Cogent Arts & Humanities

ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/oaah20

Traditional architectural mud huts in Africa:

Forms, aesthetics, history and preservation in
South-eastern Nigeria

Maureen Nwando Onyejegbu, Uche Uwaezuoke Okonkwo & Ifeyinwa David-

Ojukwu

To cite this article: Maureen Nwando Onyejegbu, Uche Uwaezuoke Okonkwo & Ifeyinwa
David-Ojukwu (2023) Traditional architectural mud huts in Africa: Forms, aesthetics, history
and preservation in South-eastern Nigeria, Cogent Arts & Humanities, 10:1, 2188781, DOI:
10.1080/23311983.2023.2188781

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/23311983.2023.2188781

© 2023 The Author(s). This open access

article is distributed under a Creative
Commons Attribution (CC-BY) 4.0 license.

Published online: 19 Mar 2023.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 2911

View related articles

View Crossmark data

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=oaah20
Onyejegbu et al., Cogent Arts & Humanities (2023), 10: 2188781
https://doi.org/10.1080/23311983.2023.2188781

HISTORY | RESEARCH ARTICLE

Received: 07 March 2022
Accepted: 03 March 2023
*Corresponding author: Maureen
Nwando Onyejegbu, Institute of
African Studies, University of Nigeria,
Nsukka, Enugue, Nigeria
E-mail: nwando.onyejegbu@unn.edu.ng
Reviewing editor:
Samuel Adu-Gyamfi, History and
Political Studies, Kwame Nkrumah
University of Science and
Technology College of Arts and
Social Science, Kumasi, GHANA
Additional information is available at
the end of the article
Traditional architectural mud huts in Africa:
Forms, aesthetics, history and preservation in
South-eastern Nigeria
Maureen Nwando Onyejegbu1*, Uche Uwaezuoke Okonkwo2 and Ifeyinwa David-Ojukwu3
Abstract: The article explores indigenous architectural mud huts in Africa. Based on
research, it assessed forms, aesthetics, history, and designs enshrined in the huts.
Centered in Igbo land, south-eastern Nigeria, the paper draws from the fact that in
contemporary times, old living structures are fast being erased to make room for
modern infrastructures which affects traditional. It argues that indigenous tradi­
tional mud huts, which bore a lot of memories and history of the people will
disappear in the face of civilisation. Preserving and keeping records of these tradi­
tional mud huts, which once provided shelter and security becomes imperative. The
author suggests that studying the aesthetic writings and drawings on the walls that
harbour history and ideology will enable special enlightenment. Data were collected
through in-depth interviews and secondary sources. The conclusion delved into the
prerequisites of saving facts on the indigenous architectural mud huts that are fast
going extinct.

Subjects: Culture; Heritage Management & Conservation; Art & Visual Culture; History;
Cultural Studies

Keywords: Traditional; architectural; mud huts; aesthetics; history; preservation

ABOUT THE AUTHORS PUBLIC INTEREST STATEMENT

Dr, Maureen Nwando Onyejegbu is a Research
Fellow and Lecturer in the Insitute of African
Studies, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu
State, Nigeria. She is interested in promoting
African history, culture and tradition. Dr. Maureen
has published many journals in both local and
international journals.
Dr. Uche Uwaezuoke Okonkwo is a Senior Lecruer
in the Department of History and International
Studies, University of, Nigeria, Nsukka.. He has
published many journals locally and internation­
ally.
Ifeyinwa David-Ojukwu is a Lecturer in the Use of
Maureen Nwando English Unit, School of General Studies, University
Onyejegbu of Nigeria, Nsukka. She has attended many con­
ferences and published many journals.
The paper explores traditional architectural mud
huts in Africa and their forms, aesthetics, history
and preservation in South-eastern Nigeria. The
work discovered that many cultural and histor­
ical values are attached to African indigenous
mud huts. There are numerous drawings, arts,
designs, writings, and motifs on the walls, which
are still trapped in many rural communities
across this region waiting to be discovered and
studied. In this context, this research focused on
examining the various forms, arts, history,
designs and motifs, which exist in mud houses.
The paper discovered that behind the wall
drawings, arts, designs and writings are deep
ideological and philosophical meanings of the
people. It therefore, laid emphasis on the need
for their collection, documentation, and preser­
vation to enrich African history and knowledge.
The paper is beneficial to knowledge as it points
out the contributions of the indigenous struc­
tures in the lives of Africans then and now.

© 2023 The Author(s). This open access article is distributed under a Creative Commons
Attribution (CC-BY) 4.0 license.

Page 1 of 15
Onyejegbu et al., Cogent Arts & Humanities (2023), 10: 2188781
https://doi.org/10.1080/23311983.2023.2188781

1. Introduction
A cursory glance across most African villages and even towns depicts the still-in-existence of
traditional architectural structures, indigenous mud huts to be precise. These architectural struc­
tures show a principle of sustainability; and there are earth buildings of almost every architectural
type in use by every economic and social class in both industrialized and non-industrialized world
over the years (Rael, 2009; Sayigh, 2019). Historically, Africans have lived and developed their
society by living in shelters that are not as sophisticated as what is obtainable across the continent
at the moment. Adeshina et al. (2021, p. 143) believe that there is more to the buildings than just
the need for shelter. Early human habitation in Africa was in a natural and serene environment as
they made use of available materials around them to build comfortable shelters for the comfort
and security of life from harsh weather and wild animals. Dwelling lifestyle is enshrined in culture
and tradition. African history is, therefore, made up of everything that transpired in the African
environment right from the earliest times. Traditional houses count as one of the primary cultural
and historical existence of the people. Fundamental human needs are basically three and have
been classified as shelter, food, and clothing. Traditional mud huts, apart from providing human
shelter, also provided the needed shelter for the preservation of food, crops, and livestock. In the
same vein, in the communities where men took the erecting of huts for others as a means of
livelihood, the work provided them with income.

Nigeria has vast landmarks and multiple ethnic groups. Indigenous living huts made of mud still
exist in various parts of the country but are more commonly found in rural communities across the
nation. Indigenous huts had been and are still part of a greater part of the people, their environ­
ment, social and cultural life. These huts provide shelter and coolness to the inhabitants. Today,
they are still being erected in many parts of Nigeria like in the northern and south-eastern parts of
the country. It is also politically symbolic as some traditional rulers still dwell or have continued to
maintain some of the traditional mud huts, which their forefathers built in commemoration of
culture, tradition, and prowess.

