A

Project Report On

CORROSION
submitted in partial fulfilment of the
All India Senior School Certificate Examination of Chemistry
Practical
of
CBSE-2021-22
Submitted By

PARTH DADHICH
Under the guidance of
MR. IMRAN KHAN

SHREE MAHESH PUBLIC SCHOOL

Nehru road, Opposite BSNL office Bhilwara-311001(Raj.)

2021-22
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 SHREE MAHESH PUBLIC SCHOOL

Nehru road, Opposite BSNL office Bhilwara-311001(Raj.)

2021-22

CERTIFICATE

This is certificate that “PARTH DADHICH” of class 12th has submitted

his project on the topic “CORROSION” prescribed by “MR. IMRAN
KHAN” in partial fulfilment of All India Senior School Certificate
Examination of the chemistry practical evaluation during academic
session 2021-22 as per guidelines issued by Central Board of
Secondary Education. He has done the work with sincerity and
dedication.

I wish him all success in life.

Mr. Imran Khan

(PGT Chemistry)
SMPS, Bhilwara

Principal External Examiner

SMPS, Bhilwara

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

“There are times when silence speaks so much more loudly than words of praise
to only as good as belittle a person, whose words do not express, but only put a
veneer over true feelings, which are of gratitude at this point of time."

Every Orientation work has an imprint of many people and I hereby take this
opportunity to acknowledge all the help, guidance & moral support that I have
received for the completion of this project named “CORROSION” with supreme
sincerity and deep sense of appreciation, I express my heartily thanks to Mr.
Imran Khan (PGT-Chemistry) for his cooperation and guidance.

I express my gratitude towards our principal Mrs. Arvinder Kaur who has
guided us regarding the project and give valuable suggestions. She inspired us
and also provided all facilities needed for completion of project.

Above all, I would like to thank my beloved parents for their direct and indirect
help, moral support and blessings without which, this would not have been
possible.

I would also like to express thanks to my friends, for their help and moral support.
Lastly I would like to thank all those who directly or indirectly helped us
throughout my work.

PARTH DADHICH

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS [TOC]

S.No DESCRIPTION PAGE NO

01 INTRODUCTION 06

02 CORROSION 07

03 GALVANIC CORROSION 08

04 RUST IN IRON 10

05 CORROSION IN ZINC 14

06 CORROSION IN COPPER 19

07 CORROSION IN ALUMINIUM 21

08 METALS RESISTANT TO CORROSION 25

09 CORROSION PREVENTING METHODS 28

10 PRACTICAL 29

11 BIBLIOGRAPHY 33

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 AIM

‘TO STUDY THE EFFECT OF METAL COUPLING ON

THE RATEOF CORROSION ’

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 INTRODUCTION

Corrosion is the gradual destruction of material, usually metals, by chemical

reaction with its environment. In the most common use of the word, this
means electrochemical oxidation of metals in reaction with an oxidant such as
oxygen. Rusting, the formation of iron oxides, is a well-known example of
electrochemical corrosion. This type of damage typically produces oxide(s) or
salt(s) of the original metal. Corrosion can also occur in materials other than
metals, such as ceramics or polymers, although in this context, the term
degradation is more common. Corrosion degrades the useful properties of
materials and structures including strength, appearance and permeability to
liquids and gases.

Many structural alloys corrode merely from exposure to moisture in the air,
but the process can be strongly affected by exposure to certain substances.
Corrosion can be concentrated locally to form a pit or crack, or it can extend
across a wide area more or less uniformly corroding the surface. Because
corrosion is a diffusion-controlled process, it occurs on exposed surfaces. As a
result, methods to reduce the activity of the exposed surface, such as
passivation and chromate conversion, can increase a material's corrosion
resistance. However, some corrosion mechanisms are less visible and less
predictable.

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 CORROSION

Corrosion is a natural process that converts a refined metal into a more

chemically-stable form such as oxide, hydroxide, or sulfide. It is the gradual
destruction of materials (usually metals) by chemical and/or electrochemical
reaction with their environment. Corrosion engineering is the field dedicated
to control and stop corrosion.

In the most common use of the word, this means electrochemical oxidation of
metal in reaction with an oxidant such as oxygen or sulfates. Rusting, the
formation of iron oxides is a well-known example of electrochemical corrosion.
This type of damage typically produces oxide(s) or salt(s) of the original metal
and results in a distinctive orange coloration. Corrosion can also occur in
materials other than metals, such as ceramics or polymers, although in this
context, the term "degradation" is more common. Corrosion degrades the
useful properties of materials and structures including strength, appearance
and permeability to liquids and gases.

