Aircraft English Avionics

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO AVIONICS
Lesson 1 What Is Avionics?
Read the text and answer the following questions.
Avionics is a conjunction of the words

aviation and electronics. It is used to describe the
electronic equipment found in modern aircraft. The
term “avionics” was not used until the 1970s. For
many years, aircraft had electrical devices, but true
solid-state electronic devices were only introduced in
large numbers in the 1960s.
Airframe and engine maintenance is required
on all aircraft and is not likely to ever go away.
Aircraft instrument maintenance and repair also has
an inevitable part in aviation maintenance. The increased use of avionics in aircraft over the past 50
years has increased the role of avionics maintenance in aviation. However, modern, solid-state,
digital avionics are highly reliable.
The first decade of avionics proliferation saw a greater increase in the percent of cost of
avionics compared to the overall cost of an aircraft. In some military aircraft with highly refined
navigation, weapons targeting, and monitoring systems, it hit a high estimate of 80 percent of the
total cost of the aircraft. Currently, the ratio of the cost of avionics to the cost of the total aircraft is
beginning to decline. This is due to advances in digital electronics and numerous manufacturers
offering highly refined instrumentation, communication, and navigation systems that can be fitted to
nearly any aircraft. New aircraft of all sizes are manufactured with digital glass cockpits, and many
owners of older aircraft are retrofitting digital avionics to replace analog instrumentation and radio
navigation equipment.
Who is an Avionics Technician?
Avionics is a specialization within electronic maintenance and

repair. It focuses on aircraft electronics, but encompasses a wide
range of job types. An avionics technician is a specialist who is
responsible for all the electronics aboard an aircraft as well as the
wiring that connects to the electrical system. They run cables, mount
antennas, and connect instruments for navigation and engine
monitoring. Avionics technicians install radios, autopilots, and
passenger entertainment systems. The job demands attention to detail
and a commitment to the very highest standards of quality
workmanship because they work on flight-critical systems that
impact passenger and crew safety.
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What does an Avionics Technician do?
Some avionics technicians install and troubleshoot avionics equipment on fixed wing
aircraft or helicopters. They are responsible to see that everything works properly and none of it
interferes with other electronic devices on board. When a device fails, they remove it and send it to
a shop where a bench avionics technician performs repairs. In a small facility, a technician may
work on the aircraft and in the shop, but in large operations the jobs are separate.
How can you give definition for avionics?

What is the importance of avionics?
What do you know about the history of avionics?
Who is an avionics technician?
What does an avionics technician do?
Vocabulary
Inevitable that you cannot avoid or prevent. It was inevitable that there would be job
losses.
Proliferation the sudden increase in the number or amount of something; a large number of
a particular thing. a proliferation of personal computers
Refine to improve something by making small changes to it. She has refined her playing
technique over the years.
Retrofit to put a new piece of equipment into a machine that did not have it when it was
built; to provide a machine with a new part, etc. Voice recorders were retrofitted into planes
already in service.
Solid-state (Of a device) making use of the electronic properties of solid semiconductors (as
opposed to valves). A couple of advantages these CD based players have is they're either cheaper
than hard drive based players, or they hold more than solid state players.
Workmanship the skill with which somebody makes something, especially when this
affects the way it looks or works. Our buyers insist on high standards of workmanship and
materials.
1. Match the halves of the word combinations.
1 electronic A instrumentation
2 solid-state electronic B of avionics
3 aircraft instrument C technician
4 increased use D devices
5 advances in E navigation monitoring
6 highly refined F entertainment systems
7 instruments for G digital electronics
8 passenger H equipment
9 bench avionics I maintenance
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2. Before reading the text and doing the exercise below match the words with their
definitions.
1 bench A having a lot of different parts and small details that fit together
2 assembly B many parts are closely connected and work successfully together
3 troubleshooting C a piece of equipment that is used to make things look larger
4 intricate D long work table in a workshop or laboratory
5 magnifier E the process of identifying and correcting faults
6 integrated F to fit together all the separate parts of something
Find out the correct verb/ adjective/ noun + preposition combination.
soldering on soldering with populated with
work on ability to
Bench technicians may 1 _____ _____ navigation and communication radios, autopilots,

computers, and even large mechanical assemblies like radar antennas. A large shop may work on
hundreds of different items. Avionics technicians are often specialists within one or two areas. The
job requires excellent troubleshooting skills and the 2 _____ _____ do intricate, high-reliability 3
_____ _____ delicate components. Good bench technicians have patience, steady hands, and
excellent vision. Modern circuit boards are densely 4 _____ _____ tiny integrated circuits. Much of
the 5 _____ is done _____ binocular magnifiers or microscopes.
3. Complete the sentences and rearrange the text.
1 There's always A trouble-shooters are constantly on the

run.
2 They may not know the intricacies of the B experience and a tremendous depth of
individual components that make up knowledge about commercial aircraft.
3 An aircraft has to fly again shortly, so it C a deadline.
seems that these
4 System trouble-shooters are avionics D the system, but they know how those
technicians with years of parts interact and sometimes counteract
one another.
I sentence _____ III sentence _____
II sentence_____ IV sentence _____
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4. Read the following passages and do the exercises.
Open the brackets using the right word.
Avionics technicians 1 __________ (were employing, are employed, is employed) in several

different settings. Most passengers inside a terminal have seen a line technician rushing2 _____ (to,
for, by) replace a black box so that a flight can leave on time, but the bulk of the work around a
terminal is done 3 _____ (in, on, at) night. Pilots write up problems 4 _____ (on, in, into) the
aircraft log book during the day. Avionics technicians try to clear those entries at night. They may
be updating aircraft software, repairing wiring, or changing black boxes as necessary.
Fill in the blanks using the words from the box.
records hangar schedule manufacturer airplane
1 __________ avionics technicians have the luxury of

time. Their 2 __________ may be in the hangar for days or
weeks. A planner reviews the aircraft 3 __________ and any
new information from the 4 __________. Teams are assigned
and the time required for each task is included on the 5
__________.
Read the passage about bench technicians and guess the synonyms for the words given
below.
Bench technicians work in well-lit, air-conditioned rooms

surrounded by the hum of cooling fans. Avionics equipment
manufacturers specify the temperature and humidity limits
for testing. Floors, benches, and office furniture are specially
made to dissipate static electricity. Screen rooms that block
electromagnetic interference are used to test extremely
sensitive equipment, or to shield the surrounding areas from
powerful radio transmitters.
1 hum A protect
2 specify B moisture
3 limit C disappear
4 humidity D define
5 dissipate E end point
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6 shield F buzz
5. Speaking.
In groups make up funny aviation story and share it with the

class. After listening each of the story, choose the best one.
Lesson 2 Glass Cockpit

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A glass cockpit is an aircraft cockpit that features electronic (digital) flight

instrument displays, typically large LCD screens, rather than the traditional style of analog dials and
gauges.
A glass cockpit is often thought as an aircraft cockpit equipped with large computerized
screens which display flight information. This term is well known but actually refers to the
introduction of Flight Management Systems (FMS) to help monitor and control the aircraft. The
proper term when referring to these cockpits is "Technically Enhanced Cockpits". This technology
has largely replaced the numerous analogue instruments found in military and commercial aircraft.
The technology was developed in the late 1970s, but was not widely implemented until the 1990s.
Glass cockpits usually display GPS navigation, GPWS, TCAS, weather information, and possibly
sometime in the future, synthetic vision systems. However, the glass cockpit offers more than just
the different display style. It offers an increase in automation ability and integration of controls, and
with controls being 'fly by wire', automation systems are often far more accurate.
Combining numerous instruments into several easily-read displays reduces pilot workload
and fatigu e, and
makes it less likely
that an important
gauge will be missed
in a scan. The
information is more precise and due to the computer screens can be displayed much more
ergonomically. These benefits greatly increase flight safety.
The other benefit to the addition of the computer processing power is that it can also
integrate more feature into the screens and also allow the display of more information, For example,
the added benefit of clearly displayed GPS navigation, GPWS, TCAS, and weather information
greatly increases flight safety. These systems can also be display pictorially so that the pilot can get
an instant mental picture rather than having to process all the information themselves.
The computers also have feedback loops and self-checking programs that can alert the pilot
to possible problems and sometimes the checklists to solve them. It has the ability to control certain
elements of the flight so that the pilot can concentrate on more important tasks. This is especially
useful during times of high stress.
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Flying a glass cockpit aircraft requires a different cognitive style of thinking. As a result,
converting from a traditional commercial aircraft with hundreds of individual instruments, to a glass
cockpit jet with just a few displays requires more than just learning where to look. Older pilots, who
have flown thousands of hours in traditional cockpits, usually experience some difficulty
transferring to glass cockpit aircraft. Another interesting point is that there is potential for a pilot to
become fatigued more easily when flying glass cockpit aircraft.
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What is a glass cockpit?
What are the safety benefits of glass cockpit in commercial aircraft?
What are the advantages of glass cockpit?
What are the disadvantages of glass cockpit?
Vocabulary
Ergonomic relating to or designed for efficiency and comfort in the working environment.

ergonomic keyboard design
Implement put (a decision, plan, agreement, etc.) into effect; apply. Such communities have
suffered through the policies implemented by this government.
Instant prepared quickly and with little effort. We can’t promise instant solutions.
Loop a programmed sequence of instructions that is repeated until or while a particular condition
is satisfied. With the exception of the HD demo loops, all programming is identical.
1. True or false.
1 A glass cockpit consists of analog dials and gauges.

2 The term "Technically Enhanced Cockpits" is used to refer to the cockpits supplied with FMS.
3 Glass cockpits usually display GPWS, TCAS, GPS navigation and others.
4 Glass cockpit technology was widely used in 1990s.
5 In a glass cockpit one can find several easily-read displays which reduces pilot workload.
6 The computers also have self checking programs that can alert the pilot to possible problems.
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7 While talking about glass cockpit we can’t show any disadvantages of this technology.
1 traditional style of A displays

2 increase in B important tasks
3 integration of C into glass cockpit technology
4 easily-read D automation ability
5 instant mental E of thinking
6 concentrate on F analog dials
7 cognitive style G controls
8 difficulty in transferring H picture
3. Fill in the blanks with the correct words from the box.
board indicator arise failures conventional blackout flight

completely interdependent instruments data dependent replacing
familiar
1 The average transport aircraft in the mid-1970s had more than one hundred cockpit __________
and controls.
2 The glass cockpit idea made news in 1980's trade magazines, when NASA announced that it
would be __________ most of the electro-mechanical __________ instruments in the space
shuttles.
3 As aircraft operation becomes more __________ on glass cockpit systems, flight crews must be
trained to deal with possible __________.
4 Due to the possibility of a __________, glass cockpit aircraft also have backup analogue displays
for key flight instruments such as the airspeed __________ and altimeter.
5 Whether you train with __________ instruments or a glass panel, you’ll need to become
__________ with the avionics and navigational equipment on __________ the aircraft.
6 Today’s aircraft have multiple __________ electronic displays that work together to give the pilot
all of the necessary __________ on one screen.
7 Problems can __________ for pilots who fail to become __________ familiar with the glass
cockpit technology.
4. Using the sentences below make up two texts by names “Confusing Messages” and
“Information Blackout”.
Confusing Messages
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A The Boeing 757 took off with its static ports covered with duct tape. As a result, the pilots
received contradictory messages such as Rudder ratio, Mach trim, Overspeed, and Underspeed.
B Aero Peru flight 603 was an example of this occurring.
C While the confusion over computer-generated messages did not cause this accident, they may
have distracted the pilots from flying the plane, and lead to the crash.
D There have been a few cases where pilots have become confused by computer generated
messages.
E With most of their instruments inoperable, the aircraft crashed into the Pacific ocean shortly after.
1 ___ 2___ 3___ 4___ 5___
Information Blackout
A The A320 lost half of its display panels, all of its radios, transponders, and TCAS.
B Due to the nature of the integration of the information, if there is a electronic fault during the
flight causes the screens to blackout, this can leave the pilots in a
very dangerous position because they have limited information to
fly with.
C The pilots were able to land back at their departure aerodrome,

but commented that they were only able to land because of the
good weather conditions.
D United Airlines flight 371 is an example of a glass cockpit

blackout shortly after takeoff.
E If IFR conditions were present, the aircraft may have crashed.
1 ___ 2___ 3___ 4___ 5___
5. Match the words with their meanings.
1 contradiction A a long narrow strip of material with a

sticky substance on one side
2 duct B a state of not being certain
about what is happening
3 tape C to happen
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4 occur D something which gives an opinion on or explains something
5 confusion E to take somebody’s attention away from what they are trying to do
6 distract F a lack of agreement between facts, opinions, actions
7 comment G a period when there is no light or connection
8 blackout H a pipe or tube carrying liquid, gas, electric or telephone wires
6. Speaking.
How do the new advanced systems help people

managing the controlling process? Compare both
professional and daily fields of your life.
CHAPTER 2 INTRODUCTION TO
FLYING
Lesson 1 Control Yoke
Read the text and answer the following

questions.
A yoke, alternatively known as a control column, is a device used for piloting some fixed-

wing aircraft. The pilot uses the yoke to control the attitude of the plane, usually in both pitch
and roll. Rotating the control wheel controls the ailerons and the roll axis. Small to medium-size
aircraft, usually limited to propeller driven, feature a mechanical system whereby the yoke is
connected directly to the control surfaces with cables and rods. Human muscle power alone is not
enough for larger and more powerful aircraft, so hydraulic systems are used, in which yoke
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movements control hydraulic valves and actuators. In more modern aircraft, inputs may first be sent
to a fly-by-wire system, which then sends a corresponding signal to actuators attached to the control
surfaces. Yokes come in a variety of shapes and sizes, the most common being of a "U" or "W"
design. Some aircraft use an "M" style, such as Embraer and Concorde. There are some rarer exotic
or archaic styles, such as circular designs much like a steering wheel. Yokes are not used on all
aircraft. Helicopters use a cyclic and the majority of military fighter aircraft use a centre or side-
stick.
Side-sticks and centre-sticks are better for making rapid control inputs and dealing with
high g-forces, hence their use in military, sport, and aerobatic aircraft. However, yokes are less
sensitive (i.e., more precise) thanks to a larger range of motion and provide more visual feedback to
the pilot. Yokes take up more room than side-sticks in the cockpit, and may even obscure some
instruments; by comparison, side-sticks have minimal cockpit intrusion. A yoke, unlike a side-stick,
may be used comfortably with either hand. This can be useful if one needs to write or manipulate
other controls in the cockpit. This advantage is shared with the centre-stick.
When you turn the yoke left, the left aileron goes up, the right
aileron goes down (black arrows), the left wing goes down (white
arrow), and the airplane banks left.
When you turn the yoke right, the right aileron goes up, the left
aileron goes down (black arrows), the right wing goes down
(white arrow), and the airplane banks right.
When you push the yoke forward, the elevator goes

down (black arrow), forcing the tail up, and the
nose goes down (white arrow).
When you pull the yoke back, the elevator goes up

(black arrow), forcing the tail down, and the nose
goes up (white arrow).
Give general information about yoke.