More so, the aesthetic designs and drawings on the walls of these huts are historical, mystical,
and philosophical. Shape and forms of the huts reflect the calibre of titled men and chiefs in a
community. Dutton and Mann (1966, p. 221) buttressed the point that the “frieze symbols on the
upper walls; relief carvings on the doors, seats, and chalkboard; and ‘furniture’ all depict and
communicate spiritual, historical, and religious elements of the African culture and landscape.”
Mbiti (1991, p. 24) assert that “African art expresses religious ideas in wood, stools, calabashes,
stones, sticks, pots, handicrafts, domestic animals and human bodies and are also expressed in the
form of masks and carvings on wood, ivory, and stone.” Within a traditional mud hut, the special
hut called obi in Igbo cosmology is exceptionally powerful and with deep meanings as they reflect
the power and position of the first man or eldest in a compound. Ndandani (2015, p. 23) notes that
“mud wall builders are always on the lookout for their reputations, so that they are known as the
best wall builders in the villages around and in today’s commercial language, they can be said to
be jealously protecting their brand.” African women also have a role they play after men have
erected the mud huts. In the words of Gerdes (2013, p. 99), “traditionally, in Sotho, once men have
completed the building of their houses, their wives undertake the decoration; the walls are first
neatly plastered with a mixture of mud and dung and often coloured with natural dyes.” When
African culture is delineated from Western culture, African culture and aesthetics stand out to
reflect class and core traditional values. Indigenous living structures in southeast Nigeria in the
forms of living mud huts, together with their forms, aesthetics, and history reflect the way of life of
the people. Signs and symbols were considered an integral part of life or of the ecosystem (the
environment, cultural practices, atmosphere, religion, etc.) of some villages in Igbo land (Sander,
2013). Unnecessary aspersions on these unique arts and culture, a set of huge heritage sites,
ought to be checked.

The combination of materials got from the natural environment for the building of the huts
exhibits originality, quality, innovation, style, and taste. Levan (2019:14) agreed that “colonialism

Page 2 of 15
Onyejegbu et al., Cogent Arts & Humanities (2023), 10: 2188781
https://doi.org/10.1080/23311983.2023.2188781

affected every country in Africa except Ethiopia, leaving legacies that varied substantially based on
the imperial power.” Designs of mud huts vary according to the desire of the owner. They can be
round, square or rectangle and the main materials for erecting them are mud, bamboo and water.
Thus, looking at the values and aesthetics in these tangible structures across Africa, it is concluded
that they are worthy to be examined and discussed plus the fact that they truly served a useful
purpose in the lives of the people. The legacy that is attached to their humble beginnings has
become part of their story.

In recent times, the speed with which tourism sites, local joints, and relaxation spots are
erecting mud huts with thatch roofs is astonishing. Despite civilization and modern buildings,
people still appreciate the worth, beauty, and naturalness that mud huts exhibits. In the words
of Ellong and Chehab (2019, p. 9), “to limit the research on the traditional dwelling, often referred
to as ‘hut’ specifically designating African housing, to remain within the current borders of African
countries, would suggest that we accept the virginity of this continent before its sectioning by
European colonization in 1885 in Berlin.” Pictures of the materials used in building mud huts are
inserted into the body of the work. This paper identified the place and value of African indigenous
architectural mud huts using southeast as a case study and expressed the need for closer study,
documentation, and preservation of these works for future reference concerning the history of the
people (Figure 1).

2. Literature review
History manifests itself in many forms including the houses and structures people live in in their
traditional society. Indigenous living mud huts have influenced lives and families across the
African continent since time immemorial. Fertis and Fertis (1998) in Historical evolution of infra­
structure explored and studied the history behind infrastructure and its evolution in over 15,000
years. The duo discussed the gradual transition and transformation of societies as regards human
living spaces. Looking back at ancient African civilization as it concerns human shelter and survival
through the ages, Connah (2015) did an in-depth study in his book African civilizations: an archae­
ological perspective. Here, Connah examines the physical evidence for developing social complexity
in Africa. He focused his research on archaeological research of urbanism and state formation as it
concerns architecture and how development changes the environment through the construction of
new structures. Mitias (1999) affirm in his work Architecture and civilization, that there are many
fine works of architecture in generally unvisited locations. Each year more virgin areas are cleared

Figure 1. Map of southeast

region of Nigeria. The states
include Abia, Anambra, Ebonyi,
Enugu and Imo.

Page 3 of 15
Onyejegbu et al., Cogent Arts & Humanities (2023), 10: 2188781
https://doi.org/10.1080/23311983.2023.2188781

into the communities for road constrictions and other modern structures as a sign of development
thereby posing danger to the historical traditional structures that are also part of the culture and
history of the people. Indigenous mud huts as living structures have been beneficial for African
families through the ages as Gray and Gulliver (2013) tried to illustrate in The family estate in
Africa: studies in the role of property in family structure and lineage continuity. They examined in
detail the value and essence of huts for family shelters where everyone returns to at the end of the
day. Mud huts are essential and affordable for all in southeast Nigeria for many years. Across
states and communities, they still exist with facts worthy of being collected and preserved before
being erased in the future by modernization. Hence, Falola (2001) in Culture and customs of
Nigeria, examines Nigerian culture and how Nigerians lived. He discussed the people’s lifestyles
and gave a general historical overview of the people of this nation. Similarly, Dmochowski (1990)
examined Nigerian traditional architecture in the southeast in An introduction to Nigerian tradi­
tional architecture: South-Eastern Nigeria: the Igbo-speaking people. Dmochowski emphasized that
globalization has restructured economic, political, and social relationships at the local level. He
gave a detailed introductory account of traditional architectural huts which provided shelter over
time for indigenes of this area. But then, Radoine (2017) noticed that very few local or international
architects are trained to capture grassroots contextual elements. Elleh (2017) in Architecture and
politics in Nigeria: the study of late twentieth-century enlightenment—inspired modernism at Abuja,
1900–2016, looks at the advantages and disadvantages of creating modern public structures using
Abuja the Nigerian capital as the city of focus. The study examined how new states emerged with
modern infrastructures in the postcolonial era from 1900 to 2016. Loew (1998) in his book, Modern
architecture in historic cities: policy, planning and building in contemporary France, noticed the
increase in popularity of contemporary architecture. Thus, in recent times, historians and scholars
who understand the value of preserving historical structures and monuments have recognized the
need for the preservation of vital historical structures of people. Locatelli and Nugent (2009) in
African cities researched recent debates among scholars, politicians, aid workers, international
donors, and organizations on the development and future of urbanization in the continent. Across
the globe, many societies still cherish and preserved their traditional architecture made with local
materials. Parcel (2012, p. 208) opine that only building elements that come directly from the
primitive hut belong to architecture and the fine arts. Today, Japan and China still pride them­
selves in their distinct indigenous architectural structures despite civilization and modernization. In
today’s world where there is a misunderstanding of where to draw a line between cultural heritage
and modernization, prioritizing heritage cultures becomes imperative.

