Multiple Indicator Kriging

21

Abstract
The structural complexity of the deposits containing several generations of
the mineralisation exhibiting different spatial trends can be overcome by
using the grade indicators:
n1; if Z.x/ zi
Ii
0; otherwise:

Spatial distribution of the indicators is estimated using an appropri-

ate kriging algorithm (commonly by Ordinary kriging). Multiple in-
dicator kriging uses different variogram model for each indicator, the
approach allowing estimate resources of the deposits formed by sev-
eral generations of mineralisation occupying the different structural
settings.
The estimated indicator probabilities are assembled together into a
combined ccdf model which is used for determining probability of the
estimate being above or below the certain cut-offs.

Keywords
Indicator kriging • Order relation

In the gold deposits the high grade shoots are
typically small and the spatial correlation be-
tween the high grade values can be observed only
at the short distances. On the contrary, the low
grade gold mineralisation is significantly more
continuous and the low grade samples can be
interpolated at the distances of 60–80 m (Abzalov
2007; Abzalov and Humphreys 2002a). Mod-
elling such deposits by a single variogram is
impossible when these mineralisation types are
superimposed and cannot be separated into dif-
ferent domains.
Using a single variogram is particularly in-
appropriate when different mineralisation types
show the different trends. This is commonly ob-
served in the gold deposits where high grade
shoots intersect at the high angle the lower grade
mineralisation. Another example is the komatiite-
hosted nickel sulphide deposits which commonly
contain several types of mineralisation showing

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 291

M. Abzalov, Applied Mining Geology, Modern Approaches in Solid Earth Sciences 12,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-39264-6_21
292
Fig. 21.1 Discretisation of the continuous variable by
indicators
elongation in the different directions (Fig. 15.9).
Modelling such deposits by a single variogram
can overly simplify the actual variability of the
deposit and lead to excessive smearing of the high
grades.
Resources of such deposits are commonly es-
timated using the grade indicators which allows
to overcome structural complexity of the deposits
(Journel 1983; Deutsch and Journel 1998). Re-
source grade usually estimated using 8–14 in-
dicators, which are distributed regularly through
the mineralisation grade (Fig. 21.1). Experience
has shown that for variables with a coefficient of
variation less than 1.5 eight to ten indicators are
sufficient. More skewed distributions, which co-
efficient of variation exceeds 1.5, ten to fourteen
indicators are used
21.1 Methodology of the Multiple
Indicator Kriging
Choice of the indicators (thresholds) depends on
the grade interval. In the low grade portion of the
histogram the thresholds are chosen to create an
equal amount of data in each grade class. In the
high grade portion this approach is not working
and the thresholds are distributed to provide an
equal quantity of a metal into each grade class. In
order to accurately estimate the resources at the
economic cutoff one indicator should be lower
than the cutoff value at the studied deposit. A
good practice is to also add the indicators rep-
21 Multiple Indicator Kriging
resenting the natural thresholds of mineralisation
which can be recognised from the multi-modal
shape of the histograms (Fig. 21.2) or from the
spatial distribution pattern of the mineralisation
grade (Figs. 15.9 and 21.2). This approach pro-
vides a good coverage over the full spectrum of
the grade distribution accurately discretising the
continuous variable Z(x) into several indicators.
Using indicators and their variogram models
the variable Z(x) can be estimated in the un-
sampled locations. This is made by kriging the
indicators IZi which provides ˇ an estimate of a
ˇ
probability of Z .x/  zi ˇ .n/ where (n) is a
conditioning information available at the search
neighbourhood of the given location (Deutsch
and Journel 1998). The estimation is repeated
for all indicators and the conditional cumulative
distribution function (ccdf ) is built by assembling
the all indicator kriging estimates obtained for the
given location.
Indicator kriging (IK) for estimating the ccdf
can be applied using Ordinary or Simple kriging
approaches. However, Ordinary kriging is most
commonly used by the geologists because it does
not require stationarity of the indicators and also
it doesn’t need an apriori knowledge of the in-
dicators means. Ordinary kriging is implemented
in the Multiple Indicator kriging (MIK) technique
which uses different variogram model for each
indicator. This flexibility makes the MIK in par-
ticular well suited for the deposits formed by sev-
eral generations of mineralisation occupying the
different structural settings and, as consequence,
requiring different variogram models for each
mineralisation type of grade class.
Procedure of using MIK is as follows (Deutsch
and Journel 1998).
• Discretise the continuous studied variable Z(x)
into K indicators and model their variograms
(Fig. 21.1). Usually 8–14 indicators (cutoffs)
are used for estimating mineral resources.
• Apply OK algorithm for each indicator using
the corresponding variogram model.
• Assemble the estimates together into a com-
bined ccdf model determining probability of
the estimate being above or below the every
studied cutoff.
21.2 Practical Notes on the Indicators Post-Processing 293