What are the characteristics of yoke?
What can you say about side-sticks and centre-sticks?
VOCABULARY
Hence for this reason. We suspect they are trying to hide something, hence the need for an
independent inquiry.
Intrude enter with disruptive or adverse effect. The noise began to intrude into her
thoughts.
Obscure difficult to understand. The meaning of his comment was obscure to everyone but
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himself.
Rod a thin straight bar, especially of wood or metal. Concrete walls reinforced with steel
rods.
Rotate to move or turn around a central fixed point. Stay well away from the helicopter when
its blades start to rotate.
1. True or false.
a) The pilot uses the yoke to control the attitude of the plane, usually in both pitch and roll.
b) Small to medium-size aircrafts use hydraulic systems for control yoke.
c) The most common control yokes are “M” shaped.
d) Side-sticks and centre-sticks are better for making rapid control inputs.
e) Yokes take up more room than side-sticks in the cockpit.
f) When you push the yoke forward, the elevator goes down.
g) Then you turn the yoke right, the left aileron goes up, the right aileron goes down.
2. Fill in the blanks using the words from the box.
devices wires change comfortably mounted elevator
1 If we use the yoke to __________ our airspeed this "moves" the airplane along the curve.
2 The yoke is connected to the airplane's __________ so that's what it controls.
3 There are also computer input __________ designed to simulate a yoke intended for flight
simulators.
4 A yoke unlike a side-stick may be used __________ with either hand.
5 In most planes yokes are __________ on a horizontal tube.
6 The control yoke is connected by means of __________, rods or hydraulics to the tail
section's elevators.
3. Match the halves of the sentences.
1 Airlines began to not only reduce A purchasing the struggling Dutch

flying the first generation 35-50 manufacturer Fokker to gain access to the
F-100 line.
2 According to “The Wall Street B “side stick” controllers to pilot the
Journal” Delta has limited the 50- aircraft, seems to have contributed to
seaters the confusion.
3 Bombardier was first to explore the C to trips of a maximum of 2 hours or 700
possibility of larger RJs, first miles.
considered
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4 Boeing has always begged to D seat regional jets, but wrote their values
differ, persisting with conventional down to zero in many cases.
controls
5 The high-tech Airbus flight control E on its fly-by-wire aircraft,
system, which uses video-game-like including the new 787 Dreamliner,
introduced into service this year.
4. Work with dictionaries, find the definitions for the words given below, and
make new sentences using them.
SECRETARY GENERAL
The Council of ICAO appointed Raymond Benjamin (France) as Secretary General of

the Organization for a second three-year term, from 1 August 2012 to 31 July 2015.
The Secretary General of ICAO is head of the Secretariat and chief executive officer of the
Organization responsible for general direction of the work of the Secretariat. The Secretary
General provides leadership to a specialized international staff working in the field of
international civil aviation. The Secretary General serves as the Secretary of the Council of
ICAO and is responsible to the Council as a whole and, following established policies,
carries out the duties assigned to him by the Council, and makes periodic reports to the
Council covering the progress of the Secretariat activities.
Albert Jean François Roper was born in Paris on

21 April 1891. He received a Doctor of Law from
the Faculty in Paris. He became the Secretary
General of ICAO on 28 May 1947. He held that
position until his retirement on 31 December 1951.
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Shivinder Singh Sidhu was born on 13 October 1929. He holds advanced degrees in
Economics and Public Administration and a Doctorate of Philosophy. Dr. Sidhu was
appointed Secretary General of the Organization on 1 August 1988 and served for a period
of three years.
Renato Cláudio Costa Pereira was born in Brazil, on

30 November 1936. Mr. Pereira began his career in 1961
with the Brazilian Air Force, eventually reaching the rank
of Major General. Through the years, he held a number of
key positions in the management and development of civil
aviation. Mr. Pereira was appointed Secretary General of
ICAO on 1 August 1997 and served for a period of six
years.
5. Discuss the following questions with your class.
a At what age do people usually begin to work in your

country?
b What do you like most about that job?
c What kind of work do you want to do in the future?
d Would you like to work in an office? Why or why not?
e Would you like to have a management position?
f What are the pros and cons of being a manager?
Lesson 2 Throttle
A throttle is located on the instrument panel in the

cockpit. To open the throttle, push the throttle control in. To
close the throttle, pull the control out. When the throttle is closed, it is pulled rearward toward the
pilot until it is stopped by mechanical means. When the throttle is closed, only a small amount of
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fuel and air can enter the system, and the engine produces minimum power. At this setting, the
engine continues to run, but at “idle” speed (a few hundred RPM). As the throttle is moved forward,
the throttle valve in the carburettor opens allowing more air into the carburettor, thus increasing the
RPM. When fully open, the throttle allows the maximum amount of fuel and air to enter the system
to produce maximum power. When the throttle is full forward maximum RPM results. The throttle
can be locked into a set position with a friction lock so that in cruise flight the power setting will
remain set. This relieves the pilot from constant attention to the throttle.
The throttle determines how much power the engine can develop by controlling the amount
of fuel and air entering the engine cylinders. On aircraft with a “fixed pitch” propeller, the throttle
directly controls the engine RPM. On aircraft with a variable pitch propeller, the manifold pressure
gauge on the instrument panel shows the pressure of the air moving into the engine's cylinders, and
gives an approximate measurement of engine power. A propeller pitch control controls the propeller
blade angle. The power setting of the engine requires adjustment of both the throttle and propeller
pitch control. Generally speaking, the higher the manifold pressure, the more power you have
available.
What is throttle used for?

What is the purpose of using throttle?
How can pilots manage the engine power?
VOCABULARY
Adjustment a small change made to something in order to correct or improve it. I've made a few
adjustments to the design.
Idle avoiding work; lazy. I also believed that children weren’t lazy, idle, unmotivated, all the usual
list of adjectives the oppressor puts on the oppressed.
Rearward at or near the back of something. rearward seats
Throttle 1 a device controlling the flow of fuel or power to an engine. There’s only a throttle lever
for power control – push forward to go, pull back to stop. 2 to attack or kill somebody by squeezing
their throat in order to stop them from breathing. Avoid thinking aloud lest others are tempted to
throttle you.
1. Match the photos with the words.
propeller valve gauge blade carburettor
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1 __________ 2 ___________ 3 __________
4 __________ 5 __________
2. Study the examples and change the

following statements into British
English.
American English British

English
gasoline petrol
baggage luggage
crosswalk zebra
line crossing
parking lot queue
highway car parking
subway motorway
elevator underground
closet lift
drapes wardrobe
flashlight curtains
french fries torch
chips
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1 Pass me the cookies.______________________________________________
2 It’s in the closet_________________________________________________
3 Open the drapes._________________________________________________
4 We’ve run out of gas._____________________________________________
5 Our bags are in the trunk.__________________________________________
6 One-way or round trip?___________________________________________
7 Buy a one-way ticket._____________________________________________
8 We’re leaving in the fall.__________________________________________
9 I hate waiting in line._____________________________________________
3. Read the following passage, pay attention to the words in bold and circle the word that
most nearly expresses the meaning of the word printed in bold.
A Fan in the Air
Fog, tiny droplets of water vapor, is the villain of the airports. In an effort to eliminate dense fog
from airports, weathermen utilize giant fans, nylon strings, and chemicals dropped from planes or
shot upwards from strange machines on the ground. Nothing works as well, though, as a new
weapon in the fight against fog: the helicopter. Researchers believe that if warm dry air above the
fog could somehow be driven down into the humid blanket of fog, the droplets would evaporate,
thus clearing the air. In a recent experiment to test the theory the researchers had a helicopter
descend into the fog above barely visible Smith Mountain Airport near Roanoke, Virginia. The
blades of the helicopter caused the air to circulate downwards and enormous hole in the clouds
opened above the airport. Weathermen predict that with larger, more expensive helicopters they
will be able to make the thickest fog vanish.
1. circulate the new

a report b spread c interpret d watch
2. eliminate a problem
a perceive b wipe out c aggravate d create
3. an enormous ocean liner
a incredible b extravagant c unforgettable d huge
4. dense fog
a misty b thick c invisible d dismal
5. descend the stairs
a slip on b fortify c come down d use
6. the suspected villain
a wicked person b schemer c gossip d dictator
7. humid climate
a frigid b moist c perilous d sunny
8. predict the future
a plan for b look forward to c foretell d accept
9. deadly vapors from the chemical explosion
a forces b explosives c gases d sleet
10. vanish into thin air
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a change b crumble c disappear d vacate
11. science theory
a knowledge of facts b laboratory equipment c explanation based on thought d
experiment
12. utilize their services
a pay for b make use of c extend d regain
4. Read the dialogue and underline the correct words. Then read the passage from
newspaper and discuss the questions below.
Traveler : Excuse me. The plane (seeming, seems, seemed) to be behind schedule, and I’m
wondering whether or not I (should, may, will) be in time for my flight (to, in, for) Tampa.
Stewardess : Are you in (-, a, the) Kawasaki group?
Traveler : No, I’m not (at, in, on) the group.
Stewardess : There are two groups of about 50 flying to Tampa, so the plane is waiting for (our,
them, my) arrival.
TRAVELLING NOW AND THE PAST
In the past traveling was nothing less than a daring

adventures. There were no roads. There was none of the
mechanical transport we have now. People traveled on
foot. They had face all sorts of dangers from the weather
the wild beasts and the robbers. Mast people therefore did
not like to go away from their villages. Only those who
were adventurous set out on a long journey. They traveled
in groups. When man succeeded in training the four foot
animals like the horse and the camel, traveling became
slightly comfortable .Still it was a dangerous undertaking.
Now people living in any part to a country can travel to any other part in comfort. Every country
has a network to railways. A small sum of money is required to go from one corner of the country
to the other. If your business is more urgent. You can travel by an aeroplane. A plane will need only
a couple of days to fly round the whole world. The travel by sea also has become more comfortable,
swift and secure than before Giant steamers have replaced the ancient boat and sailing ships.
Have you ever been abroad?

Do you prefer summer vacations or winter vacations?
Do you think tourism will harm the Earth?
If you had a chance, would you choose travelling style in past or nowadays?
If you had $100,000, where would you go on holiday?
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1 Recent developments in transport by land, A are connected by Transcontinental
sea and air, have been made necessary by railways and the trains take about four to
the modern, 'high-pressure' age five days to cover this distance.
2 The satellite, space-ship, or jet plane can B banished by over-crowded roads, and the
all be used for international wear and tear on the nerves by high-speed
traffic.
3 In most countries, traffic congestion is an C in which we live, and made possible by
ever present problem; peace is scientific and technological development.
4 In the USA and Canada, the cities located D of North America and the Western coast
on the Atlantic and the Pacific coasts of Europe and this route provides links
between two highly industrialised parts of
the world.
5 The busiest sea route in the world is in the E spying and for releasing nuclear bombs as
North Atlantic Ocean, joining the Eastern well as for peaceful purposes.
coast
6. Speaking. Read the paragraph and share your thoughts with the class.
2050 AND THE FUTURE OF TRANSPORTATION
Transportation technology is progressing at a much slower pace than some of the other sciences
such as information technology, biotech, and
nanotechnology. However, transportation technology is
about to move ahead more rapidly in the coming years
with the advent of two radically new technologies –
frictionless vehicles and binary power. The future of
transportation will be derived by strong desires for
personal freedom and people’s need to gain control over
lifestyles that are moving faster and faster.
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Lesson 3 Plug Door
A plug door is a door designed to seal itself by taking

advantage of pressure difference on its two sides and is
typically used on aircraft with cabin pressurization. The higher
pressure on one side forces the wedge-shaped door into its
socket, makes a good seal and prevents it from being opened
until the pressure is released.
Non-plug doors rely on the strength of the locking
mechanism to keep the door shut whereas a plug door relies on
the pressure differential to keep it shut.
Aircraft The plug door is often seen on aircraft with pressurized cabins. Due to the air
pressure within the aircraft cabin being higher than that of the surrounding atmosphere, the door
seals itself closed as the aircraft climbs and the pressure differential increases. This prevents
accidental opening of the door. In the event of a decompression, with there no longer being a
pressure differential, the doors may be opened, therefore cabin crew is required to keep passengers
away from the doors until the aircraft has safely landed. On some aircraft the plug door opens
partially inward.
Plug doors are used on most modern

airliners, particularly for the small passenger doors.
However, since plug doors must open inward, the
design is disadvantageous for cargo doors. Due to
its large area, the cargo door on an airliner can not
be swung inside the fuselage without taking up a
considerable amount of valuable cargo space.
Overwing exits Overwing exits are found
on passenger aircraft to provide a means
of evacuation onto the wing. Overwing exits are
smaller in width and height than
standard emergency exits on an aircraft, and
therefore have a reduced evacuation capacity.
Hazards The primary hazard involving the
use of overwing exits is passengers not waiting to be given the command to evacuate, but rather
initiating it themselves. Frequent fliers would believe that they are adult enough and educated
enough to decide that they need to get out of an aircraft. Another hazard in the use of overwing exits
is their being improperly opened. The majority of overwing exits involve the passenger physically
removing the hatch from its frame.
How can you differ plug doors and non-plug doors?

What are the characteristics of aircraft plug doors?
What can you say about overwing exits?
21
Vocabulary
Decompression a reduction in air pressure; the act of reducing the pressure of the air
Seal seal something (up) (with something) to close a container tightly or fill a crack, etc.,
especially so that air, liquid, etc. cannot get in or out. The organs are kept in sealed plastic bags.
1 advantage of A door
2 cabin B evacuation capacity
3 wedge-shaped C pressure difference
4 overwing D pressurization
5 reduced E exits
2. Complete the sentences.
1 Plug door relies solely upon the difference in A maintain a constant air pressure inside
air of a room.
2 Plug doors began to be used by the U.S. B is equal to the outside pressure.
space program
3 Most doors rely on some type of latching or C for manned spacecraft in the 1960s.
locking
4 The superior sealing ability of this door D pressure between interior and exterior
helps walls.
5 The door cannot be opened until the inside E interior space available and make it
air pressure impractical.
6 A plug door on cargo planes would reduce F mechanism to keep them closed.
the amount of
lifting capable impossible pressurized descent several

passenger wheels land inside opening handle
22
Passengers may have had a scare on Alaska Airlines
Flight 132 from Anchorage to Portland, Oregon when a
fellow (a) __________ tried to open the aircraft door in
flight. But they need not have been worried about the door
(b) __________. Aircraft doors on (c) _________ aircraft –
basically all airline aircraft – are designed to be fail-safe and
impossible to open once the (d) __________ leave the
ground.
Within seconds of an aircraft (e) __________ off, the cabin begins to pressurize – which
means the pressure (f) __________ the cabin is much greater than the pressure outside. Opening a
pressurized cabin door is (g) __________ because of the fail-safe design of the door. Aircraft
doors are larger than their openings. A human being – even a large, strong one or even (h)
__________ of them – would not be able to exert enough force on the door (i) __________ to
overcome the cabin pressurization and open the door.
Aircraft begin to depressurize as they begin their (j) __________ to land but are not fully
depressurized until they (k) __________, which is why their doors cannot be opened even when the
aircraft is close to the ground. But once, the wheels touch down, the depressurization is usually
complete and an aircraft door is (l) __________ of being opened.
4. Read the technology news and do the following exercises.
a) Before reading the passages find out definitions for the words given below.
1 criteria A series of layers of rock below the earth’s surface

2 thermography B cut off
3 non-conformity C the state of having intervals or gaps
4 rigorous D assess
5 subsurface E standard by which something may be judged or decided
6 intercepted F to study heat distribution in structures
7 evaluate G extremely careful
8 discontinuity H behaviour or actions that don’t follow the accepted rules
b) Fill in the blanks with the words from the

exercise above.
Non-Destructive Evaluation Technologies at

GE Aviation
1 Ultrasonics (UT)
UT uses high-frequency sound to detect (a) __________ indications. GE Aviation uses this
technology to inspect the interior volume of critical engine components made from metals and
23
composites. Sound waves travel through materials with a predictable signal loss unless (b)
__________ by a (c) __________. Any interruptions are (d) __________ by carefully considered
acceptability criteria. The high-resolution ultrasonic lab at QTC supports material engineers with
pre- and post-mechanical test inspection feedback and analysis, the efforts of design engineers to
determine acceptability (e) __________ for specific parts and manufacturing engineers with
inspection plans and standards for development and production hardware.
2 Infrared Thermography – Flash IR

One technique that GE Aviation uses to test
advanced composite materials is infrared (f)
__________. Flash thermography uses a high-speed
infrared camera to collect millions of temperature
measurements in seconds. These flashes create a
thermal movie that is evaluated against (g)
__________ requirements set in design. Thermography will detect any internal features and
material uniformity and (h) __________, allowing researchers to determine and potential defects in
materials.
5. Arrange the sentences, make up the dialogue and story.
A) Dialogue
1 Pilot: "roger"
2 Tower: "xxxx, clear to land"
3 Pilot: "Say again, I can't hear you because there a some darn horn blaring in my ear!"
4 Tower: "Your landing gear is NOT DOWN"
5 Tower: "xxxx, I can not see any landing gear. Is your gear down?"
6 Tower: "Your landing gear is ..... aw damn."
7 Pilot: "Say what, I can't understand you"
B) Story
A A slightly confused voice with an indeterminate accent replied, after a moment, “Well, my
instructor says that I am very good, but I do not think that I would yet be considered the
‘Skymaster.’”
B The controller finally asked: “Cessna 123YZ, are you the Skymaster?”
C With all the students and several similar call signs, the controllers were getting a tad confused.
D Several planes were running up and waiting to take off, many
Cessna’s including a 337.
C) According to the photo make up your own story.
24
6. Speaking.
What if somebody opens a door during flight?
It seems that a week can’t go by without hearing the latest

story about a passenger who went cuckoo and tried to yank
open an emergency exit, only to be tackled and restrained
by those around him, who thought they were on the verge of being ejected into the troposphere.
25
Lesson 4 Static Dischargers
Static dischargers, commonly known as static wicks or static discharge wicks, are installed on
the trailing edges of aircraft including ailerons, elevators, rudder, wing, horizontal and vertical
stabilizer tips. Fitted on almost all civilian aircraft today, they are high electrical resistance (6-200
megohm) devices.
Different types of dischargers
Static dischargers on the winglet and aileron of an EasyJet Airbus A319-100
They control the corona discharge into the atmosphere, isolating noise and preventing it from
interfering with aircraft communication equipment. They are used on aircraft to allow the
continuous satisfactory operation of onboard navigation and radio communication systems during
precipitation conditions. Precipitation static is an electrical charge on an airplane caused by flying
through rain, snow, ice, or dust particles. When the aircraft charge is great enough, it discharges
into the surrounding air. The discharge path is through pointed aircraft extremities, such as
antennas, wing tips, vertical and horizontal stabilizers, and other protrusions.
26
Corona discharge examples
Different types of static dischargers are used to alleviate different problems on various types
of aircraft. This means a small general aviation aircraft flying at lower speeds will not use the same
type of device as a commercial airliner or business jet.
Static dischargers are not lightning arrestors and do not reduce or increase the likelihood of
an aircraft being struck by lightning. Static dischargers are subject to damage as a result of lightning
strike to the aircraft, and should be inspected after a lightning strike to ensure proper static
discharge operation. Static dischargers will not function if they are not properly bonded to the
aircraft. There must be a conductive path from all parts of the airplane to the dischargers, otherwise
they will be useless. Access panels, doors, cowls, navigation lights, antenna mounting hardware,
control surfaces, etc., can create static noise if they cannot discharge through the static wick.
Aircraft charging will occur as an airplane flies through freezing rain, ice crystals, dust,
sand, or snow. Contact with these particles leaves a charge on the airframe and as the charge builds,
a potential is reached where the charge leaks off the aircraft and antennas, generating broadband
radio frequency noise. This interferes with ADF, HF, as well as VHF and VOR receivers. Location
on the airframe enables dischargers to serve a role as a lightning conductor and provide protection
against arcing for the surrounding aircraft structure.
Streaming is a type of noise generated by nonconductive devices such as radomes, fibreglass
winglets, and other non-metal panels positioned on front impact areas of the aircraft. As particles
strike, they deposit an electron on the dielectric surface. As more particles impact, the voltage
increases until it reaches the flash over point. When the charge flashes over the surface of the
dielectric material, it generates broadband radio frequency noise.
What other names do you know for static dischargers?

