buildings
Article
In Situ Experimental Investigation of Slim Curtain Wall
Spandrel Integrated with Vacuum Insulation Panel
Fred Edmond Boafo 1 , Jin-Hee Kim 1 , Jong-Gwon Ahn 2 , Sang-Myung Kim 2






Citation: Boafo, F.E.; Kim, J.-H.; Ahn,
J.-G.; Kim, S.-M.; Kim, J.-T. In Situ
Experimental Investigation of Slim
Curtain Wall Spandrel Integrated
with Vacuum Insulation Panel.
Buildings 2022, 12, 199. https://
doi.org/10.3390/buildings12020199
Academic Editor: Andrea Petrella
Received: 16 December 2021
Accepted: 4 February 2022
Published: 9 February 2022
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
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Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Buildings 2022, 12, 199. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12020199
and Jun-Tae Kim 3, *
1 Green Energy Technology Research Center, Kongju National University, Cheonan 31080, Chungnam, Korea;
febs@smail.kongju.ac.kr (F.E.B.); jiny@kongju.ac.kr (J.-H.K.)
2 Zero Energy Buildings Laboratory, Graduate School of Energy Systems Engineering, Kongju National
University, Cheonan 31080, Chungnam, Korea; jgsjfs@kongju.ac.kr (J.-G.A.);
mtanzania@smail.kongju.ac.kr (S.-M.K.)
3 Department of Architectural Engineering & Graduate School of Energy Systems Engineering, Kongju
National University, Cheonan 31080, Chungnam, Korea
* Correspondence: jtkim@kongju.ac.kr; Tel.: +82-41-521-9333
Abstract: Almost every major city’s skyline is known for high-rise iconic buildings with some level of
curtain wall system (CWS) installed. Although complex, a CWS can be designed for energy efficiency
by integrating insulated spandrel components in space-constrained areas, such as slabs/plenums.
The main aim of this study was to experimentally examine the thermal performance of an optimized
curtain wall spandrel system integrated with vacuum insulation panel (VIP) as spandrel insulation.
The study is based on robust experimental evaluations, augmented with appropriate numerical
computations. The main study is constituted of six parts: (1) evaluation of VIP specifications and
thermal properties; (2) analysis of VIP spandrel configuration, fabrication, and installation in a test
building facility; (3) thermal bridge characterization of VIP spandrels; (4) monitoring and assessment
of VIP durability within the spandrel cavities; (5) thermal performance analysis; and (6) assessment
of related limitations and challenges, along with some further reflections. In all, 22 VIPs (each of size
600 mm2 ) were used. The effective thermal conductivity of VIPs ranged from 5.1–5.4 (10−3 W/mK)
and the average value for initial inner pressure was approximately 4.3–5.9 mbar. Three VIP spandrel
cases were fabricated and tested. The results proved that the Case 3 VIP spandrel configuration
(composed of a double-layer VIP) was the most improved alternative for integrating VIPs.
Keywords: vacuum insulation panel (VIP); curtain wall system (CWS); slim façade; spandrel compo-
nent; experimental assessment; thermal performance
1. Introduction
According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), final energy use in buildings
grew from 118 EJ in 2010 to around 128 EJ in 2019 [1]. Factors contributing to this rise
were particularly due to energy demand for cooling, to power appliances and devices,
as well as extreme weather events. Energy-related direct emissions from buildings were
about 3 GtCO2 in 2019, a 5% increase since 2010. Considering indirect emissions from
upstream power generation, buildings were responsible for 28% of global energy-related
CO2 emissions in 2019. In absolute terms, buildings-related CO2 emissions rose and
reached an all-time high of 10 GtCO2 in 2019 [1]. For maintaining a comfortable indoor
environment, energy-efficient building envelopes are essential, as the building envelope
dominates other sections of a building system regarding the long-term impact on the
ultimate energy performance throughout the lifecycle of a building [2].
At present, almost every major city’s skyline is known for high-rise iconic buildings
with some level of curtain wall system (CWS) installed. Curtain walled buildings appear as
glistening and sleek glass façades with narrowly spaced vertical and horizontal mullions
(metallic structures) overlapping with glass and spandrel panels. In the case of point-loaded
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/buildings
Buildings 2022, 12, 199 2 of 28

structural glazing curtain wall systems, there are no narrow spaces between the glazing due
to the absence of a metal framework. Although a curtain wall forms a barrier for a building
against weather, the curtain wall itself is non-load bearing [3,4]. It is anchored from a
supporting structure of a building and so hangs like a curtain [5]. Therefore, it is technically
called a “curtain” wall system. Breakthroughs in the metal and glass industry, efficient
prefabrication techniques, as well as advancement in curtain wall technologies, have
altogether enabled construction of some of the high-rise buildings of today. Some notable
advantages of curtain wall façades include daylighting improvement, smaller wall footprint
and a lighter structure, faster construction time, elegant aesthetics, among others [6].
Throughout the literature, various studies have been conducted covering different aspects
of curtain walls. For instance, design strategies and requirements for frameless structural
glazing systems under seismic loads have been scrutinized [7]. Similarly, code provisions for
seismic demands and seismic experimental tests have been reviewed [8]. Some researchers
focused on delamination and failure detection in curtain wall glazing [9,10]. Additionally,
existing safety appraisal methods for hidden-frame glass curtain walls have been evaluated
and characterized into a clear five-level appraisal hierarchy system [11]. Based on numerical
computations, a dynamic scheduling model for the curtain wall construction process
towards improved project planning and reliability has been proposed and validated [12].
The case of fire incidents, extreme climatic conditions, and accidental or human-induced
explosions in curtain walled buildings have been comprehensively assessed as well [13–15].
Concerning building energy, a sensitivity analysis on critical design parameters for CWS
towards improved energy performance has been conducted [16]. Studies have claimed
that curtain walls could even be a better option than masonry walls in terms of space
conditioning in a Mediterranean climate, if only they were properly designed [17]. For if
not carefully designed, curtain walled buildings could have higher energy requirements for
space conditioning when compared to traditional concrete walls, the reasons being the high
thermal conductivity difference between glass and metal components of a CWS, as well
as lower thermal resistance compared to opaque walls. Consequently, converting curtain
walls into plus-energy façades by integrating photovoltaic panels has been proposed and
studied [18]. To improve their thermal and energy performance, curtain wall systems are
integrated with insulated spandrel sections connected to glazed sections by sharing a metal
frame (see Figure 1).
OR PEER REVIEW 3 of 29
Buildings 2022, 12, 199 3 of 28

Glazing section
Triple glazing

Insulated spandrel section

Metal backpan

Steel stud/slab
intersection

100 mm mineral wool

insulation
Glazing section

Front glass/
Spandrel panel

Curtain component
Figure 1.spandrel
Figure 1. Curtain wall with insulated wall with insulated spandrel
(relabeled component
from Ref. [19]). (relabeled from Ref. [19]).

