Journal of Energy Storage 68 (2023) 107806

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Journal of Energy Storage

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Research papers

Numerical investigation and optimization of macro-encapsulated phase

change material capsules in building roof slab
Mohammed Fareed Rahi a, Müslüm Arıcı b, Ammar M. Abdulateef c, Hakeem Niyas a, *
a
Energy Institute Bengaluru, Centre of Rajiv Gandhi Institute of Petroleum Technology, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
b
Mechanical Engineering Department, Engineering Faculty, Kocaeli University, 41001 Kocaeli, Turkey
c
Department of Aeronautical Techniques Engineering, Bilad Alrafidain University College, Diyala 32001, Iraq

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Globally, rising temperatures, together with the growing population, urbanization, and improved living stan­
Peak temperature reduction dards, are driving a sharp increase in energy demand in the building sector. Space cooling and heating are the
Phase change material major areas of energy consumption. The building’s roof slab thermal performance significantly impacts the
Reinforced cement concrete roof slab
heating and cooling requirements. Various studies investigated incorporating phase change material (PCM) to
Space cooling
enhance the thermal characteristics of roof slabs. In this paper, the effective utilization of macro-encapsulated
Thermal comfort
PCM in reinforced cement concrete (RCC) roof slab is investigated numerically. This research explored the ef­
fect of shape, heat transfer area, and thermal shading with the same amount of PCM on the impact of the
reduction of inner roof temperature. Validation of the model with the experimental results is done for the current
study. A total of 12 different cases, along with a reference case, were examined. In addition, the structural
performance of the RCC conventional slab and slab with PCM capsules is also examined. Findings of the study
include: cuboid with less thickness was found as the best shape. The increment in heat transfer area leads to
better thermal performance while also providing the best case, with 3.2 ◦ C and 1.2 ◦ C peak and average tem­
perature reduction. The thermal shading phenomenon was found to have positive results for the winter solstice.
The deflection of all the slab cases was observed to be within the limits.

2022 [1]. The building envelope, which is the primary component

separating the inside and outside environments of the structure, signif­
1. Introduction
icantly impacts the requirement for space cooling. Therefore, the
building envelope plays a critical role in maintaining the thermal com­
The residential sector has experienced a tremendous increase in
fort of the building. The roof is the primary cause of changes in the
energy demand over the past few decades because of the ongoing rise in
temperature of the room due to its exposure to various environmental
living standards and comfort expectations. There is a widespread worry
factors that affect heat transfer, including conductive, convective, and
that the continued building surge brought on by the world’s high pop­
radiative processes. Walls have a comparatively lesser effect on thermal
ulation will increase energy consumption in the future, particularly in
comfort than roofs, as adjacent buildings usually shadow them. The
major cities. According to the International Energy Agency, building
thermal comfort of the inner space with less energy usage could be
energy use increased from 115 EJ in 2010 to around 135 EJ in 2021,
achieved by improving the roof’s thermal performance by incorporating
accounting for 30 % of the world’s total final energy consumption. The
phase change material (PCM).
share rises to 34 % when final energy use for cement, steel, and
PCMs have the ability to store huge amounts of energy during phase
aluminum manufacture is included. In 2021, electricity only accounted
transition with a slight temperature change. There are several papers
for about 35 % of the energy utilized in buildings, increasing from 30 %
written on the use of PCMs for storing thermal energy in building en­
in 2010. Among all building end uses, space cooling experienced the
velopes [2–5]. By absorbing heat gain during the daytime before it
biggest growth in demand in 2021, rising by more than 6.5 % from 2020.
spreads into the room interior and releasing the stored heat energy into
The energy demand for space cooling has increased by 4 % annually on
indoor and outdoor areas at night, these systems reduce the amount of
average, twice as quickly as the demand for lighting or water heating.
heat that enters the building interior from the exterior. Several studies
The number of air conditioning units has reached around 2.2 billion in