What are static dischargers used for?
How can you describe precipitation conditions?
Do static dischargers differ or not?
When can aircraft charging occur?
Vocabulary
Alleviate make (suffering, deficiency, or a problem) less severe. He couldn’t prevent her pain, only
alleviate it.
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Charge receive and store electrical energy. Each room has a safe that not only holds most
laptops, but has an electrical outlet in the safe to keep your computer charged.
Extremity the furthest point or limit of something. The town stands on a hill, and I was taken into
the public garden at the extremity of the town.
Megohm a unit of electrical resistance equal to one million ohms. This inaccurate value is 6.67%
higher than the actual parallel resistance of 25 megohms.
Precipitation rain, snow, sleet, or hail that falls to or condenses on the ground.
These convective processes produce cloud and precipitation.
1. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate prepositions.
in to of by in of on to on
1 The first static dischargers were developed _____ a joint Army-Navy team.
2 The purpose _____ static discharge wicks is to dissipate the static electricity that builds up _____
planes in flight.
3 Metals are good conductors and allow electrons _____ flow freely through them.
4 Materials like rubber and air tend _____ be good insulators since they conduct electricity poorly.
5 Charged panels are not uncommon _____ aircraft and can possess a corona effect.
6 This transfer _____ electrons reduces the charge _____ the plane's skin and structure.
7 Wicks are also relatively fragile and easy to damage, so pilots and ground crew routinely inspect
them _____ case replacement is needed.
2. Match the words with their definitions.
1 particle A a device which prevents or stops a specified thing

2 inspect B cut off the electrical or other connection
3 bond C a thing that sticks out from a place or surface
4 arrester D form an electric arc
5 lightning E the ability not to be affected by something
6 protrusion F on or in a ship, aircraft, or other vehicle
7 isolate G a flash, or several flashes, of very bright light in the sky
8 onboard H a very small piece of something
9 resistance I the way in which two things are joined together
10 arcing J to look closely at sth, especially to check that everything is as it should be
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1 Static electricity is created when objects with A a cylinder around 7.6 to 20.3 cm long and
different electrical properties come into about the diameter of a soda straw.
contact,
2 In the event of a lightning strike, a plane is B require static wicks aboard all civil aircraft.
designed to conduct the excess electricity
through
3 Though this massive electrical charge often C electrons to flow or "leak" from the aircraft
burns or melts the wicks, these back into the atmosphere.
4 The wicks are composed of hundreds of D and negatively charged electrons from one
individual carbon fibers wrapped into substance are transferred to the other.
5 Because of their importance, regulatory E because the atmospheric conditions here are
agencies like FAA much less humid than at low altitudes.
6 The purpose of static wicks is to provide a F need to be on the same electrical charge or
conductive path for these excess level.
7 Air is typically a much better insulator at G its skin and structure to the wicks to be
higher altitudes where aircraft fly safely discharged back into the atmosphere.
8 For static wicks to work properly, all the H devices are simple and easy to replace.
parts of the aircraft
9 Corona effect causes the interference and I over the skin causes electrons to strip from
reduces the air molecules and build up on the aircraft
skin.
10 When an aircraft flies with reasonable high J the effectiveness of the radio equipment.
speeds the friction with which the air flows
4. There are two aviation stories below. Put in a correct row the passages and make up the
text, give a name to the stories.
A An aeroplane was forced to circle for more than half an hour after an air traffic controller dozed
off. The pilot of the cargo plane said he attempted a number of times to contact the controller for
permission to land – but got no answer.
B A man who was late for his flight call in a bomb threat on the flight he was supposed to take. The
delay caused by the search for the bomb grounded the plane long enough for him to get on.
C The man, who was charged and released, was allowed to board the plane, which departed about a
half-hour late.
29
D He was forced to circle Nice Airport in France until the sleepy controller was woken up by
security officials more than 30 minutes later. French air traffic control service DGAC
described the case as ‘extremely rare’ and said the cargo plane ‘had never been in difficulty’.
E The man, who was charged and released, was allowed to board the plane, which departed about a
half-hour late.
F An internal investigation has now been set up to find out why the controller fell asleep on the job.
6. Speaking.
In groups make up your own funny aviation story and

share it with the class. After listening each of the story,
choose the best one.
30
Lesson 5 Flight Control Systems

The flight control system (FCS) in an aircraft provides the basic interface between the pilot
and the aircraft’s control surfaces. This interface is the pilot’s most direct means of flying the
aircraft and is also used by higher-level control systems such as the autopilot and flight
management system. Traditionally, FCSs have not been avionics systems but rather mechanical or
hydraulic systems.
Traditional Flight Control Systems
Mechanical FCS
The earliest projects into manned flight were constrained to either roped balloon rides or
short hops in a glider. The necessity of formal flight control systems was not realized until it was
demonstrated that extended flight times need suitable systems.
Mechanical systems are characterized by a physical linkage between the pilot and control
surfaces, as shown in Figure 1. The pilot’s control inputs are transferred to the control surfaces via a
series of cables and/or pushrods. This type of FCS proved to be very effective in lightweight and
relatively slow moving aircraft because they were inexpensive to build, simple to maintain, and
provided the best control surface feedback of any FCS.
Also, as designers began to build bigger and faster aircraft, they discovered that the
increased aerodynamic forces incident on the control surfaces were simply too great for pilots to
counter. Engineers had to develop a system to augment the pilot’s commands.
Hydraulic FCS
Hydraulic flight control systems such as the one shown in Figure 3 were introduced to cater
to aircraft pushing the limits of control surface loading. As the name implies, the hydraulic system
relies primarily on a series of lines and hoses feeding hydraulic actuators from a pump assembly
and fluid reservoir. In this form of FCS, the pilot is no longer physically connected to the control
31
surfaces. Rather, the pilot modulates the fluid pressure within the lines via a spool valve connected
to the control yoke or stick. This system has the advantage of being able to generate massive forces
to affect
the
attitude of any aircraft regardless of size or speed.
Digital Flight Control Systems

Digital flight control systems are made possible by replacing the traditional mechanical or
hydraulic linkages between the pilot’s controls and aircraft control surfaces with electrical signal
connections, a technology known as fly-by-wire flight control. In the realm of commercial aircraft,
digital fly-by-wire FCSs were pioneered by Airbus and debuted in 1984 with the A320 passenger
jet.
In a fly-by-wire FCS, pilot commands are relayed to control surfaces by electrical signals.
As the pilot deflects the control column or moves the rudder pedals, his commands are translated
into digital signals that pass through wiring to actuators affixed to each control surface. The
actuators then deflect the appropriate control surfaces to execute the pilot’s commands according to
the signals they received.
Fly-by-wire systems offer significant advantages over mechanical and hydraulic FCSs. From
the design perspective, the fact that fly-by-wire systems use copper wiring to convey pilot
commands to control surfaces. For airlines, the reduced weight of a fly-by-wire FCS translates into
lower operational costs and higher profit.
32
What are the traditional flight control systems?
What is the main difference between traditional and digital flight control systems?
Vocabulary
Augment make (something) greater by adding to it; increase. Her secretarial work helped to
augment her husband’s income.
Cater provide with what is needed or required. The school caters for children with learning
difficulties
Hop a short journey or distance. a short hop by cab from city center
Realm a field or domain of activity or interest: the realm of applied chemistry
1 basic A actuators
2 hydraulic B wiring
3 physical C moving aircraft
4 lightweight and slow D linkage
5 hydraulic E interface
6 generate F signals
7 electrical G massive forces
8 copper H systems
1 Digital flight control systems carry lower A a variety of engineering considerations.

production and maintenance costs and can
improve
2 In the 100 years since the Wright brothers B aircraft, maintenance tasks were simplified.
made their historic flight at Kittyhawk, North
Carolina
3 Since the 1980s, however, digital flight C flight safety or passenger comfort by
control systems have become nearly limiting the pilot’s ability to overstress the
ubiquitous aircraft.
4 Digital flight control and fly-by-wire D surfaces, where they are converted into
technology involve analog signals that drive the surface actuators.
33
5 With the reduction of E rods, a fly-by-wire control
mechanical systems onboard system requires only very
the lightweight wires to connect the
pilot to the control actuators.
6 Compared to conventional F the development of aircraft
hydraulic or mechanical and aviation systems has
systems that utilize long fluid- accelerated at a phenomenal
filled tubes or heavy rate.
7 The actuator signals travel G in modern commercial
through the wiring in the aircraft, most notably in the
aircraft to the control Airbus A320/330/340 and
Boeing 777 jetliners.
3. Read the stories and do the following exercises.
Fill in the blanks with the prepositions.

with in in for to
A corpse
A woman and her daughter were arrested when airport officials in Liverpool discovered that the
pair were pushing the woman’s dead husband 1 ___ a wheelchair 2 ___ their plane. They had
covered his eyes 3 ___sunglasses and said they just thought he was sleeping. Though the two were
arrested 4 ___ failing to report a death, they weren’t charged 5 ___the end because the time of death
couldn’t be determined.
Fill in the blanks with the words.
terror investigators sports house balance documents
A crocodile in a briefcase
34
A crocodile was hidden in a traveler’s 6 __________ bag, along with the 7 ________ necessary to
sell it, but it managed to escape and became angry, spreading 8 __________ on the plane.
Passengers became hysterical causing a loss of 9 __________ on the plane causing it to crash into a
10 __________ during a flight from the Democratic
Republic of Congo's capital, Kinshasa, to Bandundu.
The only survivor of the Let 410 plane crash told the
story to the 11 __________.
Fill in the blanks with the articles.
a (x5) the (x3)

A turtle in a hamburger
12 ___ man in China, Mr Li, put his pet turtle inside 13 ___ hamburger and tried to board 14 ___
flight to Beijing with it. When crossing 15 ___ X-rays, 16 ___ inspectors discovered some "strange
bulges" in 17 ___ hamburger. When asked about it, Mr. Li answered: "This is not 18 ___ turtle, but
just 19 ___ hamburger. There is nothing to see".
Rearrange the sentences.

Another identity
A In an unbelievable case of disguise and deceit, an
elderly white man boarded a plane in Hong Kong and
emerged in Canada as a young Asian male.
B The man used a silicone face and neck mask to make
himself appear to be an older Caucasian passenger and
used someone else’s boarding pass to get on the plane.
C He also mimicked the movements of an elderly person so as not to raise suspicion.
D In the middle of the flight, the man went to the bathroom and came back without his disguise.
1 ___ 2 ___ 3 ___ 4 ___
35
4. Speaking.
Make up a dialogue between airport security and passenger who wants to carry to the plane
prohibited item.
Lesson 6 Fly-by-Wire

questions.
Fly-by-Wire (FBW) is the generally accepted

term for those flight control systems which use
computers to process the flight control inputs made by
the pilot or autopilot, and send corresponding
electrical signals to the flight control surface
actuators. This arrangement replaces mechanical linkage and means that the pilot inputs do not
directly move the control surfaces. Instead, inputs are read by a computer that in turn determines
how to move the control surfaces to best achieve what the pilot wants in accordance with which of
the available Flight Control Laws is active. Years of reliable service around the world have
underscored fly-by-wire’s significant benefits through commonality, improved flight safety,
reduced pilot workload, a reduction of mechanical parts, and real-time monitoring of all aircraft
systems. The use of fly-by-wire controls with their optimised side-stick controllers is a primary
competitive advantage for Airbus, which has applied this innovation on each jetliner in its product
line since the technology’s introduction in the civil air transport sector with its A320.
The principle used is that of error control in which the position of a control surface (the
output signal) is continually sensed and ‘fed back’ to its flight control computer (FCC). When a
command input (the input signal) is made by the pilot or autopilot, the difference between the
current control surface position and the apparently desired control surface position indicated by the
command is analysed by the computer and an appropriate corrective signal is sent electrically to the
control surface. Feedback compensation functions as error control and the FCC regulates the system
by comparing output signals to input signals. Any error between the two becomes a command to the
flight control surface until output equals input. In an FBW system the signal route from FCC to
36
control surface is called the forward path while the signal route from the control surface to the FCC
is called the feedback loop or path. Gain is the amplification or attenuation which is applied to the
forward signal to achieve the desired aircraft response. A filter may be used to block feedback of
signals or motion which occur at an undesirably frequent interval.
An advantage of a feedback system such as this is that the flight control system (FCS) can
be used to reduce sensitivity to changes in basic aircraft stability characteristics or external
disturbances. Weight savings, lower maintenance costs and greater precision in flying are among
the advantages of the fly-by-wire system employed on Airbus jetliners. The weight savings from the
replacement of heavy mechanical control cables provides a significant reduction in fuel
consumption. In additional, as electrical controls are less complex and easier to maintain than
mechanical ones, the use of fly-by-wire translates into lower maintenance costs for operators. By
giving a direct input through electrical signals, commands are much more precise – enhancing
overall safety. Furthermore, the control system monitors pilot commands to ensure the aircraft is
kept within the flight protection envelope. As a result, the pilot always can get the maximum
performance out of the aircraft without running the risk of exceeding safety margins.
What is the fly-by-wire system?

How is the fly-by-wire system used?
What are the working principles of the system?
What are the advantages of the fly-by-wire system?
VOCABULARY
Actuate make (a machine or device) operate. This circuit prevents the operator from actuating the
tool except when both hands are on the throttle lever.
Optimize to make something as good as it can be; to use something in the best possible way. to
optimize the use of resources
Apparently according to what you have heard or read; according to the way something appears.
Apparently they are getting divorced soon.
Disturbance the interruption of a settled and peaceful condition. A helicopter landing can cause
disturbance to residents.
Consumption the action of using up a resource. Industrialized countries should reduce their energy
consumption.
Amplify to increase something in strength, especially sound. That comment needs some
amplification.
Attenuate to make something weaker or less effective. The drug attenuates the effects of the virus.
Exceed to be greater than a particular number or amount. His achievements have exceeded
expectations.
1. True or false.
37
a) Fly-by-Wire (FBW) is the systems which use computers to process the flight control
inputs.
b) Fly-by-wire system was first used in Airbus A320.
c) Using fly-by-wire system doesn’t affect the aircraft’s weight.
d) In an FBW system the signal route from FCC to control surface is called the feedback
path.
2.1. Read the dialogue and think about flight envelope protection, (Albert – A, Captain
– C).
A: I can't understand why AF 447 crashed since the flight envelope protection was there. I thought
the software would add thrust and push the nose down automatically to prevent a stall.
C: When the Airbus A330 encountered severe icing, the external airspeed sensors (pitot tubes) were
blocked. This caused the autopilot to trip because the computers were not able to cope with
conflicting information.
The failure caused the plane to change from ’normal law’ to ‘alternate law’ where the flight
envelope is basically lost – hence no alpha floor protection against the stall. If only the crew knew
about it, the stall could be manually recovered by pushing the side-stick down instead of up. Sad to
say, things happened so quickly that the crew lost situational awareness and never recovered from
this jet upset.
2.2. Match the words from the passage above with their definitions.
1 encounter a push suddenly or violently in a specified direction

2 manual b vehicle's engine stops because it is not getting enough power
3 thrust c experience something unpleasant or difficult
4 alternate d make a mistake
5 trip e every other
6 stall f involving using the hands
2.3. Read the paragraph about flight envelope protection and do the exercise below
(choose a word in bold from the paragraph for each definition).
Flight envelope protection is a human machine interface extension of an aircraft’s control system

that prevents the pilot of an aircraft from making control commands that would force the aircraft to
exceed its structural and aerodynamic operating limits. It is used in some form in all modern
commercial fly-by-wire aircraft. Its advantage is that it restricts pilots in emergency situations so
they can react quickly without endangering the safety of their aircraft. The Airbus A320 was the
first commercial aircraft to incorporate full flight-envelope protection into its flight-control
38
software. This was instigated by former Airbus senior vice president for engineering Bernard
Ziegler. In the Airbus, the flight envelope protection cannot be overridden completely, although
the crew can fly beyond flight envelope limits by selecting an alternate "control law". Boeing in
the Boeing 777 has taken a different approach by allowing the crew to override flight envelope
limits using excessive force on the flight controls.
A to put somebody in a situation in which they could be harmed _______________

