cultural heritage. Our Cultural Heritage
Conservation Science Center is also ac-
tively working on the scientific treatment
and preservation of major artifacts. As for
international cooperation, we have been
engaging in personal exchanges, joint field
surveys & research, and training programs
with our partner organizations in China,
Japan, Russia, Central Asia, Europe, and
the United States. Details of such investi-
gations and research achievements will be
made available to the public .
While in the comfort of your home,
you will be able to become a witness a wide
range of cultural heritage-related research
content produced by Korean researchers
and their global partners. Together with
you, we wish to grow through cooperative
and mutually beneficial relationships. Your
suggestions and active participation are
always highly appreciated, so please do not
hesitate to become part of our endeavor. We
hope that, through our common interest
in cultural heritage, our newsletter NRICH
will serve as a vehicle that helps nurture a
genuine global village, an instrument that
can bring down any remaining barriers
between Korea and the rest of the world.
Thank you.
NRICH Cultural heritage that have formed naturally or artificially over many years are
valuable properties not only for the people of their country of origin but for all
History humankind due to their historic, artistic, and academic value, and their natural beauty
in the case of landscapes. As such, it is every country’s duty to survey and study them
and to preserve them for future generations.
The National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage has been striving to
reveal and spread the value of our culture and history through research for the past
50 years and has become the only research institute in Korea that is in charge of
comprehensive research on cultural heritage. It is our responsibility to enhance the
value of the country’s culture through creating knowledge and utilizing cultural
heritage and we aim to become a world-class cultural heritage research institution.

1970’s 1980’s

1973 1980
Excavation of Cheonmachong Tomb Excavation of Mireuksa
(World Heritage) Temple site, Iksan
1975 1983
Excavation of Hwangnam Grand Excavation of Hwangnyongsa
Chong Tomb(World Heritage)
Temple site, Gyeongju
1976
1984
Excavation of Donggung Palace and
Survey of all the Buddhist painting
Wolji Pond, Gyeongju
in Korean temples
(Anapji, Historic Site No. 18)

1969. 11.
The National Research Institute
of Cultural Heritage established
(In Seoul)
1973
Started research in the field of
artistic cultural heritage
(*First target: Buddhist bells)
1975
Started research on conservation
science for cultural heritage

1990’s 2000’s 2010’s

1990 2004 2005~2019

Expansion of excavation in ancient
capitals (Gyeongju, Buyeo, etc.)
through opening regional offices
1999
Conducted repair and restoration
on Iksan Mireuksa Temple
stone pagoda
National Research Institute of
Cultural Heritage relocated
(to Daejeon)
2005
Expanded to cultural heritage
restoration technology and
materials research
Established regional research
offices and one conservation center
2017
Expanded research to safety and
disaster prevention of cultural
heritage in light of climate change
and disasters

2006
Expanded to natural heritage
 9
NRICH DIVISIONS

Organization
Administrative Division

Planning and Coordination Division

Research Division of Archaeology

Research Division of Artistic Heritage

Research Division of Architectural Heritage

Conservation Science Division

Restoration Technology Division

Natural Heritage Division

Safety and Disaster Prevention Division

7
REGIONAL OFFICES

Gyeongju National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage

Buyeo National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage

Gaya National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage

Naju National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage

Jungwon National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage

Ganghwa National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage

Wanju National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage

1
CENTER

Cultural Heritage Conservation Science Center

Features Article

1 The Center of Silla’s Tumuli

Culture: Achievements of the
Archaeological Research on the Silla
Tumuli in Jjoksaem District, Gyeongju

2 The Study of the Royal Tombs

of the Joseon Dynasty brings
a new perspective for a World
Heritage Site with the framework
of Korean history

3 A Historical New Beginning for an

Ancient Stone Pagoda: The 20 -Year
Restoration of the Stone Pagoda at
Mireuksa Temple and Its
Achievements & Significance

4 Tracking Eurasia’s Ancient Cultural

Network: Major Achievements and
Significance of the Joint Research
on the Ancient Tombs in Zhetysu,
Kazakhstan (2015 –2019)

5 Research Project to Restore the

Technology of Ancient Big Jar
coffins: 2008 –2019 Academic
Achievements

6 The Stupa of State Preceptor Jigwang

from Beopcheonsa Temple Site,
Wonju: Preserving Its Original Form
through Scientific Conservation
Treatment - Our Conservation Efforts
over the Past 5 Years
 The Center of Silla’s
Tumuli Culture:
Achievements of the
Archaeological Research on
the Silla Tumuli in Jjoksaem
District, Gyeong ju
Gyeongju National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage,
Jeong Daehong
The Silla Tumuli in Jjoksaem District,
Gyeongju
The Tumuli in Jjoksaem District, Gyeongju is a cluster
of tombs built between the 4th and 6th century for royal cap-
ital residents of Silla. Originally, the Jjoksaem site was part of
the Daereungwon Ancient Tomb Complex, Gyeongju, a lo-
© National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage
cation well known for housing the Cheonmachong Tomb and
Hwangnamdaechong Tomb. The Jjoksaem site has several
wooden chamber tombs covered by stone and earthen mound,
built during the Maripgan period of Silla, while Wolseong
Palace is located nearby to the south. For these reasons, the
site has been the subject of great interest among Silla tumuli
researchers. In 2011, in recognition of their historical value,
the Silla Tumuli in Jjoksaem District, Gyeongju, together
with other tombs in the Daereungwon Ancient Tomb Com-
plex, were designated as Historic Site No. 512.
7
Archaeological surveys of these tumuli and other re-
mains in the Daereungwon Ancient Tomb Complex were
initially conducted by Japanese experts even before the Jap-
anese colonial period (1910 -1945). First, surveys of ancient
tombs in Hwangnam-dong were led by Imanishi Ryu in
1906 and then by Sekino Tadashi in 1909. Subsequently, ba-
sic archaeological research on Geomchong Tomb and other
Silla tumuli were conducted again in 1911, under the super-
vision of Sekino Tadashi and Yatsui Seiichi.
In 1921, the accidental discovery of a partial golden
crown led to an archaeological excavation that uncovered
Geumgwanchong Tomb ( Tomb of the Golden Crown).
These findings gave rise to the suspicion that ancient tumuli
in downtown Gyeongju contained ornate golden artifacts as
part of their burial goods, which, in turn, resulted in exca-
vations of Geumnyeongchong Tomb, Singnichong Tomb,
and Seobongchong Tomb. It was at this time that Silla
tumuli were issued serial numbers by Nomori Ken. During
the 1930 s, archaeological surveys continued on numerous
tombs, including Hwangnam-dong Tomb Nos. 82 , 83, and
109 as well as Hwango-dong Tomb No. 54. However, after
the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945) and the Pacific
War (1941–1945) broke out, all Japanese-led excavations on
Silla tumuli came to a halt.
In 1946 , after Korea’s liberation, the National Mu-
seum of Korea conducted the nation’s first archaeological
excavation of Houchong Tomb. Between the 1950 s and the
1960 s, surveys of Silla tumuli were conducted sporadically
by university museums. In 1973, with the establishment of
the Gyeongju Comprehensive Tourism Development Plan,
excavations on Cheonmachong Tomb and Hwangnamdae-
chong Tomb began, and the area was transformed into a
tumuli park known as the Daereungwon Tomb Complex
for large-scale preservation.
However, the adjacent Jjoksaem site was excluded from
such preservation efforts, and was severely damaged due
to urban development and an increase in shops and private
housing in the area. In response, Gyeongju City began to
purchase land around this ancient site in 2000 and developed
a comprehensive conservation and maintenance plan in
2005. The GNRICH has been conducting excavations and
research on the Jjoksaem site since 2007, based on an annual
schedule.
Excavations and Research on the Silla
Tumuli in Jjoksaem District, Gyeongju
The Silla Tumuli in Jjoksaem District, Gyeongju is lo-
cated mostly in Hwango-dong and partially in Hwangnam-
dong and Inwang-dong, Gyeongju. Originally, excavations
were supposed to involve a total area of 384,000 m 2. Howev-
er, due to limitations surrounding land purchases and bud-
 gets, the area was reduced to 229,674m². ❶
Since excavations must be conducted
across a large area, the Jjoksaem site was di-
vided, based on small paths within the site,
into 14 zones ranging from A to N. Thus far,
excavations of Zones A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H,
I, L, and M have been completed, and these
excavations have identified some 1, 000 Silla
tumuli of diverse types, including wooden
chamber tombs covered by stone and earthen
mound, wooden chamber tombs, and stone-
lined tombs. Recent achievements from the
archaeological investigation of the Jjoksaem site
are described below.

• Tumuli Distribution Survey of Zones

I and M of the Jjoksaem Site
Located in the southeastern part of the site, ❷

Zones I and M sit next to each other in the

east–west direction, and their combined area
totals 11, 008 m 2 . A tumuli distribution sur-
vey of these zones has identif ied a total of
146 tombs from the Three Kingdoms period,
including Tomb No. 8 discovered during the
Japanese colonial period, 6 wooden chamber
tombs covered by stone and earthen mound, 131
wooden chamber tombs, 3 stone-lined tombs,
and 5 jar burials.
As for wooden chamber tombs covered by
stone and earthen mound identified in Zones
I and M, only parts of their circular burial
protection stones and burial chambers remain,
without any traces of the earthen mounds as
they failed to stand the test of time. In partic- ❶ Zoning map of the Silla Tumuli in Jjoksaem District, Gyeongju
ular, compared with other zones, for the same unit area, ❷ View of the I, M district
Zones I and M have the least number of wooden chamber
tombs covered by stone and earthen mound, and these road remains from the Unified Silla period, as well as a
tombs are all small ones with a diameter of less than 10 m. defensive embankment from the Goryeo period known as
In contrast, the two zones are home to the most number namgoru, have been identified. The findings suggest that
of wooden chamber tombs, among which many are small the area has long been used for a wide range of purposes.
tombs (with a diameter of 3 – 4 m) featuring only a main
chamber Just as in wooden chamber tombs covered by stone • Excavation of Tomb No. 44
and earthen mound, these wooden chamber tombs have lost Located in Zone E, Tomb No. 44 is an aboveground-type
all their earthen mounds due to construction activity in the wooden chamber tomb covered by stone and earthen
area over the years. mound, measuring 30 m long and 23 m wide. This exca-
As previously mentioned, Zones I and M possess very vation was the largest one conducted on this type of tomb
few wooden chamber tombs covered by stone and earthen since the excavations conducted on Cheonmachong Tomb
mound, the type of tombs used by the upper class. More- and Hwangnamdaechong Tomb many decades before. This
over, even wooden chamber tombs in these zones are small was also the first time a stone mound of this type of tomb
tombs without accessory chambers. These facts suggest that was fully exposed for investigation.
the area served as a cemetery for people of relatively lower Tomb No. 44 mainly consists of circular burial pro-
social position. tection stones surrounding the mound; a wooden chamber
In Zone M, on the other hand, a building feature and containing the deceased and burial goods, a stone mound

8

The view of the Jjoksaem Tumuli
covering the top and four sides of the chamber, and an
earthen mound on top of this stone mound. Except for the
western side that was lost due to the vicissitudes of history,
the entire structure has survived relatively intact, with its
distinctive features remaining prominent.
A recent excavation of Tomb No. 44 has revealed a pea
gravel layer neatly formed outside the boundary of the cir-
© National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage
cular burial protection stones. On top of this layer, some 110
pieces of varying earthenware used for ancestral rituals were
discovered, drawing widespread attention. To the north
of the circular burial protection stones, 9 large jars were
placed at regular intervals on the pea gravel layer. Within
and around these jars, varying types of stoneware vessels
(e.g. pedestalled-dish, flat cup with cover) were found. In
particular, a long-necked jar with line-carved design was
discovered between Large Jar Nos. 3 and 4. The overall de-
sign was confirmed to be the depiction of a procession. This
9
newly found long-necked jar with line-carved design fea-
tures diverse motifs. Specifically, its neck and body feature
a series of recurring geometrical patterns, whereas its shoul-
der features carved drawings of an equestrian procession,
dancers, and a hunting scene. This composite layout is the
only one of its kind in Silla‘s fine art. In particular, carvings
depicting dancers and a hunting scene resemble Koguryo
(Goguryeo) wall paintings in terms of composition, which
makes them an important resource in studying the relation-
ship between Silla and Koguryo (Goguryeo).
As seen above, a wide array of earthenware used for
memorial services were discovered at the site, and the
discovery partially revealed the type and content of the
memorial rituals conducted near the tomb’s circular burial
protection stones, as well as the fact that, even after a tomb’s
completion, Silla society at the time continued to maintain
the site and perform memorial services there.
Research on Horse Armor Recovered from
Jjoksaem Tomb No. C10
In 2009, during an excavation conducted on an wooden
chamber tomb named as Jjoksaem Tomb No. C10, a full set
of horse armor was discovered, surprising the world. At the
time of the discovery, it was found lying in the east–west
direction at the chamber floor, with parts covering a horse’s
neck, chest, body, and hips all intact. In addition, a bit, a
saddle, stirrups, and other diverse harness fittings were un-
earthed that can serve as important resources in the study of
Silla’s equestrian culture.
During the excavation, to better protect some 740
pieces constituting the horse armor, the excavation team
even built a provisional facility, where proper temperature
and humidity levels could be maintained and pollutants
avoided. Furthermore, to safely collect and relocate the
horse armor, researchers performed simulation experi-
ments using soil similar, in terms of chemical composition,
to the kind found at the site. Based on these experiments,
they managed to perfectly cut and transport some 28 tons
of soil containing the horse armor and other artifacts.
Through conservation science research, our experts were
also able to figure out the types of fabric (i.e. silk and
hemp) that were attached to the surface of horse armor
pieces. Similarly, based on the remaining traces of wood
on the horse armor, they discovered that the chamber was
probably made of pinewood.
After preservation treatment for the horse armor was
completed recently, the institute began research on how its
pieces were put together and how it was fitted on horses. To
test how the armor affected the movement and mobility of
a horse, the researchers created plastic replicas of the armor
pieces to create simulated sample armor, and fitted it on a
Halla horse (a horse breed from Korea’s Jeju Island). Based
on this experiment, the researchers restored the entire set,
from the horse armor and chamfron to other related parts,
and also analyzed and verified the joining methods of ar-
mor pieces and the way the armor was fitted on a horse. The
Recurring geometrical
pattern
Procession motif in the long-necked
jar with lin-carvings excavated
from Tomb No. 44
10
replica and analysis outcomes are expected to be utilized in
the future study of Silla’s horse barding culture.
Publication of a Collection of Resources
on Silla Tumuli
Recently, the institution has been working on col-
lecting and reorganizing resources on Silla tumuli, as a
way to review relevant archaeological surveys conducted
over the years. The first result of this effort was the pub-
lication of Cheonmachong Tomb: A Record of Its Archaeo-
logical Surveys (Korean title: Cheonmachong, balguljosaui
girok) in 2019.
This book is a reorganized collection of research
records on Cheonmachong Tomb, which has occupied,
since its excavation in 1973 , an important place in the
archaeological research on Silla tumuli. In addition to
providing researchers with a thorough foundation of ba-
sic resources, the book makes information on the entire
excavation process of the tomb easily accessible to the
During the excavation, to better protect
some 740 pieces constituting the horse armor, the
excavation team even built a provisional facility,
where proper temperature and humidity levels could be
maintained and pollutants avoided.
Drawings of an equestrian
procession, dancers,
and a hunting scene
 general public.Data collection and reorganization process
conducted by the institute proceeded in the order of data
collection, computerization, analysis of content and re-
sources, and issuing of publications. 1,304 photos, 154 survey
drawings, and 1,059 documentary records (e.g. field books
and daily survey logs) were analyzed for this project. At the
same time, to enhance the accuracy of the resource analysis,
raw data were also compared and verified with Excavation
Report on Cheonmachong Tomb, published in 1974.
Resources missing and not mentioned in previous
reports were collected and organized, and errors and am-
biguities from some content were also corrected and clar-
ified also during this process. Furthermore, the collected
resources were integrated into a database to facilitate their
utilization in future research on Silla tumuli.
Moving forward, the GNRICH will continue to
collect and systematize resources on Silla tumuli, through
the analysis and digitalization of these resources. At the
same time, we will publicly release previously inaccessible
resources gathered from previous archaeological surveys,
establish a database on Silla tumuli excavation resources,
and carry out diverse projects based on insights from the
database.■
© National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage