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: hakeemnus@rgipt.ac.in, hakeemniyas@gmail.com (H. Niyas).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2023.107806
Received 13 January 2023; Received in revised form 24 April 2023; Accepted 20 May 2023
2352-152X/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M.F. Rahi et al.
Nomenclature
PCM Phase Change Material
RCC Reinforced Cement Concrete
L Length [m]
t Thickness [m]
W Width [m]
Cp Specific heat [J/kg ◦ C]
hi Inner surface heat transfer coefficient [W/m2⋅◦ C]
ho Outer surface heat transfer coefficient [W/m2⋅◦ C]
k Thermal Conductivity [W/m⋅◦ C]
Lf Latent heat of fusion [J/kg]
Tamb Ambient temperature [◦ C]
Tm Median melting temperature [◦ C]
Tos Outer surface temperature [◦ C]
qs Solar radiation [W/m2]
Vwind Wind velocity [m/s]
α Solar absorptivity
αm Solid PCM mass fraction
ε Surface emissivity
ρ Density [kg/m3]
θ Solid PCM volume fraction
discussed the incorporation of PCM experimentally and numerically in
roofs as a single layer [6–10]. However, due to the roof size, PCM as a
separate layer may experience leaks and increase expenditure.
Many researchers utilized PCM in the conventional slab by sand­
wiching the PCM layer between the roof slab and the covering layer.
Although this practice increases the thermal mass of the building, it also
leads to an overall increment in construction material and dead load.
Utilizing voids in flat slabs is a prominent remedy for this issue. Plastic
balls have been frequently used as a remedy since the early 1990s [11].
There are studies conducted on voided slab specimens to examine their
flexural behavior using different shapes of void formers, including
spherical, elliptical, donut, and conical [12–16], etc. It was observed
that the self-weight of the slabs was reduced compared to solid slabs, but
their structural performance was not significantly affected.
Several studies investigated the incorporation of PCM in reinforced
cement concrete (RCC) slabs. Haridass et al. [17] performed experi­
mental and numerical studies for PCM-filled RCC roof slabs. They found
a heat flux reduction of 53 % and an average room temperature
reduction of 2 ◦ C compared to the non-PCM roof. The PCM position
influences the thermal performance of the roof. Li et al. [18] numerically
compared the different PCM positions; PCM layers were positioned near
the indoor, outdoor, and middle of the roof. Results showed that keeping
the PCM near the outdoor environment performs best. Saafi and Daous
[19] performed a numerical investigation on the position of the PCM
layer under real-time weather conditions, which indicated that placing it
outdoors is the most effective option in terms of reduced cooling loads
and saved energy. The researchers also found that the use of PCM is cost-
effective when it is integrated with no insulation. Al Yasiri and Szabo
[20] experimentally investigated three different levels of PCM layer
position near the exterior layer, middle and inner in the roof. They found
that the layer close to the exterior surface showed high thermal
performance.
In actual situations, PCM is incorporated into building materials
using a variety of techniques, including direct mixing, immersing,
microencapsulation, macro-encapsulation, and form stabilization
[21–24]. Among the ways mentioned, macro-encapsulation is a cost-
effective strategy to retain PCM and integrate it with the building en­
velope by deploying a significant amount of PCM and various encap­
sulation containers [24–26]. Rathore et al. [27] conducted an
experimental study for a whole year, with PCM macrocapsules
2
Journal of Energy Storage 68 (2023) 107806
incorporated in building envelope. Results show that the indoor peak
temperature was reduced up to 0.2 to 4.3 ◦ C and cost-savings of 1.47
rupees/kWh/m2/day was obtained. Materials like copper and aluminum
are commonly used for encapsulation due to their high thermal con­
ductivity. Although polymer materials have lower conductivity, they
have gained attention for encapsulation due to their low weight, recy­
clability, and compatibility with many PCMs. However, the impact of
PCM container material on PCM melting and solidification has only been
briefly explored in the literature. Reddy et al. [10] conducted an
experiment to examine the effect of paraffin wax using spherical cap­
sules made of high-density polyethylene, mild steel, and aluminum. The
results showed that the materials used for the containers did not
significantly impact the heat charging and discharging rate. The re­
searchers concluded that while materials with higher thermal conduc­
tivity improved the heat transfer rate of the adjacent PCM layer, they did
not significantly increase the overall thermal conductivity of the PCM
capsule. Ismail and Moraes [28] also experimentally and numerically
investigated the effect of two materials, glass and plastic, on PCM so­
lidification time. They found that solidification was fast and full for the
plastic container.
The geometry configuration of PCM containers affects the heat
transfer rate. Erlbeck et al. [29] conducted numerical and experimental
studies on various geometries of PCM capsules, including cuboid, cy­
lindrical, plate-shaped, and spherical containers of different sizes and
orientations. The results showed that cuboid containers had poor ther­
mal performance during solidification, cylindrical containers had faster
solidification, plate-shaped containers exhibited varying thermal
behavior depending on their thickness and orientation, and spherical
containers had exhibited a fast-melting and slow solidification. Cui et al.
[30] developed a novel method of macro-encapsulation of PCM using a
hollow steel ball attached to a metal clamp for improving interlocking
with the cement mortar. Results indicated that in addition to thermal
performance enhancement, compressive strength reduction is also
minimized when the clamp is provided with the steel ball. Al-Yasiri and
Szabo [31] experimentally investigated four concrete blocks, one as a
reference block and three blocks with varying surface areas with the
same volume using aluminum capsules. It is concluded that thermal
performance is enhanced by increasing the PCM encapsulation area. In
another study by Al-Yasiri and Szabo [32], experiments are conducted
on a large scale, PCM encapsulated blocks made all the walls, and on the
roof, a single layer of PCM is provided. Results depicted that the
maximum heat gain reduction in the roof was 11.8 %, and the east wall
performed best among the walls with 9.3 %. Night cooling is also crucial
because it affects PCM performance. Álvarez et al. [33] indicated that
active methods are best for night cooling ventilation but still encapsu­
lation shapes also increase the convective heat transfer coefficient to a
major extent.
In this paper, a 3D numerical model is developed to study the ther­
mal and structural analysis of the RCC building roof slab by incorpo­
rating macro-encapsulated PCM by varying the shape (cuboid and
cylinder), orientation, and thickness. The simulations are carried out for
the weather conditions (wind velocity, ambient temperature, direct and
diffuse radiation) on the day of summer and winter solstice for the city of
Bengaluru, India. The Solcast tool is used to get the weather data for the
city. The main parameters considered in this work are the effect of
shape, heat transfer area, thermal shading, and flexural performance.
Thermal and structural performances are evaluated based on inner roof
ceiling temperature and deflection, respectively. Fig. 1 depicts the cross-
sectional view of the RCC roof slab with PCM capsules. It can be seen
from Fig. 1 that all the modes of heat transfer, viz., conduction, con­
vection and radiation are considered in the developed model.
1.1. Novelty
The use of PCM in a single layer in the roof slab may have a major
drawback if the PCM gets damaged and leaks, as the entire layer will be
M.F. Rahi et al. Journal of Energy Storage 68 (2023) 107806

Fig. 1. Schematic representation of RCC roof slab with PCM capsules.