Many structural alloys corrode merely from exposure to moisture in air, but
the process can be strongly affected by exposure to certain substances.
Corrosion can be concentrated locally to form a pit or crack, or it can extend
across a wide area more or less uniformly corroding the surface. Because
corrosion is a diffusion-controlled process, it occurs on exposed surfaces. As a
result, methods to reduce the activity of the exposed surface, such as
passivation and chromate conversion, can increase a material's corrosion
resistance. However, some corrosion mechanisms are less visible and less
predictable.

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 GALVANIC CORROSION

Galvanic corrosion of aluminum. A 5-mm-thick aluminum alloy plate is

physically (and hence, electrically) connected to a 10-mm-thick mild steel
structural support. Galvanic corrosion occurred on the aluminum plate along
the joint with the steel. Perforation of aluminum plate occurred within 2 years.

Galvanic corrosion occurs when two different metals have physical or electrical
contact with each other and are immersed in a common electrolyte, or when
the same metal is exposed to electrolyte with different concentrations. In a
galvanic couple, the more active metal (the anode) corrodes at an accelerated
rate and the more noble metal (the cathode) corrodes at a slower rate. When
immersed separately, each metal corrodes at its own rate. What type of
metal(s) to use is readily determined by following the galvanic series. For
example, zinc is often used as a sacrificial anode for steel structures. Galvanic
corrosion is of major interest to the marine industry and also anywhere water
(containing salts) contacts pipes or metal structures.

Factors such as relative size of anode, types of metal, and operating conditions
(temperature, humidity, salinity, etc.) affect galvanic corrosion. The surface
area ratio of the anode and cathode directly affects the corrosion rates of the
materials. Galvanic corrosion is often prevented by the use of sacrificial
anodes.

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Galvanic series

In any given environment (one standard medium is aerated, room-

temperature seawater), one metal will be either more noble or more active
than others, based on how strongly its ions are bound to the surface. Two
metals in electrical contact share the same electrons, so that the "tug-of-war"
at each surface is analogous to competition for free electrons between the two
materials. Using the electrolyte as a host for the flow of ions in the same
direction, the noble metal will take electrons from the active one. The resulting
mass flow or electric current can be measured to establish a hierarchy of
materials in the medium of interest. This hierarchy is called a galvanic series
and is useful in predicting and understanding corrosion.

Corrosion removal

Often it is possible to chemically remove the products of corrosion. For

example, phosphoric acid in the form of naval jelly is often applied to ferrous
tools or surfaces to remove rust. Corrosion removal should not be confused
with electro polishing, which removes some layers of the underlying metal to
make a smooth surface. For example, phosphoric acid may also be used to
electro polish copper but it does this by removing copper, not the products of
copper corrosion.

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 RUSTING OF IRON

Rusting of iron refers to the formation of rust, a mixture of iron oxides, on the
surface of iron objects or structures. This rust is formed from a redox reaction
between oxygen and iron in an environment containing water (such as air
containing high levels of moisture). The rusting of iron is characterized by the
formation of a layer of a red, flaky substance that easily crumbles into a
powder.

This phenomenon is a great example of the corrosion of metals, where the

surfaces of metals are degraded into more chemically stable oxides. However,
the term ‘rusting’ is generally used to refer to the corrosion of objects made of
iron or iron-alloys.

What is the Chemistry behind the Rusting of Iron?

The exposure of iron (or an alloy of iron) to oxygen in the presence of moisture
leads to the formation of rust. This reaction is not instantaneous; it generally
proceeds over a considerably large time frame. The oxygen atoms bond with
iron atoms, resulting in the formation of iron oxides. This weakens the bonds
between the iron atoms in the object/structure.

The reaction of the rusting of iron involves an increase in the oxidation state of
iron, accompanied by a loss of electrons. Rust is mostly made up of two
different oxides of iron that vary in the oxidation state of the iron atom. These
oxides are:

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1. Iron (II) oxide or ferrous oxide. The oxidation state of iron in this compound
is +2 and its chemical formula is FeO.
2. Iron (III) oxide or ferric oxide, where the iron atom exhibits an oxidation
state of +3. The chemical formula of this compound is Fe2O3.

Oxygen is a very good oxidizing agent whereas iron is a reducing agent.

Therefore, the iron atom readily gives up electrons when exposed to oxygen.
The chemical reaction is given by:

Fe → Fe2+ + 2e–

The oxidation state of iron is further increased by the oxygen atom when
water is present.

4Fe2+ + O2 → 4Fe3+ + 2O2-

Now, the following acid-base reactions occur between the iron cations and the
water molecules.

Fe2+ + 2H2O ⇌ Fe(OH)2 + 2H+

Fe3+ + 3H2O ⇌ Fe(OH)3 + 3H+

The hydroxides of iron are also formed from the direct reaction between the
iron cations and hydroxide ions.