Insulated spandrel helps to curtail convective heat fluxes. The insulation also acts as
Insulated spandrel helps to curtail convective heat fluxes. The insulation also acts as
a fire-stopping material at the edge of the floor slab [20]. However, topics on insulated
a fire-stopping material at the edge of the floor slab [20]. However, topics on insulated
spandrel sections are marginally considered in the literature [21,22]. Extensive studies
spandrel sections are marginally considered in the literature [21,22]. Extensive studies
have focused on glazing components. For instance, different modeling approaches for
have focused on glazing components. For instance, different modeling approaches for the
the glazing of curtain wall systems have been evaluated [23]. A daylighting performance
glazing of curtain wall systems have been evaluated [23]. A daylighting performance anal-
analysis of glass layers for curtain walls has been investigated as well [24]. Further studies
ysis of glass layers for curtain
havewalls has been
examined investigated
an optimized as wellfor
approach [24]. Furtherthermochromic
designing studies glazing for curtain
have examined an optimized approach for designing thermochromic glazing
wall buildings [25]. The search for an optimal window-to-wall for curtain ratio for office buildings,
wall buildings [25]. The search for an optimal
considering different window-to-wall
European climates ratiohas
for been
officestudied
buildings, [26]. Similarly, the impact of
considering different European climates has been studied [26]. Similarly,
various ratios of glazing-to-external wall areas on energy the impact useofin office buildings has been
various ratios of glazing-to-external
evaluatedwall[27].areas on energy
Towards use insolar
controlling office buildings
gains has beenvisual comfort, a sensitivity
and assessing
evaluated [27]. Towards controlling
analysis wassolarperformed
gains andconsidering
assessing visualsinglecomfort, a sensitivity
office units fitted with metal mesh as shading
analysis was performed considering single office units fitted with metal mesh as shading
devices [28]. Due to safety concerns, a robot prototype with dual suction cups for cleaning
devices [28]. Due to safety concerns,
the glazing a robot prototype
of high-rise with
glass dual suction
curtain walls has cups for developed
been cleaning and tested [29]. A state-
the glazing of high-rise glass curtain walls has been developed and tested
of-the-art review and assessment of future possibilities [29]. A state-of-
for fenestration products have
the-art review and assessment of future possibilities for fenestration products
been conducted [30]. Likewise, some researchers have carried have been out a systematic review
conducted [30]. Likewise, some
on theresearchers have carried
balance between out a systematic
the thermal review performance
and daylighting on the of glazing systems
balance between the thermal andand daylighting
related effects performance
on indoor comfort of glazing
and systems
energy use and[31],
related
and developments in glazing
effects on indoor comfort and energy useand
technologies [31], and developments
applications have been in glazing technologies
comprehensively studied [32]. In addition, a
and applications have beenreview
comprehensively studied [32]. In addition, a review on aerogel
on aerogel glazing systems for building applications focusing on the fabrication
glazing systems for building applications
process, thermal,focusing
optical, andon the fabrication
acoustic process,
properties, thermal,
quality of lighting, and energy savings
optical, and acoustic properties,
comparedquality
to of lighting, andglazing
conventional energysystems
savings havecomparedbeen to con-
investigated [33]. Even so, there
ventional glazing systems have beenchallenges
are some investigated to [33]. Even so,insulating
adequately there are some
spandrelchallenges
sections of such slim curtain wall
to adequately insulating spandrel
façades to sections of such slim
satisfy building energycurtain
codes.wall façades to satisfy
building energy codes. Firstly, depending on the configuration of a spandrel, about 15–25 cm of traditional
Firstly, depending on insulation materialofmay
the configuration be required
a spandrel, about to 15–25
fulfill cm
prevailing building energy regulations [34].
of traditional
insulation material may beFor instance,
required the typical
to fulfill curtain
prevailing wall shown
building energy in Figure 1 utilized
regulations [34].100 mm thick mineral wool
insulation.
For instance, the typical curtain Even with
wall shown a thermally
in Figure broken
1 utilized 100aluminum
mm thick frame mineral and a triple glazing system,
center-of-glazing and spandrel U-values of 1 W/m 2 K and 0.89 W/m2 K were estimated
wool insulation. Even with a thermally broken aluminum frame and a triple glazing
 Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 29