affected. However, this can be resolved by using PCM capsules at regular
intervals in the entire slab. To the best of the author’s knowledge, there
are no works presented on the direct incorporation of macro-
encapsulated PCM by replacing a minor amount of concrete in RCC
slab. The novelty proposed in this paper is to investigate the PCM
capsule shape and orientation for effective utilization of PCM, with a
special focus on the top surface area of the capsules. Additionally, no
works have analyzed the structural performance of RCC slab containing
PCM capsules.
parametric study based on real-time weather conditions, with a focus on
the behavior of PCM in two different climate conditions of India,
namely, summer and winter solstice. The study also includes validating
numerical results with experimental data. Additionally, the study ex­
amines the effect of the structural performance of RCC, particularly the
deflection of the slab.
2. Thermal modelling
2.1. Problem statement

1.2. Objective
Fig. 2 depicts the schematic representation of the RCC slab with PCM
capsules, and it is a quarter portion of the entire slab. The overall
This study aims to investigate the thermal and structural perfor­
dimension of the considered RCC slab is as follows length (L) = 4.000 m,
mance of a building concrete slab incorporated with PCM. The study
width (W) = 1.850 m, and thickness (t) = 0.115 m, which comprises a
involves comparing the thermal behavior of two conventional PCM
total number of 144 PCM capsules. The heat transfer predominantly
shapes, cuboid, and cylinder, encapsulated in a capsule with equal
occurs in three places: convection and radiation above the slab,
amounts of PCM. A 3D mathematical model is developed to conduct a

Fig. 2. Schematic representation of the RCC slab model with the PCM capsules.

3
M.F. Rahi et al.
conduction between the top and bottom parts of the slab, and convection
below the slab. Hence the heat transfer is negligible across the edges of
the roof slab. Hence, only a portion of the slab with a single PCM capsule
(as per base cases 1, 4, 7, and 10 explained below) is considered for
thermal study to reduce the computational cost.
In this study, one reference case without PCM representing the
conventional building roof slab and 12 cases of roof slab incorporated
with different PCM shapes, sizes, and orientations are analyzed for the
weather conditions of Bengaluru, India, at the summer solstice (21/06/
2022) and winter solstice (22/12/2022). Each case consists of a portion
of an RCC slab, capsule, and PCM. RCC slab portion with length (L) =
0.300 m, width (W) = 0.150 m, and thickness (t) = 0.115 m remains
similar for all cases. The outer surface of the roof slab is exposed to time-
dependent solar radiation and the convection of atmospheric air. At the
same time, the inner surface is also subjected to time-dependent con­
vection boundary conditions. Weather data of summer and winter sol­
stices used for the study are shown in Figs. 3 and 4, taken from Solcast
[34]. Fig. 3 represents the wind velocity variation throughout the day on
both summer and winter solstices. It can be seen that the wind velocity is
higher during the summer solstice than the winter solstice. Similarly,
Fig. 4 depicts the fluctuation of surrounding ambient temperature and
direct and diffuse radiation. Incorporating the weather data into the
thermal modelling allows in predicting the building’s thermal perfor­
mance accurately.
The schematic representation and detailed dimension of the RCC slab
with PCM capsules for all the cases are shown in Fig. 5 and Table 1. The
PCM volume remains the same in all 12 cases. The shape, thickness, and
orientation of the capsule are adopted in a manner that follows the same
trend. A cuboidal shape is chosen for cases 1–6, and a cylindrical shape is
chosen for cases 7–12. Among the 12 cases, cases 1, 4, 7, and 10
represent the base cases. The width of the case 1 cuboid (referred to as
the brick cuboid) is half that of the case 4 cuboid (referred to as the plate
cuboid). For restraining the constant PCM volume, the height of the
brick cuboid is double the height of the plate cuboid. Case 7 and 10
cylindrical capsules are kept in the longitudinal and transverse direc­
tion. The length of the case 7 cylinder (referred to as the pipe cylinder) is
more than its diameter due to the space availability in the longitudinal
direction. On the contrary, the diameter of the case 10 cylinder (referred
to as the coin cylinder) is more than its thickness. Similarly, the PCM
Fig. 3. Wind velocity of the test location for summer and winter solstices.
4
Journal of Energy Storage 68 (2023) 107806
capsules, other than the base cases, are made so that the surface area of
the PCM capsules is increased by dividing the capsule into two halves.
The capsules are divided longitudinally in cases 2, 5, 8, and 11 (referred
to as extended surface area cases). On the contrary, in cases 3, 6, 9, and
12, the capsules are divided transversely (referred to as the thermal
shading cases). Rubitherm–25 (RT–25) and Polyethylene terephthalate
(PET) are used as PCM and capsule material, respectively [35]. The
thermophysical properties of RT–25, PET, and RCC used in the numer­
ical study are presented in Table 2.
2.2. Assumptions
Adopting assumptions reduces the need for computational resources
while preserving accuracy by ignoring only the negligible effects. The
following are key assumptions that are made for this study:
■ Heat transfer through the roof is one dimensional which is through
the thickness of the roof slab. Heat transfer through the roof’s corner
edges is neglected. The intensity of the solar radiation that falls on
the roof surface remains relatively constant, leading to uniform heat
transfer through the thickness of the roof.
■ The PCM is assumed to be pure, homogeneous, isotropic, and does
not exhibit any mass transfer phenomena.
■ The material properties of RCC, capsule, and PCM are assumed to be
constant and do not vary with temperature, with the exception of the
density of PCM in its solid and liquid phases.
■ The resistance to heat transfer that occurs at the interface between
the inner layers of the roof slab is not taken into consideration.
■ Thermal expansion of concrete and PCM, as well as convective heat
transfer in molten state PCM, are considered to be negligible.
■ Surrounding radiations, except the sky, are ignored.
2.3. Governing equations
In this work, COMSOL Multiphysics software is used, to create and
solve a 3D dynamic model of heat transfer through the roof slab. The
governing equations involved in several phenomena are discussed in this
section. As there is no explicit heat generation within the RCC roof slab
and the capsule material, heat transfer by conduction that happens
M.F. Rahi et al. Journal of Energy Storage 68 (2023) 107806

