Republic of the Philippines

Camarines Sur Polytechnic Colleges

Nabua, Camarines Sur
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

Name: Myk Angelo O. Tañamor Date: 07-26-21

Yr. level & Section: BSME-3C Instructor: Engr. Lino Berango

Final Examination
1. Explain how metals deteriorate and what are the causes of the deterioration?
Corrosion is a dangerous and extremely costly problem. Because of it, buildings
and bridges can collapse, oil pipelines break, chemical plants leak, and bathrooms
flood. Corroded electrical contacts can cause fires and other problems, corroded
medical implants may lead to blood poisoning, and air pollution has caused
corrosion damage to works of art around the world. Corrosion threatens the safe
disposal of radioactive waste that must be stored in containers for tens of thousands
of years.
The most common kinds of corrosion result from electrochemical reactions.
General corrosion occurs when most or all of the atoms on the same metal surface
are oxidized, damaging the entire surface. Most metals are easily oxidized: they
tend to lose electrons to oxygen (and other substances) in the air or in water.
As oxygen is reduced (gains electrons), it forms an oxide with the metal.
When reduction and oxidation take place on different kinds of metal in contact
with one another, the process is called galvanic corrosion. In electrolytic corrosion,
which occurs most commonly in electronic equipment, water or other moisture
becomes trapped between two electrical contacts that have an electrical voltage
applied between them. The result is an unintended electrolytic cell.

The Process of Metal Deterioration

When materials deteriorate by chemical processes, the materials are said to
corrode. Corrosion is commonly discussed in reference to metals, which corrode
electrochemically. This kind of corrosion is a two-step process that requires three
things: a metallic surface, an electrolyte, and oxygen. During the corrosion process,
a metal atom at the surface dissolves into an aqueous solution, leaving the metal
with excess negatively charged ions. These resultant ions are removed by a suitable
electron acceptor. Corrosion can be thought of as the spontaneous return of metals
to their ores through the process of oxidation.

The main causes of deterioration of metals include:

exposure to conditions of high relative humidity;

the presence of oxygen;
exposure to salty conditions;
reaction with pollutants;
contact with other metals;
stresses induced during manufacturing processes; and
careless handling.
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Camarines Sur Polytechnic Colleges
Nabua, Camarines Sur
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

Moisture and oxygen are required for corrosion (oxidation) of metals to occur.
Chloride ions, present in common salt (sodium chloride), may originate from
human or animal contact (perspiration) or from airborne sea salts. They can speed
up the corrosion rate and are capable of penetrating protective oxide layers on
metals such as copper and aluminium to form metal chlorides. These latter materials
do not form a coherent surface layer, effectively removing the corrosion resistance
of the metal. Oils and sweat from people’s hands are potential agents of decay,
with the organic acids and chloride ions transferred upon contact between skin and
metal, capable of causing significant attack on metallic surfaces.
Any agent that affects protective films on metals may enhance corrosion of the
underlying metal. Physical damage to painted or coated surfaces, or the uneven
application of oil coatings for example, will alter the access of oxygen to the metal
surfaces. This usually causes one part of the object to corrode at the expense of
another.
Normally unreactive metals such as copper and silver can suffer significant
corrosion if sulphide-containing species are in the same environment as the metal.
Sulphide pollutants are usually associated with the breakdown of plant matter and
the decomposition of sulphur-containing proteins such as wool. Common pollutants
include hydrogen sulphide and carbonyl sulphide.
Inorganic acids such as hydrochloric acid derived from the decay of plastics
such as polyvinyl chloride and nitric and sulphuric acids formed from air pollutants
and moisture, will attack metals that are in the same storage environment or in
the open air. Outdoor monuments and sculptures are particularly vulnerable to this
type of attack.
Corrosion will also occur if dissimilar alloys and metals come into contact with
each other. This type of corrosion is known as galvanic corrosion. In this situation
the more reactive metal or alloy corrodes while the less reactive metal is protected.
If for example iron and copper were in direct physical contact, then in the presence
of moisture and oxygen, the iron would corrode preferentially while simultaneously
protecting the copper from these agents of corrosion. A galvanic series, which lists
metals in increasing order of reactivity is provided elsewhere (see Appendix 8).
Many problems associated with galvanic corrosion can be overcome by avoiding
direct contact between dissimilar metals.
Corrosion may be increased by stresses imparted to metals during their
manufacture. Changes in the microstructure of metals, produced by processes such
as hammering, drawing and rolling, usually encourage corrosion and in doing so
reduce the service life of affected metals.
Handle metal objects carefully as it is easy to over-estimate their strength and
toughness. Metal objects can be easily dented, bent or mis-shaped if handled
inappropriately, resulting in unnecessary damage that may be difficult to repair.
It is important to remember these basic issues when examining corroded
artefacts or when assessing storage environments. Removing chloride salts, restoring
oxide coatings, repatinating metals with aesthetically pleasing patinas, coating metals
with protective materials such as lacquers and paints and modifying environmental
storage and display conditions are all effective tools in the conservation battle
against corrosion.
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Camarines Sur Polytechnic Colleges
Nabua, Camarines Sur
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

