Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 52 (2023) 103746

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Case Studies in Thermal Engineering

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Experimental and numerical investigation of integrated system

between cooled photovoltaic and wall-inserted PCM/FOM thermal
energy storage box
Talib K. Murtadha
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Mutah, P.O. Box 7, Al-Karak, 61710, Jordan

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Handling Editor: Huihe Qiu Photovoltaic cooling has become important in order to reduce the operating temperature and
Keywords:
increase the electrical generation, efficiency, and useable time. The extract heat produced by this
Phase change material (PCM) cooling process could either be used immediately or stored for later use. In this study, many goals
Metal foam were examined through experimental and numerical investigation. They included the effect of
Thermal energy storage cooling the photovoltaic panels and the potential to use the heat removed by the PV cooling
Photovoltaic cooling system system as well as how to store it in a thermal energy storage box (TESB). This box, made of
paraffin wax as a phase change material and supported by stainless steel foam, has been installed
into a test wall for heating at later time. The test wall was a component of an insulated test room
that was linked to the cooling systems of the photovoltaic panel, to be the integrated system.
According to the study, there is plenty of potential for storing the heat energy that the PV cooling
system removes and using it later from the thermal energy storage box. After using the integrated
system, the mean useful energy increased by 83% from 39.2 W for the uncooled PV panel to 71.7
W for the integrated system. The maximum PV electrical generated outputs for uncooled and
water-cooled panels were 40.9 W and 43.3 W, respectively. The efficiency of uncooled and water
cooled PV panels was 14.2% and 14.7%, respectively and dramatically increased to 25.9% for the
integrated system.

Nomenclature and symbol

A Wall Area, m2
APV PV surface area, m2
C Specific heat, J/kg. K
CSB Effective specific heat of PCM/FOM box, J/kg. K
FF Fill factor
ġ Rate of heat generation per unit volume, W/m3
G Solar radiation intensity, W/m2
Isc Short circuit current
KSB Effective thermal conductivity of PCM/FOM Box, W/m. ◦ C
mw Cooled water mass flow rate, kg/s

E-mail address: talib_km@mutah.edu.jo.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csite.2023.103746
Received 30 August 2023; Received in revised form 26 October 2023; Accepted 9 November 2023
Available online 15 November 2023
2214-157X/© 2023 The Author. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
T.K. Murtadha Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 52 (2023) 103746

PCPV Output power by cooled PV, W

Pnet: Net output power by cooled PV, W
Pt Total power of integrated system, W
Ppump: Power consumed via pump, W
PPV Output power by uncooled PV, W
QS Heat energy storage in TESB, W
TS PV operation temperature, ◦ C
Tamb The ambient temperature, ◦ C
Voc The open-circuit voltage
ρSB Effective density of PCM/FOM box, kg/m3
ηPV Uncooled photovoltaic efficiency
ηnet: Net efficiency of cooled PV panels
ηt Total efficiency of integrated system
%Pt Percentage increase of integrated system useful energy

Subscripts
AP Aluminum Plate
CB Cement Brick
CP Cement Plaster
PCM Phase change material
SB Storage Box
TESB Thermal energy storage box