3. Methodology
This paper comes from our ethnographic fieldwork in southeast Nigeria between 2020 and 2021 in
selected communities in Anambra and Enugu states. Many communities with historical attach­
ments abound. Some selected and visited communities include Nkalagu, Abakaliki, Anam,
Umerum, and Anaku. We gained some information using participant observation in these selected

Figure 2. a) living mud hut with

thatch roof and (b) a fence
made with thatch to protect
the compound.

Page 4 of 15
Onyejegbu et al., Cogent Arts & Humanities (2023), 10: 2188781
https://doi.org/10.1080/23311983.2023.2188781

communities. The multi-sited ethnography propagated by Marcus (1995) was used in exploring the
basics and also interviews on special historical wall writings called Nsibidi and motifs done on the
walls within and outside the solid mud huts. We aim at observing the basic aspects of history
withheld in these mud huts’ structures hidden for years in these communities unidentified as well
as emphasize the need to visit and preserve the history and knowledge behind them. Onyejegbu
(2014) emphasized that people’s history, geography, language, behaviour, and festivals all revolve
around cultural heritage. To this end, we also used secondary data to define and assess the value
of primary materials used for the building and drawings. The nature and texture of clay soil used in
the making of these mud huts matter for its duration. In general, the forms and shapes of
indigenous mud huts are determined by geographical location, landscape, purpose, and the
climatic condition of the area. We interviewed some elders and residents in these huts to know
the meaning of their wall writings using the Igbo language, which is the indigenous language of
the people in southeast Nigeria. Preservation of the basic historical attachments to these struc­
tures is therefore a necessity. UNESCO (2009) observed that “cultural erosion has accordingly
become an issue of increasing concern since numerous modes of life are being lost and many
cultural forms and expressions are disappearing; there is a widespread sense that globalization is
leading to pervasive cultural homogenization”.

4. Findings and discussions

4.1 Forms and ideology of architectural mud houses

Shapes and forms of traditional living huts in Africa are determined by landscape, geographical
location, climatic condition, and socio-cultural background. African huts come in different shapes,
and styles and are often art-inclined, what with the beautiful drawings and writings made on the walls.
A particular type of soil called clay soil or earthenware forms the basic materials for moulding the walls
of these buildings with the hands. A more sophisticated type of process of heating mud blocks makes
mud huts more beautiful and long-lasting. In Igbo land, mud huts are commonly moulded in square,
rectangular, and round forms. In the northern part of the country, such as Sokoto and Kano for
instance, round huts are common, and some of them have flat roofs that are also made with mud
due to the excessive heat and sun prevalent in the area. In the southeast, thatch and palm fronds form
the basic materials for the construction of the roofs. The fences and entrance gates in these com­
pounds are made with either thatch or palm fronds. Fences and gates enable one entrance into a living
compound and safeguard the compound. Thus, from mud to thatch roofs, these materials used in the
construction of traditional huts are not durable materials per se when compared with modern-day
blocks and zinc. Yet, they were intermittently maintained by women and children, and they were able
to provide shelter and protection from cold, sun and wild animals.

Most traditional huts are designed using local dye materials, such as the uli (a natural dye grown
by a tree called uli). Decorative arts are uniquely part and parcel of the lives of the people. Igbo art
and drawings either on the body or on the mud walls embody philosophy, ideology, and belief

Figure 3. Mud huts in recrea­

tional centers in Nsukka, Enugu
State, Nigeria.

Page 5 of 15
Onyejegbu et al., Cogent Arts & Humanities (2023), 10: 2188781
https://doi.org/10.1080/23311983.2023.2188781

Figure 4. Major raw materials

for building mud huts are red
mud and bamboo.

systems. It consists of tangible and intangible cultures. Women have the dexterity of using uli on
themselves and on the wall for decoration. Nsibidi designs are common among people and can
also be found on the walls. Symbolic motifs and designs on walls show the belief and status of the
inhabitants of the society. The writing nsibidi, an ideographic script that contains major abstract
drawings, thoughts, things, animals, etc., is distinct to the people and can hardly be explained by
the ignorant.

Drawings on living mud huts can also be inspired, but most of the time, they comprise daily
objects found in the environments such as lizards, fowls, the sun, the moon, palm trees, and so on.
Symbols drawn are often for a purpose and a reminder of what a thing stands for in their lives. The
designing can be done by the man of the house or the wife (wives). In most cases, common
drawings are done by women except deep spiritual drawings. Udechukwu (1990, p. 15) also
noticed that “wall paintings were more of a community art project which involved women from
different parts of the community as it concerns shrines.” Again, the duty of the women and
children involves periodic maintenance of the mud floor and internal walls to shine and exhibit
coolness. This act includes re-plastering with mud and water. Major cracks and repairs involving
the outside walls or roofs are works for the men (Figure 2).