2. Mention the different kinds of corrosion and define each kind.

The Most Common Types of Corrosion
Corrosion consists of a series of usually complex chemical reactions and may
be initiated by several different mechanisms that are dependent on the surrounding
environment. This has given rise to the various classifications of corrosion.
All corrosion is not equal. The key to effective corrosion prevention and
mitigation lies in a basic understanding of the type of corrosion being dealt with
and the factors that are responsible for its formation. In this article we will look at
the most common types of corrosion and explain the underlying mechanism of
each.

Uniform Corrosion
Uniform corrosion is the most common type and is characterized by attacks
over the entire surface area of the metal exposed to a corroding agent. This type
of corrosion is typically caused by chemical or electrochemical reactions that cause
the metal to be consumed while forming oxides or other compounds over large
visible areas. These reactions cause the metal to lose thickness over time and
can continue until the metal has been dissolved entirely. (Discover how the aviation
industry deals with this type of corrosion in Detecting and Treating Uniform Corrosion
in Aircraft.)

Galvanic/Bimetallic Corrosion
Bimetallic corrosion, also known as galvanic corrosion, is the corrosion that
occurs when two dissimilar metals are directly or indirectly in contact with each
other. Visually, this type of corrosion is characterized by the accelerated deterioration
of one metal, while the other remains unaffected.
Bimetallic corrosion is a purely electrochemical reaction driven by the difference
in electrode potentials between the two metals. When exposed to an electrolyte,
the two metals form a type of cell known as a bimetallic couple, where one metal
acts as the anode and the other as the cathode. The movement of electrons from
the anode to the cathode initiates an oxidation reaction at the anode that causes
it to be dissolved, i.e., corrode.
This type of corrosion is affected by the magnitude of the potential difference
between the two metals. Therefore, the further apart the metals are in the galvanic
series, the higher the rate of corrosion at the anode. (This topic is explored in
An Introduction to the Galvanic Series: Galvanic Compatibility and Corrosion.)

Crevice Corrosion
Crevice corrosion is a highly penetrative type of localized corrosion that occurs
in or directly adjacent to gaps or crevices on the surface of a metal. These
crevices can be the result of a connection between two surfaces (metal to metal
or metal to non-metal), or by an accumulation of deposits (dirt, mud, biofouling,
etc.). This type of corrosion is characterized by deterioration in the area of the
crevice while the surrounding areas of the metal substrate remain unaffected.
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Camarines Sur Polytechnic Colleges
Nabua, Camarines Sur
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

One of the main criteria for the development of crevice corrosion is the
presence of stagnant water within the crevice. This lack of fluid movement gives
rise to the depletion of dissolved oxygen and an abundance of positive ions in the
crevice. This leads to a series of electrochemical reactions that alters the
composition of the fluid and makes it acidic in nature. The acidic liquid in the
crevice breaks down the metal’s passive layer and renders it vulnerable to corrosion
attack.

Pitting Corrosion
Pitting corrosion, also known as pitting, is another localized form of corrosion
that occurs on metal surfaces. Pitting typically manifests itself as small diameter
cavities or holes on the object's surface while the remainder of the metallic surface
remains unattacked. This form of corrosion is also highly penetrative and is
considered to be one of the most dangerous types of corrosion because it is
difficult to predict and has a tendency to cause sudden and extreme failures.
Pitting usually originates on areas of the metal surface where inconsistencies
in the protective passive film exist. These inconsistencies may be due to film
damage, poor coating application or foreign deposits on the metal surface. Areas
where passivity has been reduced or lost now become the anode while the
surrounding regions act as the cathode. In the presence of moisture, the anode
and cathode form a corrosion cell where the anode (i.e., the areas unprotected
by the passive film) corrodes. Because the corrosion is confined to a localized
area, pitting tends to penetrate the thickness of the material.

Intergranular Corrosion
Intergranular corrosion involves accelerated corrosion along the grain boundaries
of a metal, while the bulk of the metal surface remains free from attack. Some
alloys, when subjected to improper heat treatment, can have impurities segregated
at the grain boundaries that can make passivation at these areas difficult. The
grain boundaries now represent a path of high corrosion vulnerability.

