Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy (2018) 20:81–94

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10098-017-1457-3

ORIGINAL PAPER

Valorisation of mango seed via extraction of starch: preliminary

techno‑economic analysis
Tamrat Tesfaye1,2 · Jonas K. Johakimu3 · R. B. Chavan2 · Bruce Sithole1,3 · Deresh Ramjugernath1

Received: 2 September 2017 / Accepted: 3 November 2017 / Published online: 14 November 2017
© Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2017

Abstract
Reducing environmental impacts and obtaining economic benefits based on utilisation of waste materials are drivers for
the implementation of cleaner production policies and technologies in food processing industries. Starch is a very versatile
material with a wide range of applications in the food, pharmaceutical, textile, paper, cosmetic and construction industries.
In Ethiopia, starch is widely used in the textile industry. To meet the starch demand, the country imports approximately 45%
of the starch used in the country. Consequently, it is imperative to find additional sources of starch that could substitute for
the amount of starch that is currently being imported. Mango seeds, a waste material that is disposed of after consumption
of mangos, were studied for potential use as an alternative resource for starch production. The results showed that starch
extraction from mango seeds was facile and a good quality product was obtained. The present study is concerned with a
techno-economic analysis for industrial production of starch from mango seeds. The study shows that extraction of starch
from waste mango seeds is feasible: the project is financially viable with an accounting rate of return of 83% and a break-
even analysis of 78% with a payback period of 2 years.

Keywords  Mango seeds · Techno-economic analysis · Extraction of starch · Financial feasibility

Introduction wastes to high-value materials or energy sources (Luque and

Environmental sustainability in the production and sourcing
of materials is important in modern day economic policies
(Mikulčić et al. 2016). Developing countries are faced with
serious environmental problems that can only be mitigated
by the implementation of cleaner manufacturing and pro-
duction techniques (Peng and Liu 2016). Currently sustain-
able solid waste beneficiation is a necessary prerequisite for
all societies in order to protect the environment and human
health (Loizidou 2015). Waste beneficiation or valorisation
is an environmentally sustainable way of industrial pro-
cessing activities aimed at reusing, recycling or recovering
* Tamrat Tesfaye
tamrat_tsfy@yahoo.com
1
Discipline of Chemical Engineering, University
of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
2
Ethiopian Institute of Textile and Fashion Technology, Bahir
Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia
3
Biorefinery Industry Development Facility, Natural
Resources and the Environment, Council for Scientific
and Industrial Research, Durban, South Africa
Clark 2013). The increasing production of food waste world-
wide and new international regulations call for the growth
of new technologies to treat these by-products (Capson-Tojo
et al. 2016). The fruit processing industry waste constitutes
a largely under-exploited biomass from which a variety of
valuable chemicals can be derived (Luque and Clark 2013).
Starch, a glucose biopolymer, is the major storage com-
ponent of most economically important crops, e.g. cereals,
legumes, tubers and yams (Musa et al. 2011). It is used in a
wide range of applications in the food and non-food appli-
cations including detergents, toiletry, agro-chemical, water
purification, adhesive, pharmaceutical, textile, paper-mak-
ing, paint, cosmetic, bioplastics and construction industries
(Mengistu and Shimelis 2012). Although Ethiopia has large
sources of starch, the country nevertheless imports approxi-
mately 45% of the starch consumed in local industries (Elias
2007; CSA 2009). Furthermore, increased transportation
costs, reduced availability, late deliveries and food security
concerns are some of the major challenges facing the starch
industries. Increased local supply of starch that does not
compete with the food market is needed. Therefore, there

