BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE
AND FINE ARTS

AR 451/454 D:
ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN
VII

VERNACULAR
ARCHITECTURE
THE ARCHITECTURE OF IFUGAO

SUBMITTED BY:
Verin, Bryan Karlo T.

Roxas, Juan Carlos V.

Asistin, Jeonharry T.
-BSAR- 4A-

INSTRUCTOR:
ARCH. E. MARTINEZ
 VERNACULAR
ARCHITECTURE
The Architecture of Ifugao

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

A. Rationale

Architecture in its very sense is the answer to mans need for

self-preservation. Man has always been searching for ways to
preserve his life. Safety is their primary consideration.

Architecture began as a response to nature. It is an attempt to

of the primitive who are defenseless to create refuge against the
harsh weather, and savage predators.

From living in caves, man initiated the first architectural

revolution with the invention of stone tools which had given way to
fibroconstructive technology. From basic sleeping platforms, to lean-
tos, and tree houses; men had developed an escalated figure of
architecture. That which embodies culture and tradition, fitted to the
geographical profile, and which uses native materialsthey had
developed what is called vernacular architecture.
 Vernacular architecture looks into the availability of materials,
local needs and the reflection of local traditions. It encompasses the
UIAs vision for architecturean architecture sensitive to historical,
environmental, and economical contexts. However, many of us view
vernacular architecture as primitive, old, unattractive, and
inconsistent with our epoch.

Vernacular architecture is not just about style and

construction; it is also about culture and tradition. If we abandon
vernacular architecture, then these culture and traditions will
disappear with it. There is a need to find a way to preserve this
cultureto take vernacular architecture, update it and create a
contemporary version of it. It is a must to find a way to relate
contemporary needs and factors to this antiquated architecture;
hence, this study.

B. Background of the Study

To further impose the importance and revitalization of

vernacular architecture we delved into the history of Philippine
architecture and traced back its development. We constituted a
study on the factors which brought about the development of
architecturefactors like geography, history, resources, climatic
conditions, and religion.

We singled out the Ifugaos Bale (Fale) as our case study to

investigate on indigenous methods and beliefs in building. Cultural
and architectural aspects of the subject (Bale) were investigated
and compared to contemporary examples. It is then synthesized to
create a proposal for a contemporary adaptation of the Bale which
goes in line with present conditions.

As a summary the study aims to examine vernacular

architecture, with the Ifugaos Bale as subject and to give
recommendations for a contemporary form of the Bale.
 C. Statement of the Problem

The study aims to give light to the following questions:

1. What is vernacular architecture?

2. What are the defining aspects of the Bale?
3. What are the possible ways to create a contemporary form of the
Bale?

D. Objectives of the Study

To define vernacular architecture.
To identify the features and aspects of the indigenous Ifugao
dwelling, Bale.
To post for a recommendation to bring Bale to the
contemporary era.

CHAPTER 2: IDENTIFICATION OF THE SUBJECT OF STUDY

A. Methodology

Desk Research

Collecting references from reliable sources relevant to

the study and synthesizing information presented. Moreover,
this information is used to support details, ideas, and
arguments posted throughout the study.

B. LIMITATIONS
The study shall focus briefly on the definition of vernacular
architecture and and the aspects of Ifugao indigenous dwelling,
bale. Furthermore to define the factors that led to the formation of
the said dwelling. Moreover, the study will give recommendations on
how to take the Bale to the contemporary era. The
 recommendations given by the study is limited to the architectural
and cultural aspects of the Bale and issues like monetary factors
shall not be of concern.

CHAPTER 3: SUBJECT OF THE STUDY

VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE IN THE PHILIPPINES

Vernacular architecture, from the Latin term vernaculus, is broadly

applied to denote indigenous, folk, tribal, ethnic, or traditional architecture
found among different ethnolinguistic communities in the Philippines.
Vernacular architecture mostly pertains to dwellings constructed by their
owners or by communities.

There are five principal features of vernacular architecture:

1. The builders whether artisans or those planning to live in the

buildings, are nonprofessional architects or engineers.
2. There is a consonant adaptation, using natural materials, to the
geographical environment.
3. The actual process of construction involves intuitive thinking, done
without blueprints, and is open for future modifications.
4. There is a balance between social/economic functionality and
aesthetic features.
5. Architectural patterns and styles are subject to a protracted
evolution of traditional styles specific to an ethnic domain.

All forms of vernacular architecture are built to meet specific needs,

primary of which is the accommodation of values, economies, and ways of
living of the culture that produced them. The construction of vernacular
buildings also demonstrates the achievements and limitations of early
technology. Related to their environmental context, they are handcrafted
by the owner or by members of the community, requiring no assistance
from design professionals, such as architects, and engineers, utilizing
technologies learned only through tradition. This tradition had been
perfected through trial and error. Once the dwellings are built minor
adjustments are made to compensate for the changing environmental
conditions.