For example, austenitic stainless steels can be susceptible to intergranular

attack if they are heated in the 500°C to 800°C (930°F to 1470°F) range. At
these temperatures, chromium carbide can become precipitated at the grain
boundaries, therefore reducing the local chromium concentration at the boundaries.
(See The Role of Chromium in Intergranular Corrosion for more on this topic.)
The grain boundary is then unlikely to form an effective passive film and is now
susceptible to corrosion attack.

Selective Leaching
In specific corrosive environments, some metal alloys can experience a type
of corrosion where only one element of the alloy is deteriorated and removed by
corrosion. This discriminatory removal of a specific element is known as selective
leaching or dealloying.
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Camarines Sur Polytechnic Colleges
Nabua, Camarines Sur
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

The most common example of this phenomenon is the selective removal of

the less noble zinc element in brass alloys, also known as dezincification. Alloys
composed of metallic elements that are furthest apart in the galvanic series are
the most susceptible to this type of corrosion.

Erosion Corrosion
Erosion corrosion is defined as the accelerated deterioration of a metal that
results from the relative movement between a corrosive liquid and a metal’s surface.
As the fluid flows along the surface (usually at high velocities), the metal’s
passive oxide layer may be removed or dissolved, leaving the alloy susceptible to
damage. During this process, the metal may be removed in the form of dissolved
ions or as corrosion products that are mechanically swept from the metal surface
due to the force of the flowing fluid.
Erosion corrosion is visually recognizable by the appearance of grooves, gullies,
craters and valleys in a directional pattern on the metal substrate. (Learn how to
prevent erosion corrosion in the article Erosion Corrosion: Coatings and Other
Preventive Measures.)

Stress Corrosion Cracking

Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is a form of corrosion marked by the
formation of fine cracks on specific areas on the metal surface while the metal
remains unattacked over most of its surface area. This cracking is usually due to
the simultaneous presence of tensile stresses in a corrosive environment. SCC is
considered to be an insidious form of corrosion because the damage is sometimes
not immediately detected during inspections and can result in sudden catastrophic
failures.
Welding, heat treatments and cold deformations can induce residual stresses
on an object that can initiate SCC. One situation where SCC can occur is along
grain boundaries that have been corroded by intergranular corrosion. Because the
grain boundaries have become weakened by the segregation of impurities, applied
residual tensile forces can result in fine cracking in the microstructure.

3. Explain how cathodic protector function to minimize corrosion in metals.

Cathodic protection is often used to mitigate corrosion damage to active metal
surfaces. It is used all over the globe to protect pipelines, water treatment plants,
above and underwater storage tanks, ship and boat hulls, offshore production
platforms, reinforcement bars in concrete structures and piers, and more.

A Cathodic system is often used to protect steel from corrosion. Corrosion is

caused when two dissimilar metals are submerged in an electrolytic substance such
as water, soil, or concrete. This type of metal conducting path between the two
dissimilar metals allows a pathway through which free electrons move from the
more active metal (anode) to the less active metal (cathode). If free electrons
from the anode do not reach active sites on the cathode before the arrival of
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Camarines Sur Polytechnic Colleges
Nabua, Camarines Sur
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

oxygen, ions at the active sites can then recombine to produce ferrous hydroxide,
i.e. rust.
In essence, cathodic protection connects the base metal at risk (steel) to a
sacrificial metal that corrodes in lieu of the base metal. The technique of providing
cathodic protection to steel preserves the metal by providing a highly active metal
that can act as an anode and provide free electrons. By introducing these free
electrons, the active metal sacrifices its ions and keeps the less active steel from
corroding.

4. Mention the different components of paints.

All paints generally have four main ingredients namely pigments, binders,
solvents (liquids) and additives. Pigments provide color and hide, while binders
work to "bind" the pigment together and create the paint film. Solvents are the
liquids that suspend the ingredients and allow you to place the paint on the
surfaces, and additives are ingredients that provide specific paint properties such
as mildew resistance. All four ingredients combine to provide paint that meets your
specific design needs. To explain further:

Pigments - Provide Color, Hide and Bulk

Pigments are finely ground particles that are dispensed into paint and provide
color and hiding properties. There are two primary types of pigment - prime
pigments and extender pigments.
Prime pigments are those that contribute to both wet and dry hide in paint.
Titanium dioxide (TiO2 ) is the most costly pigment and it contributes directly to
a paint's wet hide, while providing whiteness Colorants are prime pigments that
provide the actual color within the can. There are two main types - organic and
inorganic.
Organic colorants provide the brighter colors, and examples of these
pigments include hansa yellow and phthalo blue. These are not very
durable for exterior paint application.
Inorganic colorants are the duller, earthy colors and are more durable
for exterior paint application. Examples of these kinds of pigments include
red oxide, yellow ochre and umber.
Extender pigments are lower cost pigments that give extra weight or bulk to
the paint. These types of pigments contribute only to a paints dry hide, but are
necessary in order to control gloss. Some extender pigments also provide additional
film performance in the areas of scrub or abrasion resistance. Commonly used
extenders include clay, silica, diatomaceous silica, calcium carbonate, talc and zinc
oxide.
 Clay: Used mainly in interior paints, clay provides hiding power.
 Silica: Provides enhanced durability in exterior paints as well as scrub
and abrasion resistance.
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Camarines Sur Polytechnic Colleges
Nabua, Camarines Sur
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

