Journal of Refugee Studies Vol. 34, No. 3 VC The Author(s) 2021. Published by Oxford University Press.

This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/), which permits non-commercial re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any
medium, provided the original work is properly cited. For commercial re-use, please contact journals.permissions@oup.com
doi:10.1093/jrs/feab034 Advance Access Publication 3 May 2021

No Longer a ‘Lost Generation’?

Opportunities and Obstacles of Online and
Blended Learning Programmes for Syrian

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jrs/article/34/3/3197/6262062 by guest on 10 January 2022

Refugees in Jordan and Lebanon

CONSTANTIN REINPRECHT
Department of Politics and International Relations, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
constantin.reinprecht@politics.ox.ac.uk
RENATA SUTER
Kiron Open Higher Education gGmbH, Berlin, Germany
BRONWYN PARRY
Department of Global Health and Social Medicine, King’s College London, London,
UK
FLORIAN RAMPELT
Stifterverband, Berlin, Germany

MS received February 2020; revised MS received January 2021

The displacement of a large number of Syrians has resulted in interrupted and pro-
tracted education pathways for many young Syrians. Although access to higher edu-
cation (HE) has been recognised as central to avoid creating a ‘lost generation’,
refugees in host countries face considerable barriers to access HE, such as cost, cap-
acity and lack of documents. Online and blended learning opportunities have been
proposed as one solution in resource-constrained environments. However, refugees’
online learning capabilities and preferences remain poorly understood, as existing
research has mainly relied on key stakeholders without involving refugees directly.
This article presents results from a survey of 350 secondary level educated Syrian
refugees in Jordan and Lebanon conducted in 2017. We assess their online learning
capabilities and subject preferences, and show how adapting online learning materi-
als to enable smartphone learning with low bandwidth would significantly increase
the potential pool of online education students. We discuss how educational organ-
isations can best adopt these findings to improve access to HE for refugees.
3198 Constantin Reinprecht et al.
Keywords: refugee, online learning, blended learning, higher education, mobile
technology

Introduction
The war in Syria has resulted in the displacement of more than 5 million Syrians to
Turkey, Lebanon and Jordan, with almost a third aged 5–17 whose education has

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jrs/article/34/3/3197/6262062 by guest on 10 January 2022

been seriously disrupted (UNHCR 2018). Although the focus in crisis situations
has traditionally been on providing primary and secondary education, there is
now an increased awareness on employability skills and higher education (HE) to
avoid creating a ‘lost generation’ (Dahya 2016). However, barriers, such as lack of
information about available educational opportunities, the limited capacity of HE
providers, cost of study programmes, inadequate preparation, lack of certification
(e.g. school leaving certificates) and language barriers limit refugees’ ability to
access formal HE in host countries. More flexible approaches to delivery have
thus been promoted as promising alternatives in resource constrained environ-
ments. They include non-formal and technology-enhanced approaches, such as
(open) online learning, blended learning (a combination of online learning and
face-to-face instruction) and independent study (Gladwell et al. 2016b).
Successful online learning demands certain technical and affective prerequisites.
Students require access to devices that enable them to study online (ideally a
laptop/desktop or tablet, as smartphones tend to be insufficient for many forms
of digital learning), source reliable Internet connectivity and speed and enough
available study time. They must have the capacity for, and an interest in, further
education, sufficient digital literacy to study via digital means and access to sub-
jects that spark their interest (UNHCR 2016). Despite the attention of policy-
makers and academics on Syrian refugees, their digital capabilities, subject
interests and host countries’ capacities to provide online or blended learning
has yet to be fully established. However, it is essential to address these key ques-
tions to re-integrate a generation of young scholars into education.
This article presents and critically discusses results from a baseline survey of
350 Syrian refugees in Jordan and Lebanon. We make three main contributions:
First, we provide, to our knowledge, the first assessment of online learning capa-
bilities and subject preferences of secondary-level educated Syrian refugees in
Jordan and Lebanon. Secondly, we show that the availability of study devices
(laptop, tablet, smartphone) is the biggest lever to increase the pool of potential
online education students. Lastly, we discuss how educational organisations can
best adopt these findings to improve access to HE for refugees in the Middle East
and North Africa (MENA) region. We begin by discussing the rationale for the
introduction of such educational programmes.

Motivation: Rationales for New Approaches to Refugee HE Provision

The Syrian refugee crisis is unprecedented in terms of the number of university-
ready students it has displaced. The UNHCR (2019) estimates that only 3 per cent
 No Longer a ‘Lost Generation’? 3199
of refugees globally currently have access to formal HE while Lorisika et al. (2015)
put the number between 1 per cent in Turkey to 8 per cent in Jordan. Both figures
are radically lower than pre-war participation rates of 20 per cent in Syria
(Watenpaugh et al. 2014). Rights to education have been recognised by the
1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the 1989 United Nations
Convention on the Rights of the Child and equitable access to inclusive quality
education is a key UN Sustainable Development Goal (UNESCO 2015a).

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jrs/article/34/3/3197/6262062 by guest on 10 January 2022

Historically, the emphasis in crisis situations was on supporting primary and
secondary education (Dryden-Peterson and Giles 2010; Deane 2016). However,
there is now an increasing recognition of the significance of tertiary education and
numerous new initiatives have emerged to promote access for refugees (Sherab
and Kirk 2016; Gladwell et al. 2016a, 2016b).
There are several different rationales for supporting access to HE for displaced
Syrian populations. First, an educated citizenry is essential to the eventual recon-
struction of Syria and HE can provide the technical skills to rebuild destroyed
infrastructure and key governance systems (Barakat and Milton 2015; UNESCO
2016). Secondly, without suitable qualifications, refugees’ work opportunities be-
come highly constrained (Christophersen 2015). To not educate a forthcoming
generation is to forgo the development of human capital that could otherwise be
productively captured by the refugee community, the host country, and the wider
world (Deane 2016; Sherab and Kirk 2016). Preventing this outcome is particu-
larly important in the face of an expected global shortage of millions of tertiary
educated workers (UNESCO 2016). Thirdly, lack of access to education and
employment opportunities can lead to violence, radicalisation and unrest
(Barakat and Milton 2015). Providing HE to refugees thus has the potential to
reverse ‘the cycle of low education—high poverty—high conflict, to high educa-
tion—low poverty—low conflict’ (Crea and McFarland 2015: 244).

Impediments to HE Access Amongst Displaced Refugee Populations

Despite these potential advantages of their educational success, refugees face
many obstacles to formal HE in host countries. They include the lack of docu-
ments (particularly accredited prior learning, such as secondary school leaving
exams), insufficient language skills, uncertain legal status, lack of information on
their eligibility for funded access to HE, insufficient financial resources and few
scholarships (Watenpaugh et al. 2013; Al-Fanar Media 2015; Christophersen
2015; UNHCR 2015, 2016; Sherab and Kirk 2016; Gladwell et al. 2016b).
Increasing the supply of HE in the region in the short term is difficult due to
monetary and non-monetary resource constraints.
A further obstacle is the considerable temporal lag that many refugees experi-
ence between finishing secondary school and identifying potential HE placements.
While many are technically ready to start university, the long interruptions in their
educational biographies and personal trajectories caused by trauma and displace-
ment, and lack of experience with host countries’ educational systems often de-
mand bespoke preparatory courses (Gladwell et al. 2016a). This need was
3200 Constantin Reinprecht et al.
confirmed by refugees in a survey undertaken in Jordan in 2015 (UNESCO
2015b). While preparatory courses provided through online learning formats
could be a solution—or part thereof—potential students often know little about
these options. This lack of information has been highlighted by NGOs, inter-
national organisations, and refugees themselves (Lorisika et al. 2015; UNHCR
2015).