GEOGRAPHICAL FACTORS

An archipelago consisting of more than 7000 islands

Bounded by bodies of water: Philippine Sea on the east; the
Celebes Sea on the south; and the South China Sea on the
west.
Located on a crossroad where many cultures have interacted
Chiefly of volcanic origin
Traversed by mountain ranges
Narrow coastal plain, wide valleys, volcanoes, dense forests,
and mineral and hot springs

HISTORICAL FACTORS

Earliest settlers from about 30,000 years ago was said to be

the Negritos, followed successively by the Indones, and the
Malays.
Moslem, Chinese, and Hindu influences were introduced
through trades
Spanish Colonial Era ranging from mid-1500s up to the late
1800s
o Introduced a very different form of architecture far from
primitive architectures produced by earlier cultures.
o Introduction of European colonial architecture
o Introduction of the laws of indies
o Introduction of Christianity
American Colonial Era
o Brought about the construction of roadways, sanitary
facilities and schools.
World War II
 o Left much of the Philippines destroyed; however it
paved a way for creating a new face of Philippine
architecture.

RESOURCES

Minerals: petroleum, iron, copper, gold, limestone, nickel,

cobalt, silver
Nonmetallic Minerals: rock asphalt, gypsum, asbestos, sulfur,
coal
Quarried Materials: limestone, adobe, marble
Wood Materials: narra, molave, yacal, dao, ipil, guijo, tanguile
Light Materials: palm, nippa, rattan, bamboo

CLIMATIC AND SEISMIC CONDITIONS

Tropical climate with generally half a year of dry season and

the other, rainy
Affected by southwest monsoon (Habagat) from May to
October; and northeast monsoon (Amihan) from December to
February.
Lowlands having a hot and humid climate; the highlands
having a colder climate
The country is subject to a large number of typhoons annually.
Located in the Pacific Ring of Fire

RELIGIOUS FACTORS

Ano-Deism- the belief in the existence of life in every object

Islam- introduced by the Arabs; flourished in Mindanao
Christianity- introduced by the Spanish conquest;

Having said that every ethnolinguistic community had produced

their own icon of vernacular architecture, there are a lot of examples to
look at; especially the Philippines being an archipelagic country. The
Cordillera Region alone is inhabited by six ethnic groups which had
fashioned their own style of dwellings. The study will focus on the Ifugaos.
 THE PEOPLE OF IFUGAO

The Ifugaos are one of the six groups inhabiting the Cordillera
Region. The Ifugao call themselves as ipugao or "inhabitants of the known
earth"; other variations of the name are Ifugaw, Ipugao, and Yfugao. They
live primarily in the province of Ifugao in Central Cordillera, in Northern
Luzon. The name is supposed to have come from ipugo which means
"from the hill." The Amganad Ifugao (Ifugaw) populates the central part of
Ifugao Province and has two dialects: Burnay and Banaue. Additionally,
their name is synonymous with the famous manmade Banaue Rice
Terraces in northern Luzon, which had once been hailed the "eighth
wonder of the world", and attributed to their engineering knowledge and
agricultural terracing. Historically, Ifugao was one of the places in the
Archipelago least influenced by the Spaniards, even though they did
venture into Ifugao territory; the Spaniards were unable to transform their
culture and values. Anthropologists have regarded the Ifugao as possibly
the oldest residents of the highlands; their origin attributed to Indonesian
migration, dating back as early as 800500 BC.

Agricultural terracing is their principal means of livelihood along

with farming. Their social status is measured by the number of rice field
granaries, family heirlooms, gold earrings, carabaos (water buffaloes),
as well as, prestige conferred through time and tradition. The more
affluent, known as kadangyan were usually generous by nature, giving
rice to poor neighbors in time of food shortage(s) and/or hardship(s).
Furthermore, their culture was known for their legal system, using one of
the world's most extensive oral legal traditions specifying the offense
depending on the use of custom law; trial by elders (influenced in part by
public opinion); or trial by ordeal. The wealthy were subjected to greater
fines than the poor.

Untouched by the influences of Spanish colonialism, Ifugao culture

value kinship, family ties, religious and cultural beliefs. They're unique
among all ethnic groups in the mountain province, not only for their
interesting customs and traditions but also for their narrative literature
such as the hudhud, an epic dealing with hero ancestors sung in a poetic
manner. Another feature unique to the Ifugao is their woodcarving art,
most notably the carved granary guardians, bului and the prestige bench
of the upper class, the hagabi. Their textiles are renowned for their sheer
beauty, colorful blankets and clothing woven on looms. Houses were well-
built, characterized by as a square with wooden floors, windowless walls,
and pyramidal thatch roofs. Elevated from the ground by four sturdy
tree trunks, they feature removable staircases that were hoisted up at
night to prevent entry by enemies and/or wild animals. Lastly, their attire
remains traditional for male Ifugaos, donning the wanno or gstring; there
are six types of wanno which are used depending on the occasion or the
man's social status. Ifugao women, on the contrary, wear tapis, a
wraparound skirt; there are five kinds of skirts worn, depending on the
occasion and/or status of the woman.
 IFUGAO BUILDING TRADITION

THE BALE (FALE)