In a typical traditional setting, each living compound has a lively setting whereby many huts and
trees adorn the compound. The man of the house has his own hut and obi, a special spacious hut,
located at strategic points in the compound. The obi is where he receives visitors and holds
meetings with the kindred called umunna. Other sparsely spaced huts in the compound belong
to the wife (or wives) and children. There is usually another hut that serves as the kitchen and
store room at the corner of the compound. At the far end of the compound are found huts for
livestock, such as goats and chickens. Wives are not expected to live in the same hut as their
husbands. Despite residing in individual huts, communal living exists in these local settings. Grown-
up sons that are ready to get married often have their own huts erected for them with the help of
their male friends often in a new plot of land called ani obi, the inherited land, gifted to him by his
father and the umunna at the attainment of manhood. In the southeastern part of Nigeria, life and
living reflect history and continuity to a great extent. Male superiority and dominance prevail in a
compound, hence men are seen as heads of families. According to Okoh (2012, p. 16)

In traditional Igbo clans, wives live in separate huts. Amongst the traditional Igbo, a man
first of all sets up his homestead before he marries. The need for social control and
leadership quality stands out. This entails the putting up of two huts, one for himself and the
other for his wife

Page 6 of 15
Onyejegbu et al., Cogent Arts & Humanities (2023), 10: 2188781
https://doi.org/10.1080/23311983.2023.2188781

It is a common scenario of life in these communities to have reclining chairs for relaxation outside
the hut or under a tree. Village life with huts and trees is usually very peaceful and with little
property to worry abound. In a larger community setting, there are also huts for masquerade
initiation cults which women are not supposed to enter. Many other secret organizations or skills
are learned in concealed environments. As Hayden (2018, p. 10) observed, “there are varying
degrees of ritual knowledge that are involved in membership in different societies.”

4.2 Traditional living huts—history and lifestyle

History has stated that human beings come from Africa and that early men began life here and made
use of the materials and food around them to survive. According to Buck and Jones (2004, p. 2),
“human life began in Africa; not only did human life begin in Africa but the earliest structures of
civilization emerged there.” The necessity for African indigenous huts is characterized by one of the
human primary basic needs which is shelter as noted earlier. The early erection of living houses were
not as sophisticated as they are today. Observing this, Basden (1966, p. 315), affirms that “in the early
years of birth occupation, Europeans residing in the interior were accustoms to dwell in houses built
with clay walls and thatch roofs of the type described.” Falola and Heaton (2008, p. 17) are of the
opinion that “the history of social interaction in this region, however, is certainly not meaningless or
non-existent before the consolidation of the modern state of Nigeria.” In the centuries preceding the
nineteenth-century Nigeria, there were no sophisticated buildings in existence that even the various
categories of foreigners who came for different reasons at different periods in the annals of the history
of the nation resided in locally made houses as well. Colonial masters in the country later started using
wood, and other materials gotten from the environment to erect administrative, religious, and
residential buildings.

Evidence of a storey building built with mud still exists at Onitsha-Ado kingdom, precisely along
Awka road at Nzegwu quarters. The walls of this building were all perforated with thousands of
bullets as a result of the attacks on the building received during the Nigerian-Biafra Civil War of

Figure 5. Aesthetic designs on

mud walls and traditional door
panels have symbolic meanings.
Note: (Credit: UNN museums)

Page 7 of 15
Onyejegbu et al., Cogent Arts & Humanities (2023), 10: 2188781
https://doi.org/10.1080/23311983.2023.2188781

1967 to 1970. At Calabar is also located a storey building that was made with wood which was
formerly a colonial residential building of the Europeans but now conserved and renamed the
National Museum Calabar. Aside Africa, other communities of the world have had similar experi­
ences of establishing early traditional abodes followed by the gradual transformation and evolve­
ment from remote to sophisticated buildings of today. In Europe, a resounding change in art and
architecture transpired around the fourteenth century and is popularly called the renaissance
period. The Renaissance, Roman art, Expressionism and Classical art are some of the historical
ages in world history when different parts of the world experienced reflective changes especially in
the world of art. With civilization came tremendous changes all over the world. New cities and
modern buildings becomes the new phenomenon and traditional houses in these areas began to
fade out. Indigenous houses have the connotation of culture and traditional beliefs. Hence, art,
culture, and spirituality feature outstandingly in most of what the Igbo of southeast Nigeria do.
The Igbo traditional values are expressed in the Igbo traditional cultural materials (Aligwekwe,
2008).

Mud and clay soil come naturally in different forms. The richness is in the texture of the soil.
Hence, clay is also used for pottery making. Mud huts and pottery works often have designs on
them that reflect African culture and history. From primary artistic expressionisms, come mighty
innovations and renovations that gave birth to modern art. Indigenous technology, when modified,
becomes professional. Foreign and sophisticated architectural houses in the 21st century have
expanded, while huts are fast wearing off in various parts of Africa. Across Nigeria, old historical
houses, especially those built or inhabited by the colonial masters in the nineteenth century, are
now being greatly appreciated. The National Museum Calabar, as mentioned earlier, was formally
a colonial official residence. Nigeria has different terrain and weather dispensation. For this reason,
communities living very close to the river have a type of house naturally made with stilts and
thatch and fishing is often their fundamental means of livelihood.

4.3 Aesthetics and value of traditional huts

A traditional scenario whereby a compound is adorned with indigenous architectural mud huts,
with wall designs and surrounded with various types of trees (often economic trees) especially
palm trees, has a distinct aura of peace, tranquillity, and beauty. Mud used in erecting indigenous
architectural houses is a gift of nature. It can be used to mould many things aside from huts. Mud
huts, whether square, rectangle or round reflects traditional naturalness and creativity. In most

Figure 6. Designs in or outside

walls hold deep philosophical
meaning.

Page 8 of 15
Onyejegbu et al., Cogent Arts & Humanities (2023), 10: 2188781
https://doi.org/10.1080/23311983.2023.2188781

cases, the inside are decorated with hanging horns and local beads. Aside from mud huts, African
pottery is varied as they come in different forms like vases, pots, bowls and many more. The
drawings on the body of these artworks are usually stylish and aesthetic in nature. Drawings on
the body of walls, pottery or human skin are first done to beautify; but underlying the beautifica­
tion, in most cases, there are deep philosophical meanings. The designs are purposefully artistic.
Adding additional writings or paintings on the walls enhances the culture and heritage of the
people. Materials for edifying these works are easily available in the surrounding. While body
designs using uli may not be too easy to rinse off, the wall designs are also durable but with
time can fade from rain and sun.