1. Introduction
Photovoltaic cooling system has become essential for maximizing the PV panel performance and extending their useable life,
especially in countries with hot temperatures. The cooling process generates extract heat, which must either be used right away or
stored for later use. Phase change materials (PMCs) in combination with thermal energy storage are a technology that has the potential
to decrease the building heating loads and improve the energy efficiency. Integrating an appropriate phase change material (PCM) into
buildings with the PV cooling system can decrease the heat demand of the buildings heating load as well as offer better demand-side
management via storing the rejected heat by the PV cooling system during the off-peak periods. That is accomplished by storing excess
thermal energy during the periods of high renewable energy obtainability for usage if the renewable energy is incapable to encounter
the demand. This bridges the gap between the supply and demand for renewable energy.
In Jordan, the households consume 21.5% of the nation’s total energy, and the space heating accounts 53% of the total energy
consumption in the residential buildings [1]. Also, the majority of this is supplied via heaters that are powered via electricity, gas, or
oil. For Europe, the households utilize 24.7% of the total energy, and more than 80% of this energy is used for space heating as well as
sanitary hot water [2,3]. The global energy demand for the home sector is expected to reach 200% or even 300% of the total demand by
2050, according to the predictions [4].
Solar energy is the most useful renewable resource in Jordan for contributing to the production of energy for many different
applications [5,6]. This is due to Jordan’s high solar radiation rate, which ranges between 4 and 8 KWh/m2. Consequently, the most
profitable investment in Jordan’s energy industry is solar energy [7,8]. In Jordan, solar energy is believed to be the most viable option
for meeting future energy requirements [9,10]. This is due to Jordan’s high radiation rate, where solar energy may be used for about
300 days a year. As a consequence, solar energy generation is a profitable venture in Jordan [11,12].
Thermal energy storage materials are generally categorized into sensible, latent, and thermochemical materials depending on the
sort of heat storage mechanism they use [13]. The choice of thermal energy storage type is mostly influenced by the necessary storage
period, operational conditions, and economic viability [14,15]. There are three types of latent heat storage materials: Solid-solid,
solid-liquid, and liquid-gas [16,17]. The most commonly used and widely available materials for the thermal energy storage uses
are the solid-liquid. Additionally, they have a significantly smaller volume change during the phase transition, and they have a broad
range of temperature. Solid to liquid latent heat storage materials are usually called as phase change materials (PCMs) [18].
Kun Du et al. [19] provided updated evaluation of PCMs and their uses for heating, cooling, and electrical power generation based
on their operating temperature ranges of (− 20 to 200 ◦ C). In this review, four PCM operating temperature ranges were taken into
account; (− 20 ◦ C–5 ◦ C) for residential and commercial refrigeration; (5 ◦ C–40 ◦ C) normally used for buildings cooling and heating
applications; (40 ◦ C–80 ◦ C) for solar-based heating, hot water, and electronic uses; as well as the high operating temperature range
(80◦ C–200 ◦ C) used for the waste heating, absorption cooling, and other high-temperature applications.
An encouraging technique for improving the PCM systems’ thermal performance is to use a metal foam-PCM composite, which has
a high thermal conductivity and a vigorous porous structure. For increasing the PCMs thermal conductivity, highly conductive metallic
foams made of copper, nickel, and aluminum are currently the subject of extensive research [20,21]. A practical option for increasing
the thermal mass in buildings is the PCM integration, which can lower the energy demand, lessen the fluctuations of indoor tem­
perature, and preserve the thermal comfort in the whole weather circumstances [22]. Therefore, integrating the PCM into architectural

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T.K. Murtadha Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 52 (2023) 103746

Fig. 1. Schematic of integrated installation of PV cooling system and PCM/FOM box.

elements, like the wall, ceiling, and floor is a smart method to preserve the thermal comfort and conserve the energy without taking up
additional space [23,24].
Thermal energy storage systems that are integrated into buildings can be either active or passive. Active heating systems need
another fluid circuit or electrically powered heating device to convey the energy from suppliers. These systems improve the ability to
regulate the indoor thermal comfort. However, passive heating systems are able to operate naturally without any mechanical or
electrical assistance.
Talib K. Murtadha et al. [25] utilized a paraffin wax as PCM and copper as a foam matrix to be a thermal energy storage medium in a
two passes air solar chimney collector to accomplish ventilation benefits both during the day and after evening. The experimental
findings demonstrated the viability of using a porous material, such as a copper foam matrix, to improve the heat transfer in a PCM. In
comparison to the other sample, the PCM sample without the copper foam matrix quickly rejects the heat. The results of an experiment
revealed that the PCM can improve the heat transfer and the heat storage when supported by metal foam.
Ajay Muraleedharan Nair et al. [26] briefly reviewed the various types of thermal energy storage systems, the benefits of PCM, and
the ways to get around its drawbacks. The numerous novel techniques used in the development of latent heat thermal energy storage
unit, including wall heating, under-floor heating, PCM integration into the residential hot water tanks, and other applications were
then thoroughly discussed. Depending upon the thorough review that was carried out, the essential factors to consider when choosing
an appropriate PCM for such uses were outlined. And, the commercially accessible PCM for the aforementioned uses are listed in the
appendix along with their essential thermo-physical features and supplier information.
Talib K. Murtadha et al. [27] combined the paraffin wax and copper metal as a phase change material and a foam matrix,
respectively to form a thermal energy storage material box. Where, the paraffin wax was used to store the heat in the sensible and latent
heat regions. Through an experimental study, the authors manifested the behavior of fully refined paraffin wax in the solid, diffusion,
and liquid phases.
This study attempts to achieve many goals. The first goal is to investigate how cooling the photovoltaic panels affects their
operating surface temperature, generated electrical power and efficiency. The second goal is to investigate whether it is possible to
store the thermal energy produced by the PV cooling process and use it in the later time as heating sources. The third goal is to evaluate
the possibilities for storing this energy in a thermal energy storage box made of paraffin wax as a PCM and stainless steel as metal foam
formed. A storage box was inserted into the wall of the Jordanian residence building in order to use the heat that was stored there as
heating system when the photovoltaic panel stopped operating. An experimental rig was built to investigate all these variables through
experimentations, as will be discussed later. Finally, numerical techniques were used to generate temperature distribution estimates
that being suitable in certain situations. The finite difference method was extended to deal with the transient problem within the
thermal energy storage box.