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jrs/article/34/3/3197/6262062 by guest on 10 January 2022

Online and Blended Learning Provision
Online learning can generally be considered the newest variant of distance learn-
ing. Online learning includes formal, non-formal and informal learning at all
educational levels, undertaken with the support of information and communica-
tion technology tools used mostly online (UNESCO 2018). A special form is
informal (online) learning, which takes place unintentionally in everyday life
(UNESCO 2018), whereas formal and non-formal learning are intended by the
learner. This article focuses on online and blended learning intended by the learn-
er. Online and blended learning are considered to be more flexible, cheaper, and
easier to scale compared to traditional, offline HE provision. They are therefore
increasingly employed in crisis situations to reach learners who would otherwise
be excluded from education (Sherab and Kirk 2016). Examples of formal and non-
formal online learning at the HE level include Massive Open Online Courses
(MOOCs)—educational online courses designed for a large number of partici-
pants (Rampelt et al. 2018a). They can be accessed by anyone anywhere as long as
they have an Internet connection; they are, in principle, open to everyone without
entry qualifications (yet not always for free); and they often offer a full/complete
course experience online (UNESCO and CoL 2016). MOOCs have the potential
to increase participants’ prospects of further education and employment, which
seems to particularly apply to individuals from developing countries with lower
levels of education and socioeconomic status (Zhenghao et al. 2015). Research
suggests, however, that refugee students of MOOCs face additional technological,
cultural and linguistic barriers to successful participation (Moser-Mercer 2014,
2016). These include time constraints, lack of suitable technology, insufficient
language skills and/or technical illiteracy and lack of information or interest in
digital HE (UNHCR 2016). Hence, MOOCs on their own might prove less suit-
able for refugee populations. Preliminary research further suggests that key stake-
holders and refugees prefer targeted, blended, and facilitated approaches to
digitally enhanced learning, including online learning (Al-Fanar Media 2015;
Colucci et al. 2017).
There are considerable institutional barriers to successful delivery of online
learning to refugees in the MENA region. Many of these reflect wider cultural
misgivings about the prospective value and quality of digital offerings, their ability
to provide a commensurate experience of studying specific subjects digitally, or its
capacity to provide employability training that is fit for purpose. (However, please
note that at the time of revision of this article, both formal and non-formal online
learning is experiencing a boost due to the COVID-19 pandemic. We will consider
 No Longer a ‘Lost Generation’? 3201
this in the discussion.) Accreditation, certification and recognition also remain key
concerns. Research with key stakeholders, such as host governments and institu-
tional providers, and refugees suggests that the majority still prefer formal degree
education over non-formal programmes, as the former is perceived to be recog-
nised most widely (Sherab and Kirk 2016). Refugee students have shown interest
in non-formal offerings, such as MOOCs, but have also stressed the importance of
certification; they seek tangible benefits from participation and certificates are

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jrs/article/34/3/3197/6262062 by guest on 10 January 2022

essential for finding employment and transferring to further education (Mason
and Buchanan 2016; Colucci et al. 2017).
Although a wide variety of degrees and courses could in theory be provided
digitally through online programmes, providers focus primarily on those that will
formally increase student employability in fields with the highest demand for
economic development and reconstruction. Furthermore, partially unclear or
outdated legal framework conditions restrict which degrees and what proportion
of degrees can be studied online or can formally be recognised (see Discussion
section).
What, though, are the educational needs and aspirations of Syrian refugees
living in Jordan and Lebanon and what barriers do they face in accessing online
study programmes? In this paper, we evaluate the following three main research
questions. 1. What are the capabilities of Syrian refugees in Jordan and Lebanon
for online study programmes? 2. How much does the availability of study devices
(laptop, tablet, smartphone) affect the potential pool of online education stu-
dents? 3. What are the implications of our findings for the design, implementation,
and delivery of online learning? In contrast to most prior research that relies on
interviews with key stakeholders such as NGOs, international organisations and
education experts, we follow Colucci et al.’s (2017) call to provide findings derived
from students themselves. We conducted a quantitative survey of secondary edu-
cated Syrian refugees in Jordan and Lebanon to examine their interest in online
education, study motivations, subject preferences, technological prerequisites and
English language skills to establish their capacity to successfully complete online
or blended HE courses.

Method
Sampling and Recruitment
Purposive sampling was used to identify Syrian refugees, aged 18 and above,
currently displaced to Jordan and Lebanon who have at least completed second-
ary school. We identified participants via local partner organisations (see
Supplementary Table A1, for an overview), coordinated by the Jordan office of
the nonprofit organisation Kiron Open Higher Education. In Jordan, the study
was conducted in Amman (urban), the Al Shajara area (rural) and the Za’atari
refugee camp. In Lebanon, the study was conducted in Beirut and Tripoli (urban)
and the Bekaa Valley (rural). There are no formally run refugee camps in
Lebanon; Syrian refugees typically live in non-residential structures such as
3202 Constantin Reinprecht et al.
garages, shops, work sites or informal tented settlements within and between
existing communities in rural locations such as Bekaa (UNHCR, UNICEF and
WFP 2016). These areas were chosen, as they have high concentrations of refugees
and due to our well-established contacts with local institutions that helped gain
access to potential students. While most respondents were not yet enrolled in
preparatory programmes or studying at a university, a substantial minority never-
theless had already enrolled.

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jrs/article/34/3/3197/6262062 by guest on 10 January 2022

Data Collection and Analysis
The survey was developed by Kiron staff in English, translated into Arabic
and administered in paper-based form by Kiron staff and local research
assistants working in refugee camp schools and educational institutions in
the field sites between July and August 2017. The paper-based method
avoided biasing the sample towards those who already had Internet access
and digital skills. An information sheet explained the purpose of the re-
search to participants and noted that their involvement is voluntary and
would not result in monetary or non-monetary benefits, such as access to
study opportunities. Participants were informed that the findings would aid
development of online courses that better reflected their interests, needs and
capabilities. The completed surveys were transferred into digital form and
analysed with R.

Participants
In total, 439 Syrian refugees were surveyed, 159 in Jordan and 280 in Lebanon. 34
respondents did not provide their highest educational level or had not achieved
upper secondary education (ISCED level 3) and a further 55 did not provide their
age or were younger than 18. Of the remaining 350 participants, 111 were Syrian
refugees in Jordan and 239 in Lebanon. Table 1 presents summary statistics of the
demographic characteristics and survey responses. Females are slightly over-
represented in the Lebanese sample compared to the Jordanian sample. As there
are generally only marginal differences in means between men and women, these
will only be discussed if statistically significant. Unless stated otherwise, statistical
significance in this paper refers to p-values below the standard significance level of
5% for two-sided tests of the null hypothesis of no difference in means. The mean
age of respondents is 22 years. Differences between groups of Syrian refugees
within the two countries—i.e. those settled in urban areas, rural areas or in
camps—will be highlighted if they are statistically significant and qualitatively
and quantitatively relevant to refugees’ potential for online HE. Supplementary
Tables A2 and A3 display the summary statistics for these subgroups. The sub-
group results should be treated with some caution, as the sample sizes are generally
relatively small, particularly for Jordan.
 No Longer a ‘Lost Generation’? 3203
Table 1
Descriptive statistics of Syrian refugees surveyed in Jordan and Lebanon.