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82
is need to investigate new botanical sources of starch for
the industry.
A fleshy stone fruit, mango (Mangifera indica), belongs
to the genus Mangifera, in the flowering plant family Anac-
ardiaceae and is grown throughout the tropics (Yeshitela
et al. 2004). Tommy Atkins, Sensation, Kent, Heidi, Keitt
and Zill varieties are the most common mango types that are
grown in Ethiopia, mainly in Benishangul, west and east of
Oromia, South Nation, Nationalities and People Region and
Amhara (Yeshitela and Nessel 2004, Takele 2014). Out of
more than 47,000 hectares of land used for fruit crop produc-
tion 12.61% are allocated for mango fruit production and this
yields up to 12.78% of total fruit production in the country
(CSA 2013; Elias 2007). The annual production estimate in
the past 5 years is 180 × 1­ 06 kg of mangoes and more area
coverage is expected in the south-western and other parts
of the country due to more conducive climatic and edaphic
factors (FAOSTAT 2004).
The weight of a mango seed accounts for about 15–25%
of the total weight of the fruit. Therefore, each year about
27 × ­106 to 54 × ­106 kg of mango seeds are thrown away as
waste material of no value (Honja 2014). However, we have
demonstrated that mango seeds could be a good source of
starch with up to 66% yield of starch (Tesfaye and Sithole
2017). The scope of the work included: optimisation of
experimental conditions for extraction of starch from mango
Fig. 1  Starch derivatives. HPS hydroxypropyl starch, HES hydroxyethyl starch (adapted from Shuren 2000; Ellias 2007)
13
T. Tesfaye et al.
seeds and testing application of the starch produced in the
textile industry. This report is concerned with an assess-
ment of the economic performance of the mango seed-based
starch production process.
Materials and methods
Overview of the starch industry
Starch is a glucose biopolymer that is widely found in rice,
maize, enset (commonly known as false banana), wheat,
sweet potatoes, cassava and potatoes all major agricultural
food products in Ethiopia and used for extraction of starch.
Starch is used in its native form by many industries. How-
ever, native starch is limited for applications as is because it
is sensitive and unstable to changes in pH, shear forces and
temperature. Thus, native starches are modified to improve
inertness of the starch granules and their undesirable func-
tional properties, e.g. strong tendency for retrogradation and
decomposition, high resistance to enzymatic hydrolysis and
solubility in water at room temperature (Shuren 2000; Ellis
et al. 1998). Modifications of native starches are also carried
out to achieve specific properties such as texture, solubility,
tolerance to high temperatures and adhesion. Figure 1 shows
Valorisation of mango seed via extraction of starch: preliminary techno‑economic analysis 83

a variety of starch derivatives that can be produced using Table 1  Coded and actual levels of the design factors
chemical, physical and enzymatic modification techniques. Independent factors Levels
Starch can be used in different industries (textile, bev-
−1 0 1
erage, paper and pulp, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, foods,
colour printing, construction and plastic manufacturing) A: Concentration (% w/v) 0.1 0.3 0.5
for various applications as illustrated in Fig. 2. The residue B: Temperature (°C) 25 37.5 50
from the raw material after starch extraction could be used C: Time (min) 2 7 12
in biofertiliser, animal feed and biogas production.
Industries that consume starch have positive effects on
the economy of the country; however, their high demand of starch. The powder (500 g) was steeped in sodium metabi-
of starch has a negative impact on the food security of the sulphite solution at a known temperature and blended using
country. Additionally, scarce foreign currency reserves are a heavy-duty blender. The homogenate was consecutively
used to purchase industrial starches from abroad. Hence, the sieved and washed with distilled water. The mixture was
need to develop locally based sources of starch that do not allowed to settle after which the supernatant was discarded,
compete with the food supply. The starch extraction project and the crude extracted starch was washed repeatedly with
will benefit the agricultural sector and create a conducive tap water until the wash water was clear. The starch extract
environment for rapid growth of services and create employ- was then dried (at 110 °C) and stored at room temperature.
ment opportunities. Figure 3 shows the starch extraction process flow diagram
from waste mango seeds.
Experimental data
Market study
Industrial-scale manufacturing of starch from mango seeds
is proposed based on a technical analysis evaluation pre- The envisaged plant to be established will substitute the
sented here. Starch extraction and optimisation of extrac- importation of corn starch and the allied products that are
tion parameters waste mango seeds were conducted using a imported from international markets to meet the increas-
Box–Behnken design according to Table 1. ing demand for starch in the country. The past, present and
The mango seeds were collected from the juice-mak- demand projections of the starch industry in Ethiopia were
ing industry. They were washed under free-flowing water analysed.
to remove dirt and fruit pulp leftovers and then dried and
ground to a fine powder that was then used for the extraction

Fig. 2  Major application areas

of starch products (Ellis et al.
1998)

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84 T. Tesfaye et al.