Ifugao house building is one of the most admired ethnic

architectural designs for having employed an indigenous system of
construction that is more complex than its seeming simplicity. Yet due
to the amalgam of factors such as the effects of Christianization,
economic development, education, and modernization, Ifugao
architecture, like many of the peoples indigenous knowledge systems
and practices, is also losing ground as contemporary generation of Ifugaos
are increasingly being disengaged from their beliefs, customs, and
traditions. Thus, the emergence and progressive broadening of a
distressing gap between older Ifugao traditional knowledge holders and
todays generation. The history of the Ifugao architecture is intertwined
with that of the people, their sociocultural beliefs and practices, as well as
their traditional knowledge systems and practices. But while Ifugao
architecture is deemed an essential part of the peoples remarkably rich
tangible heritage that allows present day generation to understand and
appreciate their past, barely is there an effort undertaken to conserve it.
At present, traditional Ifugao house builders are dwindling and native huts
are at the verge of extinction, a disturbing reality which practically
threatens the survival of the peoples already vanishing heritage.
Imperative to the conservation of the traditional Ifugao house is the
understanding of its intrinsic values in conjunction with acquiring the
knowledge and skill of its construction. This way, we come to appreciate
our past, enhance our present lives, and outline the framework of our
future. This research aims to examine the significant values of the
traditional Ifugao house. It hopes to contribute in imparting substantial
knowledge and enriching our understanding of Ifugao architecture,
thereby, encouraging the
cultivation of a strong local
and national pride. As stated
by Noche (2009), the history
and culture of a nation can be
reflected in its architectural
heritage. The study may also
be utilized in devising
indigenized learning materials
for students, awareness
promotion, formulating guidelines for conservation, and most importantly,
revitalization of an age-old but functional Ifugao house building
technology. "For heritage is how one generation shapes, preserves and
maintains the past, in the process of preparing and enhancing the present
for future generations (Manuel R. Salak III).

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE IFUGAO HOUSE

 Mythical Origin

According to myths the first Bale of the Ifugao originated from the
Heaven (Skyworld), when one day a god, Wigan saw the emptiness of the
uninhabited Earthworld. ). What a pity such fertile land is desolate, he
said to himself. From whence he thought out a plan to populate the place
(it was, according to legend, the land of Kayang now Kiangan). That night
he made a house and filled it with rice. Then, he made several cages, put
in a couple of chicken, and hung it at the sides of the houses' floor beams.
He tied pigs too on the posts. Having ensured that everything is set, he
carried his sleeping children, Cabbigat and Bugan, and brought them
inside the house. After whispering farewell to his children, he carefully
brought down the house to the riverside side in Kayang. In the morning,
Cabbigat and Bugan woke up and realized they were in a strange place.
House building was, thus, initiated by the gods. The knowledge and skill
was passed on to the human beings and later enhanced the technology to
suit their needs and preferencesthe very sense of vernacular
architecture.

Development

Informants relate that, initially, the Ifugaos lived on thatched huts

built directly on the ground. Walls were either made of bamboo of planks
of wood. Later, as they settled and began cultivating rice, they
constructed elevated storage houses, now known as granary houses or
alang. This building technique enabled them to safeguard the stacked
rice, ritual paraphernalia, and implements from infestation of rats and
other pests as well as from other hazards. From the granary houses, they
patterned their elevated dwelling houses commonly called as bale
(Scott:1966 and Sato:1991).
 Types of Ifugao Houses

There are four types of houses in Ifugao:

1. Abong- which is basically a hut built directly on the ground.

2. Inappal- which is slightly elevated from the ground.

For some, the abong and the inappal operate as temporary

shelters when working in the rice fields or swidden farms.
Conversely, these types of huts serve as a permanent residence
especially for those who cannot afford to construct the more
elaborate bale, the third type of Ifugao house.
3. Bale- elevated from the
ground by four sturdy
posts about 10 to 12 feet
high. It is primarily used
as the familys dwelling
unit. Among the Ifugaos,
a household is composed
of the father, mother, and
the children. Children no
longer sleep with their parents upon reaching puberty; rather, they
sleep at the agamang. To make sure they are guided accordingly,
they are accompanied by an unmarried or widowed man or woman
who often serves as their counselor. Grandparents, even in their old
age and dependency stage, usually insist on living independently in
another house. To ensure that their basic needs are daily met,
children check their condition daily and scamper multiple errands
for them.
4. Alang- the granary house which is usually located near the rice
fields. Normally, it is utilized for storing dried harvested rice
and the rice gods (bulul). At times, however, the alang is used as
a grave or to keep exhumed bones of a family member or relative.
Only the kadangyan (elite) have granaries for they have lots of rice
to store.

ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN
 Structural Frame

On the outside, the Ifugao

house seems to be nothing but a
windowless pyramidal structure
resting on four posts. A thorough
examination of the structure,
however, reveals a complex
technology that renders it a
tensile strength capable of
withstanding devastating typhoons, torrential rain, and violent
earthquakes. It is constructed out of carefully selected indigenous timbers
that are sturdily mortised, pegged, and latched to hold the house
together. In its entirety, no nails and bolts are used for all connections.

Size and Floor Plan

The Ifugao house has a square floor plan. Although the size of the
house is determined by the socioeconomic status of the people, an
average Ifugao house is approximately 1214 feet wide and 1214 feet long.