Variable Syrian (Jordan) Syrian (Lebanon)

Mean SD Min Max N Mean SD Min Max N p-value

Female 0.49 0.5 0 1 111 0.61 0.49 0 1 239 0.0368

Age 22.01 5.5 18 45 111 22.44 4.35 18 40 239 0.4689

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jrs/article/34/3/3197/6262062 by guest on 10 January 2022

Online study prerequisites (available time)
Quiet place (h/day) 6.51 6.52 0 24 94 5.83 5.11 0 24 210 0.3704
Electricity (h/day) 17.58 8.68 0 24 88 17.6 7.82 0 24 209 0.9862
Internet (h/day) 13.57 10.35 0 24 76 14.28 8.86 0 24 210 0.5932
Study time (h/week) 23.73 15.51 0 60 105 24.76 14.37 3 60 231 0.5667
Online study prerequisites (language, experience, documents, facilities)
English language level1 2.63 1.03 0 5 107 2.44 1.25 0 5 237 0.1471
Online course experience2 0.23 0.43 0 1 107 0.16 0.37 0 1 230 0.1291
Documents3 0.89 0.32 0 1 106 0.97 0.16 0 1 237 0.0079
4
Internet speed 2.42 1.09 1 4 106 2.42 0.79 1 4 236 0.9414
Desktop/laptop 0.32 0.47 0 1 111 0.3 0.46 0 1 227 0.6472
Tablet 0.24 0.43 0 1 111 0.21 0.41 0 1 228 0.5650
Smartphone 0.9 0.3 0 1 111 0.94 0.23 0 1 232 0.1836
Current main occupation (h/week)
University 6.5 10.64 0 42 60 6.87 11.42 0 48 176 0.8202
Prep. programme (uni) 0.45 1.79 0 10 60 1.34 4.69 0 25 176 0.0371
Language course 1.18 2.53 0 10 60 2.99 5.07 0 24 176 0.0000
Vocational training 2.1 9.63 0 60 60 1.87 6.46 0 60 176 0.8633
Secondary school 1.37 4.57 0 30 60 0.54 3.35 0 40 176 0.2014
Other regular activities 7.07 14.39 0 56 60 7.43 14.82 0 60 176 0.8686
Commute to next traditional HEI (h)
Public transport 4.56 1.14 1 6 107 4.54 0.73 1 6 235 0.8940
Car 4.97 0.74 2 6 67 4.83 0.71 1 6 96 0.2378
Study interest (subject area)5
Accounting/finance 0.12 0.32 0 1 111 0.12 0.32 0 1 215 0.9823
Business/entrepreneur 0.21 0.41 0 1 111 0.17 0.37 0 1 215 0.3915
Citizenship 0 0 0 0 111 0.03 0.17 0 1 211 0.0140
Social work 0.08 0.27 0 1 111 0.09 0.29 0 1 212 0.7937
Engineering 0.21 0.41 0 1 111 0.17 0.38 0 1 215 0.4507
English (ESOL) 0.16 0.37 0 1 111 0.12 0.33 0 1 213 0.3377
IT/computing 0.2 0.4 0 1 111 0.13 0.34 0 1 214 0.1316
Sciences 0.07 0.26 0 1 111 0.04 0.2 0 1 212 0.2966
Prep. for university 0.02 0.13 0 1 111 0.02 0.14 0 1 211 0.9526
Policy/law 0.02 0.13 0 1 111 0.04 0.19 0 1 211 0.2776
Public health, medicine, nursing 0.23 0.42 0 1 111 0.28 0.45 0 1 216 0.2567
Maths 0.04 0.19 0 1 111 0.04 0.19 0 1 213 0.9450
Teaching/education 0.07 0.26 0 1 111 0.24 0.43 0 1 215 0.0000
Urban planning 0 0 0 0 111 0.02 0.14 0 1 212 0.0452
Study interest (programme type)6
Certificate programme 0.97 0.16 0 1 110 0.99 0.11 0 1 231 0.4100
Online study 0.82 0.38 0 1 107 0.9 0.3 0 1 227 0.0566
Local university/college 0.92 0.28 0 1 109 0.98 0.13 0 1 233 0.0202
Bachelor’s degree 0.93 0.26 0 1 107 0.86 0.34 0 1 221 0.0777
Master’s degree 0.81 0.39 0 1 102 0.74 0.44 0 1 207 0.1322
Study motivation
Good job opportunity 1.25 0.5 1 3 108 1.26 0.48 1 4 232 0.8211
Financially secure life 1.21 0.45 1 3 108 1.29 0.48 1 4 229 0.1431
Well paid job 1.37 0.58 1 3 107 1.39 0.56 1 4 228 0.8046

(Continued)
3204 Constantin Reinprecht et al.
Table 1 (continued)
Variable Syrian (Jordan) Syrian (Lebanon)

Mean SD Min Max N Mean SD Min Max N p-value

Prob. getting a job 1.4 0.56 1 3 106 1.51 0.63 1 4 230 0.1035
Like working contents 1.4 0.58 1 3 107 1.5 0.66 1 4 226 0.1702
Personal interest 1.38 0.59 1 3 106 1.42 0.64 1 4 228 0.5422
Contents significant 1.43 0.6 1 3 104 1.52 0.66 1 4 227 0.2153

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jrs/article/34/3/3197/6262062 by guest on 10 January 2022

High interest 1.36 0.59 1 3 106 1.44 0.59 1 4 228 0.2479

The right column shows the p-value for the null hypothesis of no difference in mean values of Syrian
refugees in Jordan and Lebanon. It is presented in bold for statistically significant differences between
the two means, i.e. p  0.05. 1. English language level was assessed using a six-point scale, ranging from
‘I don’t speak English.’ to ‘C1 or above (I can express myself spontaneously without much obvious
searching for expressions and can produce clear, detailed text on complex subjects)’; 2. Yes/No; 3.
Yes/No to whether a recognised document of completion of the highest level of education is available;
4. 4-point scale (Fast (You can make video calls (Skype, Hangouts, . . .) without any problems.);
Medium (I can watch videos without any problems.); Slow (Usually it’s too slow to watch videos.); I
don’t have regular access to the Internet.); 5. Participants indicated which of 14 suggested subject areas
they find interesting; it was possible to select more than one subject area. 6. Participants indicated how
much they agreed with different study forms. For instance, to what extent they agreed with the
statement ‘I would be interested in completing a certificate programme’ using a 4-point Likert scale
(strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree); 7. 4-point Likert scale (strongly agree, agree,
disagree, strongly disagree).

Results
This section addresses the first two research questions concerning refugees’ capa-
bilities for online study programmes and the relation between the availability of
study devices (laptop, tablet, smartphone) and the potential pool of online edu-
cation students. We define capabilities broadly as including study interest and
prerequisites for online learning. We discuss the implications of our findings for
the delivery of online or technology-enhanced HE to refugee students in the sub-
sequent Discussion section.

Study Interest
Respondents expressed a high interest in undertaking different types of study
programmes, including non-formal online certificate programmes. This contra-
dicts prior findings that suggest that refugees prefer formal degree programmes
and have little interest in certificates (UNESCO 2015b; Sherab and Kirk 2016).
This difference in findings could be that refugees surveyed in earlier studies did not
properly understand the concept of online or blended learning. Some respondents
in our sample were recruited by partner organisations with the intention of expos-
ing them to more information about online study programme opportunities. This
has probably increased the students’ awareness. It could also be that barriers to
formal HE access, alongside higher digital literacy skills have increased their
interest in online study programmes. Perhaps surprisingly, given prior findings,
80–90 per cent of respondents strongly agreed or agreed with the statement that
they would like to study in an online programme. Fewer people in Jordanian
 No Longer a ‘Lost Generation’? 3205
camps (69%) were interested in online study programmes compared to the mean.
This may be due to their limited access to fast and reliable Internet connections
(see Supplementary Table A2) or they may be less interested simply because they
do not feel they could successfully pursue online programmes. For all groups,
intrinsic and extrinsic motivations to study were very high.