Art, culture and spirituality stand out in all that the people of the southeast do. Aside the
external aesthetic designs on the body of mud walls, other forms of designs and attachments
are seen within the huts as wished by the owner. While the external wall decorations are made to
give beauty to outsiders, internal hangings and drawings are often personal to the person living
inside them. He selectively hangs objects that he found peaceful and worthy to grace his living
room. Mud huts often have a window and a door to encourage ventilation. They are also spaced
apart but arranged communally so that each person sees the entrance door of the other family
member in the next hut. A detailed perception of the basic geometric signs commonly seen and
drawn on completed residence mud huts in southeast Nigeria is observed by (Onwuakpa, 2016,
p. 352):

There are basic geometric shapes that appear in several variations used as both decorative
and symbolic motifs. Architectural shapes - dot, curvilinear line, triangle, rectangle, double
triangle, circle, crescents, and their extensions in concentric coils derived from snake coils.
There are also motifs on royal paraphernalia such as crowns, beads, ivory tusks, swords,
umbrellas, stools, and staffs, which are symbols of authority. Man-made objects and plant
life are not left out as numerous motifs are derived from them including ogene (gong), ite
mmili (water pot), amala (paddle), aziza (broom), jigida (beads), odu nni (pestle), abuba akpu
(cassava leaf), oke osisi (big tree), ukpaka (oil bean seed) and akuriko ji(yam tendrils)

Traditional mud huts are strong and have the capacity to resist strong winds. Nowadays, they
are fast being eroded and replaced with modern houses across Africa. Yet, tourist spots and
museums are still erecting them to give the people a sense of traditional life, relaxation, and
coolness that is attached to indigenous mud huts. In other words, traditional architectural struc­
tures across the nation are attracting the attention of tourists, archaeologists, and historians.
Museums are not left out in the appreciation of the beauty of these huts as many museums across
the nation have mud huts in their compounds where they sell indigenous foods, accessories, and

Figure 7. Closely knitted mud

hut groups with open spaces
where children play.
Note: Image credit: UNN
museums

Page 9 of 15
Onyejegbu et al., Cogent Arts & Humanities (2023), 10: 2188781
https://doi.org/10.1080/23311983.2023.2188781

handicrafts. Despite the need to upgrade to modern infrastructures which signifies development,
preservation of culture and identity loaded in these indigenous huts still matter (Figure 3).

4.4 Availability of materials for mud huts

Tribes and communities, nature, and weather temperature prevalent may determine design and
shape. Materials for the making of mud huts are always readily available and never bought,
especially for the indigenes. These materials include water, mud, thatch, sticks, bamboo, and
palm fronds. Mud huts can be rectangular, square, or round in shape. To get the right texture of
mud, the ground must be dug very deep to get fresh and pure red mud. This type is the best quality
that will gum together when kneaded. They are thereafter sieved of every dirt and mixed with little
water and moulded gradually around the marked-out foundation to form a mud hut. Mud blocks
can also be painstakingly moulded of the same size and fired or sun-dried in the open air and
placed as modern blocks on top of each balanced mud to make more solid and longer-lasting huts.
Sticks, stones, and mud often form a solid foundation. The bamboo in the middle forms the
stronghold where the mud is plastered on. The floor is robbed by women and children to make
it look nice and bring out a cooling effect. The roof can be specially made with palm fronds or
thatch. Civilization is fast replacing these with the zinc roof. In the midst of modernization of the
age, there are different perceptions for those that are still living in indigenous architectural huts.
Lamprakos (2015, p. 16) mentioned that: See Figure 4.

Attitudes toward the inhabitants of old cities-among both Western and native professionals
- seem to oscillate between two poles. Inhabitants may be seen as representatives of a
traditional way of life, uncorrupted by modernization; as such, they bear witness to an
’‘authentic’’ culture that has been lost or is in the process of disappearing.

4.5 Preservation of indigenous mud structures

Within the past 40 years, the majority of communities across Nigeria have undergone tremendous
change in infrastructural development. Lewcock (1984, p. 31) observed that “the clash between
the aims of cultural preservation and the desire for modernization has become a serious issue in
light of the steadily diminishing residues of heritage, particularly in urban areas, and an increasing
rejection of traditional values by many classes of society.” The demolition policies and activities
indulged in by different governments across major towns are enormous and often to the chagrin of
the poor and the average. Housing and living standards have therefore improved. Yet, countries
differ and have distinct cultural outlooks, which they are known for. African indigenous huts, which
come in different forms, shapes and sizes, have a unique attachment to African identity and are a
major part of their cultural heritage.

In Nigeria, cultural heritage is in the form of tangible objects and intangible objects. A lot of
history, experiences, and attachment have undergone into these traditional mud huts. Hence, the
need to preserve some of them and possibly documents them digitally, on paper, and physically by
the conservation and preservation bodies. Just like oral tradition continues to be cherished as a
vital part of African tradition that boosted its history, traditional huts have provided a secure living
for the majority of Africans/Nigerians. Original African folktales, fables, and lullabies have tran­
spired in these warm huts, where closely knitted relatives assemble every evening to share their
life events with grandmothers and fathers, telling their life history to the entire families. The works
of the archaeologists still remain relevant in the 21st century as they unearth the buried histories
of the people. Yet, the preservation of physically present tangible structures like the mud huts
remains relevant. Most mud structures as seen in the northern part of Nigeria, such as fences and
palaces, are far stronger and longer lasting than ordinary mud houses and those made with stilts.
The preservation, documentation, and study of these local architectural huts, together with the
designs and motifs on them are fundamental as they are a historical part of African heritage.

Page 10 of 15
Onyejegbu et al., Cogent Arts & Humanities (2023), 10: 2188781
https://doi.org/10.1080/23311983.2023.2188781

People living in communities where traditional living huts are still prevalent are more deeply
involved in culture and tradition than those living in urban cities. They tend to observe ceremonies,
festivals, and rituals and appreciate other tangible cultural heritage than those in developed cities
with modern buildings and facilities. More so, inside these remaining huts and surroundings, can
still be found historical objects such as staff of office, title stools, cowries, potsherd, pottery (pots,
cups, bowls), wooden plates and spoons, mortars, and pestles unlike in the modern buildings
where the porcelain and breakable plates, electric blenders and grinders are prevalent.