Parts of the House

1. Posts (tukud) - The house is erected on four strong posts which are
usually made of large round logs having an approximate size of 812
inches wide by 610 feet in length. These are buried about 23 feet
below the ground and locked in with stones as foundation. Some posts
have intact roots. These are simply set on the ground with the
truncated roots acting as footing.
2. Wooden Discs (lidi) - Around the four posts are wooden discs to
prevent rats from entering the house. The discs are about 2 to 14
inches thick and 36 to 40 inches in diameter. Either a square opening
or a bore hole is created at the middle portion for the posts tip to fit in.
3. Transverse Girders (kuling) - Two transverse girders are attached at
the front and rear posts. They support the two floor beams and center
floor joist. Girders may be 1214 inches thick with 1416 inches depth
and 1214 feet long. The top surface of each girder is flat while the base
is rounded.
4. Side Floor Beams (mundilig) - These are the outer two floor
beams through which the tenons of the secondary posts and
 wallboards are mortised. They have right angled grooves to receive
the floorboards.
5. Center Floor Beam (gawaan) - It is the center floor beam upon
which the floorboards are fastened. Both sides of the center floor beam
have right angled grooves for attaching the floorboards.
6. Front and Rear Floor joist (hakpo) - These are the first two floor
boards upon which the other boards are affixed.
7. Secondary Posts (bagat) - These are the posts at the houses main
level. Each post is mortised at the base with the outer floor
beam. Likewise, each upper tenon of the secondary post is mortised
with the purlin.
8. Floor (dotal) - The wooden planks of the floor is about 2 inches thick
and 7 feet 7 inches long. The width varies from 12 or 16 to 30 inches
wide that covers the whole floor area.
9. Purlin (wanan) - The wanan is a horizontal timber supporting the
rafters of the roof. It also carries the central crossbeam.
10. Intermediate Post (pamadingan) - These support the ceiling
beam and the lintel beam or purlin.
11. Wall Header (huklub) - This chest level transverse beam is
where the wall boards are rabbeted.
12. Wall boards (gaob) - This measure about 1 inch thick, with
varying width and height. Each board has a vshaped bottom and top to
fit the grooved floor beams, joists, and wall header
13. Shelves (patye) - These are built at the sides of the walls. From
the wall header to the roof, boards are fitted horizontally to form a
shelf. The space is wide enough to accommodate many clothes, mats,
blankets and other household belongings. The shelf above the wall
header serves as a cupboard.
14. Attic Central Beam (pumpitolan) - It is upon this attic central
beam where one or two king posts are positioned.
15. King Post (taknang) - The king post holds the roof from
collapsing. It stands at the attic central beam and its tip as attached at
the center of the apex frame.
16. Apex Frame (ambubullan) - The ambubullan supports the upper
ends of the rafters, the roof a pyramidal shape. It also serves as the
smoke exhaust of the house.
17. Attic (palah/palan) - A stick mat (atag) is fitted between the
crossbeam and purlin to serve as a platform for the attic.
18. Rafters (kaho) - These are long, round tree trunks or chopped flat
boards held by the square roof apex frame. Small tree branches are
chiseled and pegged into the apex frame to hold the top rafters in
place. The lower ends of the rafters are also pegged to the purlins.
They are equally spaced and cantilevered to the level of the floor area.
19. Cross rafters (ibat) - Split bamboos and stick of ronos are laid out
across the longitudinal rafters and are tied by rattan vines.
20. Roofing (atop) - Bundled cogon grass roofing is laid beginning
from the base to the top. These are tied over woven slit bamboos. The
eaves of the roof may descend to the level the floor. The door is
constructed facing south so as not to face directly the rising of the sun
from the east. Doing otherwise will expose the occupants to accidents
and death. Sliding panels of wood are used to close doorways. Entrance
to the house is gained by means of a ladder that is removed at night.
21. Fireplace (pamalakngan) - It is composed of a hearth
(pundapulan), fire wood shelf (huguhug), and rice stacking shelf
(palaan). Except for houses used as rice granaries, the Ifugao house is
equipped with an earthen fireplace about 3 to 5 square feet. Above it
are layers of open shelves. The lower shelf is used for drying firewood.
A shelf above it is used to dry stacks of rice and other food staples to
be dried and preserved.
22. Door (panto) - Movable door shutters are hanged to a rattan vine
tied to the end of the wallboards of to the intermediate posts and door
jambs. It is locked in place by a wooden bar to a hookshaped wood.
23. Ladder (tete) - It is a wooden or bamboo ladder with wooden
rungs. It provides access to the house. For the safety of the
occupants, the ladder is pulled inside at night.

Functionality of Space

Despite its being a oneroom house, the space of the Ifugao house is
multifunctional. It does not only serve as a shelter from environmental
elements and a place to cook, eat and sleep but for other purposes as
well.

Functional levels of the Ifugao House

There are three functional levels of the Ifugao house:

1. Daulon- is a space under the house. It is used for a midday rest,

entertaining visitors, weaving, carving, and accomplishing
household tasks. At the center end of the girders are crude carved dog
heads or wooden hooks that serve as hangers. At other times, the
ground level serves as a social and cultural space. It becomes the
setting for weddings, wakes, death anniversaries, religious rites and
other lifecycle celebrations.
2. Familys Living Room, Kitchen, And Bedroom (Main level) - It is
accessible through a removable ladder. Within the sides of the main
level are shelves that serve as storage area for clothes and blankets
as well as kitchen utensils, farm tools and equipment, and ritual
paraphernalia. In addition, it acts as a structural support to the roof.
3. Attic- commonly known as the palah. It is made by lining the attic
beams with a stick mat known as atag. Basically, this space is utilized
for storing rice.