Buildings 2022, 12, 199 4 of 28

system, center-of-glazing and spandrel U-values of 1 W/m2K and 0.89 W/m2K were esti-
mated
for for the system,
the system, respectively respectively
[20], which[20],were
which were
very farvery
fromfar thefrom the requirements
requirements defined de- in
fined in energy codes like ASHRAE 90.1. Generally, most
energy codes like ASHRAE 90.1. Generally, most opaque insulated spandrels do not satisfy opaque insulated spandrels do
not satisfy the prescriptive insulation values or effective U-values
the prescriptive insulation values or effective U-values for cold climates [35]. Secondly, to for cold climates [35].
Secondly,aesthetics,
maintain to maintain aesthetics,
insulated insulated
spandrels are spandrels
commonlyare commonly
installed installed as
as separation separa-
elements
tion elements
between floorsbetween floors (at areas)
(at slab/plenum slab/plenum
only. Thisareas) only. This
restriction restriction
has has a direct con-
a direct consequence on
sequence
the on the window-to-wall
window-to-wall ratio, as wellratio, as wellflexibility.
as design as design flexibility.
It is worthItnotingis worth thatnoting
besidesthat
besidesprotrusions,
visible visible protrusions,
usable indoorusablespace
indoor is space is significantly
significantly reducedreduced
when a when a thick in-
thick insulated
spandrel section is extended beyond slab and plenum areas. Additionally, to maketospace
sulated spandrel section is extended beyond slab and plenum areas. Additionally, make
space
for suchfor suchtraditional
thick thick traditional
insulationinsulation
materials, materials,
longer innerlonger innerand
length length and back
thicker thicker back
panels
panels
are used. areSpecifically,
used. Specifically,
the inner thelength
inner length
of curtainof curtain
wall frame wall frame
relatesrelates
to its to its structural
structural per-
performance.
formance. BasedBased on structural
on structural specifications,
specifications, thethe inner
inner length
length can
can bebeshortened.
shortened.InInthat that
case,
case,there
theremay may notnot be
be enough space to to install
install the
therequired
requiredthickness
thicknessofofinsulation.
insulation.Due Due to
to this space limitation, even when high
this space limitation, even when high structural performancestructural performance is not needed, the inner
needed, the inner
length
lengthisis still
still enlarged to accommodate
accommodatethe therequired
requiredthickness
thicknessofofinsulation.
insulation. Owing
Owing to
to the
the aforementioned
aforementioned challenges,
challenges, a thinand
a thin andsuper-insulating
super-insulating material material solution is is crucially
crucially
needed.
needed.Alternatively,
Alternatively,vacuum vacuum insulation
insulation panels
panels (VIP)
(VIP) arearea viable means
a viable meansof insulation
of insulationfor
curtain
for curtainwall wall
spandrels
spandrelsdue to dueVIPs’ high thermal
to VIPs’ high thermalresistance per unit
resistance perthickness compared
unit thickness com-
to any other
pared to anykind otherof kind
insulation currently
of insulation availableavailable
currently [36–43]. [36–43].
Basically,Basically,
VIP is composed
VIP is com- of
aposed
micro-/nano-porous core material seal under vacuum in a
of a micro-/nano-porous core material seal under vacuum in a gas-tight laminate gas-tight laminate envelope.
Consequently, to achieve to
envelope. Consequently, same U-value,
theachieve the samethe equivalent
U-value, thickness thickness
the equivalent of VIP required
of VIP re- is
extremely reduced as compared to other traditional insulation
quired is extremely reduced as compared to other traditional insulation materials. This materials. This makes VIP
exceptionally useful for space-tight
makes VIP exceptionally applications.
useful for space-tight Figure 2 compares
applications. Figure 2 details
compares for details
a curtain for
wall insulated with a spandrel section with traditional insulation
a curtain wall insulated with a spandrel section with traditional insulation material and a material and a VIP. It can
be seen
VIP. It from
can be Figure
seen 2from(left)Figure
that an2 enlarged
(left) thatinner length isinner
an enlarged indeed needed
length to accommodate
is indeed needed to
traditional
accommodate traditional insulation. Conversely, Figure 2 (right) depictsinner
insulation. Conversely, Figure 2 (right) depicts a plausible shorter length
a plausible
for
shorter inner length for the spandrel insulated with VIP. Particularly for curtain wall rel-
the spandrel insulated with VIP. Particularly for curtain wall applications, one of the ap-
atively overlooked
plications, one of thebut relatively
significantly importantbut
overlooked characteristics
significantly ofimportant
VIP is its non-flammability
characteristics of
according to European standards
VIP is its non-flammability [44]. to European standards [44].
according

Figure 2.2. Schematic

Figure Schematic ofofcurtain
curtainwall
wallspandrel
spandrelinsulated with
insulated traditional
with insulation
traditional (left)
insulation andand
(left) VIP
(right).
VIP (right).
Buildings 2022, 12, 199 5 of 28

Based on numerical computations, annual energy use for a five-story curtain walled
building has been investigated [19]. Three spandrel insulation alternatives (VIP alone, min-
eral wool alone, and VIP coupled with mineral wool) and four representative locations in
the USA (Detroit, St Louis, Phoenix) and Canada (Winnipeg) were considered in the study.
The results showed that VIP spandrel types had the least total energy (heating and cooling)
usage. Particularly for colder climates (except for Phoenix), a CWS composed of a VIP span-
drel coupled with a double-glazing system used less energy (about 17,877–43,668 kWh/yr)
for space conditioning compared to a mineral wool spandrel coupled with a triple glazing
system. Using an accelerated aging approach, thermal conductivity evolution of VIPs
integrated in the cavity of an insulation glass unit (IGU) were monitored [45]. The VIP–IGU
assembly was referred to as an architectural insulation module (AIM). The principal use
for the AIM assembly was for curtain wall applications either as insulated spandrels (as
separation elements between floors) or as non-vision panels (due to inherent slimness) to
be used alongside vision panels. VIPs 20 mm in thickness were used for AIMs made of
fumed silica core material enclosed in a metalized envelope. The dimensions of the VIP and
AIM were 250 mm × 250 mm and 300 mm × 300 mm, respectively. AIMs were monitored
for more than 20 weeks under severe cycling temperature (−20 ◦ C to 80 ◦ C) and humidity
(10% to 90%) conditions in a climatic chamber. The results proved that the protection factor
for the VIP used within the AIM was more than ten times that of the unprotected VIP.
The AIM concept is a strategy to guarantee the durability of VIPs as well as extend VIPs’
service life in curtain walled buildings. Realistically, except for some peculiar cases, VIPs
are not expected to encounter such harsh aging conditions in real building applications.
A comprehensive review covering the thermal and energy performance of curtain walls,
the development and building applications of VIPs, and opaque curtain wall spandrels
insulated with VIPs has been conducted recently [46]. Researchers concluded that VIP
technology is a leap forward in thermal insulation for building applications, especially
slim façades, such as curtain walls. Some specific suggestions were that VIP spandrels
could be designed such that non-destructive examinations like infrared thermography can
be conducted on-site. In addition, the need for commercialization efforts for some VIP
technological developments to end up in off-the-shelf standardized VIPs and curtain wall
components was highlighted. Nevertheless, it was found that proper long-term monitored
assessments of curtain wall installations with VIP spandrels are lacking in the literature. To
that end, then, this study was designed.
This study is part of a project that was commissioned to propose, develop, and ex-
amine the thermo-energy performance of curtain wall spandrels insulated with vacuum
insulation panels (CWS-VIP sp.). Based on numerical and analytical procedures, Part 1
of the project focused on the concept and governing heat transfer equations, initial VIP
spandrel models and validation, the curtain wall vision–spandrel ratio effect on building
energy, the effect of 2D/3D thermal bridges, and overall thermal performance for curtain
walls with and without insulated spandrels (already published in Ref. [34]). The aim of Part
2 was to experimentally examine the dynamic thermal performance of an optimized curtain
wall spandrel system integrated with a VIP as spandrel insulation. This paper focusses on
Part 2. To that effect, this study is based on robust experimental evaluations carried out
over 1.5 years, augmented with appropriate numerical computations. Specifically, three
alternative VIP spandrel configurations geared towards minimizing thermal bridges and
improving insulation performance while safeguarding the durability of VIPs were critically
examined. Infra-red thermography assessments and temperature monitoring campaigns
showed that VIPs had been properly integrated in the system, with no defects or failure.
Overall, the results proved that the Case 3 VIP spandrel configuration (which was com-
posed of a double-layer VIP structure) was the most improved alternative for integrating
VIPs, despite complexities related to its fabrication. Finally, noteworthy limitations of
experimental methods employed and future perspectives are duly discussed.
Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 29
Buildings 2022, 12, 199 6 of 28