Retroduction
of horsearmor
from Tomb
No. C10
Record of Cheonmachong Tomb excavation

11
The Royal Tombs of the Joseon
Dynasty were built by the state as
sacred places based on the Korean
traditional notions of nature
and Neo-Confucian philosophy.
Each tomb is built to honor and
respect their accomplishment,
well- preserved and asserts their
loyal authority, and represents a
living tradition of ancestral rites.
All given characteristics bring the
cultural distinctiveness of these
royal tombs stand out among
World Heritage sites. Related
information is accessible to all via
our website “Online Royal Tombs
of the Joseon Dynasty.”

Aerial photograph of Mokneung, the tomb of Sunjo,

the 14th king of Joseon, and his queen

12
 The Study of the
Royal Tombs of the
Joseon Dynasty brings
a new perspective for
a World Heritage Site
with the framework of
Korean history
Research Division of Artistic Heritage,
Park Yoonhee
Comprehensive Academic Research on
the Royal Tombs of the Joseon Dynasty
A thorough examination on the Royal Tombs of the
Joseon Dynasty started in 2006, which was undertaken by
the Artistic Heritage Division of the National Research In-
stitute of Cultural Heritage (NRICH). The original purpose
was to inscribe them on the UNESCO World Heritage
© National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage
List. Thus, “Research on Stone Sculptures in Royal Tombs
of the Joseon Dynasty” started based on a topic that was
most relevant to the scope of the Artistic Heritage Divi-
sion. A common phenomenon was that all royal tombs were
parks offering a leisurely respite amidst the urban bustle of
modern Korea during that time. As such, no formal studies
were available on the subject, with the greatest problem be-
ing the lack of precise site survey maps. In order to ensure
the inscription of the Royal Tombs of the Joseon Dynasty
on the World Heritage List, reference on the most up to
13
date status of the tombs had to be made. The Artistic Her-
itage Division undertook the task of creating 3D scans and
site maps of the following tombs: Geonwolleung Royal
Tomb (the tomb of King Taejo), Heolleung Royal Tomb
(the tomb of King Taejong ) and Jeongneung Royal Tomb
(the tomb of Queen Consort Sindeok, the second consort of
King Taejo). These efforts were soon followed by the pho-
tographing of the 40 surviving Joseon royal tombs in South
Korea throughout the four seasons, and by the publication
of the Korean and English editions of the book The Forest of
History: The Tombs of Joseon’s Kings (2007). The book featured
photographs and introductory information about each royal
tomb, its layout, and royal ancestral rites. It was sent to the
UNESCO Headquarters in Paris, France, and significantly
contributed to the serial inscription of the Royal Tombs of
the Joseon Dynasty on the World Heritage List in 2009.
World Heritage are properties with Outstanding
Universal Value that requires protection for the benefit of
humanity, according to the Convention Concerning the
Protection of the World’s Cultural and Natural Heritage.
World Heritage sites are classified into cultural, natural and
mixed sites. To be inscribed on the World Heritage List,
not only must a site have Outstanding Universal Value, but
the State Party must also demonstrate the implementation
of excellent management and protection. Currently, Korea
is home to 14 World Heritage sites, ranging from the Seok-
guram Grotto and Bulguksa Temple (inscribed in 1995) to
the Seowon, Korean Neo-Confucian Academies (inscribed
in 2019). Among these, the Royal Tombs of the Joseon
Dynasty is a large-scale heritage comprising forty tombs
(excluding two in North Korea) of kings and queens of the
Joseon Dynasty (1392 –1910), a royal lineage that lasted for 27
generations over the course of 518 years.
In the evaluation report, UNESCO highly acclaimed
the Royal Tombs of the Joseon Dynasty as a serial site that
deserves to be inscribed on the World Heritage List, cit-
ing that the tombs were built as sacred places by the state
according to the traditional view of nature and Confucian
ritual principles.
That is, each tomb is complete in and of itself and
well-preserved in its original condition. All tombs are as-
sociated with a living tradition of ancestral rites, a distinct
practice that showcases their distinctive cultural charac-
teristics. The inscription is a feat that resulted from the
efforts of not only the Cultural Heritage Administration
(CHA), the International Council on Monuments and Sites
(ICOMOS) and many advisory experts, but our institution
(NRICH) also has strived to inform the world of the unique
authentic features and extraordinary quality of Joseon royal
tombs.
When the 40 Royal Tombs of the Joseon Dynasty were
collectively inscribed on the World Heritage List, several
books and guidebooks in relation to those royal tombs came
Stone warrior and horse statue
on the west side of Jeongneung Jungjong
out. The vast majority of them failed to adequately rep-
resent its authenticity and mainly focused on the lives of
royalty that consist of unproven stories, e.g. secretive polit-
ical affairs within the royal court. Fundamental aspects of
royal family and their history were missing; e.g., the way
in which a particular tomb was built at its present location,
why it takes on its current form, the people who participat-
ed in the entire construction, and common characteristics
that are associated with those tombs. Those explanatory
questions, along with our need for comprehensive and in-
tegrated research on the royal tombs’ history, landscaping,
architecture, related literature and bibliography, began to
emerge as a lifetime research project. This historical study
was, therefore, undertaken by our institution. It was first
titled, “Research on Stone Sculptures in Royal Tombs of
the Joseon Dynasty,” but later changed to “Comprehensive
Academic Research on the Royal Tombs of the Joseon
Dynasty.” The reason for this name change was to herald
the beginning of comprehensive research. Around that
time, the Artistic Heritage Division took another project
entitled “Academic Research on Joseon wangjo uigwe (The
Royal Protocols of the Joseon Dynasty) for State Designa-
tion.” Scholars made a strong connection between the two
projects by conducting a bibliographic study of the royal
14
protocols. The study was based on the building of royal
tombs, which created synergy. The utilization of high-res-
olution photography, site surveying, precise 3D scanning,
and other advanced technologies produced various forms
of data and records on Joseon royal tombs, which provided
a solid foundation for the comprehensive research to pro-
ceed ahead.
These studies have unveiled different aspects of the
Royal Tombs of the Joseon Dynasty that were remained to
be unknown. The researchers dispelled the conventional no-
tion that Joseon emulated the styles of Chinese tombs as a
vassal state of China. Rather, Joseon royal tombs have their
own distinctive characteristics, carrying on the tradition of
the royal tombs of the Silla and the Goryeo Dynasties. His-
torians and archaeologists also accumulated findings on the
changes made to the royal tomb system during each histor-
ical period and their causes; the stylistic characteristics and
historical evolution of tomb components, such as the stone
sculptures, jeongjagak ( T-shaped wooden shrine) and jaesil
(tomb keeper’s house). The NRICH published a nine-vol-
ume report series entitled Comprehensive Academic Research
on the Royal Tombs of the Joseon Dynasty Volumes I through
IX (2009-2015). The series provide detailed information (of
the sites and boundaries, spacial arrangements and stone
sculptures) on forty-two royal tombs since the late Goryeo
period. Those tombs have served as models for Joseon royal
tombs, including the Yureung Royal Tomb (i.e.,the tomb
 of King Sunjong, the last king of Joseon). Several findings
based on previous literature opened a new horizon in the
study of Korean royal tombs. Those studies had previously
been conducted in a sporadic and unsystematic manner.
In 2016, based on the achievement of the comprehen-
sive research on Joseon royal tombs, the NRICH organized
and hosted the international symposium “Joseon Royal
Tombs & East Asian Imperial Mausoleums,” which shed
light on important characteristics and status of the Royal
Tombs of the Joseon Dynasty within the larger historical
context of royal tombs, as well as imperial mausoleums in
China, Vietnam and other parts of East Asia. The NRICH,
in collaboration with the National Palace Museum of Korea
and the Management Office of the Royal Tombs of the Jo-
seon Dynasty, complied historical record and accumulated
data for Joseon royal tombs. Later, the institute hosted the
special exhibition Royal Tombs of the Joseon Dynasty, the
Resting Places of the Souls of the Royal Family, which gives
an opportunity to the public to show great achievements in
regards to Joseon royal tombs.
After this data collection, the Artistic Heritage Divi-
sion conducted a study on diverse topics (i.e., the origin and
evolution of stone sculptures in Joseon royal tombs) in re-
lation to its art-historical context. Scholars often define the
essence of Korean fine arts as “crafting without crafting”
and “unadorned simplicity,” that refers to descriptions illus-
trating the nature of Korean fine arts. It conveys poise and
subtlety hidden against the backdrop of authentic beauty,
which is different than more technically-oriented Chinese
counterparts and/or more decorative Japanese counter-
parts. Those Korean aesthetics are well-manifested in the
© National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage
15
nature-friendly sculptures of Joseon royal tombs. Unfor-
tunately, until recently, research on Korean sculptures was
generally confined to Buddhist sculptures, whereas sculp-
tures associated with Joseon royal tombs did not receive
proper attention even though their consistent production
over the course of more than five centuries had potential
to reveal much about the historical context and traditional
beliefs. The Artistic Heritage Division’s Stone Sculptures in
Royal Tombs of the Joseon Dynasty I & II (2016 –2017), pro-
vide a comprehensive investigation of the origin, meaning,
evolution, and other previously unknown aspects of those
sculptures. Stone sculptures in Joseon royal tombs, which
were made of granite, look stout and shine brightly Stone
animal statues (seoksu) stand around the mound of a royal
tomb to supposedly fend off evil spirits. With their faces
filled with humor, these statues exude a sense of warmness
as if they were alive. Stately stone figures (seoginsang), stone
walls (byeongpungseok) and stone lanterns ( jangmyeongdeung)
feature, at every corner, show a variety of patterns (e.g. pe-
onies, herbs of eternal youth, chrysanthemums, pomegran-
ates and cranes) that illustrate intricate beauty. The book
played a significant role in redefining the history of Korean
stone sculptures and in informing the world of the unique
beauty of stone sculptures in Joseon royal tombs.
In addition to the study on neung(陵) (i.e., the tombs of
a king or queen) of the Joseon Dynasty, the Artistic Her-
itage Division also conducted academic research on royal
won and myo tombs of Joseon. Won(園) refers to the category
of tomb established for those such as a king’s mother who
did not receive the posthumous title of a queen, a crown
prince, a crown prince’s eldest son, or a crown prince’s wife.
Comprehensive
Academic Research
on the Royal Tombs
of Joseon Dynasty
Stone warrior and horse statue on the west
side of Jeongneung Jungjong
 Won tombs were smaller in scale than neung tombs, but were
built in a similar manner and were created following high-
er-level protocols than myo(墓) (the tombs of ordinary members
of the royalty). The won system was a unique tomb system of
the Joseon royalty, which does not exist in China or Japan. A
close comparison of neung, won, and myo tombs is conducive
to developing a better understanding of the entire tomb and
funeral system of the Joseon royalty—as well as its complicated
royal lineage structure and history. The Artistic Heritage Di-
vision carried out research on fourteen won tombs and other
royal tombs of the Joseon Dynasty that were constructed be-
tween the 16th and early 20th century. Its subsequent findings
were released as the two-volume report Comprehensive Academic
Research on the Royal Won and Myo Tombs of the Joseon Dynasty I
& II (2018 –2019).
As the last report borne out of the project “Comprehensive
Academic Research on the Royal Tombs of the Joseon Dy-
nasty,” the two-volume book is a systematic record of diverse
information on won and myo tombs of the Joseon Dynasty, and
includes both photographs and survey illustrations. Ever since
the inscription of the Royal Tombs of the Joseon Dynasty on
the World Heritage List, most academic research primarily
focused on neung tombs. As such, just as our report Compre-
hensive Academic Research on the Royal Tombs of the Joseon Dy-
nasty spearheaded academic research on neung tombs, we hope
that its follow-up report, Comprehensive Academic Research on
the Royal Won and Myo Tombs of the Joseon Dynasty, will help
raise interest in and promote further research on won and myo
tombs. The long-term project of the Artistic Heritage Division,
“Comprehensive Academic Research on the Royal Tombs of
the Joseon Dynasty” commenced in 2006 and continued until
2019. The greatest achievement of the project was the acquisi-
tion of some 50,000 items of precious data on the Royal Tombs
of the Joseon Dynasty. In particular, precise 3D scanning data,
site maps, and aerial photos associated with the forty royal
tombs of Joseon as well as with royal won and myo tombs and
stone sculptures. Without budgetary support from the govern-
ment, these precious resources would not have become avail-
able. We have decided that our efforts should not be confined to
the publishing of reports. Rather, those reports must enhance
the utilization of the resulting data. In summary, the NRICH
developed the website “Online Royal Tombs of the Joseon Dy-
nasty” over the course of two years and opened it to the public
© National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage
in November 2018.
Online Royal Tombs of the Joseon Dynasty
“Online Royal Tombs of the Joseon Dynasty” is a website
that presents the resources accumulated through the “Compre-
hensive Academic Research on the Royal Tombs of the Joseon
Dynasty” project both comprehensively and systematically.
The website is designed to facilitate people’s understanding and
study of the history of Joseon royal tombs. It is also user friend-
17
Homepage of 'Online Royal Tombs of the Joseon Dynasty’
(http://portal.nrich.go.kr/royalTomb/)
ly that is easily accessible to all.
Compared to other cultural heritage sites, the
Royal Tombs of the Joseon Dynasty brings high level
of interest from the Korean public. Academic con-
ferences associated with the subject are always full of
interested audiences. People rush to obtain our latest
publication on Joseon royal tombs. Despite such high
levels of public interest and enthusiasm, scholarly re-
search on this topic is still relatively new. Moreover,
the Cultural Heritage Protection Act requires access
restriction to the Royal Tombs of the Joseon Dynasty
for protection and management, which limits oppor-
tunities for acquiring information.
“Online Royal Tombs of the Joseon Dynasty”
was developed therefore with the aim of sharing a
wide variety of information on Joseon royal tombs
with the public. The website also offers a digital expe-
rience space, where visitors can experience the royal
tombs in a vivid and fascinating way, where they can
go beyond space and time to learn about the origins
of royal tombs, changes in their characteristics during
each period, and their associated historical records
via video resources. Visitors can browse through each
royal tomb site, observe its stone sculptures and more,
with just one click away. An English version of the
website is also available, while allowing people around
the globe to share academic information on the Royal
Tombs of the Joseon Dynasty.
“Online Royal Tombs of the Joseon Dynasty” is
the legacy of the Artistic Heritage Division’s “Com-
prehensive Academic Research on the Royal Tombs
of the Joseon Dynasty” project. The current website
plays a significant role in offering valuable academic
information to our community-at-large. We hope it
wil continue to play a vital role in publicizing the val-
ue of the Royal Tombs of the Joseon Dynasty, which
is a World Heritage site, to our national and interna-
tional audiences.■
The stone pagoda at
Mireuksa Temple site,
Iksan