B the act of increasing the area of activity _________________________________
C to stop a process that happens automatically and control it yourself____________
D to cause something bad to happen______________________________________
E to include something so that it forms a part of something____________________
F to stop from moving or acting freely____________________________________
3. Choose the sentences that describe the photo.
Test 1
a) The launch has been delayed indefinitely.
b) The balloons took off about twenty minutes ago.
c) They’re expecting to take off in a few minutes.
Test 2
a) The air is perfectly clear.
b) It’s a nice day, but there’s a little haze.
c) After the sun comes up, we’re expecting it to be a pleasant day.
Test 3
39
a) If the wind starts to blow, they’ll have to land.
b) If the wind stops blowing, they’ll be able to take off.
c) They weren’t able to take off because there was too much wind.
Test 4
a) There aren’t any roads in this area.
b) They’ve just landed on a busy road.
c) If they need to make a quick landing, they’ll have to avoid busy roads.
4. Be attentive and fill in the blanks.
1. dream of / dream about

a) ‘I had a strange dream last night.’ ‘Did you? What did you dream _____?’
b) ‘Don’t tell anyone what I said.’ ‘No, I wouldn’t dream _____ it.’
2. complain about / complain of
a) Bill is never satisfied. He is always complaining _____ something.
b) We called the doctor because George was complaining _____ a pain in his stomach.
3. think of / think about
a) That’s a good idea. Why didn’t I think _____ that?
b) I can’t make a decision yet. I need time to think _____ your proposal.
4. remind of / remind about
a) I would have forgotten my appointment if Jane hadn’t remind me _____ it.
b) Do you see that man over there? Does he remind you _____ anybody you know?
5. hear about / hear of
a) She’s not a well-known singer. Not many people have heard _____ her.
b) ‘Did you hear _____ the accident last night?’ ‘Yes, Vicky told me.’
5. Do the crossword with your partner.
ACROSS DOWN
40
1. 1. A place where bodies of water come together 1. 1. A slang for the man married to Mama.
to form a ";Y"; shape. 2. 2. _____ and Juliet. A Shakesperian play.
2. 2. The name of a Latin dance. 3. 3. A known stretch of desert land.
3. 3. A city in Canada. 4. 4. The clothing a soldier would wear.
4. 4. A sport you play with a little ball and a stick.5. 5. The month we celebrate Thanksgiving.
5. 5. Home of the Taj Mahal. 6. 6. A nickname for Michael.
6. 6. Romeo’s sweetheart. 7. 7. A grumpy Muppet. ____ the grouch.
7. 7. _____ and Juliet. A Shakespearian play. 8. 8. The definition of a winner, also a man’s name.
8. 8. A resonating sound. 9. 9. The Greek letter for ";A";.
9. 9. An exclamation made during applause. 10. 10. A measurement of weight.
10. 10. A New York baseball team player. 11. 11. An alcoholic beverage.
11. 11. A place where travelers can sleep.
12. 12. Peanuts cartoon character, ______ Brown.
13. 13. Type of medical radiation.
41
6. Speaking. Read the passage from an
article and express your own point of
view on the subject.
BRAIN MYTH
Crosswords are fun and may improve your ability to find words, but they don't help your
brain's overall cognition or memory.
A lot of people do crossword puzzles each day with the belief that this activity will help
keep the brain young and even keep Alzheimer's or dementia at bay. Unfortunately, there is no
evidence for this belief. Crossword puzzles flex one very specific piece of cognition--the ability to
find words, which is also known as fluency. Fluency is a type of process based in the speech and
language centers of the brain. So doing crosswords might help you get better at word finding, but
that's the sum total of their positive benefits to your brain.
42
Lesson 7 FADEC (Full Authority Digital
Engine Control)
Full authority digital engine control (FADEC) is a system consisting of a digital computer
(called an electronic engine controller (EEC)) and additional components that control an aircraft’s
engine and propeller. First used in turbine-powered aircraft, these sophisticated control systems are
widely used in piston powered aircraft. FADEC includes the following functions:
 Engine acceleration to idle speed during start

 Acceleration and deceleration limiting
 Automatic control of available thrust
 Minimum/approach idle speeds during descent
 Compressor airflow control
 Selection of alternate modes from cockpit
 Thrust control as a function of throttle position and thrust reverser level
The FADEC uses speed, temperature, and pressure sensors to monitor the status of each
cylinder. A digital computer calculates the ideal pulse for each injector and adjusts ignition timing
that is necessary to achieve optimal performance.
FADEC systems eliminate the need for magnetos,
carburetor heat, mixture controls, and engine priming. A
single throttle lever is characteristic of an aircraft equipped
with a FADEC system. The pilot simply positions the
throttle lever to a desired mode such as start, idle, cruise
power, or max power. After the FADEC system adjusts the
engine and propeller automatically for the mode selected.
There is no need for the pilot to monitor or control the
air/fuel mixture.
During aircraft starting, the FADEC primes the
cylinders, adjusts the mixture, and positions the throttle
based on engine temperature and surrounding pressure. During cruise flight, the FADEC constantly
monitors the engine and adjusts fuel flow, ignition timing individually in each cylinder. This precise
43
control of the combustion process often results in decreased fuel consumption and increased
horsepower.
FADEC systems are considered an essential part of the engine and propeller control, and may be
powered by the aircraft’s main electrical system. In many aircraft FADEC uses power from a
separate generator connected to the engine. In either case, there must be a backup electrical source
available. Because failure of a FADEC system could result in a complete loss of engine thrust. To
prevent loss of thrust, two separate channels are used, each channel capable of providing all engine
and propeller functions without limitations.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Better fuel efficiency If a total FADEC failure occurs, the engine
fails
Automatic engine protection against out-of- Upon total FADEC failure, pilots have no
tolerance operations manual controls for engine restart, throttle,
or other functions
Safer as the multiple channel FADEC High system complexity compared to
computer provides redundancy in case of hydromechanical, analogue or manual
failure control systems
Care-free engine handling, with High system development and validation

guaranteed thrust settings effort due to the complexity
What does FADEC stand for?

How can you define the FADEC?
What functions does the FADEC have?
What can you say about the advantages or disadvantages of the FADEC?
Vocabulary
Acceleration a vehicle’s capacity to gain speed. The three-litre model

has spectacular acceleration.
Magneto a small electric generator containing a permanent magnet and used to provide high-
voltage pulses, especially (formerly) in the ignition systems of internal-combustion engines.
Prime prepare (a firearm or explosive device) for firing or detonation. He grabbed a gun from
a nearby wall and primed it.
Redundancy the inclusion of extra components which are not strictly necessary to functioning, in
case of failure in other components. A high degree of redundancy is built into
the machinery installation.
44
Reverse (of an engine) work in a contrary direction. The ship’s engines reversed and cut
out altogether.
Validity The state of being legally or officially acceptable. Return travel must be within the
validity of the ticket.
1 electronic A process
2 piston powered B electrical source
3 idle C timing
4 selection of D aircraft
5 adjusts ignition E speed
6 combustion F engine controller
7 backup G alternate modes
2. Fill in the blanks with the words from the box.
weight suffers amount savings ignition combustion

start operates moment spark recalculated
1 The fuel air mixture in the __________ chamber needs to be ignited at the correct __________ to
ensure efficient combustion and power generation by the engine.
2 For safety reasons the __________ system may not rely on the aircraft electrical system and must
be dual and each system __________ one of the two spark plugs in each cylinder.
3 Magneto ignition __________ from a number of problems.
4 Due to the added __________ of the parts of the FADEC the weight and balance of the aircraft
must be __________ after installation.
5 Starting a FADEC engine is no more exciting than pressing the __________ button.
6 With a FADEC the engine receives the right __________ of fuel per cylinder and the __________
plugs are ignited at the right time.
7 This results in fuel __________ up to 15%, an easier starting and smoother running engine.
45
3. Before reading the newspaper article find the definitions for the words, afterwards fill
in the blanks using the words.
1 alleging A lawyer
2 bully B forcefully
3 deemed C a plan for carrying out a process or procedure
4 pose D bring to an end
5 implement E threatening
6 heighten F the process of taking legal action
7 vigorously G put a decision into effect
8 terminated H present danger
9 attorney I claim that someone has done
something illegal
10 litigation J make or become more
intense
11 menacing K use strength typically to
force people to do something
12 scheduled L regard or consider
Flight Attendants Fired After Refusing to Fly Plane with Mysterious

Markings
Thirteen flight attendants are fighting back after being fired by United Airlines for refusing to fly on
a 747-400 with mysterious messages written on the tail section.
The attendants were (a) __________ to fly from San Francisco International Airport to Hong Kong
when finger drawings depicting the words "Bye Bye" along with a smiley face and a (b)
__________ face were found on the airplane's tail cone.
The group has filed a complaint with the U.S. Department of Labor (c) __________ that the
attendants were illegally (d) __________ after refusing "to let an airline (e)__________ them into
flying because of what they believed, correctly, was a security threat," says (f) __________ David
Marshall, who is representing them.
The complaint alleges that United refused the flight attendants' request that the company have the
more than 300 passengers onboard deplane and conduct a sweep of the aircraft for potentially
threats. The incident came just a week after the airline (g) __________ heightened security
measures due to the elevated risk of on-board explosives.
United representatives say the pilots and mechanics had (h) __________ the aircraft "entirely safe
to fly" and that they properly investigated the incident at the time and determined it did not (i)
__________ a safety threat. The company says it intends to (j) __________ fight the (k)
__________.
46
4. Rearrange the paragraphs and open the brackets using the correct variant.
Changing habits such as purchasing plastic water bottles while you

travel can help the planet and your conscience.
A The most important part (in, by, of) making any change is that you have
to care. I travel a lot so (because, when, finally) I first started thinking
about how many bottles of water I buy at the airport or when I'm on a trip,
it concerned (my, I, me). I began looking (into, for, at) solutions that would
work with my lifestyle and with the security measures put in place at the
airport.
B Vapor Reflex
(A, -, The) first Vapor Reflex water bottle I received (was, had, is) from an
Opportunity Green conference in Los Angeles. I was in love (before, after,
during) using it for a week.
C TRAVELING CAN BE STRESSFUL. Remembering (any, some, every) item you need while
away for work or vacation takes some planning. But being more eco-friendly when you travel
doesn't have to be difficult. A few years ago I (did, -, made) a commitment to limit my purchase of
plastic water bottles and here's how I (was, had, had been) successful.
D I keep it empty (on, around, in) my purse or computer bag and
once I get through security I find (a, an, -) refillable water station, a
water fountain, or I ask the friendly Starbucks people to fill it up for
me and I'm on my way. While people are waiting (at, up, for) the
beverage service to begin in flight, I just pull out my Vapur.
E I found a wonderful item I cannot live without when I travel.
It's lightweight so it doesn't add to your carry on luggage and fits
into a small purse. It rolls up when it's empty. The cap is very secure
and I've never had a problem with it leaking. It's BPA free and made
in the USA.
1 _____ 2_____ 3_____ 4_____ 5_____
5. Speaking. Discuss the following questions with your class.
Do you worry about the environment?

What are the biggest problems facing our environment?
What would you do to save our environment?
Would you give money to or actively campaign for environmental causes?
47
Lesson 8 Weight and Balance Control
There are many factors that lead to efficient and safe operation of aircraft. Among these vital
factors is proper weight and balance control. The responsibility for proper weight and balance
control begins with the engineers and designers, and extends to the aircraft mechanics that maintain
the aircraft and the pilots who operate them.
Weight Control Weight is a major factor in airplane construction and operation, and it
demands respect from all pilots and particular diligence by all A&P mechanics and repairmen.
Excessive weight reduces the efficiency of an aircraft and the safety margin available if an
emergency condition should arise.
When an aircraft is designed, it is made as light as the required structural strength will allow, and
the wings or rotors are designed to support the maximum allowable weight. When the weight of an
aircraft is increased, the wings or rotors must produce additional lift and the structure must support
not only the additional static loads, but also the dynamic loads imposed by flight maneuvers.
Weight Changes The maximum allowable weight for an aircraft is determined by design
considerations. However, the maximum operational weight may be less than the maximum
allowable weight due to such considerations as high-density altitude or high-drag field conditions
caused by wet grass or water on the runway. The maximum operational weight may also be limited
by the departure or arrival airport’s runway length. One important preflight consideration is the
distribution of the load in the aircraft. Loading the aircraft so the gross weight is less than the
maximum allowable is not enough. This weight must be distributed to keep the CG within the limits
specified in the POH or AFM.
48
Effects of Weight Most modern aircraft are so designed that if all seats are occupied, all
baggage allowed by the baggage compartment is carried, and all of the fuel tanks are full, the
aircraft will be grossly overloaded. This type of design requires the pilot to give great consideration
to the requirements of the trip. If maximum range is required, occupants or baggage must be left
behind, or if the maximum load must be carried, the range, dictated by the amount of fuel on board,
must be reduced. Some of the problems caused by overloading an aircraft are: the aircraft will need
a higher take off speed, which results in a longer takeoff run; both the rate and angle of climb will
be reduced; the service ceiling will be lowered; the cruising speed will be reduced; the cruising
range will be shortened; maneuverability will be decreased; a longer landing roll will be required
because the landing speed will be higher; excessive loads will be imposed on the structure,
especially the landing gear.
What was your understanding on weight and balance in aircraft beforehand?

How do pilots manage weight control?
How can weight change affect an aircraft?
Can you enumerate problems caused by overloading?
VOCABULARY
Diligence careful and thorough work or effort. She shows great diligence in her schoolwork.
Drag to move slowly and with effort. I managed to drag myself out of bed.
Excessive greater than what seems reasonable or appropriate. They complained about the excessive
noise coming from the upstairs flat.
Gross being the total amount of something before
anything is taken away. Investments showed a gross
profit of 26%.
Impose to force something to have to deal with
something that is difficult or unpleasant. This system
imposes additional financial burdens on many people.
Margin An amount of something included so as to be
sure of success or safety. There was no margin for
error.
Proper right, appropriate or correct; according to the
rules. We should have had a proper discussion before voting.
Vital necessary or essential in order for something to succeed or exist. Good financial accounts are
vital to the success of any enterprise.
1. True or false.
a) Weight and balance control is the vital factor for the efficient and safe operation of aircrafts.
b) The maximum allowable weight for an aircraft is determined by design considerations.
49
c) Most modern aircraft are so designed that if they are fully overloaded it won’t affect flying
operation of an aircraft.
d) The distribution of the load in the aircraft is not a necessary factor.
e) The aircraft will need a higher take off speed if the aircraft is overloaded.
f) The problems caused by overloading an aircraft don’t affect the service ceiling.
2. a) Read the following passage from a newspaper to see how the words in bold are used
in it.
Flying Saucers Again
Whenever journalists face a news famine they revive the undeniable interesting question: How
can we explain UFOs – unidentified flying objects? The story usually commences with a
description of the object by some observant night watchman who doesn’t hesitate to identify the
object as having migrated from outer space. The vessel, he persists, appeared over the hazy lake at
about 30 feet. A greenish gleam prohibited him from seeing its exact shape, he admits. Newspaper
editors love these stories because they keep the population interested in knowledge about UFOs
and keep them buying newspapers.
b) Place one of the words in bold from the passage above in each of the blanks below.
1 Many people claim to have seen a ghostly _______ sailing through the fog.
2 When Abe lost his job, he had to ________ to a place where he could find a job.
3 Because of the _______, people were dying in the streets.
4 They were trying to _______ interest in old movies.
5 We could tell Ira was happy by the bright _______ in his eyes.
6 Can you _______ the flags of all the states in the United States?
7 He was _______ of all the rules of his religion.
8 The wedding will ___________ at eight o’clock.
9 The _______ sent five reporters to cover the big story.
10 The travelers were stupid to ______ in eating the food after they were told it was spoiled.
11 _______ weather kept the pilot from seeing the airfield clearly.
12 The young _______ applied for his first job at a small newspaper.
c) Make up your own sentences using any of the words above.
1 _____________________________________________________________
2 _____________________________________________________________
3 ______________________________________________________________
50
1 Before any flight, the pilot should
determine the weight and balance condition A on the distribution of weight in the
of the aircraft by simple and orderly aircraft.
procedures based on sound
2 Flying an aircraft that is out of balance B principles have been devised by the
can produce increased pilot manufacturer for the determination of
loading conditions.
3 If a pilot lowers airplane weight by C in the definitions of terms, the imaginary
reducing fuel, the resulting decrease point at which all the weight is
concentrated
4 The CG is not necessarily a fixed point; D in the range of the airplane must be taken
its location depends into consideration during flight planning.
5 The point at which an aircraft balances E fatigue with obvious effects on the safety
can be determined by locating the CG, and efficiency of flight.
which is, as stated
4. Read the passage, fill the gaps, and match the new words with their definitions.
recorded engineering astronaut officials expressed UFOs

surface interview alien
Edgar Mitchell is a NASA (a) __________. As the Lunar Module pilot of Apollo 14, he spent

nine hours working on the lunar (b) __________ making him the sixth person to walk on the Moon.
Mitchell has publicly (c) __________ his opinions that he is "90 percent sure that many of the
thousands of UFOs, (d) __________ since the 1940s, belong to visitors from other planets".
Dateline NBC conducted an (e) __________ with Mitchell in 1996, during which he discussed
meeting with (f) __________ from three countries who claimed to have had personal encounters
with extraterrestrials. He further claimed that UFOs had provided "sonic (g) __________ secrets"
that were helpful to the U.S. government. In 2004 he told the St. Petersburg Times that a "cabal of
insiders" in the U.S. government were studying recovered (h) __________ bodies, and that this
51
group had stopped briefing U.S. Presidents after John F. Kennedy. He said, "We all know that (i)
__________ are real; now the question is where they come from."
a sonic 1 to tell people about something that is a secret

b extraterrestrial 2 to organize a particular activity
c briefing 3 an unexpected meeting with someone
d cabal 4 of or from outside the earth or its atmosphere
e publicly 5 relating to or using sound waves
f conduct 6 a secret political clique or faction
g encounter 7 a meeting for giving information or instructions
a What springs to mind when you hear the abbreviation “UFO’?

