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O, LEVEL
FOOD TEST & CLASSIFICATION
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AKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and most I would like to thank God, the almighty for providing me this opportunity and
granting me health and the capability to proceed successfully.
I'm deeply grateful to my guider and other staff for their guidance, patience and support. I
consider myself very fortunate for being guided by a very considerate and encouraging people
like them.
I would like to extend my thankfulness to my family and my friends for their moral support.
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PREFACE
This pamphlet has writen strictly according to the latest syllabus of Biology as per the new
NECTA guidelines for O-level. This pamphlet which aims at providing basic facts on practicals of
food test and classification has prepared to care for the needs of O-level biology student. The
pamphlet contains elaborate description and well illustrated diagrams to enable students to
understand and enjoy the study of biology.
The first part of this pamphlet deals with food test and the second part deals with classification.
Also the pamphlet contains sample of questions which aim at orienting students to practical
work.
The text is entirely reorganized as per the requirements of the present day competition
oriented students. It has made examination oriented and for giving the full insight into the
subject.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
2. Carbohydrate.................................................................................................................1
3. Types of carbohydrate...................................................................................................2
4. Functions of carbohydrates............................................................................................2
5. Digestion of starch...........................................................................................................3
6. Proteins.............................................................................................................................3
7. Functions of proteins.......................................................................................................3
8. Digestion of proteins........................................................................................................4
9. Lipids...............................................................................................................................4
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3. Writing food test report...............................................................................................6
1. Introduction to classification......................................................................................10
2. Kingdom fungi.............................................................................................................11
4. Phylum zygomycota...................................................................................................11
5. Phylum basidiomycota................................................................................................17
6. Kingdom plantae..........................................................................................................17
8. Hibiscus flower............................................................................................................30
9. Kingdom animalia.......................................................................................................31
FOOD TESTS
Food test: Are used to determine which nutrients are present in a food specimen.
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At this level, we will learn how to test for carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids.
CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates includes: starch, reducing sugar, and non-reducing sugar that may contains
glucose inside of them.
SOURCESES OF CARBOHYADRATES.
The following are some of the food that contains nutrients of carbohydrates:
TYPES OF CARBOHYDRATES
Example of monosaccharides are: Glucose, Fructose (fruit sugar), and Galactose (milk sugar).
Characteristics of monosaccharides
Characteristics of disaccharides
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- They are sweet.
- Some are reducing sugar (maltose and lactose), and some are non-reducing sugar (sucrose).
Characteristics of polysaccharides
-Sources of reducing sugar are: onion, carrot, sugar cane, germinating cereal grains.
- Sources of Non- reducing sugar are: sugar cane, fresh milk, beet root.etc
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c. Dietary fiber.
Hypoglycemia and Ketosis; are diseases caused by lack or inadequate amount of carbohydrates
in the body.
* Digestion of starch in the alimentary canal takes place at the mouth and duodenum.
* At the mouth, the enzyme involved in the digestion of starch is called salivary amylase
(ptyalin).
* At the duodenum, the enzyme involved in the digestion of starch is called pancreatic amylase.
PROTEINS
SOURCESES OF PROTEINS
FUNCTIONS OF PROTEINS
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d. Used in the formation of some tissues. eg hair, nail e.t.c
I. The digestion of proteins in the alimentary canal takes place at the Stomach and
duodenum.
II. At the duodenum, the enzyme involved in the digestion of protein is called Trypsin.
III. At the stomach, the enzyme involved in the digestion of protein is called Pepsin.
LIPIDS
SOURCES OF LIPIDS
FUNCTIONS OF LIPIDS
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Excessive amount of lipids in the body can cause Obesity.
Lack of lipids in the body can cause the deficiency of vitamin: A, D, E, K etc
ii. The enzyme involved in the digestion of lipids is called Pancreatic Lipase.
iii. The end- product of digestion of lipids is Fatty acids and Glycerol.
Iodine solution, Benedicts solution, Hydrochloric acid (HCl), Sudan three, Sodium hydroxide
(NaOH)/potassium hydroxide(KOH)/ Sodium hydrogen carbonate(NaHCo3), Copper two
sulphate.