2. Materials and Methods

2. Materials and Methods
In this section, detailed experimental procedures and the numerical evaluations used
In thisare
in this study section, detailed
presented. Theexperimental procedures
section commences and the numerical
by reporting evaluations used
material specifications
and in lab assessments of individual VIPs. Then, numerical simulations (using experi-and
in this study are presented. The section commences by reporting material specifications
in lab
mental assessments
data from in laboftests
individual VIPs.
as inputs) Then, evaluating
towards numerical thermal
simulations (using experimental
characteristics of VIP
data from in lab tests as inputs) towards evaluating thermal characteristics
spandrels are explained. Afterwards, procedures for the fabrication of VIP spandrel of VIP spandrels
com-
are explained. Afterwards, procedures for the fabrication of VIP spandrel components
ponents and installation of the spandrel units in a real-scale mockup building facility are
and installation of the spandrel units in a real-scale mockup building facility are described.
described. Lastly, monitoring methods are reported.
Lastly, monitoring methods are reported.
2.1.2.1.
Specifications andand
Specifications in Lab Assessment
in Lab of VIP
Assessment Properties
of VIP Properties
All All
VIPs used in this study are commercial
VIPs used in this study are commercial grade materials
grade materialsprovided
providedby abyleading
a leading
Korean VIP manufacturer. The VIPs were made of fumed silica core material
Korean VIP manufacturer. The VIPs were made of fumed silica core material encapsulated encapsulated
in ain
metalized
a metalizedlaminate envelope
laminate material.
envelope TheThe
material. laminate
laminatewaswascomposed
composed of three metalized
of three metalized
polyethylene
polyethylene terephthalate (PET) films with low-density polyethylene (LDPE)aas
terephthalate (PET) films with low-density polyethylene (LDPE) as sealing
a sealing
layer, laminated
layer, laminatedtogether
togetherusing polyurethane
using polyurethane (PU) glue.
(PU) PETPET
glue. serves as an
serves as excellent
an excellentflatflat
substrate for the metalized aluminum (AL) barrier. Thin Al barrier layers restrict
substrate for the metalized aluminum (AL) barrier. Thin Al barrier layers restrict gas and gas and
moisture
moisturepermeation
permeation intointo
the the
corecore
material. LDPE
material. LDPEis used for for
is used sealing at the
sealing weld
at the weldseamseam
joints of the panel. A schematic representation and SEM of the laminate’s
joints of the panel. A schematic representation and SEM of the laminate’s structure structure are are
shown
shownin Figure 3a,b,
in Figure respectively.
??a,b, In addition,
respectively. In addition,specifications
specificationsof the metalized
of the metalizedlaminate
laminate
material provided
material providedby the envelope
by the envelope manufacturer
manufacturer areare
listed in Table
listed 1. 1.
in Table

PET Polyethylene terepthalate (12 μm)

AL Aluminum (0.1 μm)

PU Polyurethane glue (2 μm)

PET Polyethylene terephthalate (12 μm)

AL Aluminum (0.1 μm)

PU Polyurethane glue (2 μm)

PET Polyethylene terephthalate (12 μm)

AL Aluminum (0.1 μm)

PU Polyurethane glue (2 μm)

LDPE Low density polyethylene (50 μm)

(a)
Figure 3. Cont.
Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 29
Buildings 2022, 12, 199 7 of 28

(b)
Figure 3. Details
Figure 3. of tri-metalized
Details laminate envelope.
of tri-metalized laminate (a) Structure of
envelope. (a)laminate; (b)ofSEM
Structure micrograph
laminate; (b) SEM
[47]. micrograph [47].

Table 1. Properties of metalized envelope material [48].

Table 1. Properties of metalized envelope material [48].