Ethnic Variation

Traditional houses of the Tuwali ethnic groups in Kiangan,

Asipulo, Lagawe, Hingyon, and Hungduan share similar architectural
designs. This could be attributed to the relatively temperate climate these
municipalities experience.
 Generally, posts are either with or without roots. However,
distinctive of the Lagawe houses are the three posts with truncated roots
while the remaining fourth post is a plain round or square log. This
provides added stability and resilience against intense earthquake.
Meanwhile, the height of the wallboards reaches up to chest level
necessitating the shelves to be at a higher elevation. Further, the roof is
moderately inclined, between 50 to 60 degrees, and commonly descends
only a foot below the level of the shelves.

Variations in roofing may also be observed. Characteristic of the

Banaue and Mayoyao houses are the steeply inclined roofing that
descends to the level of the floor or at least at a foot higher than the floor.
Essentially, this type of roofing insulates occupants from the wintry breeze
and torrential rainfall which are typical of the upland climate. Moreover,
unlike the Tuwali houses, Ayangan houses in Banaue and Mayoyao have
low level side walls, measuring about one to two feet in height. Practically,
this gives more advantage to the occupants of the house because it offers
them a wider living space.

ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES

The ancient Ifugaos were neither architects nor engineers but were
able to build strong houses. The munhabat is a local carpenter who lays
the foundation, approximates the dimensions, chops, chisels, and fits each
part of the house. Usually, a house is built on a firm flat ground. For a hill,
the slope is leveled then stonewalled. A rice field may also be drained and
allowed to stand for at least five months before the site is prepared for
house building.

Foundation
 A flat stone boulder called gopnad among the Tuwali and chalimug
among the Ayangan is firmly positioned at the bottom of the hole where
the posts are to be erected to serve as bearing foundation. The stone
prevents the post from sinking in case the soil is soft. Besides this, the
outward spreading of the posts' truncated roots act as an excellent footing
in steadying the structure.

Earthquake Proofing

The stone boulder placed inside each hole acts as a roller which
enables the posts to move and resist the devastating effects of
earthquake tension. Moreover, because the walls are rabbeted outwards
into the wall header and are detached from the posts, this allows the walls
and posts some degree of independence and freedom of movement
against force. The wisdom of this technology has been proven effective in
countering ground movement caused by earthquake (RodriguezJava:
2000:85).

Proportion and Balance

Lumber sizes are approximate but carpenters make sure that

dimensions are proportionate to the floor area. To achieve balance, parts
have corresponding sizes and shapes. Symmetry is attained by making
certain that the center beam is of equal weight with the transverse
girders. Experienced house builders clarify that the bigger the house, the
bigger supporting lumbers are needed. Similarly, the heavier the weight of
the materials, the stronger the house becomes.

Insulation

The steeply inclined pyramidal roof is covered with thick layers of

cogon. This insulates the house from the heat of the sun and from
torrential rain. Solar heat is slowly transmitted through the thatched
roofing and exposed walls, thus keeping the interior cool by day and warm
at night.

Lighting and Ventilation

Air and light enters the interior of the house through the single door.
Most houses do not have windows although others have a backdoor or
sometimes a side door, thereby, acting as window. The apex frame of the
roof acts as smoke vent. In addition, the porous roof allows smoke from
the fire place to slowly seep out of the house despite the
inadequacy of exhaust outlet. Apparently, the limited ventilation and
lighting do not pose much a problem to the inhabitants as they spend
most of their day time at the rice fields, swidden farms, or at the
ground level accomplishing other tasks.

CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES

Modern equipment and technologies are remote to the Ifugaos

of ancient times, yet their ingenuity enabled them to devise ways to
measure, cut, shape, and connect each part of the house with incredible
precision.

Tools

To cut and chop timber, a native ax (wahe) is used for chopping

timber. Then, a spool of string (paltik) soaked in a staining liquid is
employed to mark straight lines on logs, thus serving as guide when
cutting or sawing. For making mortise and Tenon, chipping extra
segments, as well as contouring lumber into its desired form, a large and
heavy single bladed bolo is utilized. A chisel is also used in boring holes.
Rattan vines, on the other hand, are split thinly by means of a small but
sharp knife. Meanwhile, coarse leaves of the Leha tree are used as sand
paper to refine the surfaces of the boards.

System of Measurement

Length and width of timber are estimated by means of arms length,

a technique commonly known as dopah. Both arms are extended and the
distance is measured from fingertip to fingertip. One dopah may have an
equivalent of about four to five feet depending on how long are the arms
of the person estimating the measurement. On the average, the floor
area of a regular house measures about two square dopah or about
eight to ten square feet.

Another method of measurement used is the dangan. It makes use

of the span of the thumb and middle fingers' tip when stretched. This
system of measurement is frequently employed when calculating width of
boards. Correspondingly, one dangan or hindangan is about seven to eight
inches. Chest level measurement can also be used in determining height
especially that of wallboards. Among the Tuwali ethnic groups, wallboards
are usually at chest level which is about three to four feet. This is very
different from the Ayangan of Banaue and Mayoyao wherein wallboards
are at knee level, about one to two feet in height.