Fig. 4. Weather data for the test location (a) summer solstice and (b) winter solstice.

within them is modelled using the energy equation (without internal the phase change has a minimal impact on the heat flux density ex­
heat generation) given by Eq. (1), described by [36]. change between the PCM and its surroundings, as stated by Thiele et al.
( 2 ) [38]. Heat transfer in PCM is described by Eqs. (2)–(5). The density,
∂T ∂ T ∂2 T ∂2 T specific heat, and thermal conductivity of the PCM is considered in its
ρC p = k + + (1)
∂t ∂x2 ∂y2 ∂z2 realistic form by the incorporation of solid PCM volume. θ, Tm and αm
represent the solid PCM volume fraction, median melting temperature,
where x, y, and z are three mutually perpendicular directions. T is the
and solid PCM mass fraction, respectively, defined by Eqs. (6)–(7).
temperature of the material through which heat flows by conduction. ρ,
( 2 )
Cp, and k indicate the corresponding material’s density, specific heat, ∂T ∂ Tpcm ∂2 Tpcm ∂2 Tpcm
ρpcm Cp,pcm pcm = kpcm + + (2)
and thermal conductivity, respectively. ∂t ∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z2

Heat transfer in the PCM component is modelled using the energy

balance equation, which takes into account the apparent heat capacity ρpcm = θρsol + (1 − θ)ρliq (3)
of the PCM [37]. This approach assumes that the phase change occurs
within a narrow temperature range, and that the temperature interval of

5
M.F. Rahi et al. Journal of Energy Storage 68 (2023) 107806

Fig. 5. Schematic representation of RCC slab with PCM capsules for all the test cases.

1 ( ) ∂αm
Cp,pcm = θρsol Cp,s + (1 − θ)θρliq Cp,liq + Lf (4)
ρ ∂T
2.4. Boundary conditions
kpcm = θksol + (1 − θ)kliq (5)
The outer surface of the RCC roof slab is considered opaque, which is
⎧
ΔT exposed to combined convective and radiative effects, and the inner
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
1 if Tpcm ≤ Tm − surface is subjected to only convective heat transfer. The boundary
⎪ 2
⎪
⎪
⎨ 1 ( ) condition for the outer surface exposed to radiation and convective
ΔT ΔT ΔT
θ= Tm + − Tpcm if Tm − ≤ Tpcm ≤ Tm + (6) transfer is expressed by Eq. (8). Tamb, Tos, and qs represent ambient
⎪ ΔT 2 2 2
⎪
⎪
⎪ temperature, outer surface temperature, and incident solar radiation,
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩ 0 if Tpcm ≥ Tm +
ΔT respectively. α indicates the solar absorptivity, and for concrete, it is
2 taken as α = 0.65 [39]. ε represents the surface emissivity, σ indicates
the Stefan Boltzmann constant. ho is the external convective heat
1 (1 − θ) ρliq − θρsol transfer coefficient at the outer surface of the roof. It is primarily due to
αm = (7)
2 θρsol + (1 − θ)ρliq the surrounding atmosphere depending on wind velocity and is obtained