b Do you think UFOs exist, out there, somewhere?
c What’s your favourite movie or book about UFOs?
d Do you think UFOs would come to Earth to attack us, make friends with us, to get some
natural resources, or another reason?
e What do you think when people report UFO sightings?
f Would you accept an offer from aliens of a ride in their UFO?
CHAPTER 3 AIRSPACE
Lesson 1 Airspace Class
The world's navigable airspace is divided into three-

dimensional segments, each of which is assigned to a specific class.
Most nations adhere to the classification specified by the
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and described below, though they might use only
some of the classes defined below, and significantly alter the exact rules and requirements.
Similarly, individual nations may also designate Special Use Airspace with further rules for reasons
of national security or safety.
On March 12, 1990, ICAO adopted the current airspace classification scheme. The classes
are fundamentally defined in terms of flight rules and interactions between aircraft and Air Traffic
52
Control (ATC). Generally speaking, the ICAO airspaces allocate the responsibility for avoiding
other aircraft, namely either to ATC (if separation is provided) or to the aircraft commander (if not).
Some key concepts are:
 Separation: Maintaining a specific minimum distance between an aircraft and another aircraft
or terrain to avoid collisions, normally by requiring aircraft to fly at set levels or level bands, on
set routes or in certain directions, or by controlling an aircraft's speed.
 Clearance: Permission given by ATC for an aircraft to proceed under certain conditions
contained within the clearance.
 Traffic Information: Information given by ATC on the position and, if known, intentions of
other aircraft likely to pose a hazard to flight.
 Flight Rules: Aircraft can operate under Visual flight rules (VFR) or Instrument Flight
Rules (IFR). There is also an intermediate form, Special visual flight rules (SVFR).
ICAO adopted classifications
 Class A: All operations must be conducted under IFR. All aircraft are subject to ATC
clearance. All flights are separated from each other by ATC.
 Class B: Operations may be conducted under IFR, SVFR, or VFR. All aircraft are subject to
ATC clearance. All flights are separated from each other by ATC.
 Class C: Operations may be conducted under IFR, SVFR, or VFR. All aircraft are subject to
ATC clearance (country-specific variations notwithstanding). Aircraft operating under IFR and
SVFR are separated from each other and from flights operating under VFR, but VFR flights are
not separated from each other. Flights operating under VFR are given traffic information in
respect of other VFR flights.
 Class D: Operations may be conducted under IFR, SVFR, or VFR. All flights are subject to
ATC clearance (country-specific variations notwithstanding). Aircraft operating under IFR and
SVFR are separated from each other, and are given traffic information in respect of VFR
flights. Flights operating under VFR are given traffic information in respect of all other flights.
 Class E: Operations may be conducted under IFR, SVFR, or VFR. Aircraft operating under IFR
and SVFR are separated from each other, and are subject to ATC clearance. Flights under VFR
are not subject to ATC clearance. As far as is practical, traffic information is given to all flights
in respect of VFR flights.
 Class F: Operations may be conducted under IFR or VFR. ATC separation will be provided, so
far as practical, to aircraft operating under IFR. Traffic Information may be given as far as is
practical in respect of other flights.
 Class G: Operations may be conducted under IFR or VFR. ATC has no authority but VFR
minimums are to be known by pilots. Traffic Information may be given as far as is practical in
respect of other flights.
Special Airspace: these may limit pilot operation in certain areas. Consist of Prohibited
areas, Restricted areas, Warning Areas, MOAs (military operation areas), Alert areas, Controlled
Firing Areas (CFAs) all on can be found on the flight charts.
Classes A–E are referred to as controlled airspace. Classes F and G are uncontrolled
airspace.
53
The table below provides an overview of the above classes, and the specifications for each.
Clas ATC
Controlled IFR SVFR VFR Separation Traffic Information
s Clearance
Provided for
A Controlled Yes No No Required N/A
all flights
Provided for
B Controlled Yes Yes Yes Required N/A
all flights
Provided for
C Controlled Yes Yes Yes Required Provided for all VFR
all IFR/SVFR
Provided for
IFR/SVFR to Provided for all IFR and
D Controlled Yes Yes Yes Required
other VFR
IFR/SVFR
Provided for
Required Provided for all IFR and
IFR/SVFR to
E Controlled Yes Yes Yes for IFR and VFR flights where
other
SVFR possible,
IFR/SVFR
Provided for
IFR/SVFR to
advisory other Provided where possible
F Uncontrolled Yes No Yes
only IFR/SVFR if requested
where
possible
Not Provided where possible,

G Uncontrolled Yes No Yes Not provided
provided if requested
54
How can you give explanation for “airspace class”?
Which concepts do you know concerning airspace class?
What are the airspace classes according ICAO classification?
What can you say about “Special Airspace”?
Vocabulary
Adhere 1 stick fast to (a surface or substance). Paint won’t adhere well to a greasy surface 2
closely follow, observe, or represent. the account adhered firmly to fact
Allocate distribute (resources or duties) for a particular purpose. in past years we
didn’t allocate enough funds to infrastructure maintenance
Alter change in character or composition, typically in a comparatively small but significant way.
Our outward appearance alters as we get older.
1 the world's A security
2 three-dimensional B other aircraft
3 national C scheme
4 airspace classification D navigable airspace
5 avoiding E commander
6 aircraft F segments
2. Match the words from the exercise below with their definitions.
1 perception A have (a course of action) as one’s purpose; plan

2 emerge B the process of changing from one state or condition to another
3 intend C the height of an object in relation to sea level or ground level
4 crucial D awareness of something through the senses
5 altitude E closely compacted in substance
6 dense F become visible
7 transitions G of great importance
55
airports descend establish perception operated separation
emerges intends approaches crucial omission
class G procedures radar
1 __________ of air traffic, and the methods of separation, is the key to the organization of the
airspace system. Consequently, understanding these separation concepts is __________ to complete
understanding of this subject.
2 Despite popular __________, the federal aviation authorities do not regulate airspace unless there
is a specific need to do so in the interest of safety. __________ Airspace is an illustration of that
principle.
3 Most general aviation airports offer only non-precision instrument __________. These approaches
only allow IFR aircraft to __________ to minimum descent altitude.
4 ATC provides positive separation between all aircraft being __________ under IFR. VFR pilots
provide their own separation using see-and-avoid __________.
5 A VFR pilot who __________ to operate inside Class C Airspace is required to maintain the same
weather minimums that applied in Class E Airspace, and is required to ___________ two-way radio
communication with ATC before entering.
6 Class C Airspace is established at __________ where the traffic, specifically air carrier traffic, is
dense enough to require positive separation of all aircraft by means of __________ services.
7 The airspace system in the United States is categorized by letter classifications from A through G,
with the __________ of F.
8 This becomes complicated when an IFR aircraft __________ from a cloud and suddenly
transitions to visual separation.
4. Open the brackets using the correct variant.
Class A Airspace
Class A Airspace, formerly (is known, known, has been known) as Positive Control Airspace,
occurs above Flight Level 180 (approximately 18,000 feet MSL), and it is the most restrictive class
(of, on, in) airspace.
Since only IFR flight is normally permitted at these altitudes, all IFR regulations (can, must, may)
be met. Pilots of aircraft (operates, operating, were operating) at these altitudes must be instrument
rated, must be operating on an IFR flight plan, must have an IFR clearance, and must be flying an
aircraft that is equipped and maintained to legally operate (on, by, in) IFR conditions. All aircraft
operating above FL180 must have their altimeters set to standard atmospheric pressure, 29.92” Hg.
Additional oxygen and equipment requirements apply (within, to, into) aircraft operating at various
altitudes in Class A Airspace.
Class A Airspace is not depicted by any symbol (on, at, in) any chart, VFR or IFR.
56
In summary, Class A Airspace is established at altitudes where aircraft, primarily turbine-powered
aircraft, cruise at airspeeds that require increased positive vertical and lateral separation for safe
operation.
1 Most aviation occurs in Class E Airspace, A from the center of the airport, and vertically
formerly known as Controlled Airspace, from the surface to 14,500 feet MSL.
2 Class E Airspace requirements add a layer of B communication requirement to the
restriction meteorological rules of Class E Airspace.
3 But a pilot operating under Instrument Flight C was the most common type of airspace.
Rules is not relieved
4 The dimensions of the Control Zone, where D and the rules for this airspace are written to
Class E Airspace exists at the surface, is a 5 provide separation between IFR and VFR
statute mile radius aircraft.
5 Class D Airspace, formerly known as an E as those for the Class E Control Zone.
Airport Traffic Area, adds a radio
6 VFR aircraft entering Class D Airspace F with two-way radio communication
equipment.
7 For the Class D the weather minimums for G the pilot of that aircraft is also required to
VFR flight are the same maintain visual separation from other aircraft.
8 Aircraft operating in Class C Airspace are H to those that define Class G Airspace.
required to be equipped
9 When an aircraft that is being operated under I must be equipped VHF radios.
IFR is in visual meteorological conditions
(VMC),
10 Class G Airspace, originally called J of the responsibility of exercising see-and-
Uncontrolled Airspace, avoid separation when weather conditions
allow it.
57
6. Speaking.
Describe the photo. What is the reason for the

accident? What can you say about the injured
passengers?
58
CHAPTER 4 ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEM
Lesson 1 EFIS (Electronic Flight Instrument System)

An electronic flight instrument system (EFIS) is a flight deck instrument display system in
which the display technology used is electronic rather than electromechanical. EFIS normally
consists of a primary flight display (PFD), multi-function display (MFD) and engine indicating and
crew alerting system (EICAS) display. Although cathode ray tube (CRT) displays were used at first,
liquid crystal displays (LCD) are now more common. The complex electromechanical attitude
director indicator (ADI) and horizontal situation indicator (HSI) were the first candidates for
replacement by EFIS.
EFIS display
EFIS installations vary greatly. A light aircraft might be equipped with one display unit, on
which flight and navigation data are displayed. A wide-body aircraft is likely to have six or more
display units. An EFIS installation will follow the sequence:
• Displays
• Controls
• Data processors
Display Units
59
• Primary flight display (PFD)
• Multi-function display (MFD) / Navigation display (ND)
• Engine indications and crew alerting system (EICAS) / electronic centralized aircraft monitoring
(ECAM)
Control Panels
The pilots are provided with controls, with which they select display range and mode (for
example, map or compass rose) and enter data (such as selected heading).
Where inputs by the pilot are used by other equipment, data buses broadcast the pilot's
selections so that the pilot only needs to enter the selection once. For example, the pilot selects the
desired level-off altitude on a control unit. The EFIS repeats this selected altitude on the PFD and
by comparing it with the actual altitude (from the air data computer) generates an altitude error
display. This same altitude selection is used by the automatic flight control system to level off, and
by the altitude alerting system to provide appropriate warnings.
Data Processors
The EFIS visual display is produced by the symbol generator. This receives data inputs from
the pilot, signals from sensors, and EFIS format selections made by the pilot. The symbol generator
can go by other names, such as display processing computer, display electronics unit, etc.
The symbol generator does more than generate symbols. It has (at the least) monitoring
facilities, a graphics generator and a display driver (this is a hardware not a software). Inputs from
sensors and controls arrive via data buses, and are checked for validity. The required computations
are performed, and the graphics generator and display driver produce the inputs to the display units.
How can you give explanation for an EFIS?

What does an EFIS consist of?
What are EFIS display units?
What can you say about EFIS control panels?
What is the use of data processors?
VOCABULARY
Electromechanical relating to or denoting a mechanical device which is electrically operated. It is

also a leading partner in the mechanical engineering and the electromechanical industries.
Generate produce or create. changes which are likely to generate controversy
1. Check if you can remember the definitions for abbreviations.
1 EFIS ____________________________________________________
2 ADI _____________________________________________________
3 CRT _____________________________________________________
60
4 LCD _____________________________________________________
5 ND ______________________________________________________
6 ECAM ___________________________________________________
redundancy vibration emulates indicator invalid limits

digital introduce software integrated mode reliable
waypoint navigational
1 The EFIS provides with the pilot a highly __________, clear and sunlight-readable display
system.
2 EFIS has highly __________ display units that are designed to connect to either __________ or
analog aircraft avionics suites.
3 In case of failure of one unit of the EFIS functioning __________ will be switched to the
composite display mode. The composite __________ displays both ADI and HSI functions.
4 The EFIS __________ the current HSI/ADI to reduce pilot training, but also permits display
formats that far exceed the existing systems, such as weather radar in MAP mode, __________ and
route, nearest airport and many more.
5 One solution for avoiding problems is to keep the display unit as simple as possible, so that it is
unable to __________ errors.
6 EFIS removes _________ data from the display and substitutes an appropriate warning.
7 A degree of __________ is available even with the simple two-screen EFIS installation.
8 The EFIS system can be updated with new __________ to extend its capabilities.
9 Recent advances in computing power and reductions in the cost of liquid-crystal displays and
__________ sensors have brought EFIS to general aviation aircraft.
10 With EFIS, some indications, e.g., engine _________, might not be displayed under normal
conditions. If __________ are exceeded, then the reading will be displayed.
3. Fill in the table with the words below.
departure high elapsed delay inlet cabin warm-up

fire(inflation) parking brake maximum inflight exact maximum operating
… time … pressure
61
4. Read the article and do the following exercises.
Dusty and Gusty

Dust storms, including high winds, can occur anywhere there is lots of dry soil.
A Fill in the blanks with the words below.
associated significant damaged ambulance visibility
Dust storms pose a (a) __________ hazard for aviation. Not only do they drastically reduce (b)
__________, they also are associated with very strong winds that can seriously affect an aircraft in
flight. Engines can be (c) __________ by ingesting the dust.
Strong winds (d) __________ with a dust storm were believed to be the cause of the May 26, 2011,
crash of an air (e) __________ just outside Delhi, India.
B Fill in the blanks with the prepositions.
to into on from at in to
Seven people (a) ___ the airplane and three (b) ___ the
ground were killed when the Pilatus PC-12 turboprop
fell (c) ___ the sky (d) ___ a residential neighborhood.
Officials there said the airplane hit a “wall of air” and
was “unable to move due (e) ___ the strong winds.” At the time of the crash, surface winds (f) ___
the airport were gusting (g) ___ 40 mph.
C Correct the mistakes (8 mistakes).
Even large airplanes can encounter difficulties. In March 11, 2005, an Airbus A321-200 operated
with British Mediterranean Airways encountered the dust storm while trying to land at Khartoum
Airport, Sudan. Before two aborted approaches, a third approach were attempted. This approach
also became unstable when the airplane descended too quickly as he neared the runway. With
visibilities below acceptable minimums, the pilot initiated a go-around. The airplane was within 121
ft (37 m) of the ground before the crew pulled up. The event was officially describing as a “serious
incident.” Three years later at the same airport, a Sudan Airways Airbus crashed on landing in a
dust storm. Twenty-eight person lost their lives.
5. According to the text find out the right words for the definitions.
1 present or constitute (a problem or danger) ______________________

2 extremely; very ____________________
62
3 take into; absorb ___________________
4 designed for people to live in _____________________
5 a sudden strong rush of wind _____________________
6 unexpectedly be faced with or experience ____________________
7 cause (a process or action) to begin _________________________
8 bring to an end because of a problem or fault _________________
6. Speaking.
Look at the given photo. Try to describe the

accident. What could happen to the plane?
What could be the reasons for plane crash?
63
Lesson 2 PFD and ND (Primary Flight Display)
A PFD presents information about primary flight instruments, navigation instruments, and
the status of the flight in one integrated display. Some systems include powerplant information and
other systems information in the same display. A typical primary flight display is shown in figure
below.
Primary Flight Instruments

Flight instrument presentations on a PFD differ from conventional instrumentation not only
in format, but sometimes in location as well. For example, the attitude indicator on the PFD in
figure above is larger than conventional round-dial presentations of an artificial horizon. Airspeed
and altitude indications are presented on vertical tape displays that appear on the left and right sides
of the primary flight display. The vertical speed indicator is depicted using conventional analog
presentation. Turn coordination is shown using a segmented triangle near the top of the attitude
indicator. The rate-of-turn indicator appears as a curved line display at the top of the
heading/navigation instrument in the lower half of the PFD.
Making Entries on the PFD

PFDs have evolved and have become more than flight displays in many cases. The amount
of data available for display can overwhelm the pilot with data. Therefore, many manufacturers
have integrated data control and display controls into the display unit itself, usually around the
perimeter of the unit. These data and display controls provide
A typical primary flight display (PFD) (1) 64

different ways of
selecting necessary
information, such as
altimeter settings,
radials, and courses.
Figure 2 illustrates
two different kinds
of controls for
making entries on
primary flight
displays. Some
PFDs utilize a
single knob and
button-selectable
windows to
determine which
entry is to be made.
Other PFDs offer dedicated knobs for making Making entries on a PFD (2)
entries; quantities are sometimes entered in one location and displayed in another.
Failures and the Primary Flight Display

Instrument System Failure
The competent pilot is familiar with the
behavior of each instrument system when
failures occur, and is able to recognize failure
indications when they appear on the primary
flight display. Manufacturers typically use a
bold red “X” over, or in place of, the inoperative
instruments and provide annunciator messages
about failed systems. It is the pilot’s job to
interpret how this information impacts the flight.
The inoperative airspeed, altitude, and vertical
speed indicators on the PFD in figure 3 indicate
A PFD indicating a failed air data computer (3) the failure of the air data computer. As do all
electronic flight displays, navigation units (area navigation (RNAV)/flight management systems
(FMS)) and instrumentation sensors rely on steady, uninterrupted power sources of 24 VDC or 12
VDC power. Any interruptions in the power supplies, such as alternator/regulator failure, drive belt
failure, lightning strikes, wiring harness problems, or other electrical failures, can completely
disrupt the systems, leading to erratic indications or completely inoperative units. Especially in
standard category aircraft not designed or built with the redundancy inherent in transport category
aircraft, a proficient and prudent pilot plans for failures and has alternate plans and procedures
readily available.
Essential Skills
65
1. Correctly interpret flight and navigation instrument information displayed on the PFD.
2. Determine what “fail down” modes are installed and available. Recognize and compensate
appropriately for failures of the PFD and supporting instrument systems.
3. Accurately determine system options installed and actions necessary for functions, data entry and
retrieval.
4. Know how to select essential presentation modes, flight modes, communication and navigation
modes, and methods mode selection, as well as cancellation.
5. Be able to determine extent of failures and reliable information remaining available, to include
procedures for restoring function(s) or moving displays to the MFD or other display.
What is PFD used for?