Fig. 3  Process flow diagram for laboratory-scale starch extraction from waste mango seeds

Fig. 4  Conceptual plant design for an industrial starch extraction process from mango seeds
Process description extraction. The list of major equipment is summarised in
Table 2. The cleaning of waste mango seed takes place after
The conceptual industrial extraction process is shown in transportation to the extraction plant. The main cleaning is
Fig. 4 which illustrates the unit process operations for starch done in a drum washing unit where the waste mango seeds

13
Valorisation of mango seed via extraction of starch: preliminary techno‑economic analysis 85
Table 2  List of machinery for No Item
the proposed plant design
1 Washing machine
2 Conveyor
3 Hammer crusher
4 Starch extractor
5 Centrifugal sieve
6 Milk tank
7 Self-plying pump
8 Desander
9 Hydrocyclone
10 Flash dryer
11 Grinder
12 Packing machine
13 Delivery pump
14 Refuse conveyor
collide and rub against the wall and each another to remove
dirt under the centrifugal force of the washing unit. From
there, the mango seeds go into the agitation water cleaner.
After washing and destoning, the mango seeds are trans-
ported to a storage hopper and then crushed with a hammer
to destroy and loosen the tissues of mango seeds and pro-
duce a slurry of starch granules. After crushing, the slurry is
pumped to the centrifuge sieve where the fibres are washed
out counter currently by process water. The washed slurry
is then pumped into the dewatering sieve and dewatered.
The starch slurry is sent to the desanding unit where sand is
removed by gravity and the starch milk is extruded from the
top and sent to the filtration unit.
The refining process of the raw starch milk involves
removal of small fibres from the starch milk followed by
removal of juice water to concentrate the starch milk using
washing and recovery hydrocyclones. The concentrated
starch leaves the hydrocyclones to a dewatering unit to fur-
ther reduce the water content of the starch milk. The dewa-
tered starch cake is then dried in a flash dryer yielding a
commercial-grade starch product.
Proposed location of a starch extraction plant
As the raw material supply is a key factor in the success of
this business, major mango growing zones were considered,
viz. the South Nation, Nationalities and People, Oromia and
Amhara regions of Ethiopia. Refinement of the selections
was implemented taking into consideration availability of
utilities and transportation infrastructure, proximity to mar-
ket centres and labour, as well as technical and financial
factors: from this, the proposed location for the plant is in
Arbaminch Town.
Table 3  Capacity utilisation and production programme
Year 1 2 3 4–10
Capacity utilisa- 70 80 90 100
tion (%)
Production pro- 350 400 450 500
gramme (tons)
Basis for financial analysis
Plant capacity
The starch consumption capabilities of several textile and
paper and pulp industries and starch manufacturing indus-
tries were considered in the design. The plant is envisaged
to produce 500 ton/year of starch, operating in 300 working
days and 8 h/day.
Production programme
Table 3 shows the production programme for the proposed
starch production plant. Production will commence at 70%
capacity and then will grow by 10% in subsequent years.
Pricing and distribution
In 2016, the average price for first-grade maize starch
excluding tax and other charges in 2016 was 1.6 $/kg. Based
on current markets, the selling price for mango seed starch
is assumed to be 0.8 $/kg, which is half of the selling price
of the commercially available starch.
The techno-economic feasibility analysis of the extraction
of the starch project is based on the assumptions listed in
Table 4. Financial requirements during phase one are split
between a bank loan (70%) and equity (30%).
Results and discussions
Experimental data
Regression analysis results indicated that concentration and
temperature were the most influential variables among the
parameters chosen as indicated by the p values (Tesfaye and
Sithole 2017). The factor t test value (9.42) and p value (p
0.000013) corresponding to linear concentration and the t
test value (8.11) and p value (p 0.000039) corresponding to
quadratic concentration were the significant factors. Accord-
ing to the t and p-values, temperature, time, quadratic values
of both time and temperature were not statistically signifi-
cant. The fit of the model was checked by determination of
coefficient (R2), which was 0.93853, and this revealed that
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86 T. Tesfaye et al.