*Starch can be tasted by using IODINE SOLUTION. If starch present , the color will appear BLUE-
BLACK.
* Reducing sugar can be tasted by using BENEDICTS SOLUTION. If reducing sugar present, the
colour will change from BLUE to GREEN to YELLOW to BRICK RED PRECIPITATE.
* Non- reducing sugar can be tested by using DILUTE HYDROCHLORIC ACID, SODIUM
HYDROXIDE(NaOH)/ Potassium hydroxide(KOH)/ Sodium hydrogen carbonate(NaHCo3), and
BENEDICTS SOLUTION. If non-reducing sugar present the colour will change from BLUE to
GREEN to YELLOW to BRICK RED PRECIPITATES.
* Proteins can be tetsed by using SODIUM HYDROXIDE SOLUTION and COPPER TWO SULPHATE.
If proteins present the colour will appear PURPLE.
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*lipids can be tested by using SUDAN THREE. If lipids present, the RED DROPLETS will appear on
the surface.
NOTE:
a. It must have four parts: Food tested, Procedure, Observation, and Inference.
c. If not guided, the food must be tested in a series of: Starch, Reducing sugar, Non-
reducing sugar, Proteins, and the last is Lipids.
d. Use specific amount of sample solution and reagents; eg 2mls or two drops and
not few mls or few drops.
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S/NO. TEST FOR PROCEDURES OBSERVATION INFERENCE
1. STARCH 2mls of solution Z was -Blue black colour was -Starch was present.
added in a test tube, then observed
2 drops of Iodine solution
were added and shaken
the mixture. -Yellowish brown iodine was
-Starch was absent.
observed
2. REDUCING 2mls of solution Z was -Colour changed from: blue -Reducing sugar was present.
SUGAR added in a test tube, then to green to yellow to brick
two mls of Benedicts red precipitate.
solution was added and
boiled for about 2 to 3
Reducing sugar was absent.
minutes. - Blue colour of Benedicts
solution was retained.
3. NON- 2mls of solution Z was put - Colour changed from: blue - Non-reducing sugar was pre
REDUCING in a test tube, then 1ml of to green to yellow to brick
SUGAR dilute Hydrochloric acid red precipitates.
was added and boiled for
about 2 to 3 minutes then
-Non-reducing sugar was abse
cooled. After cooled, 2mls -Blue colour of Benedicts
of Sodium hydrogen solution was retained.
carbonate was added
followed by 2mls of
Benedicts -solution and
boiled for about 2 to 3
minutes.
4. PROTEIN 2mls of solution Z was put - Purple or violet colour was - Protein was present.
in a test tube, then 1ml of observed .
sodium hydroxide solution
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was added and shaken -Protein was absent.
followed by 2- drops of
Blue colour of Copper two
Copper two sulphate and
sulphate was retained.
shaken the mixture.
5. LIPIDS 2mls of solution Z was put - Red droplets was observed - Lipids was present.
in a test tube, then 2- on the surface.
drops of Sudan three was
added, shaken the mixture
and allowed to settle. Red colour of Sudan three
Lipids was absent.
was uniformly distributed
throughout the solution.
* state the role of Hydrochloric acid (HCl) during testing non- reducing sugar
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* state the role of Sodium hydrogen cabonateNaHCO3) used at the food test
* State the functions of food that was present during food test
- Lack of starch...........
- Lack of lipids...........
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CLASSIFICATION
RANKS OF CLASSIFICATION
2. Phylum or division
3. Class
4. Order
5. Family
6. Genus
TYPES OF CLASSIFICATION
2. Artificial classification: is the grouping of organisms based on few features especial observed
features.
*TAXONOMY: is the study which deals with the identification, naming and classification of
organisms.
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*NOMENCLATURE: is the system of giving scientific names to the organisms.
In biology, organisms are classified into five major groups called kingdoms. These groups are:
According to NECTA, different questions of biology practical in classification are based on the
last three kingdoms: Kingdom fungi, Kingdom plantae, and Kingdom animalia.