O2 + H2O + 4e– → 4OH–

Fe2+ + 2OH– → Fe(OH)2
Fe3+ + 3OH– → Fe(OH)3
The resulting hydroxides of iron now undergo dehydration to yield the iron
oxides that constitute rust. This process involves many different chemical
reactions, some of which are listed below.

1. Fe(OH)2 FeO + H2O

2. 4Fe(OH)2 + O2 + xH2O 2Fe2O3.(x+4)H2O
3. Fe(OH)3 FeO(OH) + H2O
4. FeO(OH) Fe2O3 + H2O
One similarity between all the chemical reactions listed above is that all of
them are dependent on the presence of water and oxygen. Therefore, the
rusting of iron can be controlled by limiting the amount of oxygen and water
surrounding the metal.
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 Why is Rusting an Undesirable Phenomenon?

Rusting causes iron to become flaky and weak, degrading its strength,
appearance, and permeability. Rusted iron does not hold the desirable
properties of iron. The rusting of iron can lead to damage to automobiles,
railings, grills, and many other iron structures.
The collapse of the Silver Bridge in 1967 and the Mianus River Bridge
in 1983 is attributed to the corrosion of the steel/iron components of the
bridge. Many buildings made up of reinforced concrete also undergo structural
failures over long periods of time due to rusting.
Rusted iron can be a breeding ground for bacteria that cause tetanus.
Cuts from these objects that pierce the skin can be dangerous.
Since rusting occurs at an accelerated rate in humid conditions, the
insides of water pipes and tanks are susceptible to it. This causes the pipes to
carry brown or black water containing an unsafe amount of iron oxides.

Factors that Affect the Rusting of Iron

Many factors speed up the rusting of iron, such as the moisture content in the
environment and the pH of the surrounding area. Some of these factors are
listed below.

• Moisture: The corrosion of iron is limited to the availability of water in

the environment. Exposure to rains is the most common reason for
rusting.
• Acid: if the pH of the environment surrounding the metal is low, the
rusting process is quickened. The rusting of iron speeds up when it is
exposed to acid rains. Higher pH inhibits the corrosion of iron.
• Salt: Iron tends to rust faster in the sea, due to the presence of various
salts. Saltwater contains many ions that speed up the rusting process via
electrochemical reactions.
• Impurity: Pure iron tends to rust more slowly when compared to iron
containing a mixture of metals.

The size of the iron object can also affect the speed of the rusting process. For
example, a large iron object is likely to have small deficiencies as a result of the
smelting process. These deficiencies are a platform for attacks on the metal
from the environment.

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 How can Rusting be prevented?
Iron and its alloys are widely used in the construction
of many structures and in many machines and objects. Therefore, the
prevention of the corrosion of iron is very important. Some preventive
methods are listed below.

Alloys that are Resistant to Rusting

Some alloys of iron are rust-resistant. Examples include stainless steel (which
features a layer of chromium (III) oxide) and weathering steel.
COR-TEN steel rusts at a relatively slower rate when
compared to normal steel. In this alloy, the rust forms a protective layer on the
surface of the alloy, preventing further corrosion.

Galvanization

• Galvanization is the process of applying a protective layer of zinc on a

metal. It is a very common method of preventing the rusting of iron.
• This can be done by dipping the metal to be protected in hot, molten zinc
or by the process of electroplating.
• Zinc is a relatively cheap metal that sticks to steel easily. It also offers
cathodic protection to the iron surface by acting as an anode. The zinc
layer is corroded instead of the iron due to this.
• The disadvantages of galvanization are that it only provides protection
from corrosion for a limited amount of time since the zinc layer is eaten
up in the process. It is not very effective in highly corrosive areas (where
cadmium coating can be used instead).

Cathodic Protection

• Providing the metals with an electric charge can help inhibit the
electrochemical reactions that lead to rusting.
• This can be done by making the iron/steel a cathode by attaching a
sacrificial anode to it.
• This sacrificial anode must have an electrode potential that is more
negative than that of iron.
• Metals that are commonly used as sacrificial anodes are magnesium, zinc, and
aluminum. Once they are corroded away, they must be replaced in order to
protect the iron/steel.

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 CORROSION OF ZINC

Zinc is more corrosion resistant than steel in most natural atmospheres, the
exceptions being ventilated indoor atmospheres where the corrosion of both
steel and zinc is extremely low and certain highly corrosive industrial
atmospheres.

Coatings of metallic zinc are generally regarded as the most economical means
of protecting against corrosion. Seven methods of applying a zinc coating to
iron and steel are in general use: hot dip galvanizing, continuous-line
galvanizing, electro-galvanizing, zinc plating, mechanical plating, zinc spraying,
and painting with zinc-bearing paints.