Table 4  Assumptions for financial analysis recommended maximum of 14% (Table 6). This is desirable
Construction period Assumptions
since this will not promote the growth of micro-organisms,
1 year
such as fungi, that will degrade the starch. This has implica-
tions for the storage and shelf life of the extracted starch.
Source of finance 30% equity The starch–iodine test exhibited a deep blue colour, con-
70% loan firming that the extracted powder was starch. The particle
Tax holidays 3 years shapes of the extracted starch were mainly oval to ellipti-
Bank interest 8% cal with an average granule size of 10.03 µm (Tesfaye and
Discount cash flow 8.5% Sithole 2017. The functional group analysis, hydration
Accounts receivable 30 days capacity, swelling power, solubility index and SEM analy-
Raw material local 30 days sis of the extracted material were consistent with those of
Raw material import 90 days starch (Umerie and Ezeuzo 2000; Silverstein et al. 2014;
Work in progress 2 days Tesfaye and Sithole 2017). The extracted starch was further
Finished products 30 days analysed and compared with maize starch for performance
Cash in hand 5 days tests in textile applications as a textile sizing agent and final
Accounts payable 30 days finishing chemical. The sized yarn showed good strength
regain, improvement in elongation and a reduction in hairi-
ness which will improve the performance of the yarn dur-
93.85% of the sample variation in starch yield was attrib- ing weaving by reduction in the end breakages. The study
uted to independent variables (Tesfaye and Sithole 2017). revealed that mango seeds are a good source of starch: phys-
Table 5 shows independent factor and responses set to obtain icochemical tests of the extracted starch confirmed that the
optimum starch yield and whiteness index. Optimum starch extracted material is indeed a starch material. Applications
extraction conditions from waste mango seeds were: 2.46 h of the starch product in textile applications indicate that the
time, 0.357% (w/v) concentration and 26.74 °C temperature. material performs as well as a standard starch sample. The
The extraction of starch from mango seeds was facile and extraction of starch from mango seeds is facile and does not
settling was not hampered by the presence of non-starch require sophisticated technology—but it is water intensive.
materials which remained suspended and floating and were
easily decanted off. The extracted starch powder was off- Market study
white in colour and amorphous in nature. Physicochemi-
cal properties of the extracted mango starch are shown in Past supply and present demand
Table 6. Compared to a standard maize starch sample, the
waste mango seed starch had a slightly lower pH, lower With the rapid growth in the food, paper and pulp, beverage,
moisture content, lower ash content, higher foaming capac- textile, cosmetics and pharmaceutical industries, the con-
ity and higher viscosity (has good cost implication). The sumption of starch has been increasing gradually. The textile
moisture content of the extracted starch was below the industry is the largest consumer of starch. Consumption of

Table 5  Critical values of a full Factor Critical values; variable: yield (%) solution: saddle point predicted value at
second-order polynomial model solution: 64.79671
for optimisation of starch yield
from mango seeds Observed minimum Critical values Observed maximum

Concentration (%w/v) 0.10000 0.35707 0.50000

Temperature (°C) 25.00000 26.73688 50.00000
Time (h) 2.00000 2.45729 12.00000

Table 6  Physicochemical properties of mango seed starch

Sample Moisture content of Moisture content of Ash content of starch Foaming capacity (%) PH Viscosity (s)
seed (%) starch (%) (%)

Mango starch 44.4 5.68 1.54 51.23 5.78 30.40 @ 3% w/w

concentration
13.67 @ 5% w/w
concentration

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Valorisation of mango seed via extraction of starch: preliminary techno‑economic analysis 87

starch has also increased (quadrupled) in the food and allied Table 8  Cost of imported starch ($/year) (adapted from Anonymous
industries. The food industries include biscuit, confection- 2017)
ery, feed, glucose and fructose manufacturing industries. Year Corn starch Wheat starch Potato starch
Aside from these industries, starch has many domestic and
2005 102,174 1,547,314 611
industrial uses such as paper, adhesive, insecticide, paint,
2006 190,282 1125 280
soap and explosives (via dextrin and nitro starch derivatives).
2007 179,768 1500 78
Currently, the starch demand is met by both local and
2008 14,573,250 3078 222
import sources. However, starch production in the country
2009 240,882 1603 404
is not adequate to supply industrial needs. As it stands, there
2010 321,804 2280 803
is only one plant that produces starch from enset. The bal-
2011 202,806 5500 29
ance of the starch requirements in the country is met by
Average 2,258,709 223,200 347
the importation of starch. Data on domestic production of
starch from maize, wheat and cassava are not readily avail-
able. Accordingly, since starch occurs widely in plants and
is obtained chiefly from grain and root crops, imports of The current total starch demand for 5 textile factories
starch categorised as “other starches” in the external trade (Bahirdar, Kombolcha, Arbaminch, Awassa and Almeda) is
statistics (i.e. starch obtained from maize wheat and potato estimated at 1365 tons per annum. The demand is expected
is excluded) are used as a proxy in estimating the demand to reach 2225 tons by the year 2020.
for starch. Tables 7 and 8 show imports of enset starch,
potato starch and rice starch, i.e. “other starches” (exclud- Potential customers
ing maize, wheat and other synthetic and natural starch)
during 2000–2013, respectively. The imports fluctuated The major potential customers of the extracted starch will
highly and averaged at 385.32 tons for enset starch, 25.38 be:
tons for potato starch and 131.03 tons for rice starch during
the period under reference. • Textile industries (More than 31 textile industries)
• Paint industries
Demand projection • Paper and pulp industries
• Cosmetics industries
A rate of industrial growth rate of 7% (Anonymous 2017) • Beverage industries
is used in calculating the demand of imported starch (cas-
sava, potato and rice) (Table 9), since the demand of starch
is influenced by developments in the sector. Estimation of cost of starch production