KINGDOM FUNGI
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Distinctive characteristics of kingdom fungi
* According to this level, only the first two phylum appear to the practical: Zygomycota and
Basidiomycota.
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III. They are used in manufacturing of cheese.
a. Kingdom; fungi
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b. Phylum; zygomycota
c. Class; mucoromycotina
STRUCTURE OF RHIZOPUS/MUCOR
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- They have gills.
- Have stalk.
ADAPTATIONS OF MUSHROOM
d. Some species are poison preventing them from being eaten by predator.
- Kingdom; fungi.
- Phylum; basidiomycota.
- Class; agaricomycete
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. STRUCTURE OF MUSHROOM
KINGDOM PLANTAE
- Representative organisms in this kingdom are: mosses, fern plant, flowering plants etc.
Distinctive
features of kingdom
plantae
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Divisions of kingdom plantae
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f. Moss causing the area to become marshy.
a. Have rhizoids
- They are autotrophs eukaryotes due to presence of photosynthetic pigment like chlorophyll's
- They reproduce both sexually and asexually by means of generation alternations. In this the
haploid gametophytes generation produces antheridium and archegonium for sexual
reproduction and the sporophyte depends up on formation of the zygote.
- They are autotrophs eukaryotes. This enable them to synthesize their own food substances.
- They are relatively small in size. This signifies them to germinate even in restricted place.
- They posses rhizoids which gives the plant anchorage and absorb water from the soil.
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- The male gamete is mobile and it can move toward the female gamete for fertilization
purposes.
* Classification of
moss plant to class
level
- Kingdom; plantae
- Division; bryophyta
- Class; musci
STRUCTURE OF
MOSS PLANT
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. General characteristics of filicinophyta (fern plant)
a. Have leaves.
b. Have roots
- They are common autotrophs eukaryotes implying that they can synthesize their own food.
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Mode of reproduction of fern plant
b. They need both dry and wet conditions through their life cycles.
- Kingdom; plantae
- Division; filicinophyta
- Class; filicinae
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3. DIVISION ANGIOSPERMATOPHYTA.eg maize plant, bean plant
V. After the fertilization the ovary develops into a fruit and ovules into seeds.
Classes of angiospermatophyta
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- The vascular tissue are scattered and random in the stem lacking cambium.
- The produce oxygen and taking cabon dioxide and that serve as a balance for the ecosystem.
- They shows generation alternation in which the sporophyte dominate the gametophyte
generation .
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- Have advanced and elaborated vascular system for translocation.
- They have ability to reproduce sexually without the need for water.
- Kingdom; plantae
- Division; angiospermatophyta
- Class; monocotyledon
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STRUCTURE OF MAIZE PLANT. STRUCTURE OF MAIZE SEE
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- Used as a food for human and other animals.
- They produce oxygen and taking cabon dioxide and that serve as a balance for the ecosystem.
- The bean plant is an annual plant which grows in savannah and tropical regions.
- They shows generation alternation in which the sporophyte dominate the gametophyte
generation .
- They have ability to reproduce sexually without the need for water.
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- Presence of the cuticle to resist excessive water loss.
- Kingdom; plantae
- Division; angiospermatophyta
- Class; dicotyledonae
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THE HALF STRUCTURE OF HIBISCUS FLOWER.
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The structure of flower that shows male's parts. The structure of flower that shows
female's parts
Economic
importance of flower(hibiscus):
- Used as medicine
- Used as decoration.
- Kingdom; plantae
- Division; angiospermatophyta
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3. KINGDOM ANIMALIA.eg human being
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A. Phylum platyhelminthesis.eg worms
*According to this level, we shall deal with the last three phylum that can appear at an exams
due to their possibility of availability.
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- The burrows improve soil aeration
- The constant passage through the soil reduce the particle to a fine state
- They are omnivorous mode of feeding, this ensure availability of food throughout so increase
chance of survival.
Habitat of earthworm
- They reproduce sexually by producing egg and sperm at the clitellum.Fertilization is external
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- Kingdom; animalia
Phylum; annelida
- Class; oligochaeta
. STRUCTURE OF EARTHWORM
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B. PHYLUM ARTHROPODA.eg insects
- Have antennae
Advantages of exoskeleton
- It help in locomotion
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- It is hard and not flexible
- It is less sensitive
Adaptation of millipede
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- They secreate a toxic fluid for protection from predators.