Fig. 21.2 Natural thresholds of the Ni grade and their
related indicator variograms, Cliff Ni-sulphide deposit,
Australia: (a) multimodal histogram of the composited
samples showing presence of the different grade classes;
(b) variogram of the indicator (Ni > 0.75 %) calculated
along the main continuity of the nickel mineralisation
at this cutoff (plunge 10ı ); (c) indicator (Ni > 2.40 %)
variogram calculated along the main continuity of the
nickel mineralisation at this cutoff (plunge 30ı )

• Estimate probability of each grade class (zi , where zi (i D 1, : : : ,K) is the K cut-offs;
ziC1 ) and the average grade of the samples zGRADE
i
CLASS
is the conditioning mean es-
within the given grade class. This should in- timated for each grade class (zi , ziC1 ) of the
clude z0 D zmin and zKC1 D zmax , which are entire range of Z variable, including z0 D zmin
the minimum and maximum of the data range and zKC1 D zmax ;
[Z(x)]. This step requires correcting of the (n) denotes the conditioning information
raw (obtained by indicator kriging estimate) available in the search neighbourhood of the
ccdf for the order relations conditions. Aver- location (x).
age value within each grade class are usually • Estimate z*MIK can be corrected for the differ-
obtained by a linear interpolation of the tabu- ent volume (volume support) using one of the
lated bound values. Linear model can also be non-linear geostatistical techniques (Deutsch
used for a lower tail of distribution. Estimating and Journel 1998).
within the upper tail (between highest cut-off
and the zmax ) is most challenging. Based on a
personal experience the Deutsch and Journel 21.2 Practical Notes
(1998) have suggested to use a hyperbolic on the Indicators
function of a power 1.5 which can be used Post-Processing
as a general purpose model for processing the
upper tail of the indicator kriging results. Conditional probabilities estimated by kriging of
• Mean of the ccdf is estimated by multiplying the indicator values may not comply with the
probability of the grade class by its mean order relations conditions (Fig. 21.3). Deviation
and adding up all products obtained for the from the order relation is caused by the negative
location (x) (21.1.1). This is called the E-type kriging weights and lack of data in some grade
estimate (Deutsch and Journel 1998): classes and it is very common in the MIK es-
timates which estimates ccdf using several var-
KC1
X iogram models. This is the main drawback of the
zMIK .x/ D zGRADE
i
CLASS
indicator based estimates, however it is usually
iD1
ˇ overweighted by flexibility of the approach al-
ˇ
fProb ŒZ .x/  zi   Prob ŒZ .x/  zi1  g ˇ .n/ lowing to accurately model structurally complex
 
deposits.
(21.1.1.)
294
Fig. 21.3 Order relation problems and their correction
The number of deviations can be partially
reduced by using the same search neighbourhood
for all indicators however this does not entirely
eliminate the order relation problem. Thus, the
ccdf after it as obtained by kriging of the indi-
cators needs to be corrected for order relation.
A common procedure for post-processing of the
indicator kriging results includes upward and
downward correction of the raw ccdf values and
averaging the two sets of the corrected ccdf’s
(Fig. 21.3).
21 Multiple Indicator Kriging
References
Abzalov MZ (2007) Granitoid hosted Zarmitan gold
deposit, Tian Shan belt, Uzbekistan. Econ Geol
102(3):519–532
Abzalov MZ, Humphreys M (2002) Resource estimation
of structurally complex and discontinuous minerali-
sation using non-linear geostatistics: case study of a
mesothermal gold deposit in northern Canada. Exp
Min Geol J 11(1–4):19–29
Deutsch CV, Journel AG (1998) GSLIB: geostatistical
software library and user’s guide. Oxford University
Press, New York, p 340
Journel AG (1983) Non-parametric estimation of spatial
distribution. Math Geol 15(3):445–468