Atmospheric Corrosion. The behavior of zinc and zinc coatings during

atmospheric exposure has been closely examined in tests conducted
throughout the world. The performance of zinc in a specific atmospheric
environment can be predicted within reasonable limits.

Precise comparison of corrosion behavior in atmospheres is complex because

of the many factors involved, such as prevailing wind direction, type and
intensity of corrosive fumes, the amount of sea spray, and the relative periods
of moisture or condensation and dryness. However, it is generally accepted
that the corrosion rate of zinc is low; it ranges from 0.13 µm/yr in dry rural
atmospheres to 0.013 mm/ in more moist industrial atmospheres.

Zinc is more corrosion resistant than steel in most natural atmospheres, the
exceptions being ventilated indoor atmospheres where the corrosion of both
steel and zinc is extremely low and certain highly corrosive industrial
atmospheres. For example, in seacoast atmospheres the corrosion rate of zinc
is about 1/25 that of steel.

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Zinc owes its high degree of resistance to atmospheric corrosion to the
formation of insoluble basic carbonate films. Environmental conditions that
interfere with the formation of such films may attack zinc quite rapidly.

The important factors that control the rate at zinc corrodes in atmospheric
exposures are:

• The duration and frequency of moisture

• The rate at which the surface dries
• The extent of industrial pollution of the atmosphere.

In dry air, zinc is slowly attacked by atmospheric oxygen. A thin, dense layer of
oxides formed on the surface of the zinc, and outer layer then forms on top of
it. Although outer layer breaks away occasionally, the under layer remains and
protects the metal restricting its interaction with the oxygen. Under these
conditions, which occur in some tropical climates, the zinc oxidizes very slowly.

Atmospheric corrosion has been defined to include corrosion by air at

temperatures between -18 to 70°C in the open and in enclosed spaces of all
kinds. Deterioration in the atmosphere is sometimes called weathering. This
definition encompasses a great variety of environments of differing
corrosivities. The factors that determine the corrosivity of an atmosphere
include industrial pollution, marine pollution, humidity, temperature
(especially the spread between daily highs and lows that influence
condensation and evaporation of moisture) and rainfall.

The atmosphere, as far as corrosion is concerned, is not a simple invariant

environment. The influence of these factors on the corrosion of zinc is related
to their effect on the initiation and growth of protective films.

Corrosion of Zinc in Water.

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The corrosion of zinc in water is largely controlled by the impurities present in
the water. Naturally occurring waters are seldom pure. Even rainwater, which
is distilled by nature, contains nitrogen, oxygen, CO2, and other gases, as well
as entrained dust and smoke particles. Water that runs over the ground carries
with it eroded soil, decaying vegetation, living microorganisms, dissolved salts,
and colloidal and suspended matter. Water that seeps through soil contains
dissolved CO2 and becomes acidic. Groundwater also contains salts of calcium,
magnesium, iron, and manganese. Seawater contains many of these salts in
addition to its high NaCl content.

All of these foreign substances in natural waters affect the structure and
composition of the resulting films and corrosion products on the surface, which
in turn control the corrosion of zinc. In addition to these substances, such
factors as pH, time of exposure, temperature, motion, and fluid agitation
influence the aqueous corrosion of zinc.

As in the atmosphere, the corrosion resistance of a zinc coating in water

depends on its initial ability to form a protective layer by reacting with the
environment. In distilled water, which cannot form a protective scale to reduce
the access of oxygen to the zinc surface, the attack is more severe than in most
types of domestic or river water, which do contain some scale-forming salts.

The scale-forming ability of water depends principally on three factors: the

hydrogen ion concentration (pH value), the total calcium content and the total
alkalinity.

Corrosion in dissolved salts, acids and bases. Zinc is not used in contact with
acid and strong alkaline solutions, because it corrodes rapidly in such media.

Very dilute concentrations of acids accelerate corrosion rates beyond the limits
of usefulness. Alkaline solutions of moderate strength are much less corrosive
than corresponding concentrations of acid, but are still corrosive enough to
impair the usefulness of zinc.

Zinc-coated steel is used in handling refrigeration brines that may contain

calcium chloride (CaCl2). In this case, the corrosion rate is kept under control by
adding sufficient alkali to bring the pH into the mildly alkaline range and by the
addition of inhibitors, such as sodium chromate (Na2CrO4). Certain salts, such
as the dichromates, borates, and silicates, act as inhibitors to the aqueous
corrosion of zinc.

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Organic Compounds. Many organic liquids that are nearly neutral in pH and
substantially free from water do not attack zinc. Therefore, zinc and zinc-
coated products are commonly used with gasoline, glycerin, and inhibited
trichloroethylene. The presence of free water may cause local corrosion
because of the lack of access to oxygen. When water is present, zinc may
function as a catalyst in the decomposition of such solutions as
trichloroethylene with acid attack as the result. Some organic compounds that
contain acidic impurities, such as low-grade glycerin, attack zinc. Although
neutral soaps do not attack zinc, there may be some formation of zinc soaps in
dilute soap solutions.