It is a fact that if government decisions/policies do not erase indigenous mud huts, which may
be termed archaic and old-fashioned, to pave way for sophisticated modern infrastructures,
natural disasters, such as wind and flood have the capacity to destroy them. Thus, to preserve
these, government and conservation bodies in Nigeria and abroad needs to take care of these
remaining strictures for heritage and historical purposes. In recent years, the Nigerian Nollywood
film industry is presently preserving and showcasing these rural mud huts in the southeast by
using them to shoot indigenous movies. The existence of the Museum of Traditional Nigerian
Architecture (MOTNA)–at the Jos Museum—established in 1952 by Bernard Fagg, who was an
archaeologist is useful in this regard. The museum has a set of traditional architectural structures
that exhibits and preserves Nigerian history and culture. Similarly, the University of Nigeria
Archaeological Museum Nsukka also preserves indigenous mud huts in its museum compound.
More so, restaurants and recreational centres are fast-erecting these mud huts to attract custo­
mers who wish to have the feeling of a cultural environment.

These renewed interests of the people in mud huts and natural environments depict people’s
love for the natural environment, their roots, and history. Davidson and Wibberley (1977, p. 1)
expressed that “the country-side has a special place in the minds of most people, whether or not
they live in it; rural life harbours activities and values, which are revered, traditions which are seen
to be quite alien to the impertinence and frivolity of urban living.” With these, it becomes
imperative that individuals, governments, and non-governmental organizations should preserve,
conserve and protect the remaining structures across the country. The preservation and docu­
mentation of these are basic for the heritage history of Africa. The essence for emphasizing on the
preservation of mud huts in Nigeria is because it is affordable to the people as well as retains basic
historical elements and journey of the people overtime. Secondly, despite the comfort of modern
buildings, some people still prefer the huts because it is economical, cool and traditional. Ibimilua
and Ibitoye (2015) note that government policies in Nigeria aim towards solving housing problems.
In recent times, some people are using the technique of plastering the body of the mud huts with
cement to prevent rain water washing the mud off.

4.6 Aesthetic designs, motifs, and symbols in Igbo cosmology

The beauty of any society is in its heritage and cultural history. Igbo of southeast Nigeria
recognizes and appreciates objects, symbols, motifs and designs. Despite the spirituality and
philosophy attached to these symbols or drawings, they also have aesthetic values. Thus, the
human face, which may have ichi marks that signifies the Igbo race and or body that is painted
with uli paint harbour deep meanings. Mura (2015, p. 292) opined that “the original intention of an
African designer when he depicts a motif or designs his work is not to decorate, but to unleash the
idea at the back of his mind.” Vansina (2013, p. 116) is also of the opinion that “decoration art is
universal and all African cultures used it from the rim of potteries.” Describing the material culture
of these race, Chuku (2005, p. 13) reiterated that “the Igbo material culture such as architectural
structures and designs, wall and body paintings, household equipment, agricultural implements,
other tools, ornaments, and ritual objects have helped in recovering the history of the Igbo.”

Indigenous living mud huts have great architectural value even as it contributes to the heritage
identity of the African people. In the pre-colonial era, all native African societies once lived in
locally made houses before civilization introduced modern living structures. Ornamentations,
objects, and wall drawings, such as animal horns adorn the interior walls of huts and, are most

Page 11 of 15
Onyejegbu et al., Cogent Arts & Humanities (2023), 10: 2188781
https://doi.org/10.1080/23311983.2023.2188781

commonly seen in the kings’ palaces. Across the world, China and Japan still maintain their
traditional system of houses and their writing is still steadfast. To these people, their writing
method and wall patterns remain sacrosanct despite the presence of civilization. The cultural
heritage of a people is verified by their traditional distinct heritage symbols, houses and writings.
International organizations such as UNESCO have recognized the value in the tangible and
intangible cultural heritage of the African people and preaches the value of preserving these for
future generations (Figure 5).

African objects such as adire tie-and-dye clothing, potteries, and woods have beautiful designs
that serve as finishing works to beautify handicrafts. In the northern part of the country, clothes
bear marks of culture, while many old native buildings bear drawings that tell the story of the
people of this area. Art is therefore expressed in many forms and consciously or unconsciously, it
shows that the people are art-inclined when they display cultural and artistic traits. Those who still
build and reside in indigenous mud huts deserve respect. Despite the age of modernity, mud huts
remain the only affordable houses for many people. For this reason, it is wrong to view them as
primitive and archaic. There is usually no town planning to determine the organization of the built
huts in rural communities; hence, they are found scattered unprofessionally across villages. In
comparison, most modern building lacks the historic attachment, which only mud huts represent—
the geometric drawings and cultural symbols (Figure 6).

4.7 Challenges in the conservation of mud houses

The continual alteration of the environment for new roads, hospitals, schools and ultra-modern is
the trend. Indigenous architectural mud huts are seen as archaic and unsophisticated and there­
fore, it takes little or nothing for the government to demolish them. Development is fast encroach­
ing into the villages and towns across the southeast and the rest of the Nigerian regions and
government policies have no boundaries. Thus, aside from mud huts, other cultural objects and
places, such as shrines and cultural objects are being destroyed because of the obnoxious view of
the “learned world”. There is a wilful breakdown of huts to replace the local building with block
houses. Aluminium zincs and corrugated sheets now feature more in modern buildings as opposed
to thatch roofs. In the course of man’s long history in Africa, many changes have occurred in many
ways of living and the life of man change gradually from being fairly simple to becoming more and
more complex as noted by Mbiti (1991).