Based on the conceptual plant design, mass and energy bal-

ance was carried out to determine the raw material and util-
Table 7  Import of starch (tons) (adapted from Anonymous 2017) ity requirements, equipment sizing and selection.
Year Enset Potato Maize/corn Rice

2000 30.96 – 31.3 30.96

2001 13.64 30.32 364.3 13.64
2002 252.67 13.64 73.2 252.67
2003 206.06 3.79 462.8 206.06
2004 141.79 21.49 460.7 141.79
2005 52.95 24.8 177.6 52.95 Table 9  Projected demand for imported starch (adapted from Anony-
2006 219.11 36.63 308.2 219.11 mous 2017)
2007 413.39 22.34 – Year Projection (tons)
2008 441.15 24.93 387.2
Cassava starch Potato starch Rice starch
2009 473.05 26.58 425.9
2010 503.13 28.54 468.5 2016 757.98 42.84 336.47
2011 539.07 30.52 515.4 2017 811.04 45.83 360.03
2012 579.26 31.58 566.9 2018 867.81 49.04 385.23
2013 618.74 34.87 623.6 2019 928.56 52.48 412.20
Average 385.32 25.38 374.28 131.03 2020 993.55 56.15 441.05

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88 T. Tesfaye et al.

Raw materials
The annual material requirements (mango seeds, sodium
metabisulphite and packing materials) of the plant are shown
in Table 10.
Utilities
The annual requirements of utilities (oil, electricity and
water) envisaged for the starch manufacturing plant
were determined based on the energy and mass balances
(Table 11).
Building and civil works
The total land requirement of the proposed plant is 1500 m2,
of which 500 m2 is for building the manufacturing facility
and the remaining 1000 m2 is for open space, storage area
and for future expansion. The total cost for building and civil
costs is $43,168 ($3168 for a 99-year lease and $40,000 for
building and civil works).
Manpower requirements
The selection of the structure of the envisaged project
was made based on the existing structures of manufactur-
ing plants operating in the country. It is assumed that the
capacity, complexity and technology mix of the plant will
be managed by a private limited company. Organisational
structure principles such as specialisation, coordination
and departmentalisation that best suit the envisaged project
are assumed in the design of the structure. These are sum-
marised in the schematic shown in Fig. 5. The manpower
requirements of the plant and the monthly and annual salary
expenditures are shown in Table 12.
Economic assessments
Total fixed investment cost
The total fixed investment includes plant machinery and
equipment, building and civil works, land lease value, vehi-
cle, office and furniture, working capital, pre-production
expenditure, tax and insurance of capital assets. The total
fixed investment cost is estimated at $1.87 × 1­ 05, of which
31% will be required in foreign currency (Table 13).
Production costs
The data in Table 14 revealed that the annual production cost
at full production capacity is estimated at $1.29 × 1­ 05. The
materials and utility costs account for 75.62% of the produc-
tion costs, whereas repair and maintenance will consume
2.66% of the production costs. The analysis revealed that the
unit production cost of starch is 0.33 $/kg, which is much
lower than the unit production cost of starch from maize
(0.81 $/kg) (Anonymous 2017). This is a clear indication
that the extraction processes of starch from waste mango
seeds are attractive.
Potential revenues
The income of the factory is based on the receivables from
job works and selling of products. For simplicity of calcu-
lation, both job works and selling price are considered as
selling price (Table 15).