What kind of information can one find in a PFD?
What is the difference between flight instrument presentations on a PFD and conventional
instrumentation?
What can you say about making entries on the PFD?
In which cases the sign “X” is used?
Vocabulary
Competent having the necessary ability, knowledge, or skill to do something successfully. a highly

competent surgeon
Conventional based on or in accordance with what is generally done or believed. a
conventional morality had dictated behaviour
Overwhelm have a strong emotional effect on. I was overwhelmed with guilt.
Prudent acting with or showing care and thought for the future. No prudent
money manager would authorize a loan without first knowing its purpose.
Redundancy 1 the state of being not or no longer needed or useful. the redundancy of 19th-century
heavy plant machinery. 2 the inclusion of extra components which are not strictly necessary
to functioning, in case of failure in other components. A high degree of redundancy is built into
the machinery installation.
Segment divide (something) into separate parts or sections. The unemployed are segmented into
two groups.
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1 conventional A means of sending or receiving information
2 regular B the state of not working correctly or as expected
3 combine C the manner in which something is given or displayed
4 appear D a level of skill or intelligence
5 reversion E an electronic device for the visual presentation of data or images
6 performance F following what is traditional
7 failure G facts provided or learned about something or someone
8 contain H to come together to form a single thing or group
9 display I the process of returning to a former state or condition
10 communication J how well or badly something works
11 information K happening at the beginning; first
12 presentation L have or hold something within
13 ability M done or happening often
14 initial N to start to be seen or to begin to exist
2. Fill in the blanks with the words from the exercise above.
1 Because any aircraft system can fail, your __________ proficiency flying should include practice
in using the backup/standby instrumentation in your aircraft.
2 As a first line of defense, some systems offer the __________ capability to display the PFD data
on the multi-function display (MFD) in the event of a PFD __________.
3 Every aircraft equipped with electronic flight instruments must also __________ a minimal set of
backup/ standby instruments.
4 An important feature of the PFD is its __________ to gather information from other aircraft
systems and present it to the pilot in the integrated __________.
5 This PFD also allows the pilot to tune and identify __________ and navigation radio frequencies
at the top of the display.
6 PFDs and multi-function displays (MFDs) typically __________ several navigation instruments
into a single __________.
7 The primary flight instruments that __________ on a PFD are driven by instrument sensor
systems that are more sophisticated than __________ instrument systems.
8 You must still cross-check around the panel and on the display, but more __________ is available
in a smaller space in easier to read colors.
9 Pilots experienced in the use of conventional flight instruments tend to deviate from assigned
altitudes during their __________ experience with the PFD.
10 The PFD supports the same familiar control and __________, or primary and supporting
methods you use with conventional flight instruments.
3. Make up the sentences.

67
1 temperature/ lower/ outside/ is/ The/ shown/ in/ of/ left/ corner/ the/ air/ display/ the.
_____________________________________________________________________________
2 indications/ present/ course/ sophisticated/ three-dimensional/ More/ PFDs.
_____________________________________________________________________________
3 together/ bundled/ Attitude and heading/ reference/ typically/ attitude/ systems/ as/ an/ heading/
are/ system.
_____________________________________________________________________________
4 careful/ selection/ It/ the/ various/ the/ features/ is/ be/ very/ in/ important/ of/ functions/ to/ and.
_____________________________________________________________________________
5 information/ PFD/ for/ primary/ the/ A/ reference/ is/ flight/ pilot's.
_____________________________________________________________________________
6 Most/ glass/ airliners/ cockpits/ 1980s/ have/ displays/ primary/ built/ equipped/ the/ with/ since/
flight.
_____________________________________________________________________________
4. Project.
Work with your partner. Gather information on “In Flight

Health Problems”. Share the information with the class.
Lesson 3 EICAS (Engine Indication and Crew Alerting System)
68
The Engine Indication and Crew Alerting System (EICAS) is designed to provide all engine
instrumentation and crew annunciations in an
integrated format. The equivalent system on Airbus
aircraft is the Electronic Centralized Aircraft
Monitoring (ECAM) system.
The information supplied by EICAS/ECAM
includes display of engine torque, inter-stage turbine
temperature, high and low pressure gas generator RPM,
fuel flow, oil temperature and pressure. As part of the
EICAS, graphical depiction of aircraft systems can be
displayed. Such systems as electrical, hydraulic, de-
icing, environmental and control surface position can
be represented. All aircraft messages relating to these systems are also displayed on the EICAS.
EICAS improves reliability through elimination of traditional engine gauges and simplifies
the flight deck through fewer standalone indicators. EICAS also reduces crew workload by
employing a graphical presentation that can be rapidly assimilated. EICAS can also help to reduce
operating costs by providing maintenance data.
A typical EICAS comprises two large high resolution, colour displays together with
associated control panels, two or three EICAS data concentrator units and a lamp driver unit.
The primary EICAS display presents primary engine indication instruments and relevant
crew alerts. It has a fixed format providing engine data including: 1 RPM and temperature 2 fuel
flow and quantity 3 engine vibration 4 gear and flap details (where appropriate) 5 Caution Alerting
System (CAS) messages (colour coded to indicate importance).
The secondary EICAS display indicates a wide variety of options to the crew and serves as a
backup to the primary display. They are selectable in pages using the EICAS control panel and
include the display of information relating to: 1 landing gear position 2 flaps/trim 3 auxiliary power
unit 4 cabin pressurization/anti-ice 5 fuel/hydraulics 6 flight control positions 7 doors/
pressurization /environmental 8 AC and DC electrical data.
The EICAS displays receive data bus inputs from the EICAS Data Conversion Unit (DCU).
The EICAS displays provide data bus outputs to the Integrated Avionics Processing System (IAPS)
Data Concentrator Units (DCU). Note that the pilot or co-pilot can select either display. Selecting
one display blanks the second display and allows data pages to be selected. The EICAS control
(ECU) panel is used to select pages. The information on the data buses is routed to both EICAS
displays and both multifunction displays.
Outputs include crew alerting logic, engine data to the displays, maintenance, diagnostic and
aircraft data to the IAPS DCU, indicator lamp data to the LDU, aircraft system data to the Flight
Data Recorder (FDR) and data link management unit.
EICAS simplifies flight deck clutter by integrating the many electro-mechanical instruments
that previously monitored engine and aircraft systems. Safety is increased whilst the pilot workload
is simplified. EICAS continuously monitors the aircraft for out-of-tolerance or abnormal conditions
and notifies the crew when an event occurs.
69
What does EICAS provide pilots with?
How can you describe EICAS displays and their functions?
What do EICAS outputs include?
How can EICAS reduce pilots’ workload?
VOCABULARY
Assimilate take in and understand fully (information or ideas). Marie tried to assimilate the week’s

events.
Clutter a collection of things lying about in an untidy state. The attic is full of clutter.
Elimination The complete removal or exclusion of someone or something. The elimination of
extreme poverty is a key objective.
Notify inform someone. You will be notified of our decision as soon as possible.
Torque a force that tends to cause rotation. The three-litre engine has lots of torque.
1 backup to A supplied by EICAS

2 DC B annunciations
3 primary engine C temperature
4 auxiliary D of aircraft systems
5 inter-stage turbine E indication instruments
70
6 information F the primary display
7 graphical depiction G power unit
8 crew H electrical data
1 Although different manufactures may use a A of its connectivity to a large number of

different acronym, Ex: Airbus calls theirs aircraft systems.
2 Most of the display area is used for B "recommended remedial action" is called
navigation and orientation displays, but one a checklist.
3 Data acquisition and routing is often C of a specific non-normal procedure, or
performed by a full-up EICAS because affect the way the flight crew operates the
airplane.
4 Engine Indication and Crew Alerting D (ECAM), which in addition to the features
System fully integrates not just engine of EICAS also provides recommended
indication and crew alerting, but remedial action.
5 System alert messages are normally E the condition causing the warning.
associated with system failures or faults that
may require performance
6 On EICAS equipped aircraft the F the annunciator panel on older systems.
7 The crew-alerting system (CAS) is used in G display or a section of a display is set
place of aside specifically for EICAS.
8 Warning alerts can only be cleared by H also synoptic display of aircraft systems
correcting and maintenance data processing into the
flight deck.
3. Check whether you can remember the abbreviations or not.
a EICAS _______________________________________________
b ECAM _______________________________________________
c CAS _________________________________________________
d DCU _________________________________________________
e FDR _________________________________________________
f IAPS _________________________________________________
4. Match some EICAS messages with their contents.
1 VHF DATALINK OFF A Terrain position data has been lost.

71
2 CABIN ALERT B TCAS system is inoperative.
3 DATALINK LOST C Ground Proximity Alerts may not be provided.
4 TCAS D Pilot alert received over cabin interphone. Respond to the alert.
5 GND PROX SYS E The VHF datalink is failed.
6 TERR POS F The VHF datalink is off.
7 VHF DATALINK G The ACARS datalink is temporarily lost.
automobile occupants hazards arriving driver injured

brakes approach landing accident colliding
On Wednesday morning, July 22, a Piper PA-46 Malibu (a) __________ from Benton
Harbor, MI, crashed on landing (b) __________ to Runway 27 at Oshkosh. The aircraft was
destroyed, but four of the five (c) __________ emerged with minor injuries. A fifth occupant was
seriously (d) __________ and was air-lifted to a trauma care hospital.
It is far too early to determine the cause of the (e) __________. With up to 10,000 aircraft
(f) __________ at Oshkosh each year, there are bound to be some mishaps. Why? It may be
because of the “red mist” phenomena.
“Red mist” is a term originally coined by (g) __________ racers to describe what happens
when a (h) __________ discards all judgment to win at all costs. This “do-or-die” focus blinds the
driver from tracking (i) __________. He cannot see other cars on the track. He passes on the inside
of other cars in corners, blind to the threat of (j) __________ with the next car or running off the
track into the dirt. He drives too fast into corners, (k) __________ too late, exceeds the handling
limits of the vehicle and then careens off the track. Or, he might pass, then recklessly pull in front of
other drivers, risking a tangle that would cause both cars to careen out of control…..
6. Speaking.
Read the text above, make up your own story

about “red mist”, but concerning pilots.
CHAPTER 5 ELECTRONIC
FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS
72
Lesson 1 Airspeed Indicator
The airspeed indicator is one of the oldest and most important of the flight instruments. The
airspeed indicator shows the speed at which the aircraft is traveling through the air. The ASI
measures and promptly indicates the difference between pitot (impact/dynamic pressure) and static
pressure. These two pressures are equal when the aircraft is parked on the ground in calm air. There
are multiple types of airspeeds. For example,
Indicated airspeed (IAS), Calibrated airspeed (CAS),
True airspeed (TAS), Groundspeed (GS).
Airspeed is a measurement of the plane's
speed relative to the air around it. The airspeed
indicator is used by the pilot during all phases of
flight, from take-off, climb, cruise, descent and
landing in order to maintain airspeeds specific to the
aircraft type and operating conditions.
Airspeed indicators work by measuring the
difference between static pressure, captured through
one or more static ports; and stagnation pressure due
to "ram air", captured through a pitot tube. This
difference in pressure due to ram air is called impact
pressure.
Pressures are measured by a Pitot tube, a U-shaped apparatus with two openings, one
perpendicular to the flow of air past the aircraft and one facing directly into the flow. Mercury or a
similar liquid fills the bend in the tube, forming parallel columns balanced by the air pressure on
each side. When static and ram pressure are equal, the columns have the same height. As the ram
pressure increases, mercury on that side of the tube is pushed back and the columns become
imbalanced. The difference between the two columns can be calibrated to indicate the speed; this
value, called the indicated airspeed, may be given in knots, miles per hour, or other units.
Since the airspeed indicator is calibrated at standard temperature and pressure, its readings
are inaccurate at different temperatures and altitudes. An (uncorrected) indicated airspeed is still
used to estimate an aircraft’s tendency to stall. Instruments that electronically correct for altitudinal
differences and temperature give the true airspeed, which is used to calculate the aircraft’s position.
An airspeed indicator will be ineffective if there is a blockage of the pitot tube or static port,
or both. A blockage is most commonly the result of insects, water or icing.
What is the use of the airspeed indicator?

In which phases pilots use the airspeed indicator?
Describe the working principle of the equipment.
Which pressures are used by the facility during measurement?
VOCABULARY
73
Altitude the height above sea level. The plane made a dive to a lower altitude.
Calibrate to mark units of measurement on an instrument such as a thermometer so that it can be
used for measuring something accurately. The model was calibrated on the basis of the similar
experimental results.
Bend An ordinary in the form of a broad diagonal stripe from top left to bottom right of a
shield or part of one.
Blockage a thing that blocks flow or movement, for example of a liquid in a narrow place. With
a heart attack, a blockage causes the flow of blood into the heart to stop.
Mercury the chemical element of atomic number 80, a heavy silvery-white metal which is liquid
at ordinary temperatures. For example, tobacco plants can absorb heavy metals, mercury, copper,
and lead.
Stall (Of a motor vehicle or its engine) stop running, typically because of an overload on the
engine. At first I couldn’t think why the car had simply stalled and tried to restart it several times to
no avail.
1. Complete the sentences using the words in the box.
tendency prompt imbalance relative to captured flowing
1. ____________action was required as the fire spread.

2. I plug it in, set it, and as long as there is electricity _________ through power lines, it will
run forever it seems.
3. The figures suggest that girls are underachieving ____________ boys.
4. Chronic depression is usually due to hormonal __________.
5. There is a __________ for this disease to run in families.
6. The animals are ___________in nets and sold to local zoos.
2. Read the article about James H. Doolittle and do the following exercises.
a) Put the articles into the correct places.
Machines alone could not have pushed the airplane forward
a (6) the (7)
74
At age 15, Doolittle built 1 ____ glider, jumped
off 2 ___ cliff, and crashed. Undaunted, he hauled 3
____ pieces home, stuck them back together, and
returned to 4 ____ cliff. After his second plunge, there
was nothing left to salvage. In 1922, Lieutenant
Doolittle made 5 ____ solo crossing of 6 ____
continental United States in 7 ___ de Havilland DH-4
in under 24 hours. In 1929, aided by Paul Kollsman’s
altimeter and Elmer Sperry’s artificial horizon and directional gyro, he flew from takeoff to landing
while referring only to instruments. “Aviation has perhaps taken its greatest single step in safety,”
declared 8 ___ New York Times.
He next took up air racing and collected 9 ___ major trophies. In 1942 Doolittle was sent off
to train crews for 10 ____ mysterious mission. He ended up leading 11 ____ entire effort. On April
18, 1942, 15 North American B-25s staggered off 12 ____ carrier and bombed Tokyo. Most ditched
off 13____ Chinese coast or crashed; other crew members had bailed out, including Doolittle.
Though he was crushed by what he called his “failure,” Doolittle was awarded.
b) Match the given words with their definitions.
1. salvage a) a light aircraft that flies without an engine

2. stick b) a high area of rock with a very steep side
3. trophy c) determined despite difficulties
4. artificial d) to pull something with a lot of effort
5. cliff e) to fix something with a sticky substance
6. declare f) to move suddenly forwards or downwards
7. glider g) the things that are saved from a disaster
8. hauled h) not happening naturally
9. plunge i) to say something officially or publicly
10. undaunted j) a silver cup that is given as a prize
3. Correct the sentences grammatically wrong.
1. We all swum at the beach yesterday.

2. They hadn’t scarcely enough feed for their cattle.
3. The cow has trod on my sweet peas.
4. The perfume is for your sister and yourself.
5. My father has laid in bed all day.
6. Mother has lain the book down somewhere.
7. Have you read where there was an earthquake in China?
8. A bus runs passed our house.
75
9. Neither Peter or James can sing well.
10. He drove fast so as he might arrive early.
4. Phrasal verbs beginning with “put”.
a) Match the verbs with their definitions. Study the construction of the phrasal verbs
beginning with “put”.
1. put across a) to put something across is to make it understood
2. put aside b) to put something aside is to set it aside
3. put away c) to put something away is to keep them in their proper
place
4. put down d) to put somebody down is to suppress them
5. put something off e) to postpone or delay something.
6. put up with something f) to tolerate something you don’t like.
b) Fill in the blanks with the appropriate phrasal verb using the instructions above.
1 How do you ____________ all the noise that your neighbours make?
2 The government called the military to ____________ the rebellion.
3 He was feeling sleepy, so he ______ his books ______and went to bed.
4 He failed to ______ his message ______.
5 She ____________ telling him the bad news until he was feeling happier.
6 You must ____________ those toys when you have finished playing with them.
5. Read the text again and point out whether the following statements are true or false.
1 The airspeed indicator shows the speed at which the aircraft is traveling on the ground.
2 The ASI measures and promptly indicates the difference between impact and dynamic pressure.
3 There are only two types of airspeed: True airspeed, Groundspeed.
4 The airspeed indicator is used by the pilot during all phases of flight.
5 An airspeed indicator will be ineffective if there is a blockage of the pitot tube.
6 An (uncorrected) indicated airspeed is still used to estimate an aircraft’s tendency to stall.
76
6. Speaking.
Carry out a research about any well-known pilot.