Property
Property Test
Test Method/Condition
Method/Condition Index
Index
Total thickness
Total thickness 9292(μm)
(µm)
HeatHeat
sealseal
strength (HSS)
strength (HSS) 165
165°C,
◦ C,44 kg/cm
kg/cm22,, 22 sec
s >3.5
>3.5(N/mm)
(N/mm)
Puncture resistance
Puncture resistance (PR) (PR) FTMS 101C2065
FTMS 101C 2065 130(N)
130 (N)
Moisture vapor transmission rate (MVTR) ASTM F-1249-90,
F-1249-90, 38 ◦ C 90% RH <0.015 (gr/m 2 day)
Moisture vapor transmission rate (MVTR) ASTM ◦
38 °C 90% RH <0.015 (gr/m2 day)
Gas Transmission Rate (GTR) 22 C 50% RH <9 (cc (STP)/m2 /year)
Gas Transmission Rate (GTR) 22 °C 50% RH <9 (cc (STP)/m2/year)

The inner pressure

The inner state of
pressure theof
state VIPs
the was
VIPsevaluated using ausing
was evaluated custom-made
a custom-madeapparatusappara-
which tusoperates based on
which operates pressure
based compensation
on pressure (also called
compensation the envelope
(also called foil lift-off
the envelope foil lift-off
method). The apparatus
method). was developed
The apparatus in accordance
was developed with IEA
in accordance EBCIEA
with AnnexEBC39Annex
guidelines
39 guide-
[36]. lines
The foil
[36]. The foil lift-off method operates on a pressure equilibrium between theand
lift-off method operates on a pressure equilibrium between the internal internal
external
and environment of a panel.
external environment of Figure
a panel.4 Figure
depicts4details
depictsofdetails
the inner pressure
of the measuring
inner pressure measur-
ing equipment.
equipment. For the custom-made
For the custom-made apparatus,
apparatus, the vacuum
the vacuum chamber chamber can accommodate
can accommodate a a
maximum
maximum samplesample of 1ofm1 ×m1×m1 and
size size m andhashas a minimumdegree-of-vacuum
a minimum degree-of-vacuumup uptoto 0.001
0.001 Torr
Torr (0.13 Pa). TheThevacuum
vacuumchamber,
chamber,with withanan error
error raterate of 0.1%,
of 0.1%, waswas equipped
equipped withwith a high-
a high-
precision laser sensor capable of detecting changes on a millimeter
precision laser sensor capable of detecting changes on a millimeter scale. In the vacuum scale. In the vacuum
chamber,
chamber, the laser
the laser sensor sensor
had ahad a measuring
measuring distance
distance of 130 of
mm, 130a mm,
rangeaofrange
±15 mmof ±to15±12
mm to
mm, ± 12 mm,
and and an of
an accuracy accuracy
±0.1% to ±0.1% to
of ±0.25% ±0.25% [49].
[49].
Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 29
Buildings 2022, 12, 199 8 of 28

(a)

(b)

(c)
Figure 4. 4.
Figure VIPVIP
inner pressure
inner measurement
pressure apparatus:
measurement (a) concept,
apparatus: (b) laser
(a) concept, (b) component, and (c)and
laser component, vac-(c)
uum chamber [49].
vacuum chamber [49].

Thermal
Thermal conductivity
conductivity measurements
measurements were
werecarried out
carried using
out usingheat flow
heat meter
flow meterinstru-
instru-
mentation
mentation (EKO
(EKOHC-074)
HC-074) atat
a hot plate
a hot temperature
plate temperatureofof °C◦ C
3838 and
anda cold plate
a cold temperature
plate temperature
◦ C,under
ofof1010°C, underroom
room conditions
conditions (temperature
(temperatureof 21–23◦ C
of21–23 °Cand
and relative humidity
relative humidityof 50–55%).
of 50–
The The
55%). heatheat
flowflow
meter is accurate
meter with
is accurate a manufacturer’s
with a manufacturer’sspecified
specifiedrepeatability of 0.2%
repeatability and
of 0.2%
reproducibility
and reproducibilityof 0.5%.
of 0.5%.

2.2.
2.2. Initial
Initial Numerical
Numerical Computations
Computations
Based on Physibel BISCO/TRISCO
Based on Physibel BISCO/TRISCO computations,Part
computations, Part1 1ofofthis
thisproject
projectmainly
mainlyinves-
investi-
gated overall
tigated overall thermal
thermal performance
performancefor forcurtain
curtainwalls
wallswith
withand
and without
without insulated spandrels,
insulated span-
considering different levels of thermal bridges [34]. Thus, these subjects are not
drels, considering different levels of thermal bridges [34]. Thus, these subjects are not con- considered
in the present
sidered study. However,
in the present models developed
study. However, in Part 1 were
models developed in Part fine-tuned according toac-
1 were fine-tuned the
actual components and material specifications of VIP spandrels to be used
cording to the actual components and material specifications of VIP spandrels to be used for mockup tests
forlater in thistests
mockup study. For
later ininstance, experimental
this study. data
For instance, for VIPs and
experimental extruded
data for VIPspolystyrene (XPS)
and extruded
Buildings 2022, 12, 199 9 of 28

obtained from laboratory tests were used as inputs for computations. In addition, structural
features of a thermally broken aluminum frame system to be used for mockup experiments
was modeled. BISCO and TRISCO are thermal analysis programs developed by Physibel
for steady state heat transfer with 2D and 3D objects consisting of different materials and
submitted to different boundary conditions, using the finite difference method [50,51]. Nu-
merous researchers [37,52–58] have employed BISCO and TRISCO to investigate various
thermal performance aspects of VIP components and building systems with VIP, proving
that BISCO and TRISCO are sufficiently reliable tools for the analysis of VIP components
and constructions with VIP. Prior to experimental assessments, alternative VIP spandrel
configurations aimed at: (i) reducing thermal bridges of the overall spandrel system, (ii)
protecting the durability of VIPs integrated in the spandrel system, (iii) enhancing the ease
of fabrication, and (iv) using readily available materials that were proposed, the thermal
performance of which was scrutinized. Since the aim of this study concerns the spandrel
section of curtain wall systems, the modeling decoupled (separated) the vision section from
the spandrel section. In this study, the VIP was modeled with the effective thermal conduc-
tivity value. The effective thermal conductivity accounts for thermal bridging due to the
multilayered laminate envelope and core material, panel size, linear thermal transmittance,
and VIP weld seam design at the edge of the panel. This approach was already used in
other studies [53,59,60]. To model very thin laminate layers with thicknesses in the range of
0.1µm–50µm (for the case of the VIPs used in this study) is very difficult and even requires
more sophisticated numerical software. In addition, modeling all envelope material layers
separately would require very dense grids [58], and the spandrel scenarios in this study
were modeled under the same conditions, so no significant variation in results is attributed
to using the effective thermal conductivity value. In all, three VIP spandrel configurations
were considered, and their details will be presented in the following Section 2.3. The
thermophysical properties of material components of the spandrel system and boundary
conditions for numerical simulations, in compliance with the Korean Building Energy
Code [61], are summarized in Tables 2 and 3, respectively.