2. Experimental work
The experimental work was carried out in Mutah University, Alkarak, Jordan. The rig was installed outdoor with data position,
Latitude; 31.0925◦ N, Longitude; 35.694◦ E, and Altitude; 1157 m. The PV modules were directed south and inclined at an angle of 30◦ .
Where, it was the best angle with the best direction in the area where the scientific experiment was conducted [28].
The experimental setup was designed to use the heat that was extracted during the PV cooling and store it on the room wall. To store
the heat, the Thermal Energy Storage Box (TESB) was inserted into the wall. The rig is constructed out of an insulated test room with a

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T.K. Murtadha Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 52 (2023) 103746

Fig. 2. Front view of the experimental rig.

Fig. 3. Experimental thermal energy storage box (TESB)

A- Adding the metal foam B- PCM/MF with cooled water pipe
C- Complete thermal energy storage box D- Wall- Installed thermal energy storage box
1- Outside stone and concrete 2- Insulation layer 3- TESB 4- Cement hollow block.

testing wall, along with the PV modules and their cooling systems. The schematic diagram is depicted in Fig. 1.

2.1. Photovoltaic cooling system

There were two PV modules utilized in the current investigation. The specifications of these PV modules are Monocrystalline
SFPVM-50 and a (50 W) maximum power. The maximum voltage and current were 18 V and 2.78 A, respectively, with a size of 630
mm x 540 mm x 18 mm. The two PV panels were placed next to each other so that they experience the same solar incident radiation and
weather conditions. The first module was cooled by water using a system of pipes and a circulation pump. The pump model was
Xkm50.1. The specifications of the pump are 25 L/min; maximum flow rate, 20 m; head output, and a (0.11 kW) power consumption.

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T.K. Murtadha Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 52 (2023) 103746

The cooled liquid flow rate was controlled by pushing it against a flowmeter that was put in place before the liquid entered the system.
And, the pump was supplied with a throttle valve in the intake line to control the required flow quantity of the system. Also, the final
appearance of experimental rig is displayed in Fig. 2.
Water flows onto the back of the PV panel through a (9 mm) copper tube. The copper tube was welded to a copper plate having a
thickness of 1 mm using tin welding spots, taking into consideration the beneficial contact between the copper plate and tubes in order
to maximize the heat transfer between the copper tube and PV panel. And such a copper plate was tightly attached to the back surface
of the PV panel. All tubes, including connecting tubes and those installed at the back PV panel, were insulated with rock wool to
minimize the loss of heat or the gain of heat from the outside.

2.2. Test wall and room

The test room’s dimensions are 60 cm in width, 50 cm in height, and 40 cm in length. The room is constructed out of wooden and
insulated by glass wool that is 2.5 cm thick and weighs about 10 kg/m3. The 60 cm x 50 cm test wall was constructed in the room’s
north orientation. The roof and other walls are firmly insulated. The test wall was constructed to be a precise replica of Jordanian
residential buildings, as manifested in Fig. 3. The TESB was properly placed within the test wall so that the heat could only be released
in the direction of the test room. This was achieved by adding a layer of thermal insulation to the box’s exterior direction.
The TESB dimensions 58 cm in width, 48 cm in height, and 5 cm in thickness, as evinced in Fig. 3. The box was filled by spiral thin
stainless steel as a metal foam (MF) and paraffin wax as a phase change material (PCM). The combination of stainless steel MF and
paraffin wax PCM was employed as TESB. A paraffin wax was used to store the heat, in sensible and latent region, while the stainless
steel FM was utilized to enhance the thermal conductivity of PCM in solid and liquid phase beside the ability to store sensible heat. That
led to more uniform heat transfer. The box cover is made of a 1 mm thick aluminum plate.