Among Korea’s singular architectural heritage landmarks, the Stone Pagoda at Mireuksa Temple
Site in Iksan (henceforth referred to here as the Se Pagoda at Mtonireuksa Temple, Iksan) stands
out due to the length of time dedicated to its restoration, the longest among its peers. In particular,
the restoration work won significant international acclaim for avoiding speculative restoration and
for securing the pagoda’s historical value and authenticity through traditional techniques and the
complementary use of modern science & technology. After leaving a lasting impression on the
history of Korean cultural heritage restoration, the pagoda has overcome its long-standing wounds
and now stands tall, embarking on a new millennium.
 A Historical New
Beginning for an
Ancient Stone Pagoda:
The 20 -Year Restoration
of the Stone Pagoda at
Mireuksa Temple and Its
Achievements, Significance
Research Division of Architectural Heritage,
Kim Hyunyong
The Archetype of Korean Stone Pagodas
the Stone Pagoda at Mireuksa Temple Site
Pagodas evolved from the style of the tomb that en-
shrined the relics (sarira) of Shakyamuni Buddha after his
death around the fifth century BCE and are considered to
be an architectural style that symbolizes Buddhist worship.
© National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage
With the spread of Buddhism throughout East Asia, a great
number of pagodas were erected in China, Korea, and Ja-
pan. In terms of architectural material, brick pagodas were
popular in China, stone pagodas in Korea, and wooden
pagodas in Japan, with each country developing its own
unique styles.
In Korea, after the introduction of Buddhism in the
4th century, wooden pagodas were initially built, but stone
pagodas have remained the dominant form since the 7th
century. Even today, every nook and cranny of Korea is re-
19
plete with hundreds of stone pagodas, befitting the epithet
“the country of stone pagodas.” Such popularity sprung
from the fact that, due to its natural deposits of quality
stones, Korea developed advanced masonry technology early
on in its history and that stone pagodas were more resistant
to corrosion and fire than their wooden counterparts.
Mireuksa Temple in Iksan is a Buddhist temple, orig-
inally established by King Mu of Baekje during the 7th
century. The temple layout is characterized by three pagodas
(i.e. the western stone pagoda, the central wooden pagoda,
and the eastern stone pagoda) and three prayer halls, both
aligned in the east-west direction, with each pagoda facing
a prayer hall in the north-south direction. Even though all
of the site’s previously existing wooden structures disap-
peared centuries ago, many stone relics have survived to this
day. Recognized for its historical value, the Mireuksa Tem-
ple Site was inscribed on UNESCO’s World Heritage List
in 2015.
The Stone Pagoda at Mireuksa Temple Site(the west-
ern stone pagoda), whose restoration was completed in
recent years, is located in the western section of this ancient
temple site. Today, it is the largest and oldest stone pagoda
in Korea. The pagoda is a representative example that show-
cases the transition from wooden to stone pagoda architec-
ture. Its unique feature is a cross-shaped passage on the first
floor. Since there are no specific historical records that can
inform us of the pagoda’s original form and its gradual evo-
lution, the feasibility of restoring it to its original condition
is inherently limited. Nonetheless, the pagoda is of signifi-
cant historical and academic value as a surviving specimen
of ancient Korean architecture.
Modern research and restoration associated with Ko-
rean stone pagodas began in earnest during the Japanese
colonial period (1910 –1945). However, most of the attention
revolved around the artifacts recovered from the pagodas,
and as a result, research on stone pagodas previously cen-
tered around the study of archaeology and art history. Such
circumstances continued for a prolonged period of time even
after the liberation of Korea. Then, in the 1980 s, the impor-
tance of historical architectural drawings and conservation
treatment began to be recognized. In the 2000 s, restoration
and preservation technologies for stone artifacts made rapid
progress in Korea, and one representative example of their
application is the Stone Pagoda at Mireuksa Temple Site,
Iksan.
Research and Restoration Work
Thus far, there has been an absence of clear evidence
with regards to what changes the pagoda has undergone
since its creation. However, documentary records from the
Joseon dynasty suggest that it collapsed around the 17th
 ❶
❷
❶ The pagoda in 1910 (eastern side)
❷ The pagoda in 2000 (before restoration)
century. Prior to restoration, half of the pagoda was in ruin,
with only six stories remaining, and the heavily dilapidat-
ed western side was covered with concrete. Furthermore,
around the periphery of the first floor was stonework pre-
sumably reinforced around the 17th–18th century, and many
elements of the pagoda underwent severe damage (e.g. dis-
placed, cracked, broken, or weathered).
In 1998, an assessment of the pagoda’s structural safety
➊ Buddhist reliquaries recovered from the pagoda (2009)
20
revealed that it had become structurally unstable due to the
aging of the concrete reinforcement added in 1915. To tackle
this issue, in 1999, following a process of deliberation, the
Cultural Properties Committee came to the decision that
the pagoda had to be dismantled and restored. There were
no specific informational resources on the pagoda available
at the time, so the committee concluded that systematic in-
vestigation and research must first be conducted before de-
termining any specific course of action regarding the scope
and method of the restoration.
Later, in 2001, the National Research Institute of
Cultural Heritage (NRICH) initiated “The Restoration
Project of the Stone Pagoda of Mireuksa Temple Site”; the
dismantling process and archaeological surveys were sub-
sequently completed in 2010. At the same time, NRICH
conducted related academic research in diverse fields and
applied the findings in the planning and execution of the
restoration. Reassembly began in 2013 and was complet-
ed in late 2017 up to the sixth floor, the highest surviving
floor originally left before the beginning of the restoration
work. In 2019, a provisional building, which had been built
around the pagoda to facilitate the dismantling and resto-
ration process, was removed, and the site around the pago-
da was also restored.
Since there are no surviving records regarding the
original form of the pagoda, it was particularly challenging
to determine specific restoration methods. To address this
gap, academic and technical research and investigation were
conducted in a broad range of fields, including architecture,
conservation science, archaeology, and art history, to obtain
specific resources on the pagoda. Then, based on such re-
sources, the general outline and sequencing of restoration,
the main direction, application methods of restoration
works and methods were explored. Such prolonged, system-
atic investigation and research on a singular stone structural
artifact and the ensuing restoration work based on the find-
ings were a novel attempt at the time.
Research on the pagoda was carried out in three
broad categories: basic research, conservation science re-
search, and restoration technique research. Among these,
basic research was the most fundamental type of research
conducted to identify the current state and original form of
the pagoda.
© National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage
To this end, diverse efforts were made, including
examination of the dismantled pagoda, archaeological sur-
veys, investigation of recovered artifacts, and the study of
construction techniques. In particular, the information ob-
tained through the dismantling process and archaeological
surveys were utilized as a fundamental resource throughout
the entire restoration process (e.g. the study of its original
form, conservation treatment, structural reinforcement, and
the development of restoration techniques and plans).
As for conservation science research, research was con-
ducted on the preservation environment around the pagoda,
its surface pollutants, the degree of stone processing, the
extent of weather-induced damage, and the criteria for met-
al reinforcement. Moreover, to maximize the conservation
of the damaged elements, optimal preservation treatment
methods were determined through a variety of research and
experimentation.
Similarly, a wide range of topics was explored within
the field of restoration technique research, including the
cause of the pagoda’s collapse, the evaluation of structural
safety, the investigation of inorganic restoration materials,
and methods for reinforcing the foundation soil layer. As
a result, by directly enhancing and developing restoration
techniques through scientific experiments and research
and by applying them to the preservation treatment and
reassembly process, the restoration team was able to attain
positive outcomes.
In 2009, reliquaries and other artifacts were discovered
from inside the central pillar stone on the first floor of the
pagoda, thereby attracting major attention. Among the
recovered artifacts was a golden plate inscribed with details
regarding the sarira enshrinement. The inscription states
that “Mireuksa Temple was established based on a sug-
gestion from a queen consort of Baekje, and the sarira was
Dismantling of the first floor (2008), Buddhist reliquaries recovered from the pagoda (2009)
21
enshrined in the Gihae year (639).” Thanks to this discovery,
historical details, including how and when the temple was
established, who founded it, and exactly when the reliquar-
ies were enshrined, became known - a major archaeological
feat for the former Baekje region and a turning point in the
academic research on Mireuksa Temple.
Principles and Methods of Restoration
In 2005, amid the dismantling of the pagoda and con-
current research efforts, experts began full-scale discussions
on the scope of the planned repair and restoration. During
this phase, several proposals were made (e.g. the preserva-
tion of the first floor without dismantlement, the partial or
complete restoration of the entire six floors, or the specula-
tive restoration up to the ninth floor). In 2011, after an in-
depth review involving various stakeholders, “The Basic
Principles of Restoration for the Stone Pagoda at Mireuksa
Temple, Iksan” was issued, and it was also decided that the
pagoda would be repaired only up to the remaining sixth
floor to preserve its authenticity and that the missing parts
in the lower section would be reinforced to ensure structur-
al stability.
The pagoda after
restoration (2019)

22
 Over the past 1,300 years, most elements of the pagoda
suffered from severe weathering and damage. To address
the damaged elements, diverse and systematic preservation
treatment measures were taken based on scientific investi-
gation, including the cleaning of pollutants, the filling of
cracks, the recreation of missing parts, structural reinforce-
ment and amalgamation, and reinforcement treatment. On
the basis of multi-level experiments, metal reinforcement
methods were developed particularly for the broken ele-
ments so that structural functionality similar to that of the
original could be reproduced with minimal secondary dam-
age to the remaining original elements.
With preservation treatment, the recovery rate of the
structure’s original elements surged from 47% to 81% , and
monitoring after the completion of the entire restoration
process suggests that these elements have remained stable.
Following an in-depth review of multiple aspects (e.g.
the scope of recovery of the original elements, the establish-
ment of assembly standards, the structural reinforcement
of vulnerable parts), the reassembly of the pagoda began
in earnest in 2013. For the restoration, rough granite stone
(delivered after on-site quarry inspections and quality test-
ing) was cut using a traditional method and then processed
by hand, emulating the degree of processing and weather-
ing found in the original elements. Since each constituent
element of the pagoda required different stone processing
methods depending on its usage and exposure to outdoor
conditions, experts worked meticulously to ensure that
the processing of new stone parts closely matched that of
the remaining original elements. At the same time, the
rammed earth layer (with a thickness of 35 cm), which had
been removed from inside the foundation of the pagoda
during the dismantling and archaeological survey process,
was reinforced and enhanced using a traditional rammed
earth technique. As a result, the newly created foundation
soil layer was then able to withstand pressure exceeding the
allowable load-bearing capacity, thereby enabling the safe
reconstruction of the pagoda above it.
The reassembly of the pagoda centered around the
cruciform axis extending outward from the core founda-
tion stone. Specifically, axis lines were drawn on top of
the central pillar stone that sits above the core foundation
stone. Using the vertical extension of these lines as a spatial
© National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage
reference for each floor, the restoration team maintained the
consistency and accuracy of the assembly process.
Due to differences in stone processing, the contact sur-
faces between the upper and lower elements of the pagoda
feature countless gaps of varying sizes. As such rough sur-
faces can be unstable and may cause elements to break, met-
al props were used to equalize the individual heights of the
relevant elements. At the same time, the area around the
metal props was filled with inorganic materials (a combina-
tion of natural minerals, sand, and red clay or silica fume),
23
instead of soil (traditionally used but easily washed away by
rain), to equally distribute the load and enhance structural
stability.
Significance of the Restoration
Unfortunately, a literature review and investigation
after the dismantling process failed to identify any substan-
tial clues that would indicate the pagoda’s original form.
As such, restoration up to the ninth f loor based on mere
conjecture would most likely have distorted historical facts
while contradicting the universal principle of cultural her-
itage conservation which states that “restoration stop at the
point where conjecture begins.” At the same time, since
the load-bearing capacity of the remaining original stone
elements was less than half of that of the new stone parts,
expanding the scope of the restoration would probably have
rendered many of the original elements unsalvageable be-
cause the decision would have also increased the weight of
the pagoda’s upper section.
For this reason, the restoration of the pagoda was con-
ducted in a systematic manner, based on multi-faceted in-
vestigation and research (e.g. in-depth research and analysis
of the current status of the pagoda, scientific preservation
treatment methods, and the enhancement of restoration
techniques). In particular, the restoration team strived to
maximize the utilization of original materials and tradi-
tional techniques, resorting to modern methods only when
required to ensure structural stability. As a result, through
the aforementioned process, the pagoda was re-assembled
up to the sixth floor, the highest surviving floor prior to the
restoration.
The Stone Pagoda at Mireuksa Temple, Iksan was
restored over the course of 20 years, the longest ever resto-
ration of a singular architectural cultural heritage property
in Korea. The restoration effort received significant inter-
national acclaim for avoiding speculative restoration and
for protecting the pagoda’s historical value and authenticity
through traditional techniques and the complementary use
of modern science and technology. At the same time, the
restoration led to the advancement of techniques pertaining
to the restoration of stone cultural heritage sites, thereby
leaving a major legacy in the history of Korean cultural
heritage restoration. Although not completely restored to
its full original form, the pagoda has been healed of its pro-
longed historical wounds, so that it may now stand tall to
embark on a new millennium.■
View of
Katartobe site

Korea and Kazakhstan are approximately 5,000 km apart. Nevertheless, the ancient cultural
heritage of these two distant countries share many similar characteristics. An ornamented golden
daggar from an ancient tomb of Silla, which resembles one discovered in ancient remains in
Kazakhstan, suggests that artifacts manufactured in the same location were relocated to different
parts of the globe. Still, the distributor is unknown, and moreover the heydays of golden artifacts
differ in these two regions. Moving forward, the National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage
(NRICH) will strive to piece together the puzzle of this ancient mystery.