Gases. Zinc may be safely used in contact with most common gases at normal
temperatures if water is absent. Moisture content stimulates attack. Dry
chlorine does not affect zinc. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is also harmless because
insoluble zinc sulfide (ZnS) is formed. On the other hand, SO2 and chlorides
have a corrosive action because water-soluble and hygroscopic salts are
formed.

Indoor Exposure. Zinc corrodes very little in ordinary indoor atmospheres of

moderate relative humidity. In general, a tarnish film begins to form at spots
where dust particles are present on the surface: the film then develops slowly.
This attack may be a function of the percentage of relative humidity at which
the particles absorb moisture from the air.

Rapid corrosion can occur where the temperature decreases and where visible
moisture that condenses on the metal dries slowly. This is related to the ease
with which such thin moisture films maintain high oxygen content because of
the small volume of water and large water/air interface area.

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Zinc Coating Processes

Coatings of metallic zinc are generally regarded as the most economical means
of protecting against corrosion. Seven methods of applying a zinc coating to
iron and steel are in general use: hot dip galvanizing, continuous-line
galvanizing, electro-galvanizing, zinc plating, mechanical plating, zinc spraying,
and painting with zinc-bearing paints.

There is usually at least one process that is applicable to any specific purpose.
Because the processes are complementary, there are rarely more than two
processes to be seriously considered as the best choice for a particular
application.

Hot Dip Galvanizing. In hot dip galvanizing, the steel or iron to be zinc coated is
usually completely immersed in a bath of molten zinc. It is by far the most
widely used of the zinc coating processes and has been practiced commercially
for almost two centuries. The modern hot dip galvanizing process is conducted
in carefully controlled plants by applying the results of scientific research, and
it is far removed from that of years ago although it is still dependent on the
same basic principles.

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 CORROSION OF COPPER

• What does Copper Corrosion mean?

Copper corrosion is the corrosion of materials made of copper or copper alloys.

When exposed to the atmosphere, copper oxidizes, causing bright copper
surfaces to tarnish. After a few years, this tarnish gradually changes to dark
brown or black, and finally to green.

Copper corrosion occurs at negligible rates in unpolluted air, water and

deaerated non-oxidizing acids. However, it is susceptible to more rapid attack
in oxidizing acids, oxidizing heavy-metal salts, sulfur, ammonia, and some
sulfur and ammonia compounds.

There are two known types of copper corrosion which are uniform copper
corrosion and non-uniform copper corrosion.

Copper is also susceptible to crevice corrosion attack.

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❖ Modeling Corrosion and Corrosion Protection

Certain conditions can cause copper corrosion when the copper is exposed
to particular soils, including:

• Abnormally aggressive soils.

• Action of stray direct currents (DC) flowing in the ground.
• Faulty design and workmanship.
• Certain conditions created by alternating currents (AC).
• Thermo galvanic effects.
• Galvanic action involving dissimilar materials.

Coupling of copper with aluminum or copper with steel can lead to

severe galvanic corrosion. Cyanides are also very corrosive to copper
pipe.

The good resistance of copper pipe alloys to corrosion by seawater depends

partly upon the inherent cathodic nobility of the metal, but it also depends on
the ability to form protective films. High-velocity and turbulent flow
conditions can remove these films and permit local, rapid corrosion.

There are two types of copper corrosion:

• Uniform - Identified by the presence of a relatively uniform layer of

copper corrosion byproducts across the inner surface of a pipe wall.
• Non-uniform - Isolated development of corrosion cells across the
inner surface of a pipe wall. Excessive pitting corrosion can lead to
pinhole leaks in the pipe. This can result in water damage and mold
growth.

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 CORROSION OF ALUMINIUM

Corrosion is the chemical reaction of a metal, in this case aluminum, with its
environment, which leads to the deterioration of the properties of metals,
aluminum in this case. Aluminum is a very reactive metal, but it is also a
passive metal. This contradictory nature is explainable because nascent
aluminum reacts with oxygen or water and forms a coherent surface oxide
which impedes further reaction of aluminum with the environment.

Aluminum is chemically very reactive. For example, powdered aluminum is

used as rocket propellant for propulsion of the space shuttle's solid fuel
rockets. Additionally, the reaction of aluminum with water releases a
tremendous amount of energy:

AI + 3H2O → AI(OH)3 + 3H2 ↑

Corrosion is the reaction of aluminum with water and the subsequent

deterioration of its properties. Corrosion, by definition, is a slow process,
requiring days or years to occur to a noticeable extent, as opposed to similar
electrochemical reactions such as etching, brightening, or anodizing which
occur in minutes or less.