Table 2. Thermal and physical properties of material components for VIP spandrels.

Thermal Conductivity, Density, Specific Heat,

Material Function
W/mK kg/m3 J/(kgK)
Aluminum 1 Frame 160 2800 880
Glass 1 Structural panel 1 2500 750
Reinforced polyamide 1 Primary seal 0.3 1450 1600
Silicone 1 Secondary seal 0.35 1200 1000
EPDM 1 Gasket 0.25 1150 1000
Silica gel 1 Desiccant 0.13 720 1000
XPS 2 Thermal breaker 0.028 30 1000
VIP (10mm) 2,3 Spandrel insulation 0.0051 200 800
VIP (15mm) 2,3 Spandrel insulation 0.0051 200 800
VIP (25mm) 2,3 Spandrel insulation 0.0054 200 800
1 ISO 10456 [62]. 2 Based on in lab experimental tests. 3 Effective thermal conductivity values.

Table 3. Boundary conditions.

Surface Heat Transfer Coefficient

Environment Temperature (◦ C)
(W/m2 K)
Exterior −11.3 23.25
Interior 20 9.09
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2.3. Outdoor Mock-Up Experimental Assessments

2.3. Outdoor Mock-Up Experimental Assessments
2.3.1. VIPVIP
2.3.1. Spandrel
Spandrel Configurations
Configurations
TheThe baseline model
baseline model (Case
(Case1)1)was
wascomposed
composed of single-layer 25
of single-layer 25mmmmthick
thickVIP
VIP inte-
integrated
grated between two 6 mm glass panes, as depicted in Figure 5a. The
between two 6 mm glass panes, as depicted in Figure 5a. The total thickness of the baseline total thickness of the
baseline case was 37 mm. Details of Case 2 are shown in Figure
case was 37 mm. Details of Case 2 are shown in Figure 5b. The main difference between 5b. The main difference
between
Case 2Case 2 and1 Case
and Case was the 1 was
use the
of ause
5 mm of layer
a 5 mm layerbetween
of XPS of XPS thebetween the outer
outer glass paneglass
and the
paneexterior face of the one-layer 25 mm thick VIP. The total thickness of Case 2 was 42 2mm.
and the exterior face of the one-layer 25 mm thick VIP. The total thickness of Case
wasIt42is mm.
worth It is worththat
noting notingboth that both
Case 1 Case
and Case1 and2Case have2 ahave a single-layer
single-layer VIP. Appli- of
VIP. Application
cation of single-layer VIP is quite common in building constructions
single-layer VIP is quite common in building constructions [53,60,63–66]. Finally, [53,60,63–66]. Finally,
Case 3
Case 3 was made up of a double-layer VIP of thickness
was made up of a double-layer VIP of thickness 10 mm (towards outdoors) and10 mm (towards outdoors) and1515mm
mm(towards
(towardsindoors),
indoors),withwitha a5 mm 5 mm layer
layer ofof XPSXPS between
between thethe adjacent
adjacent surfaces
surfaces of ofthethe
VIPs.
VIPs.
CaseCase 3 is
3 is representedbybyFigure
represented Figure5c. 5c. The
The total
total thickness
thicknessof ofCase
Case3 3was was4747mm.mm. Case 3 3
Case
waswasdesigned
designed in this particular
in this particular manner
manner to evaluate
to evaluate thethe
effect of utilizing
effect twotwo
of utilizing staggered
staggered
VIPs of equivalent
VIPs of equivalent total thickness
total thickness of 25
of mm
25 mm (the(the
same as the
same VIPVIP
as the thickness
thicknessfor for
Case 1 and
Case 1 and
Case 2) as compared to using a one-layer VIP. Double-layer VIP design
Case 2) as compared to using a one-layer VIP. Double-layer VIP design has been applied in has been applied
in such
such applications as as precast
precastconcrete
concreteintegrated
integratedwith with VIPs
VIPs [67]
[67] andand low-sloped
low-sloped com-
commercial
mercial roofing
roofing systems systems [68]. the
[68]. Since Since the concerned
study study concerned the spandrels
the spandrels of awall,
of a curtain curtain wall,
experiments
experiments
were carried were outcarried out on specimens
on spandrel spandrel specimens only,understand
only, to better to better understand theirbehavior.
their thermal ther-
malAbehavior. A typical
typical thermally thermally
broken broken
aluminum aluminum
framing system framing
(U-value system W/m2 K) was
of 2.7 (U-value of 2.7used
W/m to2K) was used
support to support
the spandrel the spandrel
components, whichcomponents,
was suitable which waspurpose
for the suitableoffor
thethe pur-It is
study.
pose of the
worth study.
noting It is
that worth
the noting thatofthe
configurations VIPconfigurations
spandrels in Figureof VIP5spandrels
are the samein Figure
for the5VIP
are spandrels
the same for modeled
the VIP under Sectionmodeled
spandrels 2.2, except for the
under inclusion
Section of an ultraviolet
2.2, except (UV) control
for the inclusion of
film. This (UV)
an ultraviolet is to control
protect film.
the surface
This is toofprotect
a VIP facing outdoors
the surface from
of a VIP direct
facing solar radiation.
outdoors from
Table
direct 4 summarizes
solar radiation. Table the properties
4 summarizes of thethe UV film.
properties of the UV film.