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jrs/article/34/3/3197/6262062 by guest on 10 January 2022

Prerequisites for Online Learning
We define prerequisites for online learning as encompassing the following: suffi-
cient time to study and sufficient access (in terms of time) to a quiet place, elec-
tricity, Internet connection, sufficient Internet speed, as well as a device that
enables online learning, such as a desktop/laptop, tablet or smartphone. We start
with the prerequisites that do not vary with time: Internet speed, device availabil-
ity and study interest.
Figure 1 displays how many respondents in our sample of 350 young and sec-
ondary school educated Syrian refugees fulfil these time-invariant online study
prerequisites. Minimum Internet speed is defined as allowing to watch videos
without interruption. 55 per cent state that their Internet speed is fast enough to
make video calls or watch videos online. While over 90 per cent of respondents
indicate they have regular access to a smartphone, laptops/desktop computers
(30%) and tablets (20%) are less widely available. However, almost half of all
respondents indicate they can access either a desktop, laptop or tablet, which are
often seen as more suitable than smartphones or even a prerequisite for successful
online learning. These findings are promising insofar as they indicate that about
half the surveyed refugees might have the technical capacity to participate in
online study programmes.
Figure 2 displays the proportion of Syrian refugees who fulfil all three time-
invariant online study conditions (Internet speed, device, interest), depending on
which device is taken as a prerequisite for online learning. The top bar shows that
just 18 per cent of respondents have access to a laptop or desktop, fast Internet
speed and interest in online study programmes. The bottom bar indicates that
almost half of all respondents fulfil all time-invariant conditions if the device
condition is loosened to include laptop, desktop, tablet and smartphone. We

Figure 1.
Syrian refugees who fulfil time-invariant online study conditions.
3206 Constantin Reinprecht et al.

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jrs/article/34/3/3197/6262062 by guest on 10 January 2022

Figure 2.
Syrian refugees who fulfil all time-invariant online study conditions, dependent on
which device is defined as a prerequisite for online learning.

discuss the role of smartphones and their utility for online learning in greater detail
below.
Having explored the time-invariant conditions, we turn to respondents’ avail-
able study time and their access to a quiet study place, electricity and the Internet
(participants were asked for the number of hours they have access to each of them;
Table 1 above shows variable means; Supplementary Figure A1, Appendix
presents the distributions). Syrian refugees in Jordan and Lebanon indicate they
have, on average, 24–25 hours a week to study, have electricity for 18 h per day,
and access to the Internet for 14 hours per day. These findings are in line with prior
research (REACH 2014). However, there are significant differences within coun-
tries (Supplementary Tables A2 and A3). Respondents in Jordanian refugee
camps indicate that they have 28 hours of available weekly study time but merely
have access to the Internet for four and to electricity for 10 hours per day. They
also report slow Internet connections. Residents in camps have thus significantly
more available time at their hands but significantly worse infrastructural condi-
tions than Syrian refugees in urban or rural Jordan.
Most respondents indicate that they have access to a quiet place to study for 6 or
less hours a day and not more than 20 hours available to study per week (see
heavily left-skewed distributions in Supplementary Figure A1). Figure 3 shows the
complementary cumulative distribution function for available study time. It
shows the proportion of respondents (vertical axis) who indicate to have at least
a certain amount of available study time per week (horizontal axis). The figure
demonstrates that about 80 per cent of the Syrian refugees in our sample have 10
hours or more to study per week—which in turn means that 20 per cent of those
surveyed have less than 10 hours to study per week. Almost half of all participants
indicate to have less than 20 hours a week available to study. Hence, they might
not be able to study full time. This is in line with prior findings that refugees in
Jordan are time-constrained due to other commitments, such as work, study and
family responsibilities (Crea and McFarland 2015; Crea 2016).
Respondents who have less available study time did not indicate that they spend
significantly more time on other activities. However, the sum of available study
time and current time commitment to all other activities exceeds 40 hours per week
for a third of respondents. Respondents might overstate their available study time,
 No Longer a ‘Lost Generation’? 3207

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jrs/article/34/3/3197/6262062 by guest on 10 January 2022

Figure 3.
Proportion of respondents that indicate to have at least a certain amount of
weekly study time (complementary cumulative distribution function).

as they might reduce the time spent on other activities in the future once study
opportunities come up. However, it might also reflect the fact that Syrian refugees
frequently have to engage in a range of activities to secure their livelihoods.
Having shown how different prerequisites for online study programmes inhibit
access to online education for refugees in Jordan and Lebanon in Figures 1 and 2,
we combine the two sets of conditions and conduct a funnel analysis to examine
how many Syrian refugees fulfil all required conditions for online learning.
Figure 4 presents funnel graphs with four different thresholds for available study
time: at least 5, 10, 15, and 20 hours per week. Each panel should be read top-to-
bottom. The first horizontal bar is the total sample size: 350 secondary-educated
Syrian refugees in Jordan and Lebanon. The next bar is the available study time,
i.e. at least 5, 10, 15, or 20 hours a week. The thresholds for the accessibility of a
quiet place, electricity, and the Internet follow from these values and are 1, 2, 3,
and 4 hours a day, respectively. We divided total available weekly study time by 5
working days to get these results. The third bar represents the amount and pro-
portion of refugees that have enough available study time and sufficient access to a
quiet place (again for 1, 2, 3, and 4 hours a day). This logic continues. The bot-
tommost bar hence represents the pool of potential online study programme
students: those with sufficient time to study, access to a quiet place, electricity,
high speed Internet access, a laptop or desktop and interest in online study pro-
grammes. Depending on the threshold for available study time, we identify be-
tween 49 (14%) and 28 (8%) potential online study programme students in our
sample.
Figure 4 clearly shows that study time, a quiet place, Internet speed and access
to a laptop or desktop computer are critical levers to increase the number of
3208 Constantin Reinprecht et al.

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jrs/article/34/3/3197/6262062 by guest on 10 January 2022

Figure 4.
Funnel analysis for different thresholds for available study time.

potential online students. In the top-left panel, for instance, more than two-thirds
(237) indicate they have at least 5 hours a week to study, 1 hour a day access each to a
quiet place, electricity, and the Internet. However, almost 100 of these people indicate
they do not have high speed Internet access, a vital requirement for successful par-
ticipation in online study. Of those with high-speed Internet, almost another 100
people indicate they do not have regular access to a laptop or desktop. The situation
is qualitatively similar but quantitatively worse for the other three scenarios with
higher thresholds for available study time. The graph in the bottom right corner
shows that almost every second refugee surveyed has less than 20 hours a week of
available study time. Another third of those who do have sufficient time indicate they
do not have access to a quiet place for at least 4 hours a day. Again, insufficient
Internet speed and lack of access to a laptop or desktop computer are other factors
impeding potential participation in digital programmes.
These results are an interesting addition to the literature, as prior studies have
usually evaluated online study conditions individually and have found that lap-
tops are relatively rare, Internet access is slow, and that electricity might not be
widespread in some geographical locations, such as refugee camps (Colucci et al.
2017). We have evaluated conditions for online studies both individually
(Figures 1, 2, and Supplementary A1) but have also explored their cumulative
effects (Figure 4).
The funnel analyses clearly demonstrate the successive attrition of potential
students along different study prerequisites. The analyses are based on the as-
sumption that access to a laptop or desktop is a necessary condition for online
learning. Figure 5 relaxes this assumption and is not bound to time thresholds. It
shows the proportion of Syrian refugees in our sample (vertical axis) that fulfil all
 No Longer a ‘Lost Generation’? 3209

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jrs/article/34/3/3197/6262062 by guest on 10 January 2022

Figure 5.
Syrian refugees who fulfil all online study conditions, shown separately by
available device.

online study prerequisites discussed above, at different values for available study
time (horizontal axis). The three lines correspond to the availability of a study
device. The top curve shows the proportion of participants who have regular
access to any device—laptop, desktop, tablet or smartphone—the middle one
those with access to a laptop, desktop or tablet, and the bottom one those with
access to a laptop or desktop. Two findings are worth explaining. First, comparing
the curves with that of Figure 3 (which shows the time available for learning
without further conditions) reveals that time-invariant conditions, such as high-
speed Internet, and time-variant ones, such as access to a quiet place, significantly
reduce the number of potential online students, even at very low values for min-
imum weekly available study time and for those with access to any device. For
instance, whereas around 80 per cent of respondents report to have at least 10
hours a week to study (Figure 3), only between 13 and 33 per cent, depending on
the device, seem to be able to study once we consider all other requirements
(Figure 5). Second, the ratio between the top and bottom curves decreases with
increasing study time. This implies that enabling online studying via smartphones
would increase the pool of potential online students disproportionately for those
who indicate they have less than 15 hours of available weekly study time.
Before discussing the implications of these results for the design, implementa-
tion, and delivery of online learning programmes in the next section, we briefly
outline the study subject preferences of our respondents.