2.3. The procedures for conducting experiments and measuring

The steps for performing the tests as well as using the measuring tools are as follows:
• The solar radiation was measured in (W/m2) employing a solar meter of the Solar Power Meter TM-206 type.
• Thermocouples (K-type) were used to measure the temperature of the PV front and rare surface. On the back of the PV panel, there
were five thermocouples installed, four in each corner and one in the middle. The average of these five readings was then
calculated.
• The thermocouple was connected in such a way as to ensure that no liquid leaked for preserving the job accuracy for taking the
readings with a high degree of accuracy.
• A load resistance was used to determine the maximum current (Imax) values and maximum voltage (Vmax) via device (Digital
multimeter) for calculating the power produced by the solar panels.
• A flowmeter was utilized for measuring the flow rate of water, which was set at 0.2 L/min.
• The reading temperatures were stored via linking the data logger straight to a computer system using thermocouples.
• The experimental data was registered each 5 min, and the average was then taken for 30 min of the experiment to increase the
accuracy of the results.

3. The mathematical model

The performance criterion of experiment for the PV system is to compute the output power and efficacy. And, the PV output power
of uncooled panel (PPV) is defined in terms of voltage and current as follows [29,30]:
PPV = VOC × ISC × FF (1)

Where, Voc and Isc are the open-circuit voltage and the short-circuit current, respectively, FF represents the fill factor considered as
(0.7595) for a characteristic single-crystal Si cell used in the present work.
The uncooled PV efficiency (ηPV) is defined as the PV module’s electrical output divided by the rate at which the active solar
radiation energy reaches its surface. Usually, this formula is used to calculate the efficiency of PV panels [31,32].
( )
PPV
ηPV = ×100% (2)
APV .G

Where, G is the solar radiation in W/m2, and APV is the area of the PV module surface in m2.
The electrical power that the pump will use to circulate the cooling fluid must be taken into account when calculating the PV panel
efficiency. Therefore, the net efficiency of cooled PV panels (ηnet) will be calculated using this equation [33,34]:
Pnet
ηnet = (3)
APV .G

Where, Pnet is the net output power by cooled PV panel and will be calculated using the following equation;
Pnet = PCPV − Ppump (4)

Where: PCPV is the output power by cooled PV in W, and Ppump is the power consumed by the pump in W.

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T.K. Murtadha Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 52 (2023) 103746

Fig. 4. (a) Finite difference mesh for time and space and (b) The nodal points and volume elements for the transient finite difference formulation of one-dimensional
conduction in the test plane wall.

Another useful energy that is present in the experimental setup is the heat energy that is extracted from the PV panel during the
cooling process. This energy will be stored in the thermal energy storage box for usage after sunset, QS. The following equation can be
used to compute this heat energy:
QS = mw × Cw × (twi − two ) (5)

Where, mw is the cooled water mass flow rate in kg/s, Cw is the water specific heat in J/kg.K, twi and two are the temperatures of the
water at the inlet and outlet of the TESB, respectively.
Consequently, the total efficacy (ηt) of this integrated system can be estimated as follows:
Pt
ηt = (6)
A.G

Where, Pt is the total useful energy of integrated system and is found as follows:
Pt = pnet + Qs (7)
The percentage increase of integrated system useful energy (% Pt ) can be found as follows:
Pt − PPV
%Pt = (8)
A.G

4. Numerical solution
In studies including difficult geometries with intricate boundary conditions or variable properties and cannot be analytically
solved, numerical methods were used to find approximations that are sufficiently accurate in certain situations. The energy balance in
transient case technique was chosen because it provides a better physical understanding of the problem because it’s relied upon being
energy equilibriums upon the control volumes rather than complicated mathematical equations. The identical group of algebraic
formulas is produced by using the Finite Difference Method too.
The finite difference method was extended to solve the transient problem in the thermal storage box. In the transient problems, the
temperatures vary with the time and position, and therefore the finite difference solution of transient problems needs discretization in
time as well as discretization in space, as elucidated in Fig. 4a. Where, Δx is the distance between two nodes, and Δt is the time step.
The energy balance on a volume element during a time interval Δt can be expressed for an interior node m in the medium by follows
transient finite difference formulation [35];
( i+1 )
Tm− 1 − Tm Tm+1 − Tm T − Tmi
KA +K A + ġm A Δx = ρ C A Δx m (9)
Δx Δx Δt

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T.K. Murtadha Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 52 (2023) 103746

Table 1
Physical and thermal properties of test wall layers.