24
 Tracking Eurasia’s
the present-day global sensation.
Against this backdrop, National Research Institute of

Ancient Cultural
Cultural Heritage(NRICH) of Korea has been tracing Eur-
asia’s ancient cultural network to explore diverse aspects of
the formation of ancient culture on the Korean Peninsula
Network and its exchanges with other regions through various inter-
disciplinary angles. In the field of archaeology, the NRICH
Major Achievements has been conducting joint research projects with national
research institutions in Kazakhstan, Mongolia, and other
and Significance of the countries in Central Asia, regarding ancient tombs that can
help paint a clear picture of ancient cultures. This paper will
Joint Research on the introduce the achievements and significance of our joint re-

Ancient Tombs in Zhetysu, search with Kazakhstan over the course of five years.
In Silla, one of the ancient kingdoms on the Korean

Kazakhstan (2015 –2019)
Research Division of Archaeology,
Nam Sangwon
Eurasia, which connects Europe and Asia, is the
largest continental area on the planet, accounting for some
40 percent of the Earth’s land surface. Consequently, the
region has been the venue of turbulent vicissitudes for its
diverse ethnic groups and cultures linked together through
mutual exchanges.
The Korean Peninsula is situated in the easternmost
© National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage
Peninsula, gigantic tumuli began to appear in the late 4th
century. Among these tombs, the largest ones measure 80
m in diameter and over 20 m in height. The person buried
in such a tomb wore an elaborate outfit and accessories
decorated with gold, and was placed in a wooden chamber,
together with a wide variety of burial goods. The wooden
chamber was covered with a great deal of stone and then
with earthen mound to prevent robbery and also to sym-
bolize the authority and power of the deceased. This type of
tomb is referred to as a wooden chamber tomb covered by
stone and earthen mound.
Since wooden chamber tombs covered by stone and
earthen mound have been differentiated from their pre-
decessors in multiple aspects (e.g. structure, form, and in
the use of golden objects as burial goods), identifying the
causes and historical contexts of their appearance has been
the issue of great interest among researchers. A kurgan
has been pointed out as one background detail, a type of
tomb used by nomads that is extensively distributed in
Central Asia.
Kurgans 1) are found all around Kazakhstan, a rep-
resentative Central Asian country. They are important
cultural resources belonging to the Early Nomadic Pe-
riod in the 8th to 3rd century BCE. In 2014 , the NRICH
signed an academic exchange agreement with the Insti-
tute of Archeology Margulana in Kazakhstan. Subse-
quently, the isntitute signed a new academic exchange
agreement with the Cultural Heritage Institute of the
National Museum of the Republic of Kazakhstan for

part of Eurasia. Such geopolitical circumstances meant that, continued research.

in the past, a wide range of cultures arrived in Korea after The joint research has aimed to secure basic resources
series of exchanges and transformations. In this regard, the necessary for reconstructing Eurasia’s ancient cultural net-
Korean Peninsula once was the final destination for Eur- work and to conduct a comparative study with other coun-
asian cultures and the departure point for the Korean Wave tries and this has been carried out through archaeological

1) Kurgan
 A kurgan generally refers to an ancient tomb with an earthen mound. Deriving from a Turkic word that means an “earthen mound” or “hill,” the
term kurgan already appears in archaeological studies from prior to the 20th century, suggesting its prolonged use. Although what a kurgan signified
in a society may have varied, depending on the culture and period to which it belonged, this ancient tomb , which first appeared during the Bronze
Age, reflects the concentration of labor and social wealth that accompanied the concurrent shifts in social structure. Furthermore, large kurgans that
began to appear in Siberia during the Scythian Period could not have been constructed without the establishment of a well-organized social structure.
In particular, large kurgans found in southern Siberia, representative of the Pazyryk culture, have been the subject of great interest in terms of their
relationship with Silla’s wooden chamber tombs covered by stone and earthen mound; their influence in the enlargement of the earthen mounds of these
Silla tombs: and their similarities with their Silla counterparts in terms of internal structure(National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage, Dictionary
of Korean Archaeology, Seoul: National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage, 2001).

25
surveys on kurgans, tumuli built by nomadic peoples, the
main agents of the Silk Road. The field research mainly
consisted of archaeological excavations and surveys of the
current distribution of kurgans.
From 2015 to 2018 , archaeological excavations were
conducted on the Katartobe ancient tombs site, located
to the southeast of the Zhetysu region, an important hub
along the Silk Road.
The excavations identified at least 50 burial and ritu-
al structures from varying periods of history. At the site,
rectangular- and circular-planned kurgans are arranged
in four main rows in the north–south direction, with
each kurgan measuring 10 – 60 m in diameter and 1– 4 m
in height.
Prior to the excavations, the research team first con-
ducted geophysical propections to obtain as much prelim-
inary information as possible. Geophysical prospection is
analogous to a doctor taking an X-ray or CT scan of a pa-
tient before performing surgery.
Geophysical prospection is a nondestructive archae-
ological research method used to create distribution maps
of underground remains. The mechanism works by sending
out electromagnetic waves toward an underground location
and analyzing the difference in the strength of the waves
that bounce back to the detector. This analysis can reveal
the underground structure and the distribution of buried
objects. However, the outcomes of geophysical prospection
do not provide direct information on underground artifacts
or remains. For example, such outcomes do not tell us, “A
wooden coffin or golden object is buried underground.” That
is, the method cannot determine the characteristics of spe-
cific artifacts or remains buried underground. Still, merely
creating a distribution map of certain structures or objects
that are different from regular underground soil can itself
provide highly desirable information.
Based on the scientific archaeological technologies
accumulated over the years, the NRICH conducted ground
penetrating radar (GPR), GPS and drone surveys on the
Katartobe ancient tombs site. These surveys were carried
out four times from 2015 to 2018. In Katartobe Tomb No.
2 -1, the GPR surveys identified traces of a rectangular
stone structure stacked between the earthen mound and the
tomb’s boundary as well as GPR responses that suggested
the existence of a burial chamber at the center of the earth-
en mound. A subsequent comparison with actual excavation
outcomes has confirmed that geophysical prospection is
an outstanding method that can identify the existence and
shape of underground remains in a nondestructive way.
Archaeological excavations, which were conducted
on a total of nine kurgans, identified that tombs from the
Saka Period (5th to 3rd century BCE) are structured in
such a way that several burial chambers are placed under
one earthen mound. Furthermore, an examination of the
The team conducting geophysical prospections

26
 Joint survey
stratigraphic profiles of these chambers, which had been
conducted to better understand the burial process, revealed
that the bodies were not buried sequentially but all at once,
suggesting the possibility of the human sacrifices or mass
death by war or disease.
A similar case can be found in the comitatus system
practiced during the Roman Republic. A comitatus was the
armed retinue of a military commander. Comitatus soldiers
and their leader formed a kind of vassal-lord relationship,
where vassals swore fealty to their lord in exchange for ma-
terial privileges. Some researchers believe that this system
originated, prior to the Roman Republic, from the Scythi-
ans, an ancient nomadic people. Unfortunately, our research
failed to identify the cause of death shared by those buried
in the tomb due to the poor condition of the human skeletal
© National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage
remains. However, we hope that our future research on the
kurgans will reveal the mystery of their deaths and societal
relationships.
The joint research team also shed new light on the
earthenwork of the kurgans, which, during the extension
work of their earthen mounds, utilized alternating lay-
ers of different soil to prevent collapse. In addition, un-
earthed grave goods, animal bones, and the burnt cover
of a wooden chamber suggest that burials were accompa-
nied by rituals.
27
Charred wooden
tomb cover
and excavated
dog bones
(Tomb No. 1,
District 2)
In addition to archaeological investigations, diverse
interdisciplinary research was conducted on kurgans. To
begin with, in the domain of natural science, to estimate
the absolute dates of the site, radiocarbon dates of charcoal
samples collected from the tombs were determined. To en-
hance credibility, the samples collected from the same loca-
tion were commissioned to two different analysis labs. The
determined radiocarbon dates of the samples indicate that
the tombs were built between the 5th to 2nd century BCE,
the period when the ancient Saka culture flourished.
At the same time, human skeletal remains recovered
from the kurgans were analyzed from a physical anthropo-
Matching the GPR exploration results and the remains after investigation

logical perspective. The study found that the average height shape the earthenware, a mold was used to put together
of the men buried in the kurgans were 170 –180 cm, and clay coils; that sheepskin or sheep leather was used to
the average height of the women more than 170 cm. These smooth the clay surface; and that earthenware was fired
results indicate that their physique was similar to that of a at a temperature of no more than 700℃ , from an open-
modern person. Furthermore, a flesh reconstruction of un- air location and not from within a kiln.
earthed skulls revealed that the buried were Caucasoid. To promote public access to domestic and overseas
A stable isotope analysis was also performed on col- archaeological surveys conducted by the institute, the
lagen samples extracted from human skeletal remains to NRICH has been producing immersive media content for
identify the nutritional sources of the buried and to recon- the general public, using drone technology. In particular,
struct their dietary patterns. The analysis determined that the institute provides a platform that offers 360 -degree vid-
the diet of the ancient Saka people consisted mainly of meat eo VR tours of hard-to-reach overseas archaeological exca-
and dairy products accompanied by a small amount of grain vation sites to the Korean public (http://vrnrich.kr).
such as wheat, oat, millet, and maize. As for the current distribution of kurgans, field sur-
As for unearthed animal remains, researchers thor- veys (2018 –2019) were conducted on kurgans in Zhetysu,
oughly examined physical traces, including traces of weath- Almaty Province and Altai, East Kazakhstan Province.
ering, plant roots, tools, heating, and gnawing by other The wondrous and wild natural environment of the two
animals. At the same time, based on the recovery location regions seemed long deserted, but every place the research
and the physical integrity of the remains, they speculated
on the cause of these animals’ deaths and how they were
used. As a result, it was revealed that domesticated horses,
dogs, sheep, and cattle were brought together as a collective
sacrifice during a funeral, among which sheep and horses
in particular were served as funeral food. Notably, evidence
indicates that dogs used as sacrificial offerings all suffered
from anemia due to an unknown disease.
The earthenware recovered from the kurgans was also
analyzed using multiple scientific techniques including the
ingredients of the clay used, production techniques, and
firing methods. The analysis confirmed that nomads at the
time used clay from different locations to make earthen-
ware; and that they added tempers including burnt bone,
wet compost, compound organic matter, and other ingre-
dients to the clay. In addition, it was revealed that to
Reconstruction of the human skeleton (Tomb No. 10, District 4)

28
 team visited was home to traces of ancient nomads. Kurgans in golden crowns, filigree techniques utilizing tiny golden
were built in three major periods: namely, the Early Saka beads, and gemstone setting techniques.
Period (8th to 6th century BCE), the Saka–Wusun Period However, despite such similarities, the temporal
(5th to 2nd century BCE), and the Hun–Sarmatia Period disparity between the two cultures remains an unsolved
(2nd century BCE to 5th century CE). The research team mystery. In Kazakhstan, the making of tumuli and golden
obtained diverse resources on 134 ancient sites, including artifacts flourished after the 8th century BCE, during the
GPS records, drone aerial photos, and information on the Saka Period. However, in Silla, the heyday began after the
locations and arrangements of the kurgans. These are ex- 4th century CE. To explain this time gap, a wide variety
pected to serve as crucial resources for the future study of of research on extensive regions must be conducted from a
the ancient Eurasian cultural network. diachronic perspective. Ancient human cultures may not
Despite the long distance between Korea and Ka- have changed or developed as rapidly as they do today. We
zakhstan, ancient cultural heritage of the two countries can only assume that they must have evolved in a network
share many similarities. For instance, in 1973 , an exotic of relationships with other regions around the globe. Mov-
golden dagger was unearthed from Gyerim-ro Tomb No. ing forward, the NRICH will continue to put together this
14, a tomb from Silla, an ancient kingdom on the Korean mysterious puzzle, one piece at a time.■
Peninsula. Notably, a very similar ornamental dagger was
also found in the Borovoye site, Kazakhstan, a site some
5, 000 km away. This suggests not that the craftsmanship
was diffused into or emulated by Silla, but that objects pro-
duced from the same location were transported to different
locations. However, the identity of the conveyor can only be
surmised, without any definite evidence.
The structure of the two country’s ancient tombs (kurgans
vs. wooden chamber tombs covered by stone and earthen
mound) are also similar. In addition, the design motifs and
craftsmanship used in the golden artifacts of the two re-
gions share many similar characteristics, including upright
ornaments in the shape of tree branches or antlers found
© National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage

Golden earing found in Tomb No.2, District 1

29
Jar-coffin Production Experiment

A big jar coff in is an artifact connoting death, while it also symbolizes revival.
As such, the Naju National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage had a project related to jar
coffins over 12 years, achieving a range of outcomes. The production of big jar coffins and restoring
their distribution network led to social and educational cultural content, currently used in sociology
classes and targeted to the general public.
 Research Project shipped by boat to a tomb.
Regarding ownership of big jar coffins, it was sug-

to Restore the
gested that this involved members of the remaining Mahan
polities, the ruling class of Mahan, powerful regional clans
of Baekje as well as Japanese residents. People dug a pit,
Technology of Ancient placed a big jar-coffin inside it, and covered it with a burial
mound. This custom changed when the coffins became the
Big Jar coffins: dominant form of burial, along with building a mounded
tomb and digging holes to bury several jar coffins at once.