- They lives in soil and they are brown blackish in colour gives them camouflage.
Habitat of millipede
- Kingdom; animalia
- Phylum; arthropods
- Class; diplopoda
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b. Class chilopoda.eg centipede
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- Have poisonous claws
Adaptation of centipede
Habitat of centipede
- They lives in sandy soil beneath stone, dry grass areas and barks of trees.
- Kingdom; animalia
- Phylum; arthropods
- Class; chilopoda
STRUCTURE OF CENTIPEDE
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c. Class arachnida.eg spider, scorpion, ticks
- The body is divided in two regions i.e the cephalothorax and abdomen
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- They are terrestrial organisms lives in rocks, roof of the walls and in the soil
- Kingdom; animalia
- Phylum; arthropods
- Class; arachnida
THEST
RUCTURE OF
SCORPION
TICK
STRUCTURE OF SPIDER
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d. Class crustaceans.eg crab
- Have exoskeleton
- Respiratory is by gills
- The body is divided into two main parts.i.e cephalothorax and abdomen
- sexes separate
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- Have exoskeleton
Adaptations of crab
Habitat of crab
Classification of crab to
class level
- Kingdom; animalia
- Phylum; arthropods
- Class; crustaceans
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e. Class insects.eg housefly.mosquito.cockroach
- Body is divided into three main parts.i.e head, thorax, and abdomen
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- Have abdomen for reproduction and respiration
H
abitat of
bee,
housefly,
mosquito,
cockroach,
grasshopper
- They lives
in freshly
water and
terrestrial habitats
- Kingdom; animalia
- Phylum; arthropods
- Class; insecta
Bee. Housefly.
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Grasshopper
Cockroaches
Economic
importance of
bee, housefly,
mosquito,
cockroach,
butterfly and
grasshopper
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- Causative agent of diseases.eg mosquito
- Posses notochord
Classes of chordata
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- They have terminal mouth.
Adaptations of tilapia
- Have tail
- Have gills
- Have fins
Habitat of tilapia
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Classification of tilapia to its class level
- Kingdom; animalia
-Phylum; chordata
-Class; osteichthyes
STRUCTURE OF
TILAPIA FISH
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Adaptations of frog and taod
- The hind limbs are long, muscular and strong for jumping and hopping
Habitat of frog
- They are found normally in damp situations onbgrass near water, damp ditches and swimming
in ponds or streams.
- Kingdom; animalia
- Phylum; chordata
- Class; amphibia
STRUCTURE OF
FROG
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c. Class reptilia.eg snake, chameleon, totoe, crocodile.
- Have four chambered heart except the crocodile is completely four chambered heart
Habitat of reptilian
- Most lives in terrestrial ( lizard, snake, tortoes, chameleon), and some lives in aquatic habitat
(crocodile, snake, tortoes).
- Kingdom; animalia
- Phylum; chordata
- Class; reptilia
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STRUCTURE OF
LIZARD
- They have hollow bones to keep weight to its minimum for efficient flight
- Have wings
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- Have two hind limbs
- Have feathers
They lives in almost every part of the world. They inhabit forests such as rainforests, temperate
deciduous forests, swamp forests and arboreal forests.
- Kingdom; animalia
- Phylum; chordata
- Class; aves
Pigeon
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- Have mammary glands
- Have diaphragm
- Kingdom; animalia
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- Phylum; chordata
- Class; mammalian
RAT.
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NB: assume you are provided with specimen Z that is a BEE.
* Outline three features that makes specimen Z to fit in kingdom you mentioned above.
DR.RAN (BIOLOGIST).
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Reference books
2. D.J Taylor, N.P.O.Green, G.W. Stout Biological Science (Third Edition) P.t Ltd Kundli
131028 India 2002 Cambridge University press.
3. Kenya Institute of Education Secondary Biology and Biological Science, Second edition
published by Kenya literature Bureau, Nairobi, 1992.
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