6
M.F. Rahi et al. Journal of Energy Storage 68 (2023) 107806

Table 1 normal mesh is employed in further study. Fig. 7 describes the case – 1
Dimension of the PCM capsules for all the test cases. inner ceiling temperature for different mesh elements.
Model Length Width Thickness Diameter No. of Volume
case (m) (m) (m) (m) capsules (m3) 3.3. Effect of the shape on ceiling temperature
1 0.200 0.05 0.0500 – 1 0.0005
2 0.100 0.05 0.0500 – 2 0.0005 The energy-efficient roof design must guarantee a decrease in the
3 0.200 0.05 0.0250 – 2 0.0005 interior temperature of the roof, which will improve and maintain a
4 0.200 0.10 0.0250 – 1 0.0005 nearly constant room temperature. To make the outside fluctuations
5 0.100 0.10 0.0250 – 2 0.0005
6 0.200 0.10 0.0125 – 2 0.0005
have a minor impact on the interior temperature with reduced energy
7 0.255 – – 0.050 1 0.0005 use, the conventional roof must be adjusted, and the design should be
8 0.1275 – – 0.050 2 0.0005 passive. Normal or limited air distribution is a simple and low-effort
9 0.250 – – 0.360 2 0.0005 method of removing heat, although it is less effective at low elevations
10 0.04075 0.125 1 0.0005
when the ambient air temperature is consistently over 20 ◦ C throughout
– –
11 – – 0.020375 0.125 2 0.0005
12 – – 0.04075 0.088 2 0.0005 the year [42]. In the summer/winter, PCMs can help to maintain a more
consistent and comfortable indoor temperature by absorbing and
releasing heat from the ambient, reducing the need for cooling/heating.
Using PCMs can reduce the energy demand of the building’s cooling/
Table 2
heating system by providing an additional heat sink/source. This can
Thermo-physical properties of materials [35].
result in reduced energy costs and a lower carbon footprint. The PCMs
S. No Material k (W/m⋅◦ C) ρ (kg/m3) Cp (J/kg⋅◦ C) Lf (J/g)
kept in a slab can increase the thermal mass of the building, which can
1 RT-25 0.2 880 (solid) 2000 230,000 help to reduce temperature fluctuations. The PCMs can help to reduce
770 (liquid) heat loss from the building by releasing absorbed heat back into the
2 PET 0.3 1380 1250 –
3 RCC 1.8 2300 880 –
building as the ambient temperature drops.
With various roof slab designs, the inner surface temperature is
predicted in the current study. Fig. 8 (a) shows the roof temperature
by Eq. (9) [40]. For including the internal natural convection that occurs variation of the inner surface for base cases – 1, 4, 7, and 10 and the
at the inner region of the slab, the boundary condition expressed in Eq. reference case in the summer solstice. In all cases, the reference block
(10) is used, where hi is the internal convective heat transfer coefficient without PCM experiences greater inner ceiling temperature than with
whose value is taken as 8.7 (W/m2⋅◦ C) [41]. PCM cases, except for the midnight hours at the start. This is due to the
( ) initial state condition of the roof slab, which has been provided as 25 ◦ C,
∂T
k = ho (Tamb − Tos ) + αqs − εσ Tos4 − Tamb
4
(8) which is the melting temperature of PCM. Therefore, the PCM dis­
∂x
charges heat initially for solidification. Among all cases, case – 4 has the
{ least peak and overall room temperature reduction compared to the
5.6 + 4⋅Vwind for Vwind > 4.88 m/s
ho = 0.78
/ (9) other 3 cases. This is due to the lesser thickness of PCM and more surface
7.2⋅Vwind for Vwind ≤ 4.88 m s
area of PCM pointing towards the source of heat (outer surface), the
PCM in case – 4 solidifies and liquefies at a faster rate.
∂T
k = hi (Ti s − T) (10) Fig. 8 (b) represents the temperature profile of inner ceiling tem­
∂x
perature variation for the cases in the winter solstice. It can be observed
that there are not many dissimilarities between the temperature profile
3. Results and discussions – thermal modelling
of base cases except for the plate cuboid capsule (case 4). Also, the peak
temperature shift is observed for cases – 1, 7, and 10 differently than in
3.1. Validation
case 4. In the initial morning hours (5–7 AM), cases – 1, 7, and 10
experience uncomfortable chilled indoor space conditions below 19 ◦ C.
The 3D numerical model is validated with the experimental results
But in the case of the plate cuboid capsule, it performs better by
obtained by Pasupathy and Velraj [7]. For this purpose, all the data
releasing the heat absorbed into the indoor space and maintaining a
mentioned in their work, such as the climatic conditions of the city of
comfortable temperature above 20 ◦ C. Hence the RCC slab with plate
Chennai for January, are considered, including solar radiation and
cuboid capsule (case 4) performs the best in summer (entire day) and winter
ambient temperature. The heat transfer coefficient for the exterior sur­
(cold hours of the day).
face of the roof and the interior surface of the roof is taken as 20 W/m2⋅ ◦ C
and 8.7 W/m2⋅ ◦ C, respectively. Results obtained after roof simulations
3.4. Effect of the heat transfer area
are compared with experimental results by Pasupathy and Velraj [7],
shown in Fig. 6. The factor accounting for the temperature difference
Enhanced charging and discharging can be achieved by increasing
between the numerical and experimental data may be due to the un­
the area of encapsulation/PCM, which promotes efficient heat transfer
certainties in the experiment. Given the fact mentioned above, the trend
to and from the PCM. This section is devoted to investigating the effect
of both the numerical and the experimental results is reasonably in
of the increased surface area on the thermal behavior of PCM. As dis­
agreement.
cussed above, the PCM present in the base cases (1, 4, 7, 10) is divided
into two halves. Achieving an enhancement in heat transfer is facilitated
3.2. Grid independent test by splitting the capsules. Moreover, the assessment of the surface area is
not limited to the complete surface area surrounding the concrete but
A grid independence test is employed to obtain a balance between also includes the top surface area. This approach is adopted because the
the accuracy and efficiency of the simulation process. Four levels of heat flux entering the indoor environment originates from the outside
triangular grid fineness mesh of 20,962, 56,965, 161,072, and 251,487 environment and initially encounters the top surface of the PCM capsule.
elements were used for the test. The results indicated that normal mesh If the proportion of the top surface area is insufficient, the heat transfer
(20962) has much lower mesh elements than fine mesh (161072) and from the adjacent concrete layers may take place easily, resulting in an
finer mesh (251487), but the inner surface temperature difference is less increased heat flux entering the room. Consequently, this may lead to
than 1 %. Considering the accuracy and efficiency simultaneously, the ineffective utilization of the PCM. Fig. 9 (a) and (b) depict the total and