Mortise and Tenon

In a timber, a square hole is usually made to serve as a mortise. The

end of another timber is shaped in a tenon to snugly fit into the mortise
on the other timber. To ensure that attached parts are firmly fitted,
carpenters in Mayoyao coat holes with a moistened ash of burnt rice
panicle. A firmly fitted mortise leaves marks of the ash on the tenon when
detached. However, if a portion does not have ash markings, it indicates
poor fitting, hence, adjustments have to be made.
 Rabbeting

At the edge of the board, a groove or recess is made in such a way

that another piece may be fitted into it. For example, a furrow is sculpted
at the outer sides of the floor beams as a vessel for the wallboards. Then,
the upper ends of the wallboards are rabbeted into the chest level wall
header. The floor joists are also rabbeted to the side floor beams just as
the floor boards are rabbeted to the floor joists and beams.

Tying and Pegging

Parts that cannot be attached through mortise and tenon or by

rabbetting, are held together by tying and pegging. Carpenters often
make small holes and drive wooden pegs to fasten the parts together.
Alternatively, parts of the house such as the rafters may be tied to the
apex and at the base with the use of split rattan vine. Dried cogon are
also bundled with rattan strips and carefully clipped onto the rafters as
roofing.

BUILDING METHOD

Erecting an Ifugao house follows a systematic procedure. Parts that

match are usually marked for easier installation and firm fitting. In fact,
parts can actually be prefabricated and sequentially assembled as follows:

1. With the use of the transverse girders and the floor joists, lay out
the floor plan and mark the four corners.
2. Dig holes about two feet deep at the four corners where the posts
are to be erected. (For posts with truncated roots, holes are
unnecessary. The posts are simply stabilized on the ground with
stones.)
3. Install the foundation stones followed by the posts. Check if the
four posts are spaced equidistant from each other and are uniform
in height. Fill the holes with soil and thump it with wooden pole or
pestle to become dense.
4. Mount the wooden disks on top of each post.
5. Affix the transverse girders into the posts.
6. Attach the floor beams on top of the girders.
7. Mortise the secondary post to the side floor beams.
8. Connect the front floor joist to both ends of the side floor beams.
Do the same with the rear floor joist.
9. Fasten the purlin into the secondary post.
10. Lock in the wall header to the wall boards.
11. Mount horizontally the attic center beam and two other supporting
beams to the purlins. Drive wooden pegs to the bore holes at the
joints to secure them.
12. Mortise the king post to the attic center beam. Also, mortise its
top tenon to the apex square beam .
13. Bore holes at the rafters and at the apex frame. After which, tie
the upper ends of the rafters to the apex frame.
14. Structure the rafters with rono sticks. Lay them horizontally over
the roof and tie securely.
15. Roof the house with cogon starting at the bottom progressing
upwards. Four to five bundles are tied together one at a time on
the rafters. Tie the cogon grass at the protruding king post and
cover it a pot so as to keep the knot intact as well as to prevent
leakage during rainfall. Afterwards, trim the edges of the cogon
roofing.
16. Mount the door jamb on the front floor joist.
17. Firmly fit the floor boards to the floor beams and joists.
18. Place the wall header over the door jamb.
19. Refine and fit the wall boards in place.
20. Put in the supporting beams of the shelves. Next, create the
shelves at the front, sides, and rear of the house starting from the
wall header to the rafters.
21. Construct the sliding door by rabbeting the wood planks.
22. Make a stick mat for the floor of the attic by twining each stick
with thinly stripped rattan vine.
23. Make the movable ladder out of bamboo.
24. Build the fireplace by filling the three square feet box with soil.
Subsequently, install three stones at the middle to serve as fire
stove.

ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS

Virtually, traditional Ifugao houses are attuned with the physical

environment. Settlements were situated near the rice fields. They are
simple but multifunctional.

Source & Manufacturing of Materials

Raw materials for construction are derived out of organic

matter, from surrounding grasses, trees, and vines. Environmental
impact from the processing of these materials into usable elements is,
therefore minimal. Among the best tree species chosen for the main parts
of the house are Amogawon (Molave) and Udyo (Narra) because of their
lasting life span. Halong (Pine tree), Bangtinon (Kalantas), Banutan (Yakal),
Palayon (Oak), Bulhi (Red Lawaan), and other species were used for the
other parts. For the roof, cogon grass and arrow cane grass are preferred.

Reconstruction

Because parts are skillfully fabricated and joined together through

mortise and tenon, rabbetting, tying and pegging, this precludes the
unnecessary use of commercial nails. Moreover, in as much as traditional
Ifugao houses are movable structures, parts are easily dismantled and
reassembled at the relocation site. Cutting of more trees is unnecessary.
 Natural Cooling & Heating Mechanism

While other housing units are not adaptive to climatic changes, the
thatched roofing of the traditional Ifugao house provides natural cooling
during hot climate while maintaining warmth during cold and rainy
seasons.

SOCIOCULTURAL VALUES

Attitudes toward houses themselves are an integral part of peoples

worldviews and need to be understood in this wider context. The house is
one of most valuable possessions among the Ifugaos. It is the seat of
family life where the family procreates and children are nurtured and
molded until they are grown and prepared to have families and homes of
their own. Hence, its construction is treated with strict observance to
certain rules and regulations from the start until it is finished.