Table 10  Annual raw material No. Raw material Unit Annual con- ‘000$
requirements sumption
FC LC Total

1 Mango seeds ton 1400 56 56

2 Sodium metabisulphite ton 1.5 1.9 0.7 2.6
3 Packing material pcs 10,000 pcs with 2 2
50 kg capacity
Total 60.6

FC foreign currency, LC local currency

Table 11  Annual consumption No. Raw material Unit Annual consump- Cost (‘000$)
of utilities tion
FC LC Total

1 Furnace oil L 600 12 12

2 Water M3 8400 2.76 2.76
3 Electricity Kwh 640,000 12.44 12.44
Total 27.20 27.20

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Valorisation of mango seed via extraction of starch: preliminary techno‑economic analysis 89

General manager

Technical Administrative
manager manager

Maintenance Production
Accountant Sales man
crew head

Supervisor
and chemist

Skilled Unskilled
operator labourers

Fig. 5  Organisational structure

Table 12  Required manpower No. Manpower Quantity Monthly salary ($) Annual cost ($)

1 General manager 1 200 5000

2 Technical manager 1 100 TVET 2500
3 Administrative manager 1 48 TVET 576
4 Production head 1 60 TVET 720
5 Supervisor and chemist 1 48 TVET 576
6 Skilled operator 7 196 TVET 4900
7 Maintenance crew 3 96 TVET 2400
8 Accountant 2 80 TVET 960
9 Sales man 2 80 TVET 960
10 Unskilled labourers Contract base 960
Total 19 19,552

Projected income statement
Table  16 shows the projected income statements of the
envisaged starch manufacturing industry from mango seeds.
The data indicate good profitability after tax, and the project
also generates $76,395 in tax revenue.
analysis revealed that the net profit after tax for envisaged
project ranges from 97,615 to 178,255, and profit-to-total
sales ratio, return on total investment and return on equity
all show increasing trends during the lifetime of the project.
Break‑even point

Evaluation of economic viability
Profitability
Based on the projected income statements, the project will
start generating profit in the first year of operation. The
The break-even point of the project establishes a relation-
ship between operating costs and revenues where costs and
revenues are in equilibrium. The break-even point for the
envisaged starch manufacturing plant was estimated by using
income statement projections as follows:

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90 T. Tesfaye et al.

Table 13  Fixed investment cost Table 16  Project income statements at full capacity ($)

No. Cost items Cost (‘000$) Particulars Years

1 Land lease value 3.17 I II III IV

2 Building and civil work 40 Total sales 280,000 320,000 360,000 400,000
3 Plant machinery and equipment 81.28 Total cost of production 129,350 129,350 129,350 129,350
4 Office furniture and equipment 3 Gross profit 150,650 190,650 230,650 270,650
5 Vehicle 40 Admin. overheads (4% on 11,200 12,800 14,400 16,000
6 Pre-production ­expenditurea 7.46 Sales)
7 Working capital 12.41 Profit before income Tax 139,450 177,850 216,250 254,650
Total investment cost 187.31 Provision for Tax @ 30% 41,835 53,355 64,875 76,395
a Profit after Tax 97,615 124,495 151,375 178,255
 
Pre-production expenditure includes $2000 costs of registration,
licensing and formation of the company, $4456.8 for interest during
construction and $1000 for employee training
Payback period

Table 14  Annual production costs at full capacity (‘000$) The payback period was projected based on the investment
Items Cost %
cost and income statement projections. Based on the pro-
jected income statement, the project’s initial investment will
Raw materials and inputs 60.6 72.36 be fully recovered within 2 years, which is a reasonably short
Utilities 27.2 9.430 period.
Maintenance and repair 3.2 1.99
Direct labour 19.52 4.54 Strength, weakness, opportunities and threats/
Factory overheads 2.44 1.51 SWOT analysis
Administration costs 4.88 3.03
Total operating costs 117.84 The SWOT analysis of the envisaged business idea is shown
Depreciation 7.36 4.57 in Fig. 6.
Cost to finance 4.15 2.57
Total production cost 129.35 Environmental assessment

The disposal of abundant food waste poses substantial

Fixed cost environmental impacts (Lin et al. 2013). The fruit industry
Break even point = × 100
Selling price − Annual production cost
is among one of the food industries which produce huge
= 78.39 %
amount of wastes in the form of seeds, peels, pulp and per-
Accounting rate of return ishable fruit. Incineration, composting and landfilling of the
waste produce large quantities of greenhouse gases (GHG),
The accounting rate of return of the starch extraction process and wastewater from anaerobic digestion causes acidifica-
was computed to be 83.28% indicating the viability of the tion of ecosystems resulting in serious environmental and
project. human health problems (Lin et al. 2013). In order to reduce
the environmental and health risk of these wastes, the first
Accounting rate of return =
Net profit
× 100 option should be reducing the amount of waste generated
Total investment cost and, if this is not possible, then recycling it into different
=
3, 900, 064
× 100 = 83.28% high-value materials.
4, 682, 860