Material Thermal Conductivity, K Density, ρ Specific Heat, C Δx

W/m.◦ C Kg/m3 J/kg.K m

Phase Change Material, PCM; (Wax) 0.22 910 2100 –

Metal Foam, FOM; 24.9 7800 460 –
Stainless Steel, AISI 410
PCM/FOM Storage Box, KSB= 0.507 ρSB = 1366.8 CSB = 1972 2.5 cm
5 cm, Porosity, ε = 95%
Aluminum Plate, 1 mm 237 2700 902 1 mm
Cement Hollow Brick, 10 cm 1.0 1600 880 2.5 cm
Cement Plaster, 1 cm 1.2 2000 840 2.0 cm

Table 2
The room and initial nodal temperatures.

T00 T10 T02 T03 T40 T50 T06 T07 T80 Tr0

26.0 26.0 26.0 26.1 26.2 26.3 26.4 26.5 26.6 31.6

Where, ġm is the heat generated within the volume element, and Δt, ρ, C and V are the density, specific heat, and volume of the element,
i i+1
respectively. Tm and Tm represent the temperatures of the node m at times ti = iΔt and ti + 1 = (i + 1)Δt, correspondingly.
This equation can be solved either explicitly or implicitly. The time derivative appears to be stated in the forward difference form
for the explicit situation and the backward difference form for the implicit situation. The explicit method is simple to use but is not
unconditionally stable, and the largest permissible value of the time step Δt is limited by the stability criterion. The stability criterion is
i i+1
satisfied if the coefficients of all Tm in the Tm expressions are greater than or equal to zero for all nodes m. The implicit technique does
not place any limits upon the time step size, but it does demand that the nodal temperatures to be solved at the same time for every time
step.
For this experiment, the test wall was constructed, as demonstrated in Fig. 4b. The thermal and physical properties of the wall
layers are listed in Table 1.
The effective thermal conductivity of the PCM/FOM thermal storage box was calculated using the model that was predicted by
Boomsma and Poulikakos [36]:
√̅̅̅
2
KPCM/FOM = KSB = (10)
2(RA + RB + RC + RD )

Where, RA, RB, RC and RD are computed for four various layers in a tetrakaidecahedron cell.
By applying the thermal conductivity values of the used wax as phase change material and for stainless steel as metal foam at 95%
metal porosity, it was found that the thermal conductivity of the PCM/FOM thermal storage box (KSB) is 0.507 W/m. C. While, the
◦

effective density (ρSB) and the effective specific heat (CSB) are calculated by applying the following formulas [37]:

ρPCM/FOM = ρSB = (1 – ε) ρFOM + ε ρPCM (11)

CPCM/FOM = CSB = (1 – ε) CFOM + ε CPCM (12)

Where, ρFOM and ρPCM are the density of metal foam and the phase change material, respectively, as well as CFOM and CPCM are the
specific heat of metal foam and the phase change material, respectively.
It was found that while using the explicit technique to solve equation (7) for the test wall that was constructed as depicted in Fig. 4b
and employing the physical and thermal properties mentioned in Table 1, the value of Δt must be less than 0.1 s to have a reliable
solution. That was caused by the usage of aluminum plates with a 1 mm thickness. With this value of Δt, it would take an extremely
long time for the computer to find the solution. Therefore, the implicit technique was used to solve the transient finite difference
formulation of all nodes. Initially, it was considered that the temperature changes linearly through the wall layers cement hollow block
and cement plaster. Therefore, based on the initial temperatures of 26 ◦ C at TESB (Nodes 0, 1, and 2) and 26.6 ◦ C at the indoor surface
temperature (Node 8), the initial temperature at the other nodes was estimated, as shown in Table 2.
By using equation (9) and substituting the values of the properties of the wall layers that are listed in Table 1 as well as the above-
mentioned initial temperatures of the nodes and the inside of the room, Table 2, the following simplified transient finite difference
equations were developed to estimate the nodal temperatures at any time Δt:
( )
Node-0: − 1 + 0.602x10− 3 Δt T0i+1 +0.602x10− 3 ΔtT1i+1 +3.7x10− 7 Δtġi+1 +26 = 0 (13)
( )
Node-1: 0.301x10− 3 ΔtT0i+1 − 1 + 0.602x10− 3 Δt T1i+1 +0.301x10− 3 ΔtT2i+1 +3.7x10− 7 Δtġi+1 +26 = 0 (14)

Node-2: 0.581x10− 3 ΔtT1i+1 − (1 + 6.79Δt)T2i+1 +6.789 ΔtT3i+1 +3.581x10− 7 Δtġi+1 +26 = 0 (15)

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 T.K. Murtadha
Table 3
The experiments’ reading and calculating results.