7
M.F. Rahi et al.
Fig. 6. Model validation (a) without PCM (b) with PCM [7].
top surface area of the PCM capsules for each case. It can be seen that the
test cases follow a similar trend. The base four cases have the least
surface area, followed by an increment in extended surface area cases (2,
5, 8, 11) and thermal shading cases (3, 6, 9, 12). The thermal shading
cases have the highest surface area, case 12 being the only exception. In
the context of the RCC slab, the top surface area of the PCM capsules
holds greater significance than the total surface area. This is because the
heat enters the PCM capsules primarily from the top surface of the RCC
slab. Hence, increasing the top surface area of the PCM capsules leads to
a higher absorption of heat by the PCM, resulting in less heat entering
the roof slab. As a result, the probability of having extreme temperatures
in the room is minimized. Therefore, the increase in the top surface area
of the PCM capsules is crucial for improving the thermal performance of
PCM in buildings.
8
Journal of Energy Storage 68 (2023) 107806
Fig. 10 depicts the effect of increased surface area on the ceiling
temperature for the extended surface area cases (2, 5, 8, 11). It is evident
from Fig. 10 that the thermal performance of the RCC slab is enhanced
than the previous cases due to an increase in the heat transfer area of the
PCM capsules, as seen from the minor temperature fluctuation. Two
comparisons are made between the base and extended surface area cases
and are mentioned here. Comparison 1: Although case 4 performed the
best among its counterparts (1,4,7,10), the increment in temperature
reduction after increasing the surface area (case 5) is low. Comparison 2:
The increment in temperature reduction in case 11, compared to case
10, is more than in comparison 1. Also, it is to be noted that the best case
of all is case 11.
One more investigation can be performed among the extended heat
transfer cases. Similar to the above, two comparisons are made among
M.F. Rahi et al.
Fig. 7. Grid independent test of the thermal model.
the extended surface area cases and are mentioned here. Comparison 1:
Cases – 2 and 8 have almost the same inner roof temperature, although
the surface area of case 8 is 71.9 % more than that of case 2. There are
two reasons for this: (i) The top surface area, which plays a major role in
transferring the heat, not differs much as that of the total surface area.
The top surface area of case 8 is just 28 % more than that of case 2. (ii)
PCM capsule in case 2 has a flat top surface, due to which the entire heat
is transferred to the PCM at the same moment. But the PCM capsule in
case 8 has a cylindrical surface; because of that, the heat is not trans­
ferred at the same instance throughout the cylindrical surface of the
capsule. Hence, more heat is not transferred to the PCM capsule in case
8. Comparison 2: The inner roof temperature of case 11 is lower than
that of case 5 during summer, which means more heat is absorbed by
PCM in case 11 than in case 5. This is attributed to the higher total (86.5
%) and top (22.5 %) surface area of PCM capsules in case 11 than in case
5. It is also to be noted that the PCM capsules in both cases have flat top
surfaces. Hence, a conclusion could be drawn from the above analysis that
merely increasing the PCM capsule surface area does not contribute to the
effective utilization of PCM. Rather the inflow of heat flux should be directed
towards the PCM.
Fig. 11 portrays the simulation results for case 11, describing the
temperature variation of the roof slab, solid fraction of PCM, and heat
flux direction. The average temperature of the RCC roof slab at a
particular instance is the median temperature value in the temperature
bar. It can be seen from Fig. 11 that the average temperature of the roof
slab at 2 AM was 23.9 ◦ C, which decreased to 23.1 ◦ C at 6 AM due to
convective cooling. Then it is increased to 30 ◦ C and 34.5 ◦ C at 10 AM
and 2 PM due to the heat absorption from solar radiation. The temper­
ature then again decreased to 29.5 ◦ C and 26.6 ◦ C at 6 PM and 10 PM.
The PCM is completely liquified by absorbing heat from solar radiation
at 2 and 6 PM. The heat flux direction is towards the inner surface at 10
AM and 2 PM, indicating hot daytime temperatures. In the remaining
hours, the heat flux direction is towards the outer surface into the
ambient.
3.5. Effect of thermal shading
In this section, the last four cases (9, 10, 11, 12) are analyzed, where
the PCM capsules are arranged in a stacked manner to achieve the
9
Journal of Energy Storage 68 (2023) 107806
thermal shading phenomenon. The concept of thermal shading involves
isolating the PCM from the heat source by using materials with lower
heat conductivity, PCM capsule in this scenario [43], compared to the
surrounding concrete. This process results in lower heat flux and
increased charging time for the PCM. By modelling the PCM capsules in
a stacked arrangement, we can achieve better thermal performance and
reduce the heat transfer to the surrounding environment, leading to
enhanced energy efficiency. Fig. 12 describes the cases in which the
thermal shading phenomenon is utilized. Compared to all 8 cases
(1,2,4,5,7,8,10,11) discussed above, three of the four cases (3,6,9,12)
contain the maximum surface area, the exception being case 12. The
thermal performance of these cases is slightly better than the base cases
due to the extra surface area. But it is less than the extended surface area
cases. This is because one of the two capsules acts as a blockage to the
heat transfer taking place. In charging/discharging, the PCM melting/
solidification in the bottom capsule is delayed to the resistance offered
by the top capsule. Because of this, the heat flux from PCM in the bottom
capsule is forced to follow the path of concrete available below instead
of going above. As a result, the heat is directed to the inner ceiling,
thereby increasing the inner ceiling temperature. Though this condition
is favorable during winter, it is not good during summer.
Hence again, it proves that more surface area should be pointing
towards the source of heat, but these cases performed best in the case of
winter solstice except case 11. However, the thermal shading phenom­
enon does not show promising results in the summer solstice, a fairly
good enough favorable outcomes are noticed in the winter solstice.
Thermal shading cases proved to show the best performance in maintaining
the inner ceiling temperature by providing thermal comfort during the day
and night during winter.
4. Structural modelling
4.1. Problem statement
The direct incorporation of PCM capsules is carried out in this study,
wherein the capsules replace a minor amount of concrete in the entire
slab (144 capsules occupying 0.072 m3). To ensure the slab’s structural
feasibility, a finite element method-based numerical study is conducted
to evaluate the deformation behavior of the conventional and PCM
M.F. Rahi et al.
Fig. 8. Effect of shape on the ceiling temperature (a) summer and (b) winter solstices.
capsules containing RCC slabs. Since the studied specimens are sym­
metrical, only a quarter of each specimen is modelled. In the model, the
reinforcement of diameters 10 and 8 mm is kept 100 mm apart in the
form of mesh at the bottom part of the slab. A clear cover of 20 mm is
provided at the bottom of the slab. The detailing and specifications of
the slab specimens are shown in Fig. 13 and Table 3. The load acting
upon the slab includes dead load, imposed floor load, and live load.
Table 4 represents the mechanical properties of the materials used in the
study [44]. The elastic analysis of the RCC slab is the extent of the
current work.
10
Journal of Energy Storage 68 (2023) 107806
4.2. Governing equations
Like thermal modelling, COMSOL Multiphysics is used for perform­
ing the simulations. A 3D static model of the RCC slab is developed using
two physics interfaces, structural mechanics and truss interfaces.
Structural mechanics physics is used to analyze the concrete slab
without reinforcement. The equation governing this physics is obtained
from Newton’s second law of motion, which can be written in terms of
the Cauchy stress tensor. It is often used to analyze the stress experi­
enced by the concrete slab in response to external loads. It is expressed
as the force applied to an object as the dot product of the stress tensor
and the deformation of the object, as presented in Eq. (11) [45]. This
allows the motion of an object to be analyzed in terms of the forces
M.F. Rahi et al. Journal of Energy Storage 68 (2023) 107806