Omens and Taboos

Construction entails the strict observance of taboos and ominous

signs as well as performance of several rituals. From the entire duration of
the construction, the owner should be vigilant for negative omens that
might bring bad luck to the workforce or to the family who will soon
occupy the house. For example, a snake or red bird crossing the path
while going to the work area imply a negative sign necessitating the
postponement of the work and performance of rituals until a good sign is
permitted. Conversely, a red bird chirping a merry sound sends forth good
hope and fortuity. Work is also set in abeyance if a death vigil is being held
within the vicinity.

To make certain that the house would endure the tough

environment, workers are usually required to adhere to certain ritual
prohibitions known as ngilin. They are obliged to abstain from vine
vegetables and aquatic foods. In Mayoyao, house builders are even
prohibited from sexual intercourse the night before the start of work,
a practice called khipid. To ensure that the prohibitions are religiously
observed, some would ask their workers to stay with the family while
major work is going on.

Community Cooperation

House building in Ifugao is a group effort, a practice known as

dangah. There are three instances whereby the dangah is carried out.
Foremost is during the hauling of lumber from the forest to the village.
Next, is the gathering of cogon grass and runo shoots for roofing. Then,
third is the construction of the main house parts. When one intends to
build a house, he informs his kinsmen and neighbors, inviting them to help
him either in the cutting and hauling of lumber or in the construction. To
demonstrate profound gratitude, the house builders family prepares
ample food and drinks for the workforce. If their means permit, a pig may
be butchered for their lunch. If not, they should prepare at least a meal
with pork as viand. For the afternoon relaxation, sufficient rice wine
is brewed for their indulgence. The workers do not expect any pay for
the labor they voluntarily rendered. The mere thought of having been
able to extend assistance when one is in great need is deemed a
valuable compensation. On the other hand, one is assured that willing
hands are readily available when needed in the future.

Gender Roles

Conventionally, the male members of the family prepare the lumber,

runo sticks, and rattan vines. They are also responsible for erecting the
structure. On the other hand, the females gather, dry, bundle, and
transport the cogon to the house construction site and prepare the meal
of the workforce.

Ownership

a. Inheritance
Among the Ayangan and Henanga group, the family house is usually
vacated and given to the eldest child upon marriage. Custom
prescribes for parents to build a new house soon as they receive
information of their son or daughter's plan of getting married. This
way, the couple will have a shelter of their own. In contrast, the
family house, among the Tuwali, is reserved for the youngest child of
the family. In so far as the youngest is deemed to be the last to
marry and leave the house, he or she would at least have a place to
stay. Besides, the youngest child has the responsibility of caring for
the parents in their old age. Hence, the house stays with him or her.
b. Exchange Agreement
By this mode of ownership, a person may negotiate to an owner of a
house to exchange his house with another property, say, a set of
gongs, gold, animals, or others. Usually, this kind of agreement
takes place during crisis such as illness or death of a family member
or relative wherein sacrificial animals are required.
c. Through Purchase
Similar to the exchange agreement is the purchase of the house.
Long ago, Ifugaos have limited cash. So, they used their valuable
heirlooms and animals to buy a house. Again, this is a rare
occurrence for nobody would want to sell his house unless in dire
necessity.

Adornments & Symbols

 Decorations are aesthetics as well as sociopoliticoreligious
emblems. The Ifugaos used to make ornaments, statues, or emblems that
were consecrated through rituals before exhibiting it in their house yard
or in their house. Normally, it takes a couple of years for a family to
prepare for a prestige ritual. At times, series of rituals have to be
accomplished before obtaining an emblem.

After a ritual performance, the rich or kadangyan display skulls of

butchered pigs and horns of carabaos on the walls of their houses as
ornaments to show off their wealth and social status. The hagabi is a
wooden bench that signifies the highest social rank in Ifugao. Its origin is
traced to the people of Kiangan. Its construction requires the participation
of community members. Ritual celebration lasts for several days. Instead
of a hagabi, one may opt to create a kamalig, a circular stone paved area
within the house yard of the kadangyan.

Other emblems are the wooden icon of a pugong or halcyon placed

at the top of the roof and the balog which is a wooden sculpture of a
lizard installed at the main house post. In all prestige ritual performances,
the couple bears the expenses. In return, the kadangyan status is
accorded to both of them.
 House Construction Rituals

Like other traditional Southeast Asian houses, the Ifugao house is

considered as having a soul. For instance, because the Henanga of
Mayoyao believe that every tree has a soul, they ensure to make the five
main parts of the house such as the posts, side floor beams, center floor
beam, transverse girders, and secondary posts from different trees. By
doing this, they are convinced that the bonding of the trees' souls will
keep the house strong against calamities. For the other parts of the house,
the remaining portions of the lumber are used. Before commencing the
construction of a house, the people of Asipulo and Kiangan execute the
kuwe ritual. This is to seek permission from the deities as well as to beg
them to protect the workers and the structure so that no harm may beset
them. In addition, the kuwe is performed to ward off evil spirits that might
imitate and haunt the workers. In the municipality of Hungduan, the kuwe
may be done during the construction of the house. When a new house is
constructed, the Ayangan and Tuwali groups perform the hogop ritual to
ask the deities for blessings of prosperity and good health for the
occupants of the house. In case a bad omen is observed from the bile sac
of the sacrificial animal, habitation of the house is postponed or called off.
Through experience, bad omen usually signifies an impending doom for
the family. It is, therefore, interpreted as forewarning from the
deities. If, during house construction, a member of the household gets
ill, construction is stopped and either the kuwe or hogop ritual is
performed. After the hogop, a welfare ritual for the house commonly
known as hongan di bale may be carried out. The traditional priest or
mumbaki blesses every part, corner, and level of the house so it may last
long and bring peace, harmony, and fortune to the occupants. At the
same time, a family welfare ritual (hongan di tagu) may also be performed
for the occupants.