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 Aluminum alloys may corrode via several different pathways. Recognizing the
pathway or the forms of aluminum corrosion is an important step to determine
the appropriate remedy for each probe.

Atmospheric Corrosion

Atmospheric corrosion is defined as the corrosion or degradation of material

exposed to the air and its pollutants rather than immersed in a liquid. This has
been identified as one of the oldest forms of corrosion and has been reported
to account for more failures in terms of cost and tonnage than any other single
environment. Many authors classify atmospheric corrosion under categories of
dry, damp, and wet, thus emphasizing the different mechanisms of attack
under increasing humidity or moisture.
Corrosivity of the atmosphere to metals varies greatly from one
geographic location to another, depending on such weather factors as wind
direction, precipitation and temperature changes, amount and type of urban
and industrial pollutants, and proximity to natural bodies of water. Service life
may also be affected by the design of the structure if weather conditions cause
repeated moisture condensation in unsealed crevices or in channels with no
provision for drainage.

Uniform Corrosion

General corrosion, or uniform corrosion, occurs in the solutions where pH is

either very high or very low, or at high potentials in electrolytes with high
chloride concentrations. In acidic (low pH) or alkaline (high pH) solutions, the
aluminum oxide is unstable and thus non-protective.

Galvanic Corrosion

Economically, galvanic corrosion creates the largest number of corrosion

problems for aluminum alloys. Galvanic corrosion, also known as dissimilar
metal corrosion, occurs when aluminum is electrically connected to a more
noble metal, and both are in contact with the same electrolyte.

Crevice Corrosion

Crevice corrosion requires the presence of a crevice, a salt water environment,

oxygen (Fig. 1). The crevice can result from the overlap of two parts, or gap

22
between a bolt and a structure. When aluminum is wetted with the saltwater
and water enters the crevice, little happens initially. Over time, inside the
crevice oxygen is consumed due to the dissolution and precipitation of
aluminum.

Crevice corrosion can occur in a saltwater environment if the crevice becomes

deaerated, and the oxygen reduction reaction occurs outside of the crevice
mouth. Under these conditions, the crevice becomes more acidic, and
corrosion occurs at an increasing rate.

Pitting Corrosion

Corrosion of aluminum in the passive range is localized, usually manifested by

random formation of pits. The pitting-potential principle establishes the
conditions under which metals in the passive state are subject to corrosion by
pitting.

Pitting corrosion is very similar to crevice corrosion. Pitting of aluminum alloys

occurs if the electrolyte contains a low level of chloride anions, and if the alloy
is at a potential above the "pitting potential." Pitting initiates at defects on the
surface of the aluminum, such as at second phase particles or on grain
boundaries.

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Deposition Corrosion

In designing aluminum and aluminum alloys for satisfactory corrosion

resistance, it is important to keep in mind that ions of several metals have
reduction potentials that are more cathodic than the solution potential of
aluminum and therefore can be reduced to metallic form by aluminum. For
each chemical equivalent of so-called heavy-metal ions reduced, a chemical
equivalent of aluminum is oxidized. Reduction of only a small amount of these
ions can lead to severe localized corrosion of aluminum, because the metal
reduced from them plates onto the aluminum and sets up galvanic cells.

The more important heavy metals are copper, lead, mercury, nickel, and tin.
The effects of these metals on aluminum are of greatest concern in acidic
solutions; in alkaline solutions, they have much lower solubilities and therefore
much less severe effects.

Intergranular Corrosion

Intergranular (intercrystalline) corrosion is selective attack of grain boundaries

or closely adjacent regions without appreciable attack of the grains
themselves. Intergranular corrosion is a generic term that includes several
variations associated with different metallic structures and thermo mechanical
treatments. Intergranular corrosion is caused by potential differences between
the grain- boundary region and the adjacent grain bodies.

The location of the anodic path varies with the different alloy systems. In 2xxx
series alloys, it is a narrow band on either side of the boundary that is depleted
in copper; in 5xxx series alloys, it is the anodic constituent Mg2AI3 when that
constituent forms a continuous path along a grain boundary; in copper-free
7xxx series alloys, it is generally considered to be the anodic zinc- and
magnesium- bearing constituents on the grain boundary. The 6xxx series alloys
generally resist this type of corrosion, although slight intergranular attack has
been observed in aggressive environments.

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 METALS WHICH ARE RESISTANT TO CORROSION

Resistance to corrosion

Some metals are more intrinsically resistant to corrosion than others (for some
examples, see galvanic series). There are various ways of protecting metals
from corrosion (oxidation) including painting, hot dip galvanizing, and
combinations of these.