Time (h) G Ta Uncooled PV Panel Water Cooled PV Panel Integrated Cooled PV with Thermal Energy Storage Box
W/m2 ◦
C
TS PPV ηPV TS PCPV ηnet % TS % PCPV Δtw QS ġ % ηt
◦
C W % ◦
C W % Decrease Increase ◦
C W W/m3 Pt %
Increase
8

11:00 780 35.0 50.5 38.4 14.4 45.8 39.6 14.8 9.3 3.1 2.2 30.6 2196.2 82.7 26.3
11:30 810 37.0 54.3 39.6 14.4 49.1 41.0 14.8 9.6 3.5 2.4 33.4 2395.9 87.8 26.9
12:00 865 38.1 58.2 40.9 13.9 51.3 43.3 14.6 11.9 5.9 2.3 32.0 2296.1 84.0 25.5
12:30 840 39.0 56.5 40.2 14.1 50.4 42.1 14.6 10.8 4.7 2.2 30.6 2196.2 80.8 25.3
13:00 835 40.0 55.3 40.0 14.1 48.9 41.8 14.6 11.6 4.5 2.1 29.2 2096.4 77.5 24.9
13:30 735 38.8 50.1 36.2 14.4 45.1 37.3 14.8 10.0 3.0 2.1 29.2 2096.4 83.6 26.5

Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 52 (2023) 103746

T.K. Murtadha Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 52 (2023) 103746

Fig. 5. PV operation temperature, ambient temperature and solar radiation with the time of day.

Fig. 6. PV generated power, heat storage in TESB, and solar radiation with time.

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T.K. Murtadha Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 52 (2023) 103746

Fig. 7. The efficiency of both uncooled and water-cooled PV as well as integrated systems.

Node-3: 14.51 ΔtT2i+1 − (1 + 14.512Δt)T3i+1 +2.1x10− 3 ΔtT4i+1 +26.1 = 0 (16)

( )
Node-4: 1.1x10− 3 ΔtT3i+1 − 1 + 2.2x10− 3 Δt T4i+1 +1.1x10− 3 ΔtT5i+1 +26.2 = 0 (17)
( )
Node-5: 1.1x10− 3 ΔtT4i+1 − 1 + 2.2x10− 3 Δt T5i+1 +1.1x10− 3 ΔtT6i+1 +26.3 = 0 (18)
( )
Node-6: 1.1x10− 3 ΔtT5i+1 − 1 + 2.2x10− 3 Δt T6i+1 +1.1x10− 3 ΔtT7i+1 +26.4 = 0 (19)
( )
Node-7: 1.16x10− 3 ΔtT6i+1 − 1 + 3x10− 3 Δt T7i+1 +1.75x10− 3 ΔtT8i+1 +26.5 = 0 (20)
( )
Node-8: 3.57x10− 3 ΔtT7i+1 − 1 + 3x10− 3 Δt T8i+1 +0.494x10− 3 ΔtTri+1 +26.6 = 0 (21)

Then, the nodes temperatures distribution for time interval with Δt =900 s have been calculated using a computer and are listed in
Table 4 as will be explained in section 5.2.

5. Results and discussion

5.1. The experiments results
Various reading data for cooled and uncooled PV panels were recorded during the experimentation stages. These data included the
solar radiation intensity (G), ambient temperature (Ta), PV panel surface temperature (TS), temperature of the water entering and
leaving the TESB, and maximum values of the current (Imax) and voltage (Vmax). The pump’s water circulation rate was set at 0.2 L/
min. The PV output power (PPV), PV efficiency (ηPV), PV net efficiency (ηnet), integrated system efficiency (ηS), water temperature
difference during TESB (Δtw) and heat generation (ġ) were calculated using these recording data and the previous equations. The
reading and calculated results are presented in Table 3.

5.1.1. Cooling process influence upon the PV operation temperature

The PV panels’ performance is influenced via the operation temperature of the PV panels. Fig. 5 portrays the variation of these
temperatures. This figure also shows an increase in the PV operation temperature as the solar radiation intensity and ambient tem­
peratures increase. As well, Table 2 exhibits how much the operation temperature of water cooled PV panels reduces compared to the
uncooled PV panels. The average percentage decrease in the PV operation temperature after applying the water cooling process was
determined to be 14.5%.