2008 –2019 Academic Burial objects placed inside big jar coffins of the Yeo-
ngsangang River basin were not as plentiful as those found
Achievements in other facilities. This may be due to the limited production
capacity or economic power at the time; it is also possible
that the phenomenon due to the custom burying existing
Naju National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage,
Oh Hyundok, Choi Yuji objects, used by the owner of the jar-coffin, rather than pro-
ducing new ones. The process of placing the deceased and
their precious objects in a big jar-coffin was accompanied by
various funeral rituals.
Depending on form and burial custom, the evolution
of jar coffins found in the Yeongsangang River basin can be
divided into five stages: the dawning period (Iron Age – 2nd
century), the nascent period (3rd century), the growing peri-
od (4th century), the blooming period ( 5th century), and the
declining period (mid-6th century).

Dawning Period

Nascent Period

What is a Big Jar Coffin?

Ancient earthenware jars were containers and vessels

made with burning clay, but they were also used as coffins
when young children died. However, in the Yeongsangang
river basin, jars were produced as coffins for adults:they ▼
were large-scale jars, measuring over 2 meters and weighing
© National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage

over 300 kilograms. Burial customs distinguish this ancient Blooming Period

society from others.

Traditionally, to produce a big jar-coffin in a work-
shop, clay formed by secondary sedimentation was mixed
with sand, and shaped in the form of a rod or plate. Then
the potter would stack it in the shape of a round jar, while
patting it down to make it stronger. Afterwards, the
shaped clay was dried and burned in a kiln, featuring a
high ceiling and gentle slope. The completed jar-coffin was
The changes of the ancient jar coffin tombs in the Yeongsangang
transported in a cart to a ferry dock, from which it was River basin

31
• Dawning Period
Early big jar coffins were utilized as part of pit burials
in ditches.
• Nascent Period
During the 3rd century, those big jar coffins were used
as coffins, not as everyday vessels. An early form fea-
tured dramatic curves: a flared mouth like a trumpet,
a narrow neck, and a wider body.
• Growing Period
In the 4th century, jar and wooden coffins were part
of the burial facility in the trapezoidal mounds of the
Yeongsangang River basin. Big jar coffins featured a
mouth that flared out with a projection at the bottom,
leading to horizontal expansion and general enlarge-
ment of the tombs.
• Blooming Period
The 5th century witnessed the substantial height of
big jar coffin tombs. In addition, the region’s 2-me-
ter long U-shaped coffins were used as the primary
means of burial. This was often done in the Bannam
Gobungun region of Naju (present-day Daean-ri, Ban
Nam-myeon in Naju City, Jeonnam [South Jeolla
Province]), with mounded tombs of expanded volume,
horizontally and vertically. The Ancient Tomb No.
9 in Sinchon-ri, Ban Nam-myeon, Naju, featured
U-shaped jar coffins: found with a gilded-bronze
crown, gilded-bronze shoes, a decorated sword, and
artifacts that showcased the political status of jar cof-
fin tomb owners then.
• Declining Period
In the 6th century, with Baekje’s regional governance,
the Yeongsangang River basin was incorporated into
the kingdom’s territory. During this process, jar cof-
fins lost their status as the main burial vault in ancient
tombs, thus the dominant style shifted to stone cham-
ber tombs. The jar coffins evolved from the typical
U-shaped designs to more diversified forms.
96 Stone Chamber of Naju Bogam-ri Tomb No.3
32
❶ ❷
❶ 3 D scanning (Traces of segment shaping: Big jar of Jar-coffin Tomb
No. 8 at the Ancient Tomb in Ungok-dong, Naju)
❷ CT Scan (Traces of hand presses)
Achievements of the Research Project
Previous research of the society, associated with jar
coffin tombs, centered around the political powers that cre-
ated the tombs. However, the question ofhow and where
these big jar coffin tombs were produced did not receive the
attention it deserved.
To better understand this in 2008, the Naju National
Research Institute of Cultural Heritage launched “The Re-
search Project for Restoring the Technology Used in Mak-
ing Ancient Big Jar coffins”. This identified the production
technology to honor the heritage of the river basin, while
also conducting archaeological surveys by analyzing materi-
al characteristics.
With visual observation, 3D scanning, CT scanning,
and X-ray photography, cross-validation took place with
scientific analysis of elements (material analysis of 79 big
jar coffins, unearthed from the Yeongsangang river basin,
10 soil samples, and 160 analysis samples). Experimental
archaeological methods (e.g. experiments on the recreation
of raw clay into big jar coffins, while forming and firing
them) helped the public understand the process. Mr. Lee
Hyeon-bae, a master potter who made large earthenware
➌
and equipped with ample experience in pottery firing, also
participated and provided technical assistance.
The structure and form of kilns, in which big jar cof-
fins were fired, were uncovered through nine excavations
from 2007 to 2017 at the Kiln Site in Oryang-dong, Naju
(Historic Site No. 456). This served as the center of mass
production for big jar coffins in the 5th century.
For this project, our institution established a jar- coffin
workshop with three restored in-house kilns. Approximate-
ly 30 jar coffins were restored, when production experiments
were handled in stages, along with academic research. To
ensure the outcomes, our institution came up with diverse
solutions, such as exhibitions and hands-on programs.
Restored jar coffins were displayed in the exhibition
hall and the jar coffin workshop; this allowed visitors to
identify coffin production technology and compare re-
stored jar coffins with ancient coffins, recovered from the
remains. Similarly, mini jar coffins served as time cap-
sules, as they were created with hands-on programs and
put on display.
Many restored jar coffins were donated for exhibits:
one to the Daehan Institute of Cultural Properties, which
is on display at the building’s entrance, with other restored Kiln Site in Oryang-dong, Naju
artifact so that people can view and appreciate them as
they pass by. Likewise, a jar coffin was donated to the Ko-
rea Power Exchange, to be displayed in the lobby of the
headquarters, with an explanatory note about the donating
institution and the jar coffins. A restored jar coffin was also
presented as a gift to the Naju National Museum, where it
is an educational resource for hands-on learning.
Other restored jar coffins were donated to several in-
stitutions, where they enriched the cultural heritage by wel-
coming visitors into a familiar setting.
In addition to restoration work, our institution run
cultural program for the public. Big jar coffins are a distinc-
tive type of tomb found in the Yeongsangang River basin,
with artifacts that represented the region. However, the
general public is not yet familiar with how large they were
made and used as tombs.
The cultural program allows the participants to study
theory in a lecture-based setting, visit a kiln site in Ory-
ang-dong, Naju to observe the kiln’s soil layer, and then
acquire hands-on experience by making their own jar cof-
fins at the workshop. Therefore, participants learn about the
society, the meaning of jar coffins, and how they were made
in a hands on manner.
Among these learning sessions, the hands-on expe-
rience sessions involve the making of large and mini-sized
jar coffins. This learning session is exclusively offered by our
institution; they were also made for our researchers who
mastered production techniques as well. Mini jar coffins
involved the same technique, so participants produced them
as time capsules. This educated participants on the dual
nature of jar coffins; although the artifacts were often asso-
Hands-on program for making big jar coffins
ciated with death, they also symbolize revival.
For over 12 years, we at Naju National Research In-
stitute of Cultural Heritage have dedicated to this project,
and found three major outcomes. First, the institution
established the chronology and plans for their restoration.
Second, we recreated big jar coffins and found out their
distribution network. Last, we developed cultural education
programs based on our research, which are still relevant in
our current society.■

Jar coffin reconstructed through the hands-on program

33
 The conservation treatment for the
Stupa of State Preceptor Jigwang was
conducted only after all scientific and
technical means required for its study
and protection were secured.
Since the treatment aimed to
conserve the stupa’s aesthetic and
historical value and was based on an
understanding of its original form and
materials, the restoration decisions
were made with careful moderation.
As a result, the restoration work,
which started with the dismantlement
of the stupa in March 2016,
has been successfully completed,
thereby preserving its original form
and restoring its authenticity.

The Stupa of State Preceptor

Jigwang from Beopcheonsa Temple Site, Wonju:

34
The Stupa of State
designs and unique ornamental elements, they are neatly
arranged in an elegant manner. In 1962 , the stupa was des-

Preceptor Jigwang
ignated a National Treasure.

from Beopcheonsa Relocation of the State Preceptor’s Stupa

Temple Site, Wonju: The stupa, which had stood for a millennium at the
Beopcheonsa Temple Site, was relocated from Wonju to

Preserving Its Original Seoul during the Japanese colonial period as it was sold to a
Japanese collector in 1911. In Seoul, it shifted around from
Form through Scientific a Japanese-owned hospital in downtown Seoul to the gar-
den of a private mansion, before being transported to Japan
Conservation Treatment in the spring of 1912 . However, the Japanese Government
General of Korea raised an issue about the relocation of the
- Our Conservation Efforts
stupa overseas and had it returned to Korea in the autumn
over the Past 5 Years -
of the same year. Nevertheless, the returned stupa was re-
duced to a mere exhibit at the Joseon Industrial Exhibition,
Cultural Heritage Conservation Science Center,
an event held to provide justification for Japanese colonial
Lee Taejong
rule. With this turn of events, the stupa came to stand
within Gyeongbokgung Palace, its present location.
As confirmed thus far, the artifact has experienced
dismantling and relocation approximately ten times. Pre-
sumably, in the meantime, some elements were broken or
damaged. Indeed, during the Korean War (1950 –1953), after
aerial bombing, the top portion of the stupa was shattered
into some ten thousand pieces. External impacts have also
left cracks, both large and small, inside the stupa.

Erecting a Stupa for Monk Haerin,

the State Preceptor
The Stupa of State Preceptor Jigwang from Beop-
cheonsa Temple Site, Wonju (National Treasure No. 101)
is a stupa enshrining the sarira (relics) of Monk Haerin
(984 –1070) who served as a state preceptor during the reign
of King Munjong, the 11th ruler of the Goryeo dynasty
(918 –1392). His ancestral town was located in Wonju, and he
served as a royal preceptor and state preceptor in the capital
city of Kaesong, before returning to Beopcheonsa Temple
in Wonju, where he passed away in 1070 . Later, he was
granted the posthumous name Jigwang, and in 1085, a stupa
enshrining his relics and a stele inscribed with a eulogy for
him were erected. The stupa, in particular, is considered a
gem, showcasing the sculptural beauty of Goryeo art be-
cause, even though the entire stupa is adorned with diverse
State Preceptor’s Stupa located in Gyeongbokgung Palace
(1923, provided by the National Museum of Korea)