Fig. 9. Comparison of the (a) total capsule surface area and (b) top surface area for all the test cases.

acting on it and the response of the material to those forces. For simu­
lating the steel reinforcement, the truss interface is used. The truss ∂2 u
ρ = ∇x σ s + Fv (11)
interface simplifies the solving methodology by converting the solid ∂t2
structure into equivalent lines without affecting the accuracy. It is
∂N
evident that modelling them as solids would increase computational = Fx (12)
∂x
cost, and hence the truss interface is recommended for this type of
simulation. As reinforcement bars are relatively thin compared to con­ Here Fv is a body force per unit deformed volume, and σ s is the stress.
crete structures, it is assumed that they can transmit axial forces only. Fx indicates force in the x-direction, and N represents axial force.
The governing equation for incorporating the axial force of reinforce­
ment in the RCC slab is the equilibrium equation. This equation states 4.3. Boundary conditions
that the sum of the forces acting on an object must be equal to zero for
the object to be in equilibrium and is given by Eq. (12). The boundary conditions provided in the structural modelling
include the rigid connection constraint and load. The rigid connection
constraint provided at both ends of the slab restricts the concrete at the

11
M.F. Rahi et al.
Fig. 10. Effect of increased heat transfer area on the ceiling temperature (a) summer and (b) winter solstices.
two opposite edges and for representing a simple support condition. On
the other hand, the load conditions of the slab need to be appropriately
specified to model its behavior accurately. For this self-weight, imposed
floor load and live load are provided in the form of uniformly distributed
load.
5. Results and discussions – structural modelling
5.1. Validation
To validate the developed numerical model, a comparison is made
with the analytical model presented by Pawar et al. [46]. The Rankine-
Grashoff method is used to predict the flexural behavior of the RCC slab.
The material properties, initial and boundary conditions are taken the
12
Journal of Energy Storage 68 (2023) 107806
same as the source article. At the elastic limit, deflection is evaluated by
both Rankine theory (analytical) and numerical model, and the result is
presented in Table 5. Attaining only a deviation of 1.5 %, the model can
be concluded to have good agreement with the analytical results.
5.2. Grid independent test
Like thermal modelling, a grid independence test is employed. As
mesh size influences the numerical results, finding an optimized mesh is
necessary. Three levels of triangular grid fineness mesh of 18,315,
120,326, and 235,986 elements were used for the test. Fig. 14 describes
the deflection of the slab along the length for different mesh elements.
The results indicated that the model with 18,315 elements has more
variation than the other two models. On the other hand, the results of
M.F. Rahi et al. Journal of Energy Storage 68 (2023) 107806

Fig. 11. Simulation results for case – 11 for time t = (a) 2, (b) 6, (c) 10, (d) 14, (e) 18, (f) 22 h.

the model with 120,326 elements almost match the model with 235,986
elements. Also, the deflection difference is less than 2 %. Therefore,
considering the accuracy and efficiency simultaneously, the model with
120,326 elements is chosen to be grid independent and employed in
further study.
5.3. Effect of PCM capsule on the structural performance of RCC slab
The effect after the incorporation of the PCM capsule into the RCC
slab is studied by comparing the modelling results of the conventional
and capsules containing RCC slabs. Fig. 15 represents the deflection