5.1.2. Integrated system influence upon the generated power and efficiency
As the intensity of solar radiation increased as well as the operating temperature of PV system reduced, the electrical generation
from PV systems increased. The PV output power of both water-cooled and uncooled PV panels is viewed in Fig. 6. In comparison to the
uncooled PV panel, the maximum generated power of the water-cooled panel increased by 5.9%. Additionally, this figure also displays
the amount of heat energy that is extracted from the PV cooling system and stored in TESB. This average value of heat energy was 30.8
W. Therefore, the entire useful energy produced via the integrated system between the cooling of PV panel and TESB is equal to the
sum of the heat removed from the PV cooling system and the PV generated electrical power.
Efficiency, which is the ratio of electrical energy production to solar energy intake, is one of the essential characteristics of

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T.K. Murtadha Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 52 (2023) 103746

Fig. 8. Nodes temperature distribution during the charging phase.

Fig. 9. Nodes temperature distribution during the discharging phase.

photovoltaic panels. The efficiency is affected by the amount of solar energy, the solar cell’s surface temperature, and other envi­
ronmental factors. The efficiency of both uncooled and water-cooled PV as well as integrated systems is illustrated in Fig. 7. The
average efficiency of an uncooled photovoltaic panel was 14.2%, and when the water cooling was used, this efficiency increased to
14.7% at the same operating conditions, after considering the circulation pump’s power consumption. For the integrated system, the
useful energy will significantly increase as a result of adding the storage heat in the PCM/FOM TESB. For such reason, the complete
integrated system efficiency dramatically improved to 25.9%.

5.2. The numerical solution results

In the numerical solution, there were two phases. The charging phase ran during the PV operation time from 11:00 a.m. to 13:30 p.
m. and the discharging phase from 13:45 p.m. to 18:00 p.m. when the PV was turned off. The distribution of node temperatures during
the charging phase is revealed in Fig. 8, whereas the distribution during the discharging phase is manifested in Fig. 9. The nodes
temperatures distribution was found using the numerical solution approach that was clarified in section 4 after applying the initial
conditions that were identified through experimentation work. During the charging period, the temperature of TESB increased by
87.6% from 26◦ C to 48.8◦ C, while the indoor surface temperature, node 8, raised by 19.9% from 26.6◦ C to 31.9◦ C. The other nodes’
temperatures increased between these two percentages. That was during the heat charging period of 2.5 h. During the discharge stage,
the temperature of TESB dropped by 57.8% from 45.1◦ C to 19.0◦ C, and the indoor surface temperature decreased by 47.7% from
32.1◦ C to 16.8◦ C. That was during the heat charging period of 2.5 h. The time of this heat discharging was 4 h and this heat will remove

11
 T.K. Murtadha
Table 4
Nodes temperature distribution during the charging and discharging phases.

Phase Time Time of Day (h) Time Interval Heat Generation Nodes Temperature Distribution (◦ C)
No. i Δt (Sec.) ġ (W/m3)
To T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8

Charging Phase 0 10:45 0 0 26.0 26.0 26.0 26.1 26.2 26.3 26.4 26.5 26.6
1 11:00 900 2196.2 26.74 26.74 26.76 26.76 26.42 26.31 26.20 25.89 26.59
2 11:15 1800 2296.1 28.21 28.16 27.89 27.89 27.04 26.51 26.09 25.60 26.46
3 11:30 2700 2395.9 30.31 30.12 29.40 29.40 28.10 27.16 26.44 25.83 26.76
4 11:45 3600 2395.9 32.77 32.43 31.26 31.26 29.58 28.28 27.26 26.44 27.31
5 12:00 4500 2296.1 35.32 34.85 33.33 33.33 31.33 29.69 28.34 27.21 27.90
6 12:15 5400 2296.1 38.02 37.43 35.60 35.60 33.30 31.33 29.64 28.17 28.70
7 12:30 6300 2196.2 40.61 39.94 37.88 37.88 35.33 33.08 31.08 29.29 29.65
8 12:45 7200 2196.2 43.23 42.48 40.19 40.19 37.38 34.83 32.49 30.34 30.50
9 13:00 8100 2096.4 45.55 44.73 42.26 42.26 39.22 36.38 33.72 31.19 31.13
10 13:15 9000 2096.4 47.76 46.88 44.20 44.20 40.93 37.83 34.87 32.03 31.79
11 13:30 9900 2096.4 49.74 48.77 45.87 45.87 42.34 38.93 35.64 32.41 31.89
Discharging Phase 12 13:45 10800 0 45.73 45.11 43.37 43.37 40.77 38.04 35.23 32.38 32.10
12