Conflicts and terrorist acts across the country are major devastating factors in the erosion of
mud huts and other historical structures across Nigerian communities. The wilful destruction of
lives and properties and arson is fast wiping away not only residential areas in rural communities
but lives and properties as well. There is more focus of the government on politics, infrastructural
development projects, and technological advancement but little attention is paid to the facts that
make up the natural environment and restores history in contemporary Nigeria. The inability to
look in-depth and see the value in some local monuments and structures and subsequently draw a
line between modern facilities and the basics that form history remains a major problem that is
fast wiping away cultural heritage in southeast Nigeria. Grinker et al. (2010, p. 9) observed that
little or no attention was paid to indigenous African views of the past or to the role Africans played
in shaping global developments, processes, and structures. The traditional writings and symbols on
the walls of mud huts are an important part of cultural heritage. Unfortunately, with moderniza­
tion, all these are being forgotten and hardly practiced.

The teachings, persuasion, and visions of the postmodernist religionists in recent times are
detrimental to the cultural heritage of the people as they oppose almost everything traditional.
Rio et al. (2017, p. 12) emphasized that “Pentecostalism problematizes relativism and translation.”
Similarly, United Nations Settlements Programme (2003), (2003:5) observed that the 20th century
was a time of great change and the greatest of those changes was in the numbers of people on
the globe and where they lived. Indigenous mud houses in southeast Nigeria may be seen as old-

Page 12 of 15
Onyejegbu et al., Cogent Arts & Humanities (2023), 10: 2188781
https://doi.org/10.1080/23311983.2023.2188781

fashioned and a thing of the past, but they hold memories and history of the people. They are
major and primarily repositories of cultural messages.

In line with these challenges are inconsiderable bush burnings, which destroy huts, thatch, and
grasses used in completing indigenous mud huts. Major sleeping materials within these huts
include mats and bamboo beds and are often works of the craftsmen. Bamboo sticks and other
forms of sticks that serve as an internal stronghold in mud huts are also in danger during bush
burning. Similarly, when bush burning destroys bamboo materials, it affects local craftsmen who
earn their livelihood through the erection of mud huts and thatch roofs. This is why the museums,
traditional recreational centres, and the Nigerian film industry should be applauded for their
interest in the preservation of some of these indigenous mud huts across Igbo land (Figure 7).

5. Summary and conclusion

This work discovered that indigenous architectural mud structures are fast phasing out and
needs proper documentation. Some of them hold histories and secrets of existence in pre-
colonial and postcolonial southeast Nigeria. The paper demonstrated that African indigenous
architectural mud huts, if well preserved, stand the chance of revealing more hidden historical
facts as some of them that are still located in interior villages have cultural writings, symbols,
and objects that can be studied. So far, the speed by which technological and infrastructural
development is cutting across rural villages across the nation is worrisome. However, the
recent interest and re-building of mud huts in entertainment spots, museums, and bush bars
to attract tourists across the country is encouraging as it depicts that people still crave culture
and tradition. For this reason, there is a need for the government to take an interest in the
value of these indigenous huts and ensure that they are documented for future reference.
Traditional knowledge hidden in the designs and writings on mud walls, both exterior and
interior, as well as the tangible historical objects in them is priceless. Similarly, the economic
value of these huts in museums and tourist centres is important to the nation. It will add to
knowledge when the major materials used in erecting indigenous mud huts, such as mud,
thatch, palm fronds, and uli colours for designing, are given more attention and their value
appreciated. The study and proper documentation of the mystical and symbolic designs in
traditional palaces and shrines in Igbo land will reveal more insightful histories of the Igbo of
southeast Nigeria just like oral tradition assisted majorly in recovering and reconstructing the
history of the people when there were little records to do that.

There is no gainsaying the fact that conflicts and agitations across the country are fast ruining
and destroying historical architectural structures and records. Emphasis and practice of peace and
stability in the society will enhance the development and preservation of tangible cultural heritage.
Culture custodians located in each community and even tourism agencies ought to pay more
attention to the effect of crisis and conflict management across the country. The National
Commission for Museums and Monuments, a body whose responsibility is taking care of heritage
conservation in the country must pay more attention to these indigenous historical huts and
preserve a number of them for future reference. In the same vein, the postmodernist activities
against old structures, shrines and cultural objects, which they see as possessing certain evil forces
ought to seize. Peel (2015, p. 2) pointed out that “conversion was never a narrowly religious
process, for it went with the adoption of a whole complex of values: education as a key to personal
and communal advancement, progress, prosperity, and modernity.” Putting the conservation of
African early abodes, such as the indigenous living huts in mind will boost cultural heritage, add to
knowledge about how people managed the resources found in their environment to erect living
structures; add to a branch of architectural studies in schools, boost tourism ventures, illustrate
the aesthetic value in local handicrafts, and speaks volume about the ideology and philosophy
behind symbols and geometric symbols.