35
Stone stupa damaged from the Korean War (1952)
Diagnosing the Millennium:
In Remembrance of Korean War Wounds
Even though the stone stupa was severely damaged by
bombing during the Korean War, it was restored in 1957 to
its present form, thanks to Master Im Cheon (1908 –1965)
who pioneered the repair and restoration of cultural heri-
tage properties in Korea. Elements that had been complete-
ly destroyed were restored by applying highly advanced
methods, where metal brackets, rough surfaced steel bars
that enabled maximum bonding with concrete and oth-
er materials were utilized to hold broken pieces together
before gluing them together permanently with lead and
cement. At the same time, missing parts (4.6% of the total
volume) were restored using mortar. In particular, one-
third of the upper elements that had been directly hit by a
bomb, including okgaeseok (roof stone) (47%), anghwa (lotus
flower design in the finial) (37%), and bogae (cap covering
a vertical series of decorative disks known as boryun) (35%)
were restored using mortar. However, over the course of
the past 60 years, the neutralization of mortar at a depth of
around 3 cm has created reaction products, which, in turn,
resulted in physical and chemical damage to the stupa.
In response, to identify the type and location of each
instance of damage, researchers created a map containing
details of the physical, chemical, and biological damage
The Stupa of State Preceptor
Jigwang from Beopcheonsa Temple Site, Wonju
36
Deterioration maps showing the Stupa (2016)
while also analyzing the properties of the stone using an
ultrasonic device. Since it was difficult to visually identify
the existence and scope of peeling on the ornately dec-
orated surface, an infrared thermal imaging device was
utilized as well.
The examination revealed that the stupa’s top por-
tion and roof stone had undergone the highest percentage
of mortar restoration and that the stupa was broken away
and peeled in several spots. Also identified were traces of
restoration using some 100 steel bars, dozens of brackets,
and anchor bolts, as well as the fact that steel bars placed
at an average depth of 38 mm suffered from a high level
of corrosion.
As for the body of the stupa, a large amount of surface
peeling was identified on the eastern (41.5%) and southern
(12 .4%) sides, a phenomenon mainly caused by salt-induced
weathering due to the Calcium and Sulfur oxides within mor-
tar. These materials also caused white and black discoloration.
In particular, the black discoloration in foundation stones
in the upper and lower sections of the stupa are products of
secondary discoloration resulting from the combination of air
pollutants and black carbon included in fine particles.
As for the foundation section of the stupa, severe
structural deformation (e.g. the separation of diverse struc-
tural elements) was identified. Most elements of the stupa
were classified as suffering from mid-level (level 3) weath-
 ering. Among the elements examined, jidaeseok ( ground
stone sitting at the lowest part of the foundation) turned out
to be particularly vulnerable, experiencing advanced-level
(level 4) damage.
Several instances of dismantling, relocation, and res-
toration caused the stupa to lose much of its original form,
with the use of mortar aggravating and accelerating its
weathering caused by secondary pollutants and deposits.
To cope with this problem, the National Research Insti-
tute of Cultural Heritage (NRICH) was enlisted to under-
take the conservation treatment process for this precious
cultural heritage.
Stupa on the Operating Table:
Conserving Its Original Form
The stupa was dismantled in March 2016, and its con-
servation treatment began in May of the same year. Thus
far, a wide range of intervention measures (e.g. recording
details on disassembled elements, the removal of pollutants,
the gluing of broken parts, and the restoration of missing
elements using new stone) have been taken to best sustain
the value of the cultural heritage embodied by the stupa.
In general, the methods, techniques, and materials
used for conservation treatment depend on diverse factors
related to the specific stone artifact, including the material
attributes, current state of conservation, conservation en-
vironment, and location of final placement after treatment.
As such, there are no firmly established guidelines or prin-
ciples concerning such details. Against this backdrop, after
the stupa’s value, meaning, and significance were clearly
recognized, the conservation treatment proceeded, based on
scientific data and experience-backed expertise.
• Removal of Pollutants
As a way of removing black pollutants covering the entire
stupa, a laser cleaning method was suggested. Yet, this
method had its limitations. The monochromatic charac-
teristic of laser emissions allows for the selective removal
of pollutants, but, for the same reason, this method is not
considered applicable to rocks containing minerals of differ-
ent colors. However, since the pollutants on the stupa were
in the form of crust and since they were not supposed to be
fully removed, our experts were able to eliminate the pol-
lutants with minimal damage to the stone. Specifically, the
surface layer of black pollutants was first removed using dry
and wet cleaning methods, as well as by hand by utilizing
scalpels, before two types of lasers (Nd:YAG and Yb:fiber
lasers) were used for cleaning.
• Removal of Mortar Used in Previous Restoration
Usually for stone stupa restorations, the mortar used in
37
previous restoration works are mostly removed, in consider-
ation of diverse factors (e.g. the heterogeneity of materials,
the secondary weathering of constituent stones due to the
weathering of mortar, and the restoration principle recom-
mending the use of identical stone materials). However, in
this case, 47% of the total volume of the okgaeseok (roof
stone) was previously restored using mortar, and its removal
would have made it impossible to maintain the element’s
original form whilst directly affecting its structural func-
tioning. As such, the decision to remove the mortar was
made after careful deliberation. As for the actual process,
to ensure the conservation of the artifact’s original form
and the restoration of its authenticity, the half-cell potential
(HCP) method was used to noninvasively measure the de-
gree of corrosion found in the steel bars used in the portions
restored with mortar. At the same time, a correlation anal-
ysis was conducted to evaluate the scope of mortar damage
and to provide engineering data proving the necessity of
mortar removal. By analyzing reaction products, stone
deterioration mechanism caused by the mortar could be
interpreted, thereby securing a rationale for the removal of
previously restored portions.
The actual removal of the mortar involved the use of
both traditional methods and contemporary tools. In parts
where severe damage or breakage could be expected, the
removal was conducted with moderation. Similarly, when
necessary, the parts were temporarily reinforced using cy-
clododecane before removal work began.
• Gluing of Broken Elements
Gluing is an important process in the conservation treat-
ment of stone artifacts. In this case, patent-based scientific
data, as well as glues optimized for joining together domes-
tic stone artifacts were used. When reinforcing the structure
of joints, the material attributes of relevant stupa parts were
first identified and the cross-sectional area of the joints cal-
culated, followed by the determination of diverse elements,
such as the diameter of reinforcing metal products (e.g. fully
threaded titanium rods), stable sheath thickness, and the
length & depth of holes. Afterwards, reinforcement posi-
tions were marked on joint surfaces, remaining pollutants
were removed, and then mineral particles on joint surfaces
in the process of peeling and granular decomposition were
completely eliminated to enhance bond strength.
• Restoration of Missing Elements Using New Stone
Since some elements, such as okgaeseok (roof stone) and an-
ghwa (lotus flower design in the finial), would not have been
able to sustain their forms with the mortar removed from
them, our experts decided to first remove mortar from these
elements, and then restore them using new stone. Regard-
ing this task, we wish to inform our readers that there are
still ongoing concerns about how to guarantee proper con-
 ❶
servation of the original form of the remaining original el-
ements while ensuring the authenticity of portions restored
with new stone.

• Selection of New Stone

To obtain new stone needed for restoration, various sites
were examined, including five outcrops near the Beop-
cheonsa Temple Site in Wonju; two former quarries, where
stone similar to that used for the stupa could be found;
and eight currently operating quarries. This investigation
focused not only on finding the origin of the stupa’s stone
but also on determining the feasibility of excavation and of
securing sufficient quantities of such stone. As a result, in
❷
consideration of similar petrographic characteristics, min-
eralogical composition, and geochemical attributes, Wonju
Stone was selected as the restoration material. After this
decision, only stones that passed quality tests (e.g. in terms
of compressive strength, water absorption rate, and density)
conducted by an authorized agency were used for the resto-
ration work.

• Restoration of Design Elements on New Stone

The first phase of creating new stone parts was to restore
missing motifs and designs in a historically accurate way.
Stone stupas are characterized by ornate sculptural elements
and symbolic decorations. For this reason, while restoring
❸
the stupa using new stone, our experts strived to restore
it to its original form. Specifically, by analyzing Buddhist
sutras, they sought to understand the Buddhist tradition
of Beopcheonsa Temple, a monastery belonging to the Be-
opsang (Dharmalaksana) School of Buddhism. They also
reviewed photographic plates of the stupa, which were cre-
ated through three distinct photographing sessions (in 1911,
1923, and 1932) during the Japanese colonial period, and ex-
amined survey drawings from 1934. Thanks to such efforts,
missing designs were restored close to their original form.

• Shaping New Stones and Restoring Sculptural

Elements
Based on the sculptural information obtained from 3D
❹
scanning and 3D printing, plaster models were created to
facilitate the shaping of new stones. Except for the quarry-
ing process that utilized diamond wire saws, the processing
© National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage

and sculpturing of new stone was conducted using tradi-

tional stonemasonry techniques, in the order of cutting
stone, shaping it with an iron hammer, rough chiseling, and
fine chiseling. This process was followed by detailed pro-
cessing and sculpturing.
The primary processing involved the cutting and pro-
cessing of new stone pieces at 110 –130% of the desired sizes,
based on 3D plaster models. Next, the joint surfaces of
newly carved pieces were refined to ensure a perfect fit with
the original, remaining elements of the stupa. These new
❶ L aser cleaning of contaminants
❷ Drilling to reinforce the structure of the damaged part
❸ Fine correction of the restoration part of the new stone
❹ Roof restoration finished and before color matching

38

The Stupa of State Preceptor Jigwang from Beopcheonsa
Temple Site, Wonju
stone pieces were then temporarily attached to the original
elements and, as part of tertiary processing, were reduced to
their intended sizes.
Once the processing work was completed, sculptur-
ing work was conducted in three phases: the first phase for
creating an overall shape, the second for carving detailed
forms and designs, and the third for adding the minutest
details (such as a smile and the subtle curve of an eye). All
sculptural work was conducted by our team and a master
stonemason, who is also designated as a holder of Important
Intangible Cultural Heritage, using traditional tools and
techniques. These tools and techniques were also recorded
in detail and further developed into resources.
Issues Concerning the Conservation of the
Stupa’s Original Form
Even though the meaning of an “original form” may
refer to the first appearance of a cultural heritage item, or
how it looked when it was initially created, it is imperative
that the concept include traces of history, especially when
associated with cultural heritage that has survived the test
of time. As such, it follows that the original form of the stu-
pa may naturally include traces of repair work performed in
1957. The authenticity of a cultural heritage property refers
to its distinctive characteristics judged from diverse aspects,
and therefore the number of criteria it satisfies determines
the property’s value and status. In this regard, although
authenticity is the most ideal notion of conservation, it is
nevertheless an ambiguous concept when it comes to the
conservation of the original form, as it is torn between the
emphasis on an “initial form” and the one embracing “ves-
tiges of time.” This conundrum is addressed thoroughly in
the Nara Document on Authenticity adopted in 1994, which
contains varied interpretations of the authenticity of cul-
tural heritage, in terms of form and design, materials and
substance, use and function, traditions and techniques, and
other internal and external factors.
In line with such international standards, our conser-
vation treatment of the stupa has ensured that the 60 -year
historicity associated with the most restoration conducted
by the National Museum of Korea in the past are preserved
as distinctly separated, as the limitations of materials used
in the previous restoration and causes of acceleration in the
weathering of original stupa elements were scientifically
determined. At the same time, our experts succeeded in
restoring the stupa to its pre-restoration form dating back
to 1911 and before, based on photographic plates and survey
drawings. Furthermore, new restoration materials were
selected based on relevant experiments and findings in ac-
ademic papers. By utilizing outstanding patented modern
conservation technologies, our team proactively conducted
conservation treatment based on scientific data.
The conservation treatment of the stupa was conduct-
ed only after all scientific and technical means required for
its study and protection were secured. Since the treatment
aimed to preserve the stupa’s aesthetic and historical value
and was based on an understanding of the original form and
material, the restoration decisions were made with careful
moderation, thereby contributing greatly to the conservation
of the original form and the restoration of authenticity.■
39
Column

1 Tomb No. 63 at the Ancient Tombs

in Gyo-dong and Songhyeon-dong,
Changnyeong

2 A Forgotten Vignette of History

Unveils Its Memorable Moments

3 Science, Shielding Cultural

Heritage from Disasters

4 High-Tech Fibers
 Jung Intae
Institute of Cutural Heritage,
Gaya National Research
Column

Tomb No. 63 at the Ancient Tombs in Gyo-dong and

Songhyeon-dong, Changnyeong: Key to Restoring the
1,500 -Year Old Ancient Culture of Bihwa Gaya and Its
Achievements &Significance
On November 28, 2019, a door opened on the path to rediscovering Bihwa Gaya, a forgotten ancient state.
When a large crane lifted two stone covers, each weighing some 3 tons, from Tomb No. 63, it revealed, after
some 1,500 years, burial spaces for the tomb’s owner and the human sacrificesal, along with numerous ceramic
vessels and iron goods.

View of the excavation site of Tomb No.39 (right)

and Tomb No. 63 (left)

41
Changnyeong, a county located to the northwest of Busan,
is the former home of Bihwa Gaya. Notably, the county’s
Gyo-dong and Songhyeon-dong areas have around 250 an-
cient tombs housing the remains of presumably ancient rul-
ers. This assumption suggests that the areas once served as a
political and cultural center in ancient times. Tomb No. 63
is the first among all Bihwa Gaya tombs that was found not
robbed that have been identified thus far. For these reasons,
the tomb is garnering attention as a major clue in redis-
covering the royal tomb construction techniques of Bihwa
Gaya as well as its funeral culture and history.
What Protected Tomb No. 63,
a Large-scale Tomb with an Earthen
Mound, from Pillaging?
Among tombs on the Korean Peninsula that were built
during the Three Kingdoms period, most featuring a large
earthen mound were continually looted during the Japanese
colonial period. Tomb No. 63 measures 21 m in diameter
and 7 m in height. Despite its large size, the tomb was saved
from being plundered. This begs the question why. The
secret lies in the unique way Tomb No. 39, another large
tomb that abuts Tomb No. 63, was constructed. The latter
was first built during the mid-5th century, and then, ten
some years later, at its eastern side, Tomb No. 39 was added.
Later, after a prolonged period of time, the two tombs came
to look as if they were one, due to soil that ran down from
Tomb No. 63’s earthen mound. Among the ancient Tombs
in Gyo-dong and Songhyeon-dong, Changnyeong, Tomb
No. 39 is the third largest. By considering its scope and lo-
cation, the tomb probably belonged to the supreme ruler of
Bihwa Gaya. It can be also conjectured that by piling earth-
en mound at a location above the existing one ( Tomb No.
63), It’s builderssought to showcase his political hegemony.
The mound of Tomb No. 63
42
The occupants of the two tombs are presumed to have been
intimately related, but the exact details will need to be un-
covered through subsequent research.
Exhaustive Excavation Starts in 2016
Since the Japanese colonial period, several archaeologi-
cal excavations of ancient tombs in Changnyeong County in
South Gyeongsang Province have revealed much about the
tomb culture of Bihwa Gaya. Designated Historic Site No.
514, the Ancient Tombs in Gyo-dong and Songhyeon-dong,
Changnyeong, cemeteries for Bihwa Gaya’s most important
political rulers, consist of some 250 ancient tombs. The Gaya
National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage has been
conducting excavation campaigns since 2004, focusing on
nine large-scale mounded tombs. These excavations have
resulted in a number of new discoveries. For instance, re-
searchers recovered major cultural relics, including a gilt-
bronze crown, a silver belt, and a camphor wood coffin.
The identity and appearance of an ancient person (a female
sacrifice whom researchers named “Songhyeon”) were also
reconstructed from remains, thanks to a concerted effort by
a group of experts in archaeology, forensic science, physics,
and other related fields. Furthermore, in 2016, excavations
on Tomb No. 39 and three other neighboring tombs began
in earnest. During these excavations, a circular burial stone
marker of a then unknown tomb was discovered, bringing
to light the long-forgotten existence of Tomb No. 63.
Bihwa Gaya’s Tomb Construction
Techniques and Their Significance,
Revealed by Tomb No. 63
Tombs No. 63 and No. 39 were built on a steep slope by
piling large earthen mounds. Excavators identified diverse
construction techniques used for these tombs. As for Tomb
No. 63, a main burial chamber for the tomb’s occupant was
first created, and then an earthen mound was piled on top.
However, the construction involved a unique technique not
utilized in other Bihwa Gaya tombs. Near the southeastern
edge of the earthen mound, a small-sized stone-lined tomb
(Width: 2 .7 m; Depth: 0.6 m; Height: 0.8 m) was also creat-
ed to bury someone else, along with burial goods, and then
the tomb was covered with a small earthen mound. It was
this small mound that encouraged excavators to thoroughly
investigate how the earthen mound for Tomb No. 63 was
uniquely built.
To the southwest of Tomb No. 63, in the opposite di-
rection of the aforementioned small-sized tomb, a jar coffin,
measuring more than a meter long, was recently discovered
with human skeletal remains inside. Other cases where
one earthen mound has both a main burial chamber and
extra chambers include the Ancient Tombs in Jisan-dong,