13
M.F. Rahi et al.
Fig. 12. Effect of thermal shading on the ceiling temperature (a) summer and (b)winter solstices.
value of slabs at residential live load, dead load, and imposed floor load
for all the test cases. A deflection deviation of 2.1 to 6.5 % is found
between the slabs. The minimum is observed for the pipe cylinder base
shape (case 7) and the maximum for the coin cylinder base shape (case
10). However, case 10 did not perform well in the case of the thermal
study also. The remaining cases are considered to perform promisingly
well enough. In the case of capsules containing slab, the dead load is
decreased to more extent as lightweight polymers are used. The reduc­
tion in consumption of concrete (one of the largest emitters of CO2) is an
additional benefit achieved by this technique. Hence it is evident from
Fig. 15 that incorporating PCM capsules with the reduction in a minor
amount of concrete does not cause a major influence in terms of structural
performance.
14
Journal of Energy Storage 68 (2023) 107806
6. Limitations of the current study and future scope
The study has a few significant drawbacks that can be taken as future
scope of the work:
• The study is restricted to analyzing the thermal performance of a
PCM-incorporated concrete building slab under the summer solstice
and winter solstice climates of Bengaluru. Though the study gives an
overall understanding and research outcomes of using PCM capsules
in extreme climate conditions, it might not accurately reflect how
PCM behaves in different places or all climatic conditions. So, a
generalized and robust model can be developed based on different
places and climatic conditions.
M.F. Rahi et al. Journal of Energy Storage 68 (2023) 107806

Fig. 13. Schematic representation of RCC slabs (a) conventional, (b) with capsules, (c) conventional cross-section view, (d) with capsules cross-section view.

Table 3
Specification of the slab models.
S.No Slab Specimen Slab Dimension (mm) Capsule dimension (mm) Capsule Spacing (mm) Reinforcement-dia and spacing

Longitudinal Lateral

1 Slab 4000 × 1850 × 115 – – 10 mm dia @100 mm c/c 8 mm dia @100 mm c/c
2 Slab with Capsule 4000 × 1850 × 115 200 × 50 × 50 300 × 150 10 mm dia @100 mm c/c 8 mm dia @100 mm c/c

Table 4
Mechanical properties of the materials.
S.No Material Modulus of Density (kg/m3) Poisson’s ratio
Elasticity (Pa)

1 Concrete 2.5 × 105 2300 0.18

2 Reinforcement Steel 2.0 × 1011 7850 0.30
3 PET 1.04 × 1010 1380 0.34

Table 5
Comparison of analytical and numerical results.
Slab model Deflection by Rankine Deflection by present numerical study (mm)
Grashoff method (mm)

Solid slab 11.09 11.26

• The study does a parametric analysis using a 3D mathematical
model. The accuracy of the model may be constrained by assump­
tions and simplifications that prevent it from representing all the
intricacies of real-world settings. Though it is inferred that the effect
of assumptions is meagre form the validation studies of the present
work, still for complex geometries and conditions, the deviation due
to assumptions might be more. Hence an effective model can be
developed with few assumptions and more realistic conditions to
have a good assessment of PCM capsules.
• The structural analysis needs to be investigated on an experimental
basis as it might give more realistic research outcomes. Further
research is required for the behavior of the slab in other scenarios or
loading conditions.
7. Conclusions
Comprehensive numerical investigations of the application of PCM
capsules by varying shape, heat transfer area, and thermal shading are
studied to analyze the influence of PCM integration in building roofs on

15
M.F. Rahi et al. Journal of Energy Storage 68 (2023) 107806

Fig. 14. Grid independent test of structural mechanics model.

Fig. 15. Deflection of RCC slabs incorporating PCM capsule for all the test cases.

the thermal and structural performance of buildings. RT-25 PCM is
encapsulated in the roof slab using different sizes of PET capsules having
the same PCM quantity and different surface areas, tested at the summer
solstice and winter solstice for Bengaluru, India. The numerical results
are validated with the experimental data, and a close agreement is found
between them. Similarly, to ensure the structural safety of the RCC slab
after incorporating PCM capsules, structural simulations are conducted.
Deflection is taken into consideration to represent the flexural perfor­
mance of the slab. Slabs being the most critical member, safety should be
thoroughly checked. Below is a summary of the key findings from this
study:
• The analyses of all 12 cases provide an in-depth understanding of the
various factor influencing the performance of PCM capsules. From
the first four base cases (1,4,7,10), it can be concluded that the PCM
having lower thickness performs better in reducing the inner room
temperature, as it melts and solidifies comparatively faster.
• The second set of four cases, so-called extended surface area cases
(2,5,8,11), are longitudinally divided to achieve an increment in the
heat transfer area. These cases draw attention to the need to intercept
more top surface area.
• Just increasing the surface area of PCM capsules and not placing the
PCM properly could lead to less effective utilization of PCM. This is

16
M.F. Rahi et al.
evident from the thermal shading cases (3,6,9,12), where the upper
PCM layer, after melting/solidification, acts as an insulation layer for
the bottom PCM. As a result, heat is forced to enter the room,
although the lower temperature is present in the outdoor
environment.
• Case 11 (two-coin cylinders placed longitudinally) performed best in
reducing the inner ceiling temperature in summer, with peak and
average temperature reductions of 3.2 ◦ C and 1.2 ◦ C, respectively.
Case 11 also showed better thermal performance in winter during the
night, maintaining a temperature of 24 ◦ C, which is 2 ◦ C more than
the reference case. The thermal shading effect showed better per­
formance in winter solstice with lower temperatures due to the
forced flow of heat from the bottom PCM layer into the indoor space
of the building.
• Between the conventional and PCM-containing RCC slabs, a deflec­
tion deviation of 2.1 to 6.5 % is found. Thus, the influence of the
incorporation of PCM capsules does not majorly affect the structural
performance of the RCC slab.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Mohammed Fareed Rahi: Conceptualization, Methodology, Inves­
tigation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. Muslum
Arici: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Writing – orig­
inal draft, Writing – review & editing. Ammar M. Abdulateef:
Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Writing – original draft,
Writing – review & editing. Hakeem Niyas: Conceptualization, Meth­
odology, Investigation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review &
editing.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
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