Share your information with your group.
77
Lesson 2 Altimeter
The altimeter looks somewhat like the face of a clock

and serves to display altitude. The altimeter is an instrument
that measures the height of an aircraft above a given pressure
level. Since the altimeter is the only instrument that is capable
of indicating altitude, this is one of the most vital instruments
installed in the aircraft. Altitude can be determined based on
the measurement of atmospheric pressure. The greater the
altitude the lower the pressure. Modern aircraft use a
"sensitive altimeter". On a sensitive altimeter, the sea-level
reference pressure can be adjusted with a setting knob. The
reference pressure is displayed in the
small Kollsman window. This is necessary, since sea
level reference atmospheric pressure at a given location
varies over time with temperature and the movement
of pressure systems in the atmosphere.
It is easy to maintain a consistent height above
ground if the barometric pressure and temperature
remain constant, but this is rarely the case. The pressure
temperature can change between takeoff and landing
even on a local flight. If these changes are not taken into
consideration, flight becomes dangerous.
If altimeters could not be adjusted for
nonstandard pressure, a hazardous situation could occur. For example, if an aircraft is flown from a
high pressure area to a low pressure area without adjusting the altimeter, a constant altitude will be
displayed, but the actual height of the aircraft above the ground would be lower than the indicated
altitude. There is an old aviation axiom: “GOING FROM A HIGH TO A LOW, LOOK OUT
BELOW.” Conversely, if an aircraft is flown from a low pressure area to a high pressure area
without an adjustment of the altimeter, the actual altitude of the aircraft is higher than the indicated
altitude. Once in flight, it is important to frequently obtain current altimeter settings en route to
ensure terrain and obstruction clearance.
Many altimeters do not have an accurate means of being adjusted for barometric pressures in
excess of 31.00 inches of mercury (“Hg). When the altimeter cannot be set to the higher pressure
setting, the aircraft actual altitude will be higher than the altimeter indicates. When low barometric
pressure conditions occur (below 28.00), flight operations by aircraft unable to set the actual
altimeter setting are not recommended.
Adjustments to compensate for nonstandard pressure do not compensate for nonstandard
temperature. Since cold air is denser than warm air, when operating in temperatures that are colder
than standard, the altitude is lower than the altimeter indication. Figure below it is the magnitude of
this “difference” that determines the magnitude of the error. It is the difference due to colder
temperatures that concerns the pilot. When flying into a cooler air mass while maintaining a
78
constant indicated altitude, true altitude is lower. If terrain or obstacle clearance is a factor in
selecting a cruising altitude, particularly in mountainous terrain, remember to anticipate that a
colder-than-standard temperature places the aircraft lower than the altimeter indicates. Therefore, a
higher indicated altitude may be required to provide adequate terrain clearance. A variation of the
memory aid used for pressure can be employed: “FROM HOT TO COLD, LOOK OUT BELOW.”
When the air is warmer than standard, the aircraft is higher than the altimeter indicates. Altitude
corrections for temperature can be computed on the navigation computer.
Extremely cold temperatures will also affect altimeter indications. Figure above, which was
derived from ICAO formulas, indicates how much error can exist when the temperature is
extremely cold.
Effects of nonstandard temperature on an altimeter
What can you say as a general notion for altimeter?

What is the importance of using altimeter?
Which problems may occur concerning altimeter?
79
Vocabulary
Anticipate to see what might happen in the future and take action to prepare for it. We need
someone who can anticipate and respond to changes in the fashion industry.
Consistent happening in the same way and continuing for a period of time. a pattern of consistent
growth in the economy
Magnitude great importance. events of tragic magnitude
Obstruction the fact of blocking a road, an entrance, a passage, etc. The abandoned car was
causing an obstruction.
Vital necessary or essential in order for something to succeed or exist. The police play a vital
role in our society.
1 vital A altitude
2 measurement of B temperature
3 sea-level C height
4 setting D clearance
5 consistent E instruments
6 indicated F reference pressure
7 nonstandard G atmospheric pressure
8 obstacle H knob
Make up sentences using the word combinations above.
1 __________________________________________________________________________
2 __________________________________________________________________________
3 __________________________________________________________________________
4 __________________________________________________________________________
2. Find the right word for each blank.
nose wheel attempt destination altimeter data

departure airport
80
Flying is an adventure for most pilots, sometimes
more adventure than they really want. A pilot's report to
Canada's Aviation Safety Reporting Program is about an 1
__________to land through low clouds on a remote, icy
runway. The airplane's 2 __________ indicated that the
airplane was still 300 feet above the ground when "the 3
_____ _____ struck the ice," the report says. The pilot
immediately applied full power, climbed away from the
ground, and returned safely to the 4 _____ _____.
What happened? The air pressure was lower at the 5 __________airport than at the
departure airport, but the pilot had not reset the altimeter because the airport didn't have radio
weather 6 __________, which includes information on altimeter settings.
3. Guess the meanings of the words (regarding the text above) given below.
1 capable _____________________________________
2 local _______________________________________
3 adjust ______________________________________
4 hazardous ___________________________________
5 obtain ______________________________________
6 occur _______________________________________
1 The typical altimeter has two arms, A barometric altimeter, is used to

like a clock. The tall arm determine changes in air pressure that
occur as the aircraft's altitude changes.
2 The higher the altitude, the lesser B as an altitude above sea level.
3 The basic altimeter, also known as C communication, navigation with
the display and management of multiple
systems.
4 Pressure altimeters must be D rotates every 1000 feet, the smaller
calibrated prior to flight to register the arm rotates every 10000 feet.
pressure
5 Avionics consists of electronic E than the aircraft built in the previous
systems for use on aircraft, comprising 50 years.
6 Today's aircraft being built use more F the barometric pressure, the bigger
complicated avionics systems the drum.
81
5. Speaking.
PROJECT WORK
Gather information about LED lights, their uses,

advantages and disadvantages.
82
Lesson 3 Radio Altimeter
Low Range Radio Altimeter or simply Radio Altimeter (or radar altimeter), is used to
measure the distance from the aircraft to the terrain directly beneath it.
Radio altimeter measures the distance during flight
It is used primarily during instrument approach and low level or night flight below 2500
feet. The radio altimeter supplies the primary altitude information for landing decision height. It
5incorporates an adjustable altitude bug that creates a visual or aural warning to the pilot when the
aircraft reaches that altitude. Typically, the pilot will abort a landing if the decision height is
reached and the runway is not visible. Using a transceiver and a directional antenna, a radio
altimeter broadcasts a carrier wave at 4.3 GHz from the aircraft directly toward the ground. The
wave is frequency modulated at 50 MHz and travels at a known speed. It strikes surface features
10and bounces back toward the aircraft where a second antenna receives the return signal. The
transceiver processes the signal by measuring the elapsed time the signal traveled and the frequency
modulation that occurred. The display indicates height above the terrain also known as above
ground level (AGL).
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Different kinds of mechanical display radio altimeter
A radar altimeter is more accurate and responsive than an air pressure altimeter for AGL
15information at low altitudes. The transceiver is usually located remotely from the indicator.
Multifunctional and glass cockpit displays typically integrate decision height awareness from the
radar altimeter as a digital number displayed on the screen with a bug, light, or color change used to
indicate when that altitude is reached. Large aircraft may incorporate radio altimeter information
into a ground proximity warning system (GPWS) which aurally alerts the crew of
20potentially dangerous proximity to the terrain below the aircraft. A decision height window (DH)
displays the radar altitude on the screen.
As the name implies, radar (radio

detection and ranging) is the
underpinning principle of the system.
Radio waves are transmitted towards
the ground and the time it takes them to
be reflected back and return to the
aircraft is timed. Because speed,
distance and time are all related 25to each other, the distance
from the surface providing the reflection can be calculated as the speed of the radio wave and
therefore the time it takes to travel a distance are known quantities. Radar altimeters also provide a
84
reliable and accurate method of measuring height above water, when flying long sea-tracks. These
are critical for use when operating to and from oil rigs.
Radar altimeters are frequently used by commercial aircraft for approach and landing,
30especially in low-visibility conditions and automatic landings, allowing the autopilot to know
when to begin the flare maneuver. As we said before radar altimeters generally only give readings
up to 2500 feet (760 m) above ground level (AGL). Frequently, the weather radar can be directed
downwards to give a reading from a longer range, up to 60000 feet (18000 m) above ground level
(AGL). As of 2012, all airliners are equipped with at least two and possibly more
35radar altimeters, as they are essential to autoland capabilities. Older airliners from the 1960s
(such as the British Aircraft Corporation BAC 1-11) and smaller airliners in the sub-50 seat class
(such as the ATR 42 and BAe Jetstream series) are equipped with them.
Radar altimeters are an essential part in ground proximity warning systems (GPWS),
warning the pilot if the aircraft is flying too low or descending too quickly. However, radar
40altimeters cannot see terrain directly ahead of the aircraft, only that below it; such functionality
requires either knowledge of position and the terrain at that position or a forward looking terrain
radar.
The altitude specified by the device is not the indicated altitude of the standard barometric
altimeter. Aviation is primarily referenced to true altitude - the height above Mean
45Sea Level (MSL). A radar altimeter measures absolute altitude - the height Above Ground Level
(AGL). Absolute altitude is sometimes referred to as height because it is the height above the
underlying terrain.
What is Low Range Radio Altimeter System generally referred to?

What can you say about radar altimeter?
Which numbers do you remember from the text? What do they indicate?
Do you have any information about barometric altimeter?
Vocabulary
Adjust alter or move (something) slightly in order to achieve the desired fit, appearance, or result. a
single control adjusts the water flow.
Bug a concealed miniature microphone, used for eavesdropping or recording. They cleaned out the
bugs and wiretaps.
Elapse (of time) pass or go by. Weeks elapsed before anyone was charged with the attack.
Incorporate take in or contain (something) as part of a whole; include. He has incorporated in his
proposals a number of measures.
Integrate combine (one thing) with another to form a whole. A fully equipped laboratory is
being integrated into the development.
Underpin support (a building or other structure) from below by laying a
solid foundation below ground level. Mrs Lloyd said the council refuses to answer questions about
underpinning her house.
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1. True or false.
1 A radar altimeter is more accurate and responsive than an air pressure altimeter at low altitudes.
2 Radar altimeters are not reliable and accurate while measuring height above water, when flying
long sea-tracks.
3 Radar altimeters generally give readings up to 60000 feet (18000 m).
4 As of 2012, all airliners are equipped with at least three and possibly more radar altimeters.
5 GPWS stands for global positioning warning systems.
6 Multifunctional and glass cockpit displays typically integrate decision height awareness from the
radar altimeter.
2. Unscramble the words given below.
Scrambled word Unscrambled word

uatelomd
etnnnaa
ctboardsa
onebuc
dpeirunn
cutcarea
divcee
ltera
artrine
rapahcop
3. Fill the gaps with the words from the box.
work outside height measures accuracy or

avionics distance
Barometric altimeter (a) __________ pressure altimeter - is an (b)

__________ equipment. It (c) __________ the atmospheric
pressure (d) __________ of aircraft. Atmospheric pressure depends
of the (e) __________ above ground. So it can show the (f) __________ of aircraft above the
ground. In difference of Low Range Radio Altimeter System the barometric altimeter can (g)
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__________ in very high distances. But Low Range Radio Altimeter Systems (h) __________ is
much more than the accuracy of barometric altimeter.
4. Fill the gaps using the words from the text (words can be found in the following
lines with numbers 2, 4, 5, 9, 15, 23, 30, 35).
1 __________-following radar is also sometimes used by civilian aircraft that map the ground and
wish to maintain a constant height over it.
2 Historically, __________ has been measured using a pressure altimeter.
3 In more advanced cockpits, on newer aircraft, there may be many other __________ warnings.
4 In aviation, V-__________ s are standard terms used to define airspeeds important or useful to the
operation of all aircraft.
5 This website aimed at serious aviation fans who are looking for comprehensive __________ on a
variety of civil and military aircraft.
6 Aircraft systems is a complex __________ and is broken down into simpler sub systems that
carry out homogeneous functions.
7 __________ procedures means procedures applied at an aerodrome for the purpose of ensuring
safe operations during poor visibility.
8 The __________ Deregulation Act, passed in 1978, gave airlines almost total freedom to
determine which markets to serve domestically and what fares to charge for that service.
5. Fill in the blanks using the words from

the box.
airliners last numerous seat sound service civilian

passenger transport costs
A supersonic transport (SST) is a (a) __________

supersonic aircraft designed to (b) __________
passengers at speeds greater than the speed of (c) __________. To date, the only SSTs to see
regular service have been Concorde and the Tupolev Tu-144. The last (d) __________ flight for the
Tu-144 was in June 1978 and it was last flown in 1999 by NASA. Concorde's (e) __________
commercial flight was in October 2003. Following the permanent cessation of flying by Concorde,
there are no remaining SSTs in commercial (f) __________.
87
Supersonic (g) __________ have been the objects of (h) __________ recent and ongoing design
studies. Drawbacks and design challenges are excessive noise generation (at takeoff and due
to sonic booms during flight), high development (i)
__________, expensive construction materials, great
weight, and an increased cost per (j) __________ over
subsonic airliners. Despite these challenges, Concorde was
operated profitably in a niche market for over 27 years.
6. Speaking.
How do you handle stressful situations and working

under pressure?
Can you spend your lifetime working in such a situation?
88
Lesson 4 Attitude Indicator
Read the text below and answer the following

questions.
An attitude indicator (AI), also known as gyro

horizon or artificial horizon or attitude director indicator, is
an instrument used in an aircraft to inform the pilot of the orientation of the aircraft relative to
Earth's horizon. Although this instrument is used at all times, it is particularly important for flight at
night and in poor meteorological conditions.
This instrument relays two major indications to the pilot: pitch and roll angles. Most attitude
indicators include a horizon with two different colors, normally blue and brown, to represent the
sky and earth. A miniature airplane in the center of the display shows the aircraft’s orientation
relative to the horizon. Degree marks indicating the amount of pitch or bank are often drawn on the
instrument to indicate the exact aircraft orientation.
Most attitude indicators found in general aviation aircraft operate on the principal of
gyroscopic rigidity. An attitude indicator features a gyroscope that spins at a high speed, powered
by vacuum air supplied by the aircraft’s engine-driven vacuum pump or pumps.
Spinning gyroscopes will naturally want to remain flat, like the surface of the Earth, while an
aircraft maneuvers in flight. The instrument is then able to determine pitch and roll angles using
internal sensors. It is important to note that most attitude indicators will fail during excessive
maneuvers and will be rendered unusable for a
period of time.
More sophisticated aircraft feature more
sophisticated attitude indicators. Most commercial
jets, for example, use attitude heading and reference
systems (AHRS). This type of attitude indicator uses
more advanced gyroscopes and magnetometers,
which can also supply information regarding the
aircraft’s heading. Larger aircraft often feature more
than one attitude indicator for use by one or more
pilots.
In which conditions are attitude indicators particularly important?