Subject Preferences
Interest for different subjects was very similar for the samples of Syrian refugees in
Jordan and Lebanon (Table 1). Figure 6 shows that public health (including
3210 Constantin Reinprecht et al.

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jrs/article/34/3/3197/6262062 by guest on 10 January 2022

Figure 6.
Subjects Syrian refugees are most interested in studying, by country.

medicine and nursing), followed by business, engineering, computer science, and

English attracted the most interest (of a total of 14 options, multiple answers were
possible). Preparatory courses attracted almost no interest, which is surprising, as
previous studies report considerable interest in and demand for such courses
(UNESCO 2015b). The low interest might result from the fact that digital literacy
was given as an example of a preparatory course and many of the respondents self-
assessed their digital skills as high. Further analysis reveals that women are sig-
nificantly more interested in public health, medicine, nursing (32 vs. 20%) and
teaching and education (27 vs. 7%) than men. Men are comparatively more
interested in business and entrepreneurship (25 vs. 13%) and IT and computer
science (22 vs. 10%). Both sets of findings corroborate previously published
results (UNESCO 2015b) that suggest that gender stereotyping is still highly de-
terministic of study and employment preferences.

Discussion
Having presented the main results in the previous section, we critically examine
their implications for the design, implementation and delivery of online study
programmes for Syrian refugees in Jordan and Lebanon. We further contrast
our results with the theoretical and empirical literature. First, we discuss how
barriers to access could be removed by focusing on the provision of online learning
via smartphones as well as better connectivity. Secondly, we discuss refugees’
study subject preferences and the resulting legal and practical issues of providing
certain subjects in a digital way. We provide concrete policy recommendations for
online learning based on our findings in the subsequent section.

Smartphones, Connectivity, and Localization

It is often stated that a laptop or desktop computer is the best device for online
learning. However, merely three in ten respondents have access to such devices.
While more than nine in 10 respondents have access to a smartphone, they are
 No Longer a ‘Lost Generation’? 3211
generally considered not to be ideal devices for online study, as not all materials
(e.g. practical exercises and homework) can be easily processed. Given the preva-
lence of smartphones and scarcity of laptops/desktops in our sample and the
MENA region in general (Mason and Buchanan 2016), adapting learning materi-
als and tools to smartphones could greatly increase the accessibility, scalability
and impact of online learning. For smartphones to be viable devices for online
learning, they need to allow students to view and interact with course content, to

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jrs/article/34/3/3197/6262062 by guest on 10 January 2022

watch videos, read texts and complete short assignments, such as quizzes. Their
viability might further be strengthened if students can engage with other students
through forums or online tutorials. Popular MOOC platforms, such as Coursera,
edX and FutureLearn, but also online language learning providers, such as
Duolingo, generally fulfil such requirements. As screen size and memory increase,
using smartphones for online learning might become even more viable. However,
smartphones are arguably not perfect substitutes for laptops or desktop com-
puters for tasks such as programming, writing and uploading coursework or
preparing presentations. Therefore, content developed for laptops/desktops
should not simply be scaled to fit mobile screens. Since most Syrian refugees
have smartphones but the majority does not have computers, adapting learning
material and platforms to enable mobile study via smartphones should be a key
aim for digital HE providers to widen access.
All devices require electricity and a reasonably fast Internet connection. The
vast majority of respondents in our sample respond that they have access to the
former. While very few (5%) have no Internet access at all, three in four respond-
ents indicate to have at least two and one in two have at least 4 h of Internet access
a day. Internet speed, however, has been identified both by our study and prior
research as a major obstacle for digitally enhanced or online HE (El-Ghali and
Ghosn 2019). The high cost of (mobile) Internet plans is another obstacle
(UNHCR 2016). Research suggests that refugees in Jordan spend 10–20 per
cent of their disposable income (after paying for housing) on Internet connectivity
and that connectivity for private communication has often been prioritised over
education (UNHCR 2016). For online study programmes to succeed, this appar-
ent trade-off between connectivity to communicate with family and friends and
expenditure for online education has to be overcome.
Affordability not only relates to the cost of Internet access but also the oppor-
tunity cost of studying. As the vast majority of Syrian refugees in Jordan and
Lebanon live below the poverty line (UNHCR 2018), they often cannot forego
paid employment for opportunities for HE. In our study, participants reported
that they spend a substantial proportion of their time on ‘other regular activities’,
which can include work. Scholarships—although they are scarce—enable refugees
who have financial restraints to study for formal degrees, but conditional cash
transfers (CCTs) can also enable many students to continue their education
through informal digital education. A recent review of several studies of a large
CCT programme in Mexico demonstrates that these transfers decrease drop-out
rates and increase educational attainment (Parker and Todd 2017). While this
programme focused on disadvantaged children in primary and secondary
3212 Constantin Reinprecht et al.
education, CCTs might also increase the non-formal HE participation rates of
refugees. However, even without cash transfers, online programme content that
can be studied partially asynchronously and at one’s own pace could also facilitate
study alongside work.
Existing online learning platforms should adapt to local technological condi-
tions, such as older smartphones and low bandwidth (Gladwell et al. 2016a).
MOOC platforms such as edX and Coursera are increasingly making their courses

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jrs/article/34/3/3197/6262062 by guest on 10 January 2022

available through smartphone apps that allow content downloads with unreliable
Internet access and low Internet speed. New content, such as videos and quizzes,
can be downloaded to be viewed later. Libraries Without Borders, an organisation
that provides knowledge, information and education in 23 languages to the most
vulnerable populations has created autonomous, solar-powered libraries that op-
erate without an Internet connection but create wireless hotspots, through which
users can access their wide-ranging educational training resources. Organisations
providing digital education to refugee populations should focus on (open) educa-
tional resources that can be adapted to their learners’ technological and non-
technological needs. This includes low-bandwidth learning material and down-
loadable content, but also the provision of fast and affordable Internet
connections.
As many platforms offer learning opportunities only in English language, in-
sufficient language skills are another barrier to access online study programmes.
Providing online content in the language of the beneficiaries, instead of in English,
or making content translatable would help overcome language barriers and widen
access. The Jordanian MOOC platform Edraak is an example, leveraging tech-
nology from existing platforms to offer MOOCs in Arabic. Also, Kiron offers its
learning app in Arabic and curates Arabic courses from various providers. In
contrast to traditional on-campus HE, (non-formal) online learning offers the
ability to tailor existing educational programmes to heterogeneous groups. Self-
guided online courses are preferable to those with fixed start and end dates, as they
are better able to reconcile diverse study needs with refugees’ limited time
resources.

Subject Preferences and Legal and Practical Restrictions to Formal

Recognition
Giving potential students a voice can help to adapt future digital HE provision to
best suit their needs and aspirations. So far, programme choice has often been
based on ‘unsubstantiated assumptions, mainly by distance-based staff, about the
needs and demands of the target population’ (Gladwell et al. 2016b: 31). Students’
interests are rarely considered and programme choice is guided by ‘the perceived
applicability of subjects to future reconstructions of countries of origin and their
relevance for students in terms of employability’ (Gladwell et al. 2016b: 31). A
notable exception is the Jami3ti initiative in Jordan that assessed the HE needs of
Syrian refugees (UNESCO 2015b). Our survey is—to our knowledge—the first
 No Longer a ‘Lost Generation’? 3213
comparative quantitative account of Syrian refugees’ subject preferences in
Jordan and Lebanon.
Respondents in our sample are significantly more interested in computer
science than those in the 2015 UNESCO study. This could be due to their higher
technical literacy or because they might see better employment opportunities
with computer science (El-Ghali and Ghosn 2019). There is moderate interest
(16 and 12% in Jordan and Lebanon, respectively) in studying spoken English.