Intrinsic chemistry

Gold nuggets do not naturally corrode, even on a geological time scale.

The materials most resistant to corrosion are those for which corrosion is
thermodynamically unfavorable. Any corrosion products of gold or platinum
tend to decompose spontaneously into pure metal, which is why these
elements can be found in metallic form on Earth and have long been valued.
More common "base" metals can only be protected by more temporary
means.
Some metals have naturally slow reaction kinetics, even though their
corrosion is thermodynamically favorable. These include such metals as zinc,
magnesium, and cadmium. While corrosion of these metals is continuous and ongoing,
it happens at an acceptably slow rate. An extreme example is graphite, which releases
large amounts of energy upon oxidation, but has such slow kinetics that it is effectively
immune to electrochemical corrosion under normal conditions.

Passivation

Passivation refers to the spontaneous formation of an ultrathin film of

corrosion products, known as a passive film, on the metal's surface that act as
a barrier to further oxidation. The chemical composition and microstructure of
a passive film are different from the underlying metal. Typical passive film
thickness on aluminum, stainless steels, and
25
alloys is within 10 nanometers. The passive film is different from oxide layers
that are formed upon heating and are in the micrometer thickness range – the
passive film recovers if removed or damaged whereas the oxide layer does not.
Passivation in natural environments such as air, water and soil at moderate pH
is seen in such materials as aluminum, stainless steel, titanium, and silicon.

Passivation is primarily determined by metallurgical and environmental factors.

The effect of pH is summarized using Pourbaix diagrams, but many other
factors are influential. Some conditions that inhibit passivation include high pH
for aluminum and zinc, low pH or the presence of chloride ions for stainless
steel, high temperature for titanium (in which case the oxide dissolves into the
metal, rather than the electrolyte) and fluoride ions for silicon. On the other
hand, unusual conditions may result in passivation of materials that are
normally unprotected, as the alkaline environment of concrete does for steel
bar. Exposure to a liquid metal such as mercury or hot solder can often
circumvent passivation mechanisms.

Corrosion in passivated materials

Passivation is extremely useful in mitigating corrosion damage, however even a

high-quality alloy will corrode if its ability to form a passivating film is hindered.
Proper selection of the right grade of material for the specific environment is
important for the long-lasting performance of this group of materials. If
breakdown occurs in the passive film due to chemical or mechanical factors,
the resulting major modes of corrosion may include pitting corrosion, crevice
corrosion, and stress corrosion cracking.

Pitting corrosion

Certain conditions, such as low concentrations of oxygen or high

concentrations of species such as chloride which compete as anions,

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 can interfere with a given alloy's ability to re-form a passivating film. In the
worst case, almost all of the surface will remain protected, but tiny local
fluctuations will degrade the oxide film in a few critical points. Corrosion at
these points will be greatly amplified, and can cause corrosion pits of several
types, depending upon conditions. While the corrosion pits only nucleate
under fairly extreme circumstances, they can continue to grow even when
conditions return to normal, since the interior of a pit is naturally deprived of
oxygen and locally the pH decreases to very low values and the corrosion rate
increases due to an autocatalytic process. In extreme cases, the sharp tips of
extremely long and narrow corrosion pits can cause stress concentration to the
point that otherwise tough alloys can shatter; a thin film pierced by an invisibly
small hole can hide a thumb sized pit from view. These problems are especially
dangerous because they are difficult to detect before a part or structure fails.
Pitting remains among the most common and damaging forms of corrosion in
passivated alloys but it can be prevented by control of the alloy's environment.

Rate of corrosion

These neodymium magnets corroded extremely rapidly after only 5 months

of outside exposure
The formation of an oxide layer is described by the Deal Grove
model, which is used to predict and control oxide layer formation in diverse
situations. A simple test for measuring corrosion is the weight loss method.
The method involves exposing a clean weighed piece of the metal or
alloy to the corrosive environment for a specified time followed by cleaning to
remove corrosion products and weighing the piece to determine the loss of
weight. The rate of corrosion (R) is calculated as

where k is a constant, W is the weight loss of the metal in time t, A is the

surface area of the metal exposed, and ρ is the density of the metal (in g/cm³).

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 CORROSION PROTECTION METHODS

There are many methods to reduce corrosion in all types of structures.

Specifically in steel pipelines there are three main types: coatings, corrosion
inhibitors and cathodic protection.

Coatings Coatings provide physical barriers that do not allow corrosive

materials to come in contact with the structure that is being protected. Mainly,
coatings are used on the exterior of pipelines to protect from external factors
and are not used to directly protect the pipeline from CO2 corrosion. The most
common type of coatings are painting and platting which both provide
effective corrosion protection and aesthetic appearance.