(a)

(b)
Figure 5. Cont.
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(c)
(c)
Figure 5. Cross-sectional
Figure details
Cross-sectional
5.Cross-sectional of VIP
details spandrel
of VIP
VIP cases.
spandrel (a) Case
cases. 1; (b)1;Case
(a)Case
Case 2; (c)2;Case
(b) Case
Case 3. 3.
(c) Case
Case
Figure 5. details of spandrel cases. (a) 1; (b) 2; (c) 3.
Table 4. Properties
Table of UV
Properties control
of UV
UV film [69].
control
Table 4. Properties of control film [69].
Property Index
Property
Property IndexIndex
Solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC) 0.23
Solar
Solar heatheat
gaingain coefficient
coefficient (SHGC) (SHGC) 0.23 0.23
U value
U value
0.93
U value 0.93 0.93
Total
Total solarenergy
solar energy rejected
rejected 77%
77%
Total solar energy rejected 77%

2.3.2. Overview
2.3.2. Overviewof Real-Scale Mockup
ofReal-Scale
Real-Scale MockupBuilding Facility
Building Facility
2.3.2. Overview of Mockup Building Facility
Details of the
Detailsof mockup
of the
the mockuptest
mockup testbuilding facility
test building used
building facility for experimental
facility used
used investigations
for experimental
experimental are are
investigations
Details for investigations are
shown in
shown inFigure 6.
in Figure
Figure 6.6.
shown

Figure 6. Photographs of the mockup test building facility.

Figure
Figure6.
6.Photographs
Photographsof ofthe
themockup
mockuptest
testbuilding
building facility.
facility.

TheThetest test
facility, measuring
facility, measuring 6m 6m(length) by 4m
(length) (width)
by 4m
4m (width)by 2.7 m
2.7(height),
by 2.7 m (height),is located
(height), is locatedat at
located
The test facility, measuring 6m (length) by (width) by m is at
the College
theCollege of
CollegeofEngineering
ofEngineering Campus
EngineeringCampus of
Campusof Kongju
ofKongju National
KongjuNational University,
NationalUniversity, in
University,in Cheonan.
inCheonan. To
Cheonan.To avoid
Toavoid
avoid
the
shade andand
shade to be exposed to solar radiation, thethe mockup facility was mounted on the roof-
shade and to be exposed to to solar
solar radiation,
radiation, themockup
mockupfacility
facilitywas
wasmounted
mountedonon thetherooftop
roof-
top of
of aafour-story
four-storyeducational
educationalbuilding.
building.The Theexterior
exterior walls
walls of of
the the
testtest facility,
facility, from from out- to
outdoors
top of a four-story educational building. The exterior walls of the test facility, from out-
doors to indoors,
indoors, were were composed
composed of a sandwich
of a sandwich panel panel
(painted(painted sheet,
metal 100
sheet, 100 mm EPS
doors to indoors, were composed of a sandwich panel metal
(painted metal mm
sheet, EPS
100insulation
mm EPS
insulation and
and painted painted metal sheet), 50 mm glass wool insulation, and a 19 mm two-ply
insulation andmetal sheet),
painted metal 50 sheet),
mm glass 50 mmwool insulation,
glass and a 19 and
wool insulation, mmatwo-ply gypsum
19 mm two-ply
gypsum
board. board.
The The south-facing
south-facing façade
façade of theof the facility
facility waswas designed
designed withopenings
with openingsmeasuring
meas-
gypsum board. The south-facing façade of the facility was designed with openings meas-
uring 1360
1360 mm mm ××1360
1360mmmm (with
(with tolerance
tolerance of
of ±5
± mm)
5 mm) into
intowhich
whichVIPVIPspandrel
spandrelcomponents
components
uring 1360 mm × 1360 mm (with tolerance of ±5 mm) into which VIP spandrel components
could be installed.
could TheThe
be installed.
installed. floorfloor
planplan
of the test test
of the
the building is shown
building is shown
shownin Figure 7. 7.
in Figure
Figure
could be The floor plan of test building is in 7.
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29

Figure7.7.Plan
Figure Planof
oftest
testbuilding
buildingfacility
facility(units:
(units:mm).
mm).

Interiorpartitions
Interior partitionsofofthe
the test
test facility
facility consisted
consisted ofmm
of 19 19 mm two-ply
two-ply gypsum
gypsum board,board,
90 mm90
mm glass wool insulation and 19mm two-ply gypsum board. The indoor
glass wool insulation and 19mm two-ply gypsum board. The indoor temperatures in both temperatures in
bothand
test testservice
and service
roomsrooms
werewere controlled
controlled by anbyelectric
an electric
heatheat
pump pump (EHP)
(EHP) air condition-
air conditioning
ing system.
system. The system
The system can operate
can operate in cooling
in cooling modemode
only. only. The facility
The facility was designed
was designed to
to have
havetest
three three test rooms
rooms and wasand was fabricated
fabricated in a manner
in a manner to ensuretothat
ensure thatrooms
the test the test rooms
were were
exposed
exposed
to the same to outdoor
the sameand
outdoor
indoor and indoor environmental
environmental conditions.conditions.