13 14:00 11700 0 42.77 42.36 41.15 41.15 39.0 36.69 34.29 31.81 31.72
14 14:15 12600 0 40.29 39.96 39.0 39.0 37.07 35.01 32.82 30.53 30.46
15 14:30 13500 0 38.04 37.76 36.94 36.94 35.18 33.30 31.30 29.20 29.2
16 14:45 14400 0 35.88 35.63 34.89 34.89 33.25 31.49 29.62 27.64 27.64
17 15:00 15300 0 33.78 33.55 32.87 32.87 31.34 29.70 27.95 26.10 26.10
18 15:15 16200 0 31.67 31.48 30.84 30.84 29.40 27.85 26.20 24.48 24.49
19 15:30 17100 0 29.76 29.57 29.01 29.01 27.70 26.30 24.82 23.26 23.35
20 15:45 18000 0 27.90 27.73 27.21 27.21 25.99 24.68 23.30 21.83 21.89
21 16:00 18900 0 26.18 26.03 25.58 25.58 24.46 23.26 22.00 20.68 20.79
22 16:15 19800 0 24.68 24.55 24.18 24.18 23.17 22.09 20.97 19.80 19.98

Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 52 (2023) 103746

23 16:30 20700 0 23.40 23.29 22.99 22.99 22.07 21.11 20.10 19.06 19.29
24 16:45 21600 0 22.31 22.23 21.98 21.98 21.15 20.27 19.36 18.42 18.69
25 17:00 22500 0 21.40 21.33 21.13 21.13 20.36 19.55 18.72 17.86 18.16
26 17:15 23400 0 20.62 20.56 20.40 20.40 19.68 18.93 18.16 17.37 17.69
27 17:30 24300 0 20.00 19.96 19.83 19.83 19.16 18.48 17.77 17.05 17.41
28 17:45 25200 0 19.49 19.46 19.36 19.36 18.73 18.08 17.41 16.74 17.11
29 18:00 26100 0 19.05 19.02 18.94 18.94 18.33 17.70 17.07 16.42 16.79
T.K. Murtadha Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 52 (2023) 103746

Fig. 10. Nodes temperature distribution during the discharging and discharging phases.

to the room interior.

Table 4 and Fig. 10 and elucidate the distribution of nodes’ temperatures during the charging and discharging phases. The nu­
merical results demonstrated that the peak temperature at each node occurred at the end of charging period. Also, the figure appears
that the maximum temperature reaches at the nodes of PCM/FOM TESB.

6. Conclusions
In this work, the research objectives have been attempted to achieve through experimental investigation and numerical analysis.
These objectives include the impact of cooling the photovoltaic panels and the potential for using the heat removed by the PV cooling
system and storing it in paraffin wax phase change material supported by stainless steel foam to be used for heating at later time. The
experiment was carried out at 0.2 L/min water flow rates. The important findings are listed below:

1 According to the study, there is plenty of potential for storing the heat energy that the PV cooling system removes in TESB con­
sisting of paraffin wax as PCM and stainless steel as material foam to using it later as heating sources. After using the integrated
system, the mean useful energy increased by 83% from 39.2 W for the uncooled PV panel to 71.7 W for integrated system.
2 According to the results, the usage of a water-cooled system significantly reduced the PV operation temperatures by 14.5% when
compared to the uncooled panel. As a result, both PV electricity generation and time life will be improved.
3 The maximum PV electrical generated outputs for uncooled and water-cooled panels were 40.9 W and 43.3 W, respectively. This
portrays a (5.9%) increase in the electrical power for cooled panels compared to the uncooled panels.
4 At the same operation conditions, the efficiency of uncooled and water cooled PV panels was 14.2% and 14.7% respectively. For the
integrated system, the efficiency dramatically increased to 25.9%. That as a result of adding the storage heat in the PCM/FOM
thermal energy storage box.
5 After comparing the outcome of the computational solution with the experimental findings, it was found that the difference in
average temperature of the PCM/FOM Thermal Energy Storage Box during the charging time was 4.8%.

Author agreement statement

The author declare that this manuscript is original, has not been published before and is not currently being considered for
publication elsewhere.
The author confirm that the manuscript has been read and approved by the author and that there are no other persons who satisfied
the criteria for authorship but are not listed.
The author understand that the Corresponding Author is the sole contact for the Editorial process.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.

13
T.K. Murtadha Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 52 (2023) 103746

Data availability

Data will be made available on request.

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