Kinship, Spatial & Gender Relationships

 A house constitutes not just a physical structure but also the
group of people who claims membership in it (Waterson:1990).
Figuratively, the house is sometimes used by the people to refer to the
household living in it. For example a couple, normally living as husband
and wife, is often referred to as himbale and their children as imbabale, all
of which have derived their root word from the bale. Meanwhile, the
Ifugaos order their daily activities and interactions within the built
structure in an egalitarian way. Unlike other cultural groups where women
are constrained to the domestic space and limited to accomplishing
household chores as well as reproductive roles, women in Ifugao
transcend beyond the domestic space of the household. The wife is often
regarded as a vital partner in meeting family needs such as in food
production, ritual performance, decision making processes, among others.
Usually, an "architectures enclosures and bounding surfaces
reconsolidate cultural gender differences by monitoring the flow of
people and the distribution of human subjects within the space" (Lico:
2001:36). For instance, separate rooms are often built for the parents as
well as for male and female children. However, in the Ifugao house, the
absence of partitions demarcating the interactions of male and female
members of the family permits a rather liberal communication between
genders. Despite this permissiveness, taboos and proper conduct of
behavior between and among siblings of the opposite gender as
prescribed in Ifugao norms and mores are strictly observed to ensure that
no one is gravely mistreated. Likewise, older members of the household
ensure that children learn to become responsible adults.

CONCLUSION

Plainly, one may only see the awkward simplicity and drabness of
the traditional Ifugao house, hence the lack of appreciation thereof. To see
its beauty, one must perceive beyond what is apparent and look into the
embedded meanings, beliefs, and practices. The built environment,
spaces, and the activities of people are interrelated and inseparable. Thus,
the traditional Ifugao house serves as an expression of the peoples
creativeness, feelings, thought processes, values, experiences, fears, and
aspirations. Like other folk architecture, traditional Ifugao architecture is
primarily designed for utilitarian purposes as a shelter against
environmental elements as well as to rest, procreate, and raise a family.
This does not mean though that the aesthetic aspects in house building
have not been considered. Although Ifugao forebears may not have
acquired a specialized education in architecture, closer examination
of the structure reveals that native carpenters clearly understand and
apply architectural principles that give beauty and durability to a building
such as proportion, harmony, and space, among others. In the local
vernacular, anything good is maphod. And, the notion of beauty is akin
to goodness. In the case of the traditional Ifugao house, the people build
not only what is regarded as useful but also what appeals to their senses.
One of the most essential qualities of Ifugao architecture that evokes
beauty is its adaptiveness to the ecology of the place. This is reflected in
the environmentally appropriate construction and structural design of the
house. Lumber are carefully chosen from the sturdiest species to give the
house a long life. Further, variations in floor elevation and degree of roof
inclination are employed to suit climatic and sociocultural needs. In
addition, its prefabricated characteristic renders it an outstanding
inventiveness. This allows an owner to detach parts and assemble it again
especially when transferring to another site. Meanwhile, though the
ornaments exhibited in their houses reflect their aspirations for
diversification and social stratification, the value of sharing invariably
seen in the community cooperation practices and rituals during and after
the construction signify the goodness and cohesiveness of their social
organization. Moreover, although religious observance of taboos and
elaborate performance of rituals can be interpreted as manifestations of
fears due to their vulnerability to the harsh environment, these,
nevertheless, reflect the people's high level of awareness and spirituality.
Through time, however, Ifugao architecture has undergone
transformations. It has merged with modern architecture to suit the
preferences of the people and increase their comfort. Among most of
the presentday Ifugaos, the single room traditional house is no
longer appropriate for their lifestyle. Extensions to the structure have
been observed in some houses to accommodate the increasing number of
the family. Spaces for living, cooking, and sleeping areas are now
specifically designated. And when the family affords, separate rooms for
the male and female members are built. Apparent also is the use of
galvanized iron sheets as roofing material. Although the material makes
the indoor temperature too hot during dry season, its durability as well as
resistance to rain and fire convinced the people to choose galvanized iron
sheets over cogon grass roofing. Most of the village settlers have also
moved to town centers and along major roads where two to fourstorey
modern buildings with several rooms are being erected for convenience
purposes. Except in Mayoyao and Banaue, very few families still own
Ifugao traditional houses in addition to their modern houses. Others have
either sold their traditional houses to outsiders or antique collectors, left
unoccupied, or simply abandoned them. For those who have
retained their traditional houses, they utilize it as storage. Soon, Ifugao
traditional houses will cease if these are not preserved. With the
dissipation of indigenous knowledge, Ifugao traditional house building
technology may be lost. If that happens, a significant part of Ifugao
heritage will be gone forever.