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jrs/article/34/3/3197/6262062 by guest on 10 January 2022

While this partly contradicts prior findings that suggest that refugee students
value English language courses as the basis for successful further HE (Crea
2016) it may be due to the fact that individuals self-identified as having high
English language skills. However, it has been shown that a significant propor-
tion of refugee students overestimate their English language abilities (Rampelt
et al. 2018b).
If the goal is to have online learning recognised as part of formal HE, legal
restrictions limit whether online learning can be recognized at all. In the
countries focused on in this paper, there appears to be no legal certainty as
to how online learning should be formally classified, especially when it
comes to online learning in the context of (formal) HE. In Lebanon, al-
though a draft law has been in Parliament since 2012, providing that 40%
of a formal qualification can be taught digitally, online learning is still not
officially recognised: ‘Among the primary structural barriers is the absence
of the legal framework for the provision and accreditation of online pro-
grams’ (El-Ghali and Ghosn 2019). Jordan currently allows up to 25 per
cent of a formal degree to be studied online (British Council Network 2017).
While degrees such as business and computer science are considered more
straightforward to teach and study digitally, for subjects such as Medicine,
Engineering and the Sciences—some of the subjects most preferred by our
respondents—this Jordanian regulation does not apply. Required hands-on
training and laboratory sessions are considered as complicating designing
and implementing online parts into these programmes. However, such sub-
jects might nevertheless profit from a blended approach where parts are
completed online while hands-on components can be delivered in
classrooms.
In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, educational institutions had to intro-
duce online teaching for at least parts of their programmes, even in the absence of
legislation. Considering the challenges the pandemic posed on HE institutions, the
Jordanian Higher Education Council announced a new strategy for online learn-
ing and the future of HE in Jordan in 2020. The strategy revealed a work plan for
clear and specific procedures over the next three years, confirming that by 2022
some 50 per cent of university courses should be available digitally, with the pro-
portion rising gradually from 25 per cent in 2020, 40 per cent in 2021 to 50 per cent
in 2022. In the first year, the ‘enrichment phase’, the university offerings are to be
enriched and expanded with international resources and platforms. In Year 2, the
‘modelling phase’, high-quality online study materials are to be designed. In the
3214 Constantin Reinprecht et al.
third year, the ‘institutionalisation and development phase’, open education is to
be achieved by building on successful global experiences (Al-Saeh 2020).

Recommendations
Based on the survey results and the previous discussion, we make three overarch-
ing recommendations to increase refugees’ access to online study programmes.

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jrs/article/34/3/3197/6262062 by guest on 10 January 2022

The first two follow from the survey results of secondary level educated Syrian
refugees in Jordan and Lebanon. The third is based on our understanding and
view of the fragmented online learning ecosystem. First, online education pro-
viders should adapt learning materials and platforms to enable mobile study via
smartphones. Secondly, such organisations should conduct advocacy work for the
formal recognition of prior online learning and to widen the subjects available to
students via online education. Third, stakeholder collaboration should be encour-
aged. We highlight successful initiatives and best practice examples throughout
this section.

Adapt Learning Materials to Enable Smartphone Studying

We have shown above that merely one in three refugees surveyed have access to a
laptop or desktop computer while more than nine in ten have regular access to a
smartphone. In addition, respondents frequently lack high speed Internet connec-
tions due to accessibility and affordability issues. Organisations providing online
education to refugee populations should hence focus on educational resources
that can be adapted to their learners’ technological and non-technological needs.
This includes low-bandwidth learning material and downloadable content for
smartphones, but also the provision of fast and affordable Internet connections.
Pilot projects have already demonstrated that smartphones can enable access to
HE for refugees (Dahya and Dryden-Peterson 2016). Kiron, for instance, has
started to adapt its learning platform for mobile phones, particularly for older
models and low bandwidth. A collaboration with the mobile company Zain has
further addressed the accessibility and affordability issue by providing a group of
Kiron’s learners with free Internet plans for the duration of their course, making
online learning during the COVID-19 lockdown without dedicated study spaces in
camps possible altogether. Despite these efforts, for many refugees interested in
digitally enhanced HE, the barriers persist. Free access to study hubs and poten-
tially also Internet cafés might provide a solution. A digital map of available free
study hubs and Internet cafés—e.g. available electronically for smartphones—and
subsidies for Internet café usage might decrease barriers to digital HE.

Advocacy Work for the Recognition of Prior Online Learning

Syrian refugees in our sample are particularly interested in studying public health,
medicine, and nursing and engineering, all of which are difficult to teach online if
the goal is to get this learning formally recognized due to legal and practical
 No Longer a ‘Lost Generation’? 3215
restrictions in Jordan and Lebanon (British Council Network 2017). However,
such subjects might conceivably be taught in a blended format, consisting of on-
line and in-classroom components. Organisations providing online HE should
hence conduct advocacy work with host country governments, work towards
jointly developing blended approaches for subjects of interest to refugees and
work towards a legal framework that recognises digital learning not only of
blended programs but also of online modules or programs to increase access

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jrs/article/34/3/3197/6262062 by guest on 10 January 2022

and affordability. Next to access, this could also enable students to save the rela-
tively high tuition fees for these modules (Rampelt and Suter 2017).
As in several European countries (Rampelt et al. 2018a), online learning is
generally considered non-formal learning in Jordan and Lebanon. Before online
study programs can be recognised as normal, there must be clear (legal) criteria for
what formal and non-formal education means, with an openness for both scen-
arios to be offered online.
Initiatives such as the UNHCR/UNESCO’s regular roundtables, the
Education Sector Working Group in Jordan, or the Connected Learning in
Crisis Consortium (CLCC), which aims to promote, coordinate, and support
the provision of quality HE in contexts of conflict, crisis and displacement, are
central to joint advocacy work. The Jordanian government’s response to the
challenges posed by the COVID-19 pandemic and the developments in
Lebanon, despite the lack of legislation, show considerable attempts to better
integrate online learning into HE.

Stakeholder Collaboration and Tailoring of Educational Programmes

The analyses above demonstrate that study time, access to a quiet place, Internet
speed, and a laptop or desktop computer are critical levers to increase the size of
the pool of potential online and blended education students. A variety of different
public and private actors might address each of these critical levers. Concrete
interventions include advocating governments and private companies to assist
in providing infrastructural investments, negotiating special refugee mobile
Internet plans and providing subsidies for Internet and/or devices.
Collaboration between education providers and mobile companies to provide
free high-speed Internet to refugees would therefore be particularly effective.
Even if Internet access is guaranteed, gaining access to information on
available online learning programmes might prove difficult. Initiatives that
provide such information to refugees, such as IIE-PEER and Jami3ati
should be expanded. While interest in online learning was high in our study,
interested prospective students will still need to be appraised of online learn-
ing opportunities to fully avail themselves of these opportunities. They also
need to be fully informed about the financial feasibility of study and any
legal restrictions to enable them to make fully informed decisions on differ-
ent learning pathways.
To target this lack of information and increase interest, it is central to under-
stand the needs of potential students in terms of their study interests, subject
3216 Constantin Reinprecht et al.
preferences, and wider educational and occupational goals in order to closely
match these offers to their aspirations and needs. Concrete measures include
informing potential students of the benefits of more non-formal learning including
ability to freely access short-learning micro content, MOOCs or certificate pro-
grammes, the acquisition of transferable skills, digital skills, English language and
the possibility to have certificates recognised by employers as well as HE
institutions.