Press conference of the excavation findings
Artifacts found in Tomb No.62 (near Tomb No.63)
Goryeong, a representative royal cemetery at Dae Gaya.
Yet, this type of burial was first identified in Tombs No. 63
and No. 39 among the ancient tombs of Bihwa Gaya, and
such discovery will provide crucial resources to better un-
derstand the cultures of ancient Gaya and its neighbor. As
for mound materials for Tomb No. 39, the tomb later built
next to Tomb No. 63, the earthen mound’s central part was
built using hard clay lumps; the boundary, using soil with
high water permeability. In addition, after completing each
layer, fine sand layer was placed on top. This construction
technique is similar to that used in the Embankment in
Yaksa-dong, Ulsan, a fact that serves as a valuable resource
to shed more light on technological exchanges in ancient
Korea.
Tomb No. 63’s Pristine Conditions Reveals
Details of Bihwa Gaya’s Funeral Culture
© National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage
Tomb No. 63 was undisturbed from tomb raiders as it
remained covered by Tomb No. 39. When its stone covers
were lifted, cool air escaped from underneath, and the buri-
al chamber was revealed intact. The main burial chamber,
where the tomb’s occupants and burial goods are placed,
measures 6.3 m long, 1.4 m wide, and 1.9 m deep. The cham-
ber is surrounded by walls on four sides that were created by
stacking finely broken stones and then covering them with
clay. The ceiling consists of seven flat stones, each measur-
ing 2m long, with gaps between stones filled with finely
43
broken stones and clay coating.
In particular, cinnabar was painted on the clay surface
of the four walls and ceiling as the material symbolized the
power to fend off evil spirits. As previously mentioned, the
main burial chamber has remained in pristine condition.
Near where the head of the deceased was placed, large
stoneware vessels(e.g. a long-necked jar) and different types
of ironware including spades were discovered. Although
the remains of the deceased had vanished to a large extent
due to contact with air, traces of a skull and those of the
ornaments (e.g. earrings) worn by the tomb’s owner were
identified.
On the other hand, near where the feet of the deceased
were placed, small earthenware items (e.g. pedestal dishes)
were found packed closely together. Farther down in the
direction of the feet was an empty space, where the victim
of a sacrificial burial had once presumably laid. Next to this
space, farthest from the wall, large earthenware artifacts
were discovered once again. This arrangement of different
burial goods in distinct locations is a unique funeral-related
custom of Bihwa Gaya that would have been forever lost if
the tomb had been looted. In addition, one unique feature
of Tomb No. 39 is that, unlike in other Bihwa Gaya tombs,
its four burial chamber walls were created by either erecting
a stone that is some 2 m long or laying it flat. At the south-
ern outer edge of the tomb’s circular burial stone marker,
the remains of large stoneware jars placed at a regular in-
terval were also identified. Such concentration of ceramic
ritual goods at one corner of a tomb was also identified
from Tomb No. 44 at the Silla Tumuli in Jjoksaem District,
Gyeongju. Changnyeong-type pottery, a representative
artifact of Bihwa Gaya, was discovered not only in former
Gaya territory but also in Korea’s South Jeolla Province
and Japan’s Nagasaki and Kyoto. In Tomb No. 7 at Son-
ghyeong-dong, an unexpected Japanese boat-shaped coffin
made of camphor wood was unearthed. Such archaeological
evidence suggests that Bihwa Gaya served as a buffer be-
tween Gaya and Silla and that the state developed through
exchanges with Mahan (present-day South Jeolla Province)
and even its distant neighbor Japan.
Without a doubt, each and every piece of informa-
tion collected from the ongoing archaeological excava-
tions on Tomb No. 63 will shed new light on the history
of Bihwa Gaya.■
 Natural Heritage Division
Column

A Forgotten Vignette of History Unveils Its Memorable

Moments: Scenic Site No. 34 for proper preservation and
management and Its Achievements & Significance
Yun Seon-do(1587-1671) was a noted poet and well-known Neo-Confucian scholar of the mid-Joseon period.
On his way to Jeju Island to seek shelter from political storms at the time, he became enamored of the scenic
beauty of Bogildo Island and decided to seek refuge there instead.
Bogildo Island was remained by Yun’s refined views on the harmony between man and nature and his Neo-
Confucian thinking, as well as his aesthetic sensibility. He christened various rocks and mountain peaks around
the island, and they still carry the names to this day. His Garden, today known as Yun Seon-do’s Garden on
Bogildo Island, was designated as Scenic Site No. 34 for proper perservation and management.

Yun Seon-do's Garden

44
 Discovery of the Legendary
‘Gwiam’ (Turtle Rock)
Since the establishment of its Natural Her-
itage Division in 2006 , the National Research
Institute of Cultural Heritage (NRICH) has
recorded numerous achievements, which was
given by the division’s research on state-desig-
nated Natural Monuments, Scenic Sites, and
other natural heritage. The discovery of the
Gwiam ( Turtle Rock) near Nakseojae Hall, in Wide range
particular, was akin to a miracle that was found 3D scanner
approximately after 260 years.
The poem “Gwiam” ( Turtle Rock) is one of the col-
lections that appear in Gosan Yugo (Posthumous Works of
Yun Seon-do). In this poem, Yun enjoyed the light of the
full moon in the evening sitting on Gwiam. After several
hundred years, the rock ended up covered with soil and
dust, which removed vestiges of its existence. However,
the Natural Heritage Division fearlessly took a stand and
continued research that was supported by a systematic lit-
erature review, precision analysis, and field surveys. These
efforts paid off: Gwiam, which had been buried deep under
the ground, finally came to light. This discovery allowed
researchers to trace the exact location of Nakseojae Hall,
whose building had vanished a long time ago including the
spot where Yun Seon-do enjoyed gazing at the moon. The
value of a Scenic Site would be appreciated wholeheartedly
when its cultural heritage properties and the surrounding
natural environment have been fully preserved in harmony.
On the other hand, if any of the elements that constitute
a Scenic Site undergoes changes, that can affect other ele-
ments, which, in turn, can alter the entire landscape. Our
division’s systematic scientific research is imperative to help
solve long-standing and emergent research problems.
Preservation of Scenic Sites with
Scientific Methods
Every single detail should not be overlooked in pre-
serving a scenic site. Our ancestors deeply valued the spirit
of “united with nature,” which is a restoration that individ-
uals fail to consider. The surrounding environment alone
© National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage
cannot properly restore the quaintness and picturesque
nature of the place. Yun explicitly illustrated a small pavil-
ion (known as Dongcheonseoksil) to appreciate the beauty
of the surrounding rocks. The pavilion has no reason for
existence without those rocks. The researchers should accu-
rately identify and record the current status and atmosphere
of natural scenery and surrounding environment. Because
natural scenery can be easily transformed by disasters, pro-
longed weathering, or collapse. Our division’s researchers
collect data on Scenic Sites through regular and special sur-
45
veys for scientific studies. One example is that
they can perform a comprehensive scan of the
surroundings of a Scenic Site by using a wide
range 3D scanner within 90 seconds. Portable
microscopes are used for detailed observations
in order to obtain more thorough and precise in-
formation. Even aerial photography is now on a
new level. Helium-filled blimps were previously
used for aerial photography to minimize envi-
ronmental pollution, as they do not produce gas
emissions. But with the advance of technology,
electric drones allow for more speed and conve-
nience in photography.
The Natural Heritage Division strives to produce “one-
source, multi-use” cultural heritage data that can be used for
various occasions. Our division has been uploading record-
ings of scenic sites online since 2009. Those recordings are
particularly beneficial for the elderly, those with disabilities,
the economically disadvantaged, and the prospective visi-
tors. We also provide media companies that produce popu-
lar TV shows and movies with accurate information about
cultural heritage properties.
Unlike buildings that can be repaired or restored,
natural heritage items, e.g. rocks and trees, are hard to
be restored once damaged. This is why our organization
has been creating resources required to preserve the sur-
rounding natural environments of the precious spaces
handed down by our ancestors as these environments add
special value and meaning to such spaces. We are dedi-
cated to support and manage related research on a nation-
al level so that we continuously accumulate data on Scenic
Sites of Korea–where our traditional culture and history
remain alive.■
Drones
Record and observe
landscape changes
 Cho Sangsun
Safety and Disaster Prevention Division,
Column

Science, Shielding Cultural Heritage from Disasters:

Unraveling the Secrets through Science
The earthquakes that occurred in North Gyeongsang Province during 2016 –2017 served as a reminder to
the Korean people that Korea is not safe from natural disasters such as earthquakes. Indeed, throughout
history, there have been a fair number of earthquakes in the Korean Peninsula. For instance, in 1936, a
major earthquake rattled the Jirisan Mountain region. Then in 1978, a magnitude 5.0 earthquake also shook
Hongseong, South Chungcheong Province. Historical documents, including Joseon wangjo sillok (The Annals
of the Joseon Dynasty) and Samguk yusa (Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms), also mention more than 2,000
earthquakes. One fascinating record revealed that an earthquake with a presumed magnitude of 6.7 hit the
Gyeongju area in the year 779, killing approximately 100 people. Despite earthquakes, typhoons, tempests,
and other repeated disasters, many of our architectural heritage properties have survived intact for hundreds of
years. What are the scientific principles behind such resilience?

Research for Safety Management of Architectural Cultural Heritage

46
 Disaster-resistant Technologies Used in ❶
Traditional Architecture: Unraveling the
Secrets through Science
In 2018 , the National Research Institute of Cultural
Heritage (NRICH)’s Safety and Disaster Prevention Di-
vision conducted shaking table tests involving replicas of
the traditional outer walls and the Three-story Stone Pa-
goda at Cheollyongsa Temple Site in Namsan Mountain,
Gyeongju, an artifact that sustained damage during the
magnitude 5.8 earthquake that occurred in Gyeongju in
September 2016. For the tests, traditional walls reproduced
according to the Standard Specifications for the Repair
of Cultural Heritage Properties, as well as a replica one- ❷

third the size of the stone pagoda, were used. Each abutting
surface of the pagoda replica was created with unique traits
to examine which construction technique was the most
earthquake-resistant. As for the walls, in addition to a wall
built based on the Specifications, a wall featuring the same
inorganic binder used for the Stone Pagoda at Mireuksa
Temple Site, Iksan, as well as the reproduction of the wall
surrounding the Jungjeongdang Lecture Hall at Dodongse-
owon Confucian Academy, Dalseong ( Treasure No. 350),
was used. As for seismic waves, those of the aforementioned
earthquake in Gyeongju and of earthquakes in Pohang, as
well as those used in the U.S. and Japan for seismic testing, ❶ Technological study of architectural heritage disaster response
were replicated. These seismic waves also included those of ❷ S ensor installed to analyze the structural behavior of Cheomseongdae

an earthquake with a magnitude of 6.0 or above.

According to the tests, two abutting pagoda elements
with the largest contact surface were the least vulnerable to
seismic waves. In the case of the walls, none of the tested
walls either collapsed or lost their roof tiles. These results
led researchers to conclude that Korean stone pagodas and
outer walls are highly likely to remain safe from earth-
quakes as long as they have been built or repaired according
to the traditional principles handed down from our ances-
tors. In the aftermath of the two recent earthquakes, there
have been media reports that hanok, or traditional Korean
houses, are earthquake-proof and that the geuraengi tech-
nique (a traditional stonemasonry technique, where the
bottom surface of the upper stone is chiseled in the exact
shape of the top surface of the lower stone for a perfect fit)
used for Bulguksa Temple’s stonework is a traditional con-
© National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage
where we need to verify through experiments how effective-
ly a wooden column shaped using the geuraengi technique
(a column whose bottom surface was contoured to resemble
the top surface of its foundation) can withstand seismic
waves, when compared with an ordinary column.
Utilization of Advanced Sensors and
an Online Platform for Constant Safety
Management
Without an earthquake or other similar disasters, what
is most harmful to the structural stability of an architec-
tural cultural property is the aging (e.g. decomposition and
breakage) of the property’s materials. To seek out solutions,

struction technique that resists earthquake damage. Clearly,
in traditional wooden structures, the pliability of wood and
the continuation from the foundation stone to column to
roof tend to reduce the impact of seismic waves. Similarly,
the geuraengi technique, which maximizes the contact sur-
face between architectural elements, is used in various parts
of traditional wooden buildings, including the point where
a wooden column and its foundation stone meet. As such,
Korean traditional architecture can be regarded as embody-
ing basic anti-disaster resistance. Now, we are at the stage
the Safety and Disaster Prevention Division has begun
taking two new measures, in addition to regular on-site
inspections by researchers. One is the experimental analysis
of the aging characteristics of the materials used in cultural
heritage items. The other is the establishment of a measur-
ing and monitoring system to detect deformities occurring
in cultural heritage properties.
When analyzing the aging characteristics of a materi-
al, the first step is to understand the basic properties of the
material. To this end, from 2016 to 2018, our division estab-

47

Training of Survey on Damage by Earthquake : Naksansa Temple,
Yangyang City
Analysis Experiment on Characteristics of Three-story Stone
Pagoda(Re-sized replica) in Response to Earthquake
lished and operated a lab at the Jungwon National Research
Institute of Cultural Heritage, where our researchers conducted
experiments on the material properties, dehydration, strength,
deformation, and diverse other aspects of major wood materials
used in Korean traditional architecture. In addition to basic
experiment equipment (e.g. a thermo-hygrostat system and a
dryer), the lab also used a universal testing machine (UTM) to
artificially apply tensile and compression forces to materials, as
well as laser-type and optical fiber-type sensors to measure dif-
ferent displacements.
Recently, the Fourth Industrial Revolution has become
a hot topic even in the field of cultural heritage research. In
keeping with such trends, our division made attempts to utilize
big data analysis tools and a cloud-based online platform for
the safety management of cultural heritage properties. As part
of such efforts, in partnership with the National Information
Society Agency (NIA), our division established a trial version of
a smart cultural heritage management cloud platform in 2018 to
improve the safety management of cultural heritage properties.
Currently, we are reviewing the applicability and problems in-
48
herent in the platform. As for the measuring and monitor-
ing of cultural heritage properties, six architectural cultural
heritage sites, including Cheomseongdae Observatory in
Gyeongju, have been the target of precision monitoring that
utilizes diverse measuring sensors since before 2019. Each
property has been separately monitored, with researchers
visiting each site, accessing the on-site computer system,
and obtaining measurement readings. Such monitoring has
been selected in consideration of the surrounding environ-
mental conditions of these cultural heritage sites. One idea
recently under consideration is drone-based monitoring of
cultural heritage properties and their surroundings located
in remote areas.
Keeping Our Cultural Heritage Safer in a
Rapidly Changing World
In addition to the research on preemptive anti-disaster
measures and the experimental analysis of cultural heritage
items’ structural stability, the Safety and Disaster Preven-
tion Division has been conducting somewhere between
150 and 200 status surveys annually, chosen from among
some 750 architectural cultural heritage properties that are
state-designated National Treasures or Treasures. For these
field surveys, a team of two to three researchers has been
checking each cultural heritage item for minute changes,
every three to five years. Furthermore, every year, from one
to four times, our researchers carry out safety inspections
of some 30 cultural heritage properties as recommended by
the Cultural Heritage Committee. For these inspections,
instruments, such as an electro-optical distance meter and
a crack gauge are utilized. At the same time, for the afore-
mentioned six cultural heritage sites, including Cheom-
seongdae Observatory in Gyeongju, a dedicated real-time
monitoring system utilizing high-precision measurement
sensors has been established and is in operation. Moreover,
to measure the soundness of wood suspected of pest infesta-
tion, a resistograph is also being used.
Cultural heritage is an inheritance from the past. Yet,
cultural heritage properties do not need to be preserved
using only traditional methods. At the time of its creation,
each cultural heritage item must have been the product of
the most advanced technologies and tools of the period.
What matters to us today is the wholesome preservation of
what remains of our cultural heritage. In this regard, the
matter of foremost importance is to identify the value of the
cultural heritage item in question, recognize that value, and
preserve the heritage in the best possible way to showcase
the originality of such value. In light of this, all researchers
in our division are going to great lengths in cultural heritage
sites, research rooms and labs, to figure out better ways to
pass on to the next generation our precious cultural heritage
in pristine condition.■
 An Boyeon
Conservation Science Center,
Cultural Heritage
Column