 Diatomaceous silica: Consisting of fossilized organisms, this form of silica

is used to control sheen levels.
 Calcium Carbonate: Used in both interior and exterior paints, calcium
carbonate, also called chalk, is a general purpose, low cost, low hide
pigment.
 Talc: Also called magnesium silicate, talc is a soft, general purpose
extender pigment.
 Zinc oxide: Used primarily in primers and exterior paints, zinc oxide
provides mildew resistance, corrosion inhibition and stain blocking support.
Binders - Provide Performance and Support for Dry Paint Film
Binders are ingredients that provide a binding effect that holds the pigments
together to create a dry film on the surface. A paints binder is the key ingredient
that directly relates to a paints performance, including adhesion,, washability, scrub
resistance, fade resistance or gloss retention.
Alkyd (oil) based binders are made from various oil derivatives such as linseed
oil, tung oil, and soya oil. Traditional alkyd paints dry to a very hard finish and
provide superior adhesion and flow and leveling; however, they will yellow in light
colors and are prone to oxidation and chalking when used on exterior surfaces.
As technology and VOC restrictions have changed over the years, fewer paints
today are made with traditional alkyd binders. A newer technology based on
modified oil binders is available; alkyd emulsion.. This type of hybrid binder gives
you oil-like performance with the ease of soap and water clean-up. Alkyd-emulsion
paints dry harder, flow more smoothly than typical latex paints; however, they may
still yellow in lighter colors. If used on exterior surfaces subjected to UV exposure,
alkyd-emulsion paints may eventually oxidize, and chalk over time.

Latex Paint and Ingredients

Latex binders are used in water-based paints. There are various types of latex
binders available, such as 100% acrylic, styrene acrylic or vinyl acrylic, each
providing specific performance characteristics.

Acrylic Paint and Ingredients

100% Acrylic binders: often used in exterior paints as the benefits include
adhesion (both wet and dry), fade resistance, alkali and efflorescence resistance.
100% acrylic binders are typically regarded as the best overall performing.
Adhesion under wet conditions allow for greater performance in blister, cracking
and peeling resistance.
UV fade resistance allows the painted surface to retain its color and sheen
longer.
Alkali resistance means the paint is less likely to “burn" over fresh concrete
or masonry.
Vinyl acrylic, also called PVA, binders: often used in interior paints as the
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Camarines Sur Polytechnic Colleges
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COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

benefits include scrub resistance and washability.

Styrenated acrylic binders: often used in masonry primer/sealers and top coats
due to its resistance to alkali burn and efflorescence,

Solvents (liquids) - Provides a vehicle for the pigment and binder to get from
the can onto the surface
Solvents, or liquids, are the vehicle for allowing paint to get from the can to
the surfaces and these types of liquids differ depending on the type of paint.
Combining the pigments and binders, considered solids, with the liquids, creates
the paint coating you see in the paint can.
Oil-based and alkyd paints: the liquid is typically paint thinner or other type of
solvent. Latex paints: the liquid is primarily water.
Higher-quality paints allow for more solids, typically 35-40%, depending on
gloss level. Solids by volume indicate how much paint will remain on the surface
after the liquids have evaporated. The overall paint performance is directly
attributable to the make-up of the solids. Just because a paint has high solids by
volume does not always translate to a high-quality product.

Additives - Provides additional property enhancements

Additives are used in paints to create additional performance properties and the
most commonly used are:
Thickening agents: provides “viscosity" or additional thickness so the paint
can be applied properly; also allows for better “flow and leveling" and
resists a splatter effect when rolling out the paint
Surfactants or soaps: provides paint stability so the paint won't separate;
also keeps the pigments dispersed in the liquid to allow for better hiding
power and additional assurance for color accuracy
Biocides: in latex paints, there are two types of biocides used – a
preservative to keep bacteria from growing; and a mildewcide to discourage
mildew growth
Defoamers: provides a way to break bubbles as they are formed during the
paint manufacturing process, when paint is shaken at the tint center and
when paint is applied onto a surface
Co-solvents: provides additional liquids to the water and can assist the
binders in forming a good film when applied in cold temperatures and
assists brushing properties so paint has time to be applied before drying.