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jrs/article/34/3/3197/6262062 by guest on 10 January 2022

The above has highlighted that meeting the needs of refugees requires concerted
cooperation from NGOs, international organisations, governments, for-profit
corporations and donors to increase access to, interest in and localisation of online
learning solutions and ultimately to prevent the emergence of a lost generation of
Syrians. Current discourse on Jordanian and Lebanese national plans within
UNHCR/UNESCO’s regular roundtables, CEU HEAR and through initiatives,
such as the Connected Learning in Crisis Consortium (CLCC), should be
strengthened.
But there is also plenty of room for online learning initiatives to lead by
example. The PADILEIA consortium involves a world-leading university,
King’s College London, two leading universities in the MENA region,
American University of Beirut and Al al-Bayt University, an EdTech non-
profit organization, Kiron and an online learning company, FutureLearn.
Each partner contributes their respective expertise in planning, developing,
advertising and implementing different aspects of the blended and online learn-
ing offering to create new pathways into HE for those who would be otherwise
wholly left behind. The consortium jointly offers students study spaces with
devices and Internet connectivity in blended settings, as well as opportunities
for fully online learning. InZone is another example of successful collaboration
in blended HE. Its term-long course, the Global History Lab, is taught online by
Princeton University professors, facilitated by InZone in Jordan’s Azraq refu-
gee camp, and certified by edX and the University of Geneva. These partner-
ships help to overcome some of the barriers to online HE identified in this article
by involving organisations that provide access to high-speed Internet as well as
computers and quiet study spaces in wholly innovative and transformative
ways.

Conclusion
Online learning opportunities can support access to quality education for ref-
ugees in environments with limited resources. However, for Syrian refugees to
participate in these programmes, organisations providing online and blended
education should focus on services and educational resources that can be
adapted to the technological and non-technological needs of their learners.
This study has shown that a key lever for improving the accessibility, scalability
and impact of online learning for Syrian refugees in the MENA region is to
adapt learning materials and platforms to enable online learning via smart-
phones. This includes making online learning accessible via older smartphones,
 No Longer a ‘Lost Generation’? 3217
providing low-bandwidth learning materials and downloadable content but
also providing fast and affordable Internet connections. We discussed good
practice examples of stakeholder cooperation in adapting educational pro-
grammes to learners’ needs. Such cooperation is also important for joint advo-
cacy to work towards legislation that recognises digital learning opportunities,
including fully online and blended learning.

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jrs/article/34/3/3197/6262062 by guest on 10 January 2022

Study Limitations
Our descriptive results are likely not representative for the wider population of
Syrian refugees that face barriers in accessing HE. As we mentioned above, our
respondents—young secondary-level educated Syrian refugees in Jordan and
Lebanon—might be by design more likely to be interested in and motivated to
participate in online programmes. However, the implications of our findings ar-
guably hold up in other refugee contexts. Online and blended learning might be
one means to bridge access to formal HE.
Article written between June 2018 and January 2020 and revised between
September and October 2020.

Acknowledgements
The survey was developed as part of the Partnership for Digital Learning and
Increased Access (PADILEIA) project in mid-2017. PADILEIA is a five-
member consortium led by King’s College London (KCL) that brings to-
gether Higher Education Institutions, private and not-for-profit organiza-
tions. The partnership includes a local university in Jordan (Al al-Bayt
University) and in Lebanon (American University of Beirut) and is designed
to be sensitive to local HE and labour market contexts in Jordan and
Lebanon. It aims to support Syrian refugees and host communities seeking
access to HE. The partnership provides blended academic programmes,
including Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs), targeted online learning,
and classroom-based learning to Syrian refugees and members of the host
communities. Technology-enhanced learning environments will broaden ac-
cess to high-quality educational programmes, providing a foundation for
further HE and potentially preparing students to contribute to the rebuilding
of post-conflict Syria and integration into the workforce more broadly. Prior
to the implementation phase of the project a key stakeholder analysis and a
large-scale needs assessment was conducted. The latter serves as the main
data source for this article. The survey has received ethics clearance from
KCL (REC Reference Number HR-16/17–4776). We thank KCL and Kiron
staff for their help designing, conducting, and evaluating the survey, particu-
larly Dr Steffen Brandt, Dr Daniel Jones, Dr Tania Lima, Grace Atkinson,
Dr Suzanne Harkins, Dr Kyle R. Dyer, Kal Breadmore and Steve Thorpe.
We further thank Heba Dakhlallah, Léa Batal, Anna Miller, Allison Church
and Franziska Pfeifer for valuable comments on earlier versions of this
article.
3218 Constantin Reinprecht et al.
Funding
The data collection for this study was conducted as part of the Partnership
for Digital Learning and Increased Access (PADILEIA) project. PADILEIA
is funded by the UK Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office
(FCDO), through the Strategic Partnerships for Higher Education
Innovation and Reform (SPHEIR) programme (www.spheir.org.uk).
SPHEIR is managed on behalf of FCDO by a consortium led by the

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jrs/article/34/3/3197/6262062 by guest on 10 January 2022

British Council that includes PwC and Universities UK International. The
award number is 1002. Additionally, Constantin Reinprecht was the recipient
of an ESRC scholarship. The opinions presented in the paper are the authors’
and do not necessarily represent their respective organisations or the
PADILEIA project.

Supplementary Data
Supplementary data are available at JRS online.

AL-FANAR MEDIA (2015) Strengthening Delivery of Higher Education to Syrian Refugees. Istanbul,
https://www.al-fanarmedia.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/Strengthening-Delivery-og-Higher-
Education-to-Syrian-Refugees.pdf> (accessed 23 October 2020).
AL-SAEH (2020) 50% of University Courses Will Be Digital in 2022. Amman, Jordan, https://www.
addustour.com/articles/1166637-50 (accessed 23 October 2020).
BARAKAT, S. and MILTON, S. (2015) Houses of Wisdom Matter: The Responsibility to Protect and
Rebuild Higher Education in the Arab World. Doha, https://www.brookings.edu/research/houses-
of-wisdom-matter-the-responsibility-to-protect-and-rebuild-higher-education-in-the-arab-world/
(accessed 6 February 2018).
BRITISH COUNCIL NETWORK (2017) Additional Accreditation Conditions for Online Courses in
Jordan. British Council, https://siem.britishcouncil.org/news/market-news/additional-accredit
ation-conditions-online-courses-jordan (accessed 5 February 2018).
CHRISTOPHERSEN, M. (2015) Securing Education for Syrian Refugees in Jordan. New York:
International Peace Institute.
COLUCCI, E., SMIDT, H., DEVAUX, A., VRASIDAS, C., SAFARJALANI, M. and CASTANO ~
~
MUNOZ, J. (2017) Free Digital Learning Opportunities for Migrants and Refugees: An Analysis of
Current Initiatives and Recommendations for Their Further Use. Luxembourg: Publications Office
of the European Union. doi:10.2760/684414.
CREA, T. M. (2016) ‘Refugee Higher Education: Contextual Challenges and Implications for Program
Design, Delivery, and Accompaniment’. International Journal of Educational Development 46:
12–22.
CREA, T. M. and MCFARLAND, M. (2015) ‘Higher Education for Refugees: Lessons from a 4-Year
Pilot Project’. International Review of Education 61(2): 235–245.
DAHYA, N. (2016) Education in Conflict and Crisis: How Can Technology Make a Difference? A
Landscape Review. Bonn: Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ)
GmbH. https://www.giz.de/de/downloads/giz2016_en_Landscape_Review_ICT_in_Conflict_
and_Crisis.pdf (accessed 8 February 2018).
DAHYA, N. and DRYDEN-PETERSON, S. E. (2017) ‘Tracing Pathways to Higher Education for
Refugees: The Role of Virtual Support Networks and Mobile Phones for Women in Refugee
Camps’. Comparative Education 53(2): 284–218.
 No Longer a ‘Lost Generation’? 3219
DEANE, S. (2016) ‘Syria’s Lost Generation: Refugee Education Provision and Societal Security in an
Ongoing Conflict Emergency’. IDS Bulletin 47(3): 35–52.
DRYDEN-PETERSON, S. and GILES, W. (2010) ‘Higher Education for Refugees’. Refuge: Canada’s
Journal on Refugees 27(2): 3–9.
EL-GHALI, H. A. and GHOSN, E. (2019) Towards Connected Learning in Lebanon. Beirut:
American University of Beirut. https://www.aub.edu.lb/ifi/Documents/publications/re
search_reports/2018-2019/20190221_towards_connected_learning_in_lebanon.pdf
(accessed 5 February 2020).
GLADWELL, C., HOLLOW, D., ROBINSON, A., NORMAN, B., BOWERMAN, E., MITCHELL,