Page 13 of 15
Onyejegbu et al., Cogent Arts & Humanities (2023), 10: 2188781
https://doi.org/10.1080/23311983.2023.2188781
Acknowledgments
We profusely thank and acknowledge the efforts of all the
field officers and students that went on fieldwork with us to
gather the necessary data for this work. We acknowledge
the patience and trust of all the villagers who intimated with
us about their lives and experiences in mud huts.
Author details
Maureen Nwando Onyejegbu1
E-mail: nwando.onyejegbu@unn.edu.ng
ORCID ID: http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2534-8858
Uche Uwaezuoke Okonkwo2
Ifeyinwa David-Ojukwu3
Samuel Adu-Gyamfi
1
Institute of African Studies, University of Nigeria, Nsukka,
Enugu, Nigeria.
2
Department of History and International Studies
University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu, Nigeria.
3
The Use of English Unit School of General Studies
University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu, Nigeria.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Citation information
Cite this article as: Traditional architectural mud huts in
Africa: Forms, aesthetics, history and preservation in
South-eastern Nigeria, Maureen Nwando Onyejegbu, Uche
Uwaezuoke Okonkwo & Ifeyinwa David-Ojukwu, Cogent
Arts & Humanities (2023), 10: 2188781.
References
Adeshina, A., Yaccb-Halis, & Oloruntoba, S. O. (2021).
Pathways to alternative epistemologies in Africa.
Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan.
Aligwekwe, P. E. (2008). The continuity of traditional
values in the African society. Xlibris Corporation.
Basden, G. T. (1966). Niger Ibos. Barnes and Noble.
Buck, G. G., & Jones, J. B. (2004). Early Africa. Milliken
publishing company.
Chuku, G. (2005). Igbo women and economic transfor­
mation in southeastern Nigeria, 1900 to 1960.
Routledge.
Connah, G. (2015). African civilizations: An archaeological
perspective. Cambridge University Press.
Davidson, J., & Wibberley, G. (1977). Planning and the
rural environment: Urban and regional planning ser­
ies. Pergamon press.
Dmochowski, Z. R. (1990). An introduction to Nigerian
traditional architecture: South-the Igbo-speaking
people. University of Michigan: Ethnographica.
Dutton, T. A., & Mann, L. H. (1966). Reconstructing archi­
tecture: Critical discourses and social Practices.
University of Minneapolis press.
Elleh, N. (2017). Architecture and politics in Nigeria: The study
of a late twentieth-century enlightenment – inspired
modernism at Abuja, 1900-2016. Taylor and Francis.
Ellong, E., & Chehab, D. (2019). The African dwelling: From
traditional to Western style home.North Carolina:
McFarland & co. Inc. Publishers.
Falola, T. (2001). Culture and Customs of Nigeria.
Greenwood publishing.
Falola, T., & Heaton, M. N. (2008). A history of Nigeria.
Cambridge University Press Cambridge.
Fertis, D. G., & Fertis, A. (1998). historical evolution of
infrastructure. Vantage Press.
Gerdes, P. (2013). Women, art and geometry in Southern
Africa. Africa World Press, Inc.
Gray, R. F., & Gulliver, P. H. (2013). The family estate in
Africa: Studies in the role of property in family struc­
ture and lineage continuity. Routledge.
Grinker, R. R., Luckermann, S. C., & Steiner, C. B. (2010).
Perspectives on Africa: A reader in culture, history and
representation. John Wiley and sons.
Hayden, B. (2018). The power of ritual in prehistory: Secret
societies and origins of social complexity. Cambridge
University Press. Cambridge.
Ibimilua, A. F., & Ibitoye, O. A. (2015). Housing policy in
Nigeria: An overview. America International Journal
of Contemporary Research, 5(2; April), 53–59.
Lamprakos, M. (2015). Building a world heritage city
Sanna, Yemen. Routlegde.
Levan, A. C. (2019). Contemporary Nigerian politics com­
petition in a time of transition and terror. Cambridge
UniverityPpress.
Lewcock, R. (1984), ‘Preservation versus modernization’.
In Y. R. Isah The challenge to our cultural heritage,
proceedings of a conference on cultural preservation,
D.C. Washington
Locatelli, F., & Nugent, P. (2009). African cities. Brill.
Loew, S. (1998). Modern architecture in historic cities:
Policy, planning and building in contemporary.
Routledge.
Marcus, G. E. (1995). Ethnography in/of the world system: The
emergence of multi-sited ethnography. Annu. Annual
Review of Anthropology, 24(1), 95–117. https://doi.org/
10.1146/annurev.an.24.100195.000523
Mbiti, J. (1991). Introduction to African religion.
Heinemann.
Mitias, M. H. (1999). Architecture and civilization.
Netherlands: Rodopi.
Mura, G. (2015). Analyzing art, culture and design in the
digital age. Information Science Reference.
Ndandani, M. (2015). Living in a hut in 21st century South
Africa. South Africa; Sun media.
Okoh, M. (2012). Fostering Christian faith in schools and
Christian communities through Igbo traditional values. Lit
Verlag.
Onwuakpa, S. I. (2016). Visuality and representation in
traditional Igbo uli body and wall paintings. Africa
Research Review, 10(2), http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/afr
rev.v10i2.23.
Onyejegbu, M. N. (2014, March). Cultural heritage and
tourism development in Nigeria: Towards maximizing
museum potentials. Journal of Tourism and Heritage
Studies, 3(2), 46–59.
Parcel, S. (2012). Four historical definitions of architecture.
Mcgill-Queen university press.
Peel, J. D. Y. (2015). Christianity Islam, and Orisa-Religion:
Three traditions in comparison and Interaction.
https://doi.org/10.1525/luminos.8
Radoine, H. (2017). Architecture in context: Designing in the
Middle East. John Wiley and sons United Kingdom.
Rael, R. (2009). Earth architecture. Princeton architectural
press.
Rio, K., MacCarty, M., & Blanes, R. (2017). Pentecostalism
and witchcraft: Spiritual warfare in Africa and
Melanesia. Palgrave Macmillan. Switzerland.
Sander, R. R. (2013). Legend of Uli women of Nigeria: Their
life stories in signs, symbols and Motifs. USA: Library
of congress.
Sayigh, A. (2019). Sustainable vernacular architecture: How
the past can enrich the future. Springer nature.
Udechukwu, O. (1990). Uli: Traditional wall painting and
modern art from Nigeria. Iwalewa-Hausa.
UNESCO. (2009), Investing in Cultural Diversity and
Intercultural Dialogue: World Report. UNESCO World
series.
United Nations Settlements Programme. (2003), The
challenge of slums: Global report on human settle­
ments, UN-Habitat, United Nations.
Vansina, J. (2013). Art history in Africa. Routledge.
Page 14 of 15
Onyejegbu et al., Cogent Arts & Humanities (2023), 10: 2188781
https://doi.org/10.1080/23311983.2023.2188781

© 2023 The Author(s). This open access article is distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY) 4.0 license.
You are free to:
Share — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format.
Adapt — remix, transform, and build upon the material for any purpose, even commercially.
The licensor cannot revoke these freedoms as long as you follow the license terms.
Under the following terms:
Attribution — You must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
No additional restrictions
You may not apply legal terms or technological measures that legally restrict others from doing anything the license permits.

Cogent Arts & Humanities (ISSN: ) is published by Cogent OA, part of Taylor & Francis Group.
Publishing with Cogent OA ensures:
• Immediate, universal access to your article on publication
• High visibility and discoverability via the Cogent OA website as well as Taylor & Francis Online
• Download and citation statistics for your article
• Rapid online publication
• Input from, and dialog with, expert editors and editorial boards
• Retention of full copyright of your article
• Guaranteed legacy preservation of your article
• Discounts and waivers for authors in developing regions
Submit your manuscript to a Cogent OA journal at www.CogentOA.com

Page 15 of 15