High-Tech Fibers: The Secrets of Gold Thread

Throughout history, the high value of gold has driven the steady evolution of gold decoration methods and
gold thread production techniques. Traditionally, gold threads made with the highest percentage of pure gold
were considered the best products, but it was also inevitable that history witnessed the development of types
of gold thread that were less costly but still visually appealing. Essays on Rural Life and Economy (林園經濟志),
published in the late Joseon period, states: “ To produce the color gold, people in Hangzhou, China brush (red)
safflower seed oil on a silver leaf and then dry it slightly above an open flame. In Guangdong, China, to emulate
the color of gold, they paint pictures using water mixed with ground cicada shells and then dry it slightly above
an open flame.” Even now, gold thread is sometimes created without using gold, from titanium-coated silver.
As such, people have always had a demand for imitation gold that looks real.
© National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage

Twisted gold thread from Mireuksa Temple site

49
 ❶
❷ can dramatically reduce the amount of gold needed. In this
❶ Bugeum ❷ Nigeum
Fabric’s Desire for the Hue of Gold
From Korea’s Three Kingdoms period to the Goryeo
and Joseon periods, gold had been one of the most com-
monly used materials for luxury ornaments. Historically,
several types of gold decoration techniques were used to
embellish fabrics and clothes. For instance, bugeum ( 附金 )
was a gilding technique where gold leaf or powder was
applied to solid surfaces. Nigeum (泥金) was another tradi-
tional technique where glue mixed with gold powder was
used to imbue calligraphy or painting on fabric. Finally,
gold thread (thread hammered from gold) was also used
for ornamental purposes. Metal threads that contain silver
or other metals in addition to gold are also referred to as
gold threads.
Gold thread was mostly used for embroidery or for
weaving fabric. Based on production technique and form,
Korean traditional gold threads are categorized into three
types: stretched gold thread(圓金絲), twisted gold thread(撚
金絲), and f lat gold thread ( 片金絲). Among these, real gold
thread is the simplest kind, made by working gold lumps
into thin long strips and often used to make bead decora-
tions on crowns, necklaces, and other ornaments. Twisted
gold thread, on the other hand, was made by twisting gold
leaf around a core thread. Due to its round shape, the twist-
ed gold thread is also referred to as rounded gold thread(環
金絲 ). In Korea, exhibits of twisted gold thread, in fairly
50
standardized forms, have been recovered from Hwangnam-
daechong Tomb and the Ancient Tombs in Imdang-dong,
Gyeongsan, as well as from the fabric discovered as part of
the sarira reliquaries from the Stone Pagoda at Mireuksa
Temple Site, Iksan. Whereas real gold thread from earlier
periods are essentially metal thinly shaped into thread-like
form, twisted gold thread can be seen more as a type of
fiber that offers the benefit of greater flexibility and richer
decorative expression when used for creating embroidery
designs on fabric. Gold is the most malleable metal in exis-
tence; a single gram of gold can be hammered into a sheet
that is one square meter in size. As such, using gold thread
respect, the method of producing twisted gold thread by
gluing gold leaf onto thin paper showcases the pinnacle of
the advanced textile technologies of the time.
Gold thread was also used to create woven fabrics.
Woven fabric that features designs created using gold thread
is traditionally known as jikgeum(織金). When fabric is wo-
ven with twisted gold thread, the golden color on the back
of the fabric is naturally hidden from view. To minimize
such unnecessary waste, a more suitable type of gold thread
than twisted thread (which is rounded) was later developed
for fabric weaving: flat gold thread. Woven fabrics featuring
flat gold thread first appeared during the Goryeo period;
numerous historical documents from the Joseon Dynasty
also refer to such silk fabrics as jikgeumdan(織金緞) and geum-
seondan(金線緞).
What Materials Were Used to Craft the
Best Gold Threads?
A study of Korean traditional gold thread would not
be complete without investigating the ceremonial robes
worn by women during the Joseon period, known as wons-
am. Recently, the National Research Institute of Cultural
Heritage (NRICH) released the results of a scientific analysis
of the gold thread used in a green Wonsam of Yi Danha's
Wife, and in Donggunbi-Wonsam (Ceremonial Robe of the
Crown Princess), an artifact housed at Sejong University.
Notably, wife of Yi Danha’s green robe is the oldest extant
ceremonial robe in Korea, while the crown princess’s robe is
presumed to have been worn by Crown Princess Yun during
her royal wedding ceremony with Emperor Sunjong, who
took her as his second wife. As such, these robes are partic-
ularly valuable cultural heritage. NRICH has analyzed the
gold thread used in several places of these robes: specifically,
the golden embroidery on the skirt featured around the
knee or at the end of the sleeve, known as tongsuseuran(通手
膝 襴); the phoenix insignia sewn onto the chest part of the
garment(鳳胸背); and the five-clawed dragon insignia(五爪龍補).
The analysis of gold thread was conducted using a ste-
reoscopic microscope, as well as a pyrolysis gas chromatog-
raphy mass spectrometry (Py-GCMS) instrument to analyze
the ingredients of the glue used to make the gold thread,
and a portable XRF analyzer to analyze the composition of
metallic materials used in the gold thread. On occasion, a
micro-XRF spectrometer was used for analyses requiring
❸
❹
❺ thread was used for the colored sleeves (saekdong) and white
❹ contains traces of lead, suggesting that minium was either
❻ talc (3MgO·4SiO2 ·H 2O), were added to the glue. As exam-
 lat gold thread in the tongsuseuran of the robe of Yi Danha’s wife
❸F
❹T
 wisted gold thread in phoenix insignia of the robe of Yi Danha’s wife
❺ Flat gold thread in the tongsuseuran of the Crown Princess’s robe
❻ Donggunbi-Wonsam (Ceremonial Robe of the Crown Princess)
51
enhanced resolving power. As a result, researchers discov-
ered that, in two cases, the base paper used to make the gold
thread contained non-wooden fibers. They also identified
some cellulose-derived compounds from the glue sample,
including furfural and levoglucosan. The discovery of such
multitudes of cellulose and protein compounds served as
evidence that the gold threads used in both robes were pro-
duced by applying gold leaf to mulberry paper using glue
(e.g. an animal-based glue).
As for Wife of Yi Danha's robe, the analysis of the
gold thread composition revealed that, whereas the colored
sleeves (saekdong) feature flat gold thread, whilst the phoenix
insignia contains twisted gold thread made from pure gold.
A micro-XRF analysis of samples identified gold and other
elements (e.g. silicon, aluminum, potassium, calcium, and
iron) on the gold-leaf side of the thread. However, on the
base-paper side, the analysis identified a reduced percentage
of gold and an increased percentage of silicon, potassium,
aluminum, and other elements. The fact that an XRF anal-
ysis identified no metal elements other than gold indicates
that the robe’s flat gold thread and twisted gold thread were
produced using pure gold. Silicon, aluminum, iron, potassi-
um, and other elements identified from the thread’s metal-
lic surfaces and base paper presumably originated from the
white clay or soil that were mixed with the glue. Notably, a
high amount of lead (Pb) was identified from the gold thread
used in the phoenix insignia, suggesting that the glue used
to make the thread was mixed with minium (Pb3O4).
As for the Crown Princess’s robe, flat gold thread was
used for the embroidery on the skirt, whereas f lat silver
sleeve extension (hansam). For the five-clawed dragon in-
signia, twisted gold thread made of pure gold and twisted
silver thread were employed separately. As with wife of Yi
Danha's robe, the twisted gold thread used for the insignia
mixed with the adhesive or used for coloring. In addition, a
micro-XRF analysis of samples obtained from the back of
the base paper identified other elements including silicon,
magnesium, and calcium in addition to gold. The result
indicates that materials such as silicate minerals, soil, and
ined thus far, the differences in the chemical composition
of each type of gold thread and the glue used in making the
thread can seriously affect the thread’s decorative effect and
durability as they influence the thread’s expression of the
golden hue as well as its exfoliation. In this respect, such
minute differences distinguish the quality and characteris-
tics of each type of gold thread, a highly sensitive material
that has served as the premier textile material for garments
across all historical periods.■

Research
Article
Movement and home range
of Cinereous Vulture Agypius
monachus during the wintering
and summering periods in
East Asia
(doi:10.3906 | zoo-1807-3)
Kang Jung-Hoon*, Hyun Bo-Ra*, Kim In Kyu,
Lee Hansoo, Lee Jae-Kang, Hwang Hyun-Su,
Eom Tae-Kyung, Rhim Shin-Jae(NRICH)
Published April 13, 2019 on Turkish Journal
of Zoology
Publication
Journal of
Korean Archaeology
The Journal of Korean Archaeology,
which has been published annually
since 2006, showcases the results of
excavations which have attracted the
attention of academia and the media in
Korea. NRICH also publishes English
version of the journal along with the
Korean version for foreign researchers
and the past issues are accessible via
webpage free of charge. The institute
will continue to introduce the value of
Korean archaeological remains to the
wider world.
NRICH NEWS
The present study was conducted to
elucidate the movement and home
range of 7 subadult Cinereous Vul-
tures Aegypius monachus during the
wintering and summering periods us-
ing a GPS-CDMA telemetry system
from January 2015 to March 2017 in
East Asia. In total, 7053 locations (180-
Stone Pagoda at Mireuksa
Temple Site in Iksan from
639 to 2019
 estoration of Stone Pagoda
R servation treatment to reassembly. Vol-
at Mireuksa Temple Site in
Iksan(I-III)
Iksan Mireuksa Temple Stone Pagoda
(National Treasure No. 11) is the larg-
est and oldest stone pagoda that exists
in Korea. It is the last standing pagoda
of the three that was built in the 7th
century at the time of King Mu of
Baekje. In the late 4th century, when
Buddhism was introduced to Korea,
52
1607 GPS coordinates per bird) were
used to analyze the home range size
and movement distance of the birds
during the wintering, migration, and
summering periods. They migrated
between South Korea and Mongolia
during spring and autumn, respec-
tively. The migration route and home
range exhibited considerable overlap
among the vultures tracked. Further
studies on breeding ecology and hab-
itat use pattern are necessary for the
conservation of Cinereous Vultures
and their habitats in the wintering and
summering grounds.
wooden pagodas were constructed
in the beginning, but stone pagodas
gradually became popular.
The stone pagoda of Mireuksaji
represents the changing style from
wooden pagoda to stone pagoda,
and has an important historical and
academic value. The book (a) shows
photos and the timeline of the historic
records, different surveys conducted in
modern and contemporary era and the
20-year repair and maintenance work
conducted by NRICH since it was de-
cided to dismantle and repair in 1999.
The volume I of the repair report (b)
is the summary of the progress of the
project, from surveys, researches, con-
ume II includes blueprints before and
after the repair; Volume III includes
documentation cards of all parts.
 NRICH NEWS
Events
❶
2020 South-North Korea
Cultural Heritage Policy Forum
Four times in 2020
(May, July, November, December)
The South-North Korea Cultural
Heritage Policy Forum was launched
in 2019 to establish policies due to the
expansion of inter-Korean cultural
property exchange and cooperation.
In its first year the forum covered the
Korean demilitarized zone (DMZ )
comprehensively over the span of six
times. In particular, it contributed
to the forming of future policies by
discussing various opinions such as
plan to inscribe the Korean DMZ as
World Heritage to preserve it as space
of peace.
The topic of year 2020 ’s South-
North Korean Cultural Heritage
Policy Forum is ‘Understanding the
❷
‘Advanced Technology of
Gaya’ Academic Symposium
June 18, 2020
Gaya National Research Institute of
Cultural Heritage, which opened in
1990, has been promoting excavation
and research on important cultural rel-
ics in the Gaya cultural area, and has
been striving to secure basic research
materials for the restoration of Gaya
history.
The “Advanced Technology of
Gaya” academic symposium is one of
the “Symposium on Gaya History”
that have been held since 2017. This
year, in commemoration of the 30 years
of the institute’s opening, the sympo-
sium was held to reflect on the past
and share the future research direction
for Gaya cultural heritage along with a
53
North Korean National Heritage
and Exchange/Cooperation Plan for
South-North Cultural Heritage’, and
the forum was held the total of 4 times
(May, July, Sept. and Dec.).
It discussed North Korea’s national
heritage protection policy and aware-
ness, similar cases to inter-Korean ex-
change and cooperation, diagnosis of
the implementation system, and policy
suggestions for the direction of in-
ter-Korean cultural heritage exchange
and cooperation.
The Cultural Heritage Administra-
tion plans to collect various opinions
raised at the Forum and reflect it in
the establishment of policies necessary
for future inter-Korean cultural heri-
tage exchange and cooperation.
special photo exhibition.
The presentation ‘Gaya people’s
livelihood and civil engineering tech-
nology’ examined the civil engineering
of Gaya tombs, buildings and castles,
along with livelihood technology.
‘Gaya people’s production technol-
ogy’ presentation explored the produc-
tion and distribution of Gaya pottery,
iron production and manufacturing
techniques, and manufacturing tech-
niques of horse harnesses and accesso-
ries.