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jrs/article/34/3/3197/6262062 by guest on 10 January 2022

J., FLOREMONT, F., and HUTCHINSON, P. (2016a) Higher Education for Refugees in Low
Resource Environments: Landscape Review. UK: Jigsaw Consult. https://www.jigsawconsult.com/
sites/default/files/files/Landscape review.pdf (accessed 8 February 2018).
GLADWELL, C., HOLLOW, D., ROBINSON, A., NORMAN, B., BOWERMAN, E., MITCHELL,
J. et al. (2016b) Higher education for refugees in low resource environments: research study. UK:
Jigsaw Consult.
ITU NEWS (2016) ‘Zain, UNHCR and Facebook collaborate to support Connectivity for Refugees
initiative in Jordan’. ITU News, http://news.itu.int/zain-unhcr-facebook-collaborate-support-con
nectivity-refugees-initiative-jordan/ (accessed 10 April 2018).
LORISIKA, I., CREMONINI, L., and SAFAR JALANI, M. (2015) Study to Design a
Programme/Clearinghouse Providing Access to Higher Education for Syrian Refugees and
Internal Displaced Persons Final Report.
MASON, B. and BUCHANAN, D. (2016) ICT4Refugees: A Report on the Emerging Landscape of
Digital Responces to the Refugee Crisis. Bonn: Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale
Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH, https://regasus.de/online/datastore?epk¼74D5roYc&file¼
image_8_en (accessed 6 February 2018).
MOSER-MERCER, B. (2014) MOOCs in Fragile Contexts. European MOOCs Stakeholders Summit,
http://virtualinstitute.fti.unige.ch/inzone12/Media-Upload_Xvc78HxeZ34xv/Kcfinder/files/
MOOCs in Fragile Contexts.pdf (accessed 6 February 2018).
MOSER-MERCER, B. (2016) ‘Building on Experience With Digital Education for Refugees’.
Al-Fanar Media, http://www.al-fanarmedia.org/2016/09/digital-learning-refugee-context-build
ing-back-better/ (accessed 11 July 2017).
PARKER, S. W. and TODD, P. E. (2017) ‘Conditional Cash Transfers: The Case of
Progresa/Oportunidades’. Journal of Economic Literature 55(3): 866–915.
RAMPELT, F. and SUTER, R. (2017) ‘Recognition of Prior Learning – Outcome-Oriented
Approaches to the Recognition and Assessment of MOOC-Based Digital Learning Scenarios’. In
Luis Gómez Chova A., López Martı́nez and Candel Torres I. (eds.), EduLearn 2017. 9th Annual
International Conference on Education and New Learning Technologies. Barcelona, pp. 6645–6653.
RAMPELT, F., NIEDERMEIER, H., RÖWERT, R., WALLOR, L. and BERTHOLD, C. (2018a)
‘Digital Anerkannt’, Möglichkeiten Und Verfahren Zur Anerkennung Und Anrechnung Von in
MOOCs Erworbenen Kompetenzen. Arbeitspapier Nr. 34 (2. Auflage). Berlin: Hochschulforum
Digitalisierung.
RAMPELT, F., SUTER, R. and NIEDERMEIER, H. (2018b) ‘INTEGRAL2 - Integration Und
Teilhabe Von Geflüchteten im Rahmen Von Digitalen Lehr- Und Lernszenarien’, Teilvorhaben
“Innovationsprozesse in Der Digitalen Hochschulbildung Für Geflüchtete”. Berlin, Kiron Open
Higher Education.
REACH (2014) Syrian Refugees in Host Communities: Key Informant Interviews/District Profiling.
https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/REACH-BritishEmbassyAmman_
Syrian%20Refugees%20in%20Host%20Communities_Key%20Informant%20Interviews%
20and%20District%20Profiling_Jan2014.pdf (accessed 6 February 2018).
SHERAB, D. and KIRK, K. (2016) Access to Higher Education for Refugees in Jordan.
ARDD-LEGAL AID.
UNESCO (2015a) Education 2030: Incheon Declaration and Framework for Action for the imple-
mentation of Sustainable Development Goal 4.
3220 Constantin Reinprecht et al.
UNESCO (2015b) UNESCO - EU Jami3ti Initiative: Mapping of Higher Education Needs and
Opportunities for Syrian Refugees, Jordan Survey Report. UNESCO. http://www.reachresource
centre.info/system/files/resource-documents/reach_jor_unesco_education_report_20151409_en.pdf
(accessed 6 February 2018).
UNESCO (2016) Global Education Monitoring Report 2016: Education for people and planet: creat-
ing sustainable futures for all. Paris, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization. http://en.unesco.org/about-us/introducing-unesco (accessed 13 February 2018).
UNESCO and CoL (2016) ‘Making Sense of MOOCs’, A Guide for Policymakers in Developing
Countries. Paris, UNESCO.

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jrs/article/34/3/3197/6262062 by guest on 10 January 2022

UNESCO (2018) A lifeline to learning. Leveraging technology to support education for refugees. Paris,
UNESCO.
UNHCR (2015) Jordan National Refugee Youth Consultation: Summary Report.
UNHCR (2016) Connecting Refugees: How Internet and Mobile Connectivity can Improve refugee
Well-being and Transform Humanitarian Action. Geneva, UNHCR. http://www.unhcr.org/con
nectivity-for-refugees.html (accessed 22 November 2017).
UNHCR (2018) 3RP Regional Refugee & Resilience Plan 2018-2019 in response to the Syria Crisis.
Regional Strategic Overview. UNHCR doi:10.1177/009365027900600102.
UNHCR (2019) Stepping up: Refugee Education in Crisis. UNHCR. https://www.unhcr.org/step
pingup/wp-content/uploads/sites/76/2019/09/Education-Report-2019-Final-web-9.pdf (accessed
5 February 2020).
UNHCR, UNICEF and WFP (2016) Vulnerability Assessment of Syrian Refugees in Lebanon 2016.
http://reliefweb.int/report/lebanon/vulnerability-assessment-syrian-refugees-lebanon-2016
(accessed 6 February 2018).
WATENPAUGH, K. D., FRICKE, A. L. and KING, J. R. (2014) The War Follows Them: Syrian
University Students and Scholars in Lebanon. Institute of International Education, UC Davis,
University of California. http://www.daleel-madani.org/sites/default/files/The-War-Follows-
Them-Syrian-University-Students-Scholars-In-Lebanon.pdf (accessed 6 February 2018).
WATENPAUGH, K. D., FRICKE, A. L. and SIEGEL, T. (2013) Uncounted and Unacknowledged:
Syria’s Refugee University Students and Academics in Jordan. UC Davis Human Rights Initiative
and the Institute of International Education.
ZHENGHAO, C., ALCORN, B., CHRISTENSEN, G., ERIKSSON, N., KOLLER, D. and
EMANUEL, E. J. (2015) Who’s Benefiting from MOOCs, and Why. Harvard Business Review.
https://hbr.org/2015/09/whos-benefiting-from-moocs-and-why (accessed 6 February 2018).