Painting: Painting is an effective way to protect pipelines from external

environmental factors. Although when looking at CO2 corrosion on the interior
of the pipeline, it is not ideal because painting the inside of a pipeline is
impractical. The paint will breakdown over time, either through chemical
reactions with the flowing fluid or the erosion due to turbulent or transient
flow. Once the coating has broken down it leaves unprotected sections of the
pipe when fluid induced localized corrosion occurs.
Plating: Plating involves using electric currents to coat a metal with a thin layer
of another metal that acts as a protective barrier. Plating an entire pipeline is
very uncommon as it is expensive; however, it can be done when dealing with
high pressures and high amounts of H2S and CO2. One draw back of plating is if
the plating fails in a small section (either an imperfection or a scratch) then
highly localized corrosion occurs. Another factor to consider is if the plating is
more noble than the pipeline (for example, chromium on steel), the steel will
act as a sacrificial anode for the chromium. This causes the exposed area to
corrode much more rapidly than an un-plated surface would.

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 PRACTICAL

• Aim :
To study of the effect of metal coupling on the rate of corrosions.

• Materials required:
Apparatus: Beakers-15, Iron sheets of 2 size-6, Aluminum rods of 2 size-6, Brass
rods of 2 size-6, Zinc sheets of 2 size-6, Measuring cylinders, Chemical Balance,
Weight Box. Chemicals: Hydrochloric acid and Sodium hydroxide.

• Theory:
Corrosion is a serious problem of some metals like iron, zinc, aluminum and
alloys like brass which are commonly used in day to day life.
Apart from reducing the life of articles made up of these metals or alloys
the chemical substances formed out of corrosion have serious public
health problems.
Replacement of machines or their parts and many other articles in industrial
and public dealing lead to huge expenditure. Hence, how to reduce or avoid
corrosion of articles made up of metals or alloys has been a major subject of
study in the field of chemistry and electro-chemistry.
• Procedure:

▪ Mix 9 ml. of conc. HCl with 241 ml. of water to form 250 ml. of solution.
▪ Take this solution in seven different beakers
▪ Mark each beaker serially from 1 to 7.
▪ Take the weights of three iron sheets, three aluminum rods, three brass
rods and three zinc sheets.
▪ Now keep iron sheets, aluminum rods, zinc sheets and brass rod in separate
beakers. Then take iron + brass, iron + aluminum, iron + zinc, aluminum +
zinc and brass + zinc and keep them in different beakers.
▪ Allow the reactions to occur for 24 hours Note the maximum and minimum
temperatures.

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▪ Now at the end of reaction take out the metals and keep them in sun for
sometime so that they get dried up quickly take the weights of each
specimen and note the difference. Similarly repeat 1,2,3,4,5,6,7 and 8 steps
in a basic solution.

• Observations:

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• Results :

1. The rate of corrosion observed in acidic medium or the mass consumed

during the corrosion is in the decreasing order from brass to aluminum. Brass
has the highest corrosion rate while aluminum has the least corrosion rate.
Brass
> Iron > Zinc > Aluminum.
2. When coupling of these metals was done each couple showed some
difference in their corrosion with respect to each metal kept alone. Iron +
Aluminum couple has the highest rate of corrosion while iron +Zinc couple has
the lowest rate of corrosion. Rate of corrosion of each couple is in the order of
Iron + Aluminum > Brass + Zinc> Iron + Zinc
3. Rate of corrosion in basic medium is in the decreasing order from Brass to
Aluminum. The order of rate of corrosion is as below: Brass > Zinc >Iron >
Aluminum
4. When these metals were coupled the rate of corrosion was in the
decreasing order from Brass+ Aluminum > Brass + Zinc > Iron + Aluminum
5. Temperature and time of reaction were constant i.e., temperature was 21°
C and time of reaction was 24 hours.

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• Conclusions:

▪ Corrosion is a serious problem of some metals like iron, zinc, aluminum and
alloys like brass which are commonly used in day to day life
▪ Apart from reducing the life of articles made up of these metals or alloys
the chemical substances formed out of corrosion have serious public health
problems.
▪ Replacement of machines or their parts and many other articles in
industrial and public dealing lead to huge expenditure
▪ Hence, how to reduce or avoid corrosion of articles made up of metals or
alloys has been a major subject of study in the field of chemistry and
electro- chemistry.
▪ The study of the rate of corrosion of different metals or alloys showed
gradual decrease in their masses in acidic medium. The decrease is in the
order of brass, iron, zinc, aluminum.
▪ The present experiments are in full agreement with the well-known electro-
chemical reaction. Some of the typical reactions as occur with iron are
illustrated.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY

1) NCERT text book

2) WIKIPEDIA
3) APC Lab Manual
4) Comprehensive Practical Chemistry- XII
5) www.scribd.com
Source: https://www.icbse.com

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