Table 15  Potential revenue per No. Product type Quantity produced Unit selling Total selling price$
annum at full capacity (‘000$) price in $/Kg

1 Mango seed starch 500 ton 0.8 400,000

2 By-product for animal feed 350 ton – –
3 By-product for natural fertiliser
Total 400,000

Potential revenue per month = $400,000/12 = $33,333.33/month

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Valorisation of mango seed via extraction of starch: preliminary techno‑economic analysis 91

Fig. 6  SWOT analysis of the starch extraction process from waste mango seeds

Fig. 7  Cradle-to-grave analysis for conventional starch production

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92
Figure 7 shows the cradle-to-grave analysis of conven-
tional starch production. Besides the economical and food
security issues, the production of starch from food-based
materials (such as maize, potatoes, rice, cassava and enset)
has an environmental footprints because if these food mate-
rials are consumed for starch production, we need to plant
for food purpose and the use of fertiliser/pesticides will
increase resulting in increment of the environmental load.
The life cycle assessment of mango fruit processing is
depicted in Fig. 8. As illustrated in the figure, the environ-
mental burden of the production process on air, water and
soil environments starts during plantation (use of pesti-
cides/fertiliser have negative impact on the environment).
As reported in the literature, each year about 27–54 × 1­ 06
kg of mango seeds is thrown away as a waste of no value
(Honja 2014). These wastes have both health and environ-
mental impacts because of the emission of greenhouse gases
and their attraction of microbiological organisms and flies.
This study aims to use the waste biomass from mango fruit
processing industry to replace food-based materials. Such
beneficiation can reduce the environmental burden on the
ecosystem besides adding significant economic value.
Figure 9 illustrates the life cycle environmental sustain-
ability assessment of the starch production process from
mango seeds. The environmental impact of the waste mango
Fig. 8  Life cycle assessment of mango fruit processing industries
13
T. Tesfaye et al.
seed starch extraction is significant due to reduction in the
environmental loads in traditional processing. Rather than
disposing the waste mango seeds into the environment which
causes a burden to the environment, their valorisation via
starch extraction will help to reduce the environmental and
health impacts of waste mango seeds. With modern technol-
ogy, starch can be extracted from waste mango seeds in place
of food-based raw materials. The production of starch from
waste mango seeds does not use large amounts of chemicals
(except for sodium metabisulphite but at low concentration).
In general, there would be no major environmental pollu-
tion problems associated with starch extraction from a waste
mango seeds processing plant.
Conclusions
The optimisation process for starch extraction from waste
mango seeds has been presented in our previous study
(Tesfaye and Sithole 2017). In the present study, a techno-
economic analysis of the extraction process has been evalu-
ated. The key financial indicators for the project show very
good signs of project success and feasibility with good profit
margins. The project can create employment for 19 persons
in one plant operating in Ethiopia. Aside from supplying
Valorisation of mango seed via extraction of starch: preliminary techno‑economic analysis 93
Fig. 9  Life cycle environmental sustainability assessment of mango seed starch production process
domestic needs, the project will help the country to save
significant scarce foreign currency reserves. The plant will
also have a positive impact on the food security of the coun-
try since it would use a non-food material as a source of
industrial starch. Setting up a plant for extraction of starch
from waste mango seeds will be beneficial in terms of envi-
ronmental sustainability and economic benefits.
Successful beneficiation of waste materials can be
achieved by the implementation of policies and decisions
designed to meet the supply side and demand side of the
waste paradigm. Issues that can be addressed on the supply
side include: investments in set up of collection infrastruc-
tures; creation of entrepreneurial opportunities; and develop-
ment of policies and incentives to encourage beneficiation.
Issues on the demand side include: innovative uses of recy-
cled materials; development of innovative new high-quality
products from waste; and development and implementation
of relevant biorefinery technologies. The starch extraction
process from waste mango seeds is a good illustration of the
implementation of such policies.
Acknowledgements  The authors are highly grateful to Ethiopian Insti-
tute of Textile and Fashion Technology, the Thermodynamics Research
Unit at the University of KwaZulu-Natal and the Biorefinery Industry
Development Facility at the CSIR for providing funding and necessary
laboratory facilities and technical support to complete this work.
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