2.3.3.
2.3.3.Spandrel
SpandrelFabrication,
Fabrication,Installation,
Installation,and
andMonitoring
MonitoringSystems
Systems
All
All materials used for
materials used for the
themockup
mockuptests
testsareare commercially
commercially available
available products.
products. TheThe
VIP
VIP
spandrel fabrication was carried out in coordinated sequences on site. Depending on on
spandrel fabrication was carried out in coordinated sequences on site. Depending the
the configuration
configuration of the
of the spandrel,
spandrel, the the sandwich
sandwich panelspanels
werewere
dulyduly constructed.
constructed. Spandrel
Spandrel inte-
integrated
grated VIPVIP components
components werewere
thenthen installed
installed in theintest
thebuilding
test building facility.
facility. The inter-
The internal and
nal and external surface temperatures of the spandrel specimens, as
external surface temperatures of the spandrel specimens, as well as VIP surface tempera-well as VIP surface
temperatures
tures inside the inside the spandrel
spandrel cavity,
cavity, were were monitored
monitored using thermocouples.
using K-Type K-Type thermocouples.The tips
The
of the thermocouples’ wire legs were spot welded with a thermocouple welder welder
tips of the thermocouples’ wire legs were spot welded with a thermocouple prior to
prior
settingto up
setting
in theuptest
in the test building.
building. This wasThis was toa create
to create junctiona junction where temperature
where temperature could be
could
measuredbe measured and to short
and to prevent prevent short circuiting.
circuiting. To avoid To avoid measurement
measurement errors, ther-
errors, thermocouples
mocouples were calibrated and tested before installation in the mockup facility. Global
were calibrated and tested before installation in the mockup facility. Global solar radiation
solar radiation incident on the vertical surface was measured using a pyranometer, and
incident on the vertical surface was measured using a pyranometer, and outdoor temper-
outdoor temperature and humidity profiles were measured with a temperature and relative
ature and humidity profiles were measured with a temperature and relative humidity
humidity transmitter. The inductive head of the humidity transmitter was shielded from
transmitter. The inductive head of the humidity transmitter was shielded from solar radi-
solar radiation to reduce the influence of direct solar radiation on measurements. The
ation to reduce the influence of direct solar radiation on measurements. The indoor cli-
indoor climatic environment for individual tests and service rooms were monitored as well.
matic environment for individual tests and service rooms were monitored as well. Data
Data was recorded at intervals of 5 min. The durability of VIPs and the thermal bridge
was recorded at intervals of 5 min. The durability of VIPs and the thermal bridge of the
of the overall system were examined by infra-red thermography. Details and technical
overall system were examined by infra-red thermography. Details and technical and un-
and uncertainty specifications of test equipment used for monitoring are listed in Table 5.
certainty specifications of test equipment used for monitoring are listed in Table 5. Actual
Actual images of the experimental apparatus are shown in Figure 8. In all, 26 temperature
images were
sensors of theused
experimental
to measure apparatus
surface are
andshown
cavityintemperatures.
Figure 8. In all, 26 temperature
Table 6 summarizes sensors
the
were used to measure surface and cavity temperatures. Table 6 summarizes
number of sensors used per case. Figure 9 shows thermocouple positions for the interior the number
of sensors
and exteriorused per case.
surfaces Figure 9 shows
of spandrels, thermocouple
while Figure positions
10 displays for the interior
thermocouple positionsandatexte-
the
riorsurfaces
VIP surfacesinside
of spandrels, whilecavity.
the spandrel FigureThe10 displays thermocouple
final building positionsspecimens
with the spandrel at the VIP
surfaces isinside
installed the spandrel
presented in Figurecavity.
11. The final building with the spandrel specimens in-
stalled is presented in Figure 11.
Buildings 2022, 12, 199 13 of 28

Table 5. Specification and measurement accuracy of measuring equipment.

Equipment Type (Model) Specifications

Measurement range: −200 ◦ C to 1372 ◦ C
K-Type thermocouple
Accuracy: ±0.50 (at −200 ◦ C to −50 ◦ C),
(KX-F-0.32)
±0.25 (at −50 ◦ C to 1372 ◦ C)
Clock accuracy: ±0.002% (ambient temperature 23 ◦ C)
Data logger for thermocouple calibration Operating environment: 0 ◦ C to 45 ◦ C/5% RH to 85% RH
(Graphtec GL800) Measurement range and accuracy: ±(0.05% of reading + 2 ◦ C) at −200 ◦ C
to −100 ◦ C; ±(0.05% of reading + 1 ◦ C) at −100 ◦ C to 1370 ◦ C.
Thermocouple welder Input voltage: 220 V AC 1 A 60 Hz
(DK-50) Output voltage: 24–48 VDC (20,000 uF)
Operating temperature: −40 ◦ C to 80 ◦ C
Irradiance range: 0 to 4000 Wm−2
Wavelength range: 285–3000 nm
Pyranometer
Response time 95%: <8 s
(EKO MS-402)
Sensitivity: 7 µV/Wm−2
Temperature response −10 ◦ C to 40: ±1%
Accuracy: first class pyranometer according to ISO 9060
Operating temperature: −40 ◦ C to 60 ◦ C
Indoor air temperature and relative humidity
Measurement range: −40 ◦ C to 60 ◦ C/10% RH to 95% RH
transmitter (EE160)
Accuracy at 20 ◦ C: ±0.3 ◦ C/±2.5% RH
Operating temperature: −40 ◦ C to 60 ◦ C
Outdoor temperature and relative humidity
Measurement range: −40 ◦ C to 60 ◦ C/0% RH to 100% RH
transmitter (HygroFlex HF535)
Accuracy at 23 ◦ C: ±0.1 ◦ C/±0.8% RH
Measurement accuracy: ±(0.1% of reading + 1 ◦ C), except −200 ◦ C to 0 ◦ C,
±(0.6% of reading + 1 ◦ C) for thermocouple; ±(0.07% of reading + 40 mV)
Data logger for monitoring (Yokogawa WE7241)
for pyranometer; ±(0.2% of reading + 3 mV) for air temperature/relative
humidity transmitter
Operating temperature: −10 ◦ C to 50 ◦ C
Infrared spectral band: 7.5 µm to 14 µm
Infrared thermal camera (Fluke Ti32) Measurement range: −20 ◦ C to 600 ◦ C
Thermal sensitivity: ≤0.05 ◦ C
Accuracy: ±2 ◦ C or ±2%
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Figure
Figure
Figure 8.Mockup
8. 8. Mockup
Mockup measurement
measurement
measurement apparatus.
apparatus.
apparatus.

Figure
Figure
Figure 9.Schematic
9. 9. Schematic
Schematic ofthermocouple
ofof thermocouple
thermocouple positions
positions
positions for:for:
for:
(a) (a)
(a) interior
interior
interior and
and
and (b)
(b)
(b) exterior
exterior
exterior surfaces
surfaces
surfaces of span-
ofofspan-
spandrels.
drels.
drels.