How can you describe the face of the instrument?
What can you tell about the function of the gyroscope?
89
What can you say about attitude indicator problems?
VOCABULARY
Orientation the direction in which an object faces. The orientation of the planet's orbit is changing
continuously.
Miniature very small; much smaller than usual. It looks like a miniature version of James Bond's
car.
Pump a machine that is used to force liquid, gas or air into or out of something. a bicycle pump
Reference a number, word or symbol that shows where something is on a map, or where you can
find a piece of information. Please quote your reference number when making an enquiry.
Render to cause somebody/something to be in a particular state or condition.
Rigid stiff and difficult to move or bend. the rigidity of the metal bar
Sensor a device that can react to light, heat, pressure, etc. in order to make a machine, etc. do
something or show something. security lights with an infrared sensor
Spin to turn round and round quickly. The plane was spinning out of control.
1. Fill the table with definitions and pronunciation.
verb/noun definition and pronunciation
horizon __________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
angle
__________________________________________________
supply
__________________________________________________
excess
__________________________________________________
maneuver
2. Fill in the blanks with the words from the box below.
radars damage required turbulence wing fly common
90
1. __________ can actually happen in clear weather as well as bad weather. Aircraft __________
can't detect it.
2. Dump fuel is not very __________ and it is done to avoid an overweight landing that can the
__________ plane.
3. In 1911 Harriet Quimby became the first licensed woman pilot in the U.S. She was also the first
woman to __________ across the English Channel.
4. For most major airlines the pilot and co-pilot are __________ to eat different meals to avoid the
possibility of food poisoning.
5. The pilots can only see about half the __________ from the flight deck and can't see the tail at
all.
3. Read the text and fill in the blanks with the prepositions.
on (x10) in so although to (x4) by of for with
What Is Airplane
Mode on a Cell Phone?
Airplane mode is a setting 1 ___ many cell phones which disables their wireless
communication abilities, theoretically making them approved 2 ___ use 3 ___ aircraft. While 4 ___
airplane mode, a phone cannot send or receive phone calls, text messages, picture messages, 5 ___
video messages. However, functions like music players, games, calendars, and so forth can continue
to be used.
The idea behind airplane mode is that many people wish 6 ___ continue using their cell
phones 7 ___ planes to do things like listen 8 ___ music and check appointments, but the use 9 ___
cell phones 10 ___ planes is banned due 11 ___ the fact that their signals could cause interference.
There are two reasons why people are not allowed 12 ___ use cell phones 13 ___ aircraft, 14
___ the rules against cell phone usage may change 15 ___ some point. The first reason is that the
radio signals emitted 16 ___ phones could interfere 17 ____ the communications and guidance
systems 18 ___ the aircraft, which could potentially be very dangerous. 19 ___ addition, cell phone
networks 20___ the ground cannot cope 21 ___ cell phones being used 22 ___ planes, because
planes travel very fast and at high altitude, 23 ___ a phone 24 ___ a plane could confuse a network
25 ___ the ground.
4. Find out words according to the definitions from the text above.
a) the way in which a piece of equipment is set to perform a particular task

______________________
b) a formal arrangement to meet or visit somebody at a particular time
_______________________
c) to decide or say officially that something is not allowed
91
_______________________
d) to get involved in and try to influence a situation that does not concern you, in a way that
annoys other people
________________________
e) to send out something such as light, heat, sound, gas, etc
________________________
f) to deal successfully with something difficult
________________________
5. Define synonyms for the words given below.
embargo belch censorship beam system hamper confront

hinder endure form assignment date
Words Synonyms
1 cope with
2 emit
3 ban
4 mode
5 interfere
6 appointment
6. Speaking. Read the questions and answer them.
HOW TO PREPARE FOR THE AIRLINE PILOT INTERVIEW
In most cases you should strive to give a sensible and

relevant answer of some sort to the airline pilot interview
questions you will be asked. There will be a million and one
answers to each type of question; it’s just a case of staying
calm and answering wisely.
Question 1: Give an example from your past where you

persuaded someone to see things from your point of view?
Question 2: Tell us about an occasion when you placed the
cultural needs of others ahead of your own?
Question 3: How would you motivate and inspire others to work?
92
Question 4: How would you behave as the pilot of a plane during an emergency?
Question 5: What are your biggest strengths?
Lesson 5 Heading Indicator
There are three gyroscopic instruments. They are

altitude indicator, heading indicator and turn coordinator.
The third gyroscopic instrument is the heading

indicator. The heading indicator, also called the directional
gyro, is used because a magnetic compass only works
accurately when the airplane is flying straight and level in
unaccelerated flight.
Many types of heading indicators exist with varying
degrees of accuracy and cost; they range from basic
vacuum-driven indicators to highly advanced, GPS-enabled indicators. A simple heading indicator
requires readjustments every 10 to 20 minutes or so, while more sophisticated equipment, such as
the heading indicators found on jet aircraft, use precision laser technology.
Generally speaking, heading indicators are round dials that represent north, south, east and
west through the use of a 360° compass. For example, North would read as 360°, while East would
read 90°. Aircraft must have a heading indicator installed and operating prior to flight in instrument
conditions, though they are often optional during flight in clear weather. More sophisticated aircraft
have heading indicators that integrate additional information such as navigational cues, terrain
warning and air traffic alerts. Aircraft with global positioning system (GPS) technology often have
the ability to overlay the proposed route of flight on the indicator's display.
A basic heading indicator is unable to determine direction on its own and requires the pilot
to input the aircraft's initial direction when starting the airplane. Heading indicators make use of a
gyroscope, a disc that rotates at very high speeds powered by the aircraft's vacuum system.
Unfortunately, like any moving part, the heading indicator is subject to errors as a result of friction.
As the gyroscope spins, it rubs against other parts inside the instrument, causing readings to lose
accuracy over time and require corrective action by the pilot. More sophisticated heading indicators
have eliminated this error by installing internal direction-finding equipment.
Benefits of a heading indicator over the traditional magnetic compass include increased
situational awareness for the pilot, higher precision for long-distance navigation, and general ease
of use. Magnetic compasses are often difficult to read and are only effective during straight and
level flight, while heading indicators are capable of relaying accurate information at all times. It is
important to note that, in most aircraft, the heading indicator is driven by the aircraft's vacuum
system; if the system fails, so does the instrument. Negative aspects include increased maintenance
costs, instrument errors, and the need for additional pilot training.
What is the main difference between the magnetic compass and heading indicator?
What are represented on the face of the heading indicator?
93
What do sophisticated aircraft headings integrate with?
Explain the working principle of the heading indicator?
What can cause the problems inside the indicator?
VOCABULARY
Accelerate to start to go faster. The car accelerated to overtake me.

Accuracy the state of being exact or correct; the ability to do something skillfully without making
mistakes. She hits the ball with great accuracy.
Enable to make it possible for somebody to do something. The software enables you to create
your own DVDs.
Friction the resistance (= the force that stops something moving) of one surface to another
surface or substance moving over or through it. The force of friction slows the spacecraft down as it
re-enters the earth's atmosphere.
Readjust 1. to get used to a changed or new situation. Once again he had to readjust to living
alone. 2. to change or move something slightly. He has made a number of readjustments to his
technique.
Rotate to move or turn around a central fixed point; to make something do this. Stay well away
from the helicopter when its blades start to rotate.
1. Fill in the blanks with right words from the box.
integrate dial prior rub sophisticated optional
a _________the face of a clock or watch, or a similar control on a machine, piece of equipment or

vehicle that shows a measurement of time, amount, speed, temperature, etc
b _________ happening or existing before something else or before a particular time
c _________ that you can choose to do or have if you want to
d _________ clever and complicated in the way that it works or is presented
e __________ to combine two or more things so that they work together
d __________ to press two surfaces against each other and move them backwards and forwards
2. Match the definitions with the words given below.
Just like any other work group pilots have a full set of jargons that they use during
conversations or during flight. Here are some of them:
94
a) the international radiotelephony distress signal. When repeated three times, it indicates
imminent and grave danger and that immediate assistance is requested.
b) the international radiotelephony urgency signal. When repeated three times, it indicates
uncertainty or alert followed by the nature of the urgency
c) Greenwich Mean Time, also known as Universal Coordinated Time
d) Pilots
e) Automatic Direction Finder (ADF) or radio compass
f) Lights that goes on or blink signaling instrumentation failure
g) Souls on board, a term that is usually used to account for the number of crew and
passengers alike on board the aircraft
1 S.O.B ____ 2 Bird Dog ____ 3 Idiot Lights ____ 4 Bird men ____
5 Pan-pan ____ 6 Zulu ____ 7 Mayday ____
3. Read the sentences below and find out if they are true or false.
1. The need for additional pilot training and instrument errors are negative aspects of the heading
indicator.
2. Benefits of a heading indicator are increased situational awareness for the pilot, higher precision
for long-distance navigation.
3. A basic heading indicator is enable to determine direction on its own and doesn’t require the
pilot to input the aircraft's initial direction.
4. Friction doesn’t make any problems to a heading indicator.
5. On the face of a heading indicator you can find only two poles.
6. More sophisticated heading indicators found on jet aircraft use precision laser technology.
4. Discuss the questions below before reading the passage from the OED article (fill in the
blanks with prepositions).
English is in the process of becoming a universal language. In many multilingual countries it

has become the language of communication. Is this a benefit for humanity, or does it conceal
risks or even dangers? Is linguistic diversity being sacrificed?
of in with on from to on of as in
to across
Varieties of English: World English and the OED

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An important part of our work (a) _____ the New Words side of the OED project is (b)
_____ increase our coverage of vocabulary (c) _____ the major varieties of world English. We are
very fortunate (d) _____ be able to use (e) _____ the basis of our research a number (f) _____
comprehensive regional dictionaries. Of course we cannot include every word covered (g) _____
these regional dictionaries, and have to make a decision – as with all new entries – based (h) _____
the amount of available quotation evidence. Many of the resulting words describe flora and fauna,
and it is interesting to see how many words originating (i) _____ British English have travelled (j)
_____ the
seas to be
applied to a
different species in a new land: compare, for example, the British magpie (k) _____ the unrelated,
but similarly colored Australian birds (l) _____ the same name.
5. Rearrange the sentences and make up the passage.
A However, because many pilots and controllers lack proficiency in English, accidents have
continued to result from miscommunication, including the Tenerife accident in 1978 that killed 583
or the Charkhi Dadri mid-air collision in 1996 that killed 349.
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B In 1951, the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) recommended in "ICAO Annex 10
ICAO (Vol I, 5.2.1.1.2) to the International Chicago Convention"
that English be universally used for "international aeronautical
radiotelephony communications."
C In 2003, the organization "released amendments to annexes of its
Chicago Convention requiring aviation professionals involved in
international operations to demonstrate a certain level of English
language proficiency.
D Despite being a recommendation only, it was widely accepted.
E Aviation English is the de facto international language of civil
aviation. With the expansion of air travel in the 20th century, there
were safety concerns about the ability of pilots and air traffic controllers to communicate.
F The ICAO has acknowledged that "communications, or the lack thereof, has been shown by many
accident investigations to play a significant role".
1 _____ 2_____ 3_____ 4_____ 5_____ 6_____
1 What's the best way to learn a foreign language?

2 Which methods do you use to remember vocabulary better?
3 What is the value of learning languages?
4 Is it possible to teach yourself a language?
97
Lesson 6 Horizontal Situation Indicator
The Horizontal Situation Indicator (short HSI) is a combination of VOR receiver, gyro

compass and glide slope needle for the instrument landing system ILS. The HSI combines the
various navigation information in one device, thereby facilitating the navigational work in the
cockpit. Compared to separate instruments, the representation of the HSI provides a faster and more
intuitive overview of the spatial relationships and allows the precise execution of complex
instrument flight procedures, such as of holding procedure and instrument landing approaches. In
addition to providing pilots with information concerning the aircraft, through radio navigation, the
horizontal situation indicator transmits the aircraft’s location to selected ground navigational
facilities. After programming the course and the heading indicators, the equipment relays the
bearings to two ground stations. One monitors the aircraft in nautical miles from the point of take-
off while the other counts down the nautical miles during flight until the craft lands at the specified
location.
The device is connected to the gyro compass, the VOR receiver, the glide slope and the
autopilot. The glide slope indicator appears on one or both sides as a small yellow triangle. In
contrast to normal VOR display the HSI has a degree wheel, which is tracked as a gyrocompass,
which therefore rotates with the variable rate. In the center of the HSI instrument the own plane is
visualized miniaturized. VOR or ILS localizer is presented in relation to the miniature airplane.
98
1. Range indicator – indicates distance to station
2. Course deviation bar – Indicates aircraft deviation from desired VOR course
3. NAV warning sign – Indicates loss of the radio navigational signal
4. Course selector knob – adjusts, course pointer to set desired course or track for VOR
Combining the directional gyro and the NAV indicator into one instrument reduces pilot
workload by providing heading, course reference, course deviation and glide slope information - all
in one visual aid. In addition, an HSI makes it easier to visualize the aircraft's position with
reference to the selected course or holding patterns. The "split needle" presentation made up of the
course and reciprocal pointers and the VOR/LOC deviation indicators, clearly shows both selected
course and course deviation.
How can HSI reduce pilot workload?

Which instruments are combined within HSI?
What is the use of VOR and ILS localizer for HIS?
VOCABULARY
Facilitate to make an action or a process possible or easier. The new trade agreement should
facilitate more rapid economic growth.
Intuitive easy to understand and to use.
The software is very intuitive to use, even
for people who are not used to making
music on a computer.
Slope 1 an area of land that is part of a
mountain or hill 2 the amount by which
something slopes. a slope of 45 degrees.
Because of the slope of the roof, the snow
cannot accumulate.
Spatial relating to space and the position,
size, shape, etc. of things in it. changes
taking place in the spatial distribution of
the population. the development of a
child's spatial awareness
1. Match the words with their synonyms.
1 slope a dimensional
2 facilitate b emotional
3 intuitive c ease
99
4 spatial d hill
Use some of the words given above in your own sentences.
a) ________________________________________________________________
b) _______________________________________________________________
c) ________________________________________________________________
d) ________________________________________________________________
2. True or false.
a) HSI components are gyro compass and glide slope.

b) HSI provides a faster and more intuitive overview of the spatial relationships.
c) Range indicator indicates distance to station.
d) VOR or ILS localizer is presented in relation to yellow arrows.
e) The glide slope indicator appears on one or both sides as a small yellow triangle.
1 advantage/ ability/ has/ is/ its/ pilot/ Another/ to/ the/ help/ the/ course/ track/ a/ HSI/ GPS.
_____________________________________________________________________________
2 GPS/ data/ use/ the/ compute/ a/ track/ position/ or/ receivers/ on/ to/ Earth.
_____________________________________________________________________________
3 The/ has/ radial/ toward/ the/ to/ CDI/ turned/ intercept/ pilot/ the.
_____________________________________________________________________________
4 HSI/ a/ view/ picture/ basic/ horizontal/ The/ of/ navigation/ the/ aircraft's/ provides.
_____________________________________________________________________________
5 stable/ Instrument/ a/ never/ reading/ compass/ accurate/ and/ owns/ that/ adjustment/ needs/ very.
_____________________________________________________________________________
knob work nautical angle slope instruments hands-free precise

align approach deviations
1 Glide __________ information is provided by the indicator and scale on one or both sides of the
HSI.
100
2 If you want to make this a __________ task, use the NAV
hold on the autopilot to have it do the __________ for you and
flip the VOR/GPS switch to GPS.
3 Being able to calculate a __________ position without
relation to a fixed ground station means that a course can be
plotted direct to the destination with no radial or __________
calculations.
4 The pilot selects the final __________ heading on the course indicator and the CDI centers when
the aircraft intercepts the localizer.
5 Rotating heading select __________ sets the heading bug and
will also __________ a heading transformer for coupled
autopilot use, to the selected heading.
6 Some HSI might indicate ground speed along with
___________ miles and clock the flight time.
7 These aviation __________ allow pilots and ground stations to visualize flight paths and
__________ without having to use mathematical calculations.
5. Read the passages and do the following exercises.
When The Skies The Limit – Aviation World Records
A) Complete the sentences.
Mostginger ownersflights domestic by a pet

(a) ___________ cat Smarty holds the record for the most flights by a pet. This (b) __________
female, who predominantly travelled between Cairo and Larnaca with her (c) __________, made 92
flights before she sadly passed away in February 2007.
B) Make up the story.
Longest non-stop flight by any aircraft

1 Travelling between February 8 and 11 2006,
2 from the Kennedy Space Centre in Florida to Bournemouth
3 held by the Breitling Orbiter 3 balloon, by 165.4 km.
4 American Steve Fossett flew 42,469.4 kilometres
5 in the United Kingdom. Steve beat the previous record,
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6 in a Virgin Atlantic GlobalFlyer airplane
C) Fill in the blanks with the prepositions.
with by of on for
Longest flight by a paper aircraft

Gliding 69.14 metres, Americans Joe Ayoob and John Collins
hold the Guinness record (a) _____ designing and flying the
longest flight (b) _____ a paper plane. It was set (c) _____ February 26, 2012 (d) _____a plane
constructed by a single sheet (e) _____uncut A4 paper.
D) Correct the mistakes.
Fastest aircraft
First flown in December 31 1968 in the former USSR, the Tupolev Tu-144, were reported to have
reached Mach 2.4 and 2,587 km/hour. The aircrafts’ normal cruising speed is Mach 2.2. The
following year the BAC/Aerospatiale Concorde cruised on Mach 2.02 or 2,333 km/hour. In 1976
the Concorde becomes the first supersonic airliner used for a passenger service. At 2 hour 52 mins
59 secs, the New York to London record was set on February 7 1996.
6. Speaking. Discuss the following questions with your

class.
Where are pets stored on aircraft by airlines? What happens if

they want walk?
What are the difficulties of long air travel?
Have you ever made “paper aircraft” yourself?
What are the advantages/disadvantages of fastest aircrafts?
102
Lesson 7 Turn Coordinator
Installed on most of today's aircraft, a turn coordinator is a flight instrument designed to tell

the pilot the rate of turn, or the rate of change in the aircraft's heading and whether the aircraft is
in coordinated flight, showing the slip or skid of the turn. The display is that of a miniature airplane
as seen from behind. This looks similar to that of an attitude indicator. "NO PITCH
INFORMATION" is usually written on the instrument to avoid confusion regarding the aircraft's
pitch, which can be obtained from the artificial horizon instrument. A turn coordinator is broken
down in to two components to relay each indication separately.
The first part of the instrument consists of a miniature aircraft, viewed from behind. The
miniature airplane component of the turn coordinator relays rate-of-turn information to the pilot and
is a crucial component while flying under instrument flight rules (IFR). Turns during IFR should be
made at the standard rate, which is 3° per second, and designated on the turn coordinator. This
allows air traffic controllers to estimate how long an aircraft will need before completing the
assigned turn. Using a rate of 3° per second, it will take an aircraft two minutes to make a complete
360° turn.
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A turn coordinator's second component, sometimes referred to as the slip and skid indicator,
tells a pilot if his aircraft is in coordinated flight. If the airplane is flying straight, the ball will be
centered; otherwise, the ball will move to either side of the center. For example, if the aircraft is
executing a left bank, yet the ball moves to the right, the aircraft is considered in a slip condition. If
the ball moves in the direction of the bank, the plane is considered to be in a skid condition. The
pilot must use his rudder pedals to maintain coordinated flight at all times.
The basic turn coordinator operates using gyroscopes powered by the aircraft's electrical
system. More sophisticated aircraft, such as commercial jets, utilize more sophisticated turn
coordinators which make use of laser technology. In order to maintain safe and efficient flight,
pilots on all types of aircraft must understand and make use of the information provided by their
turn coordinator system.
What is the use of the turn coordinator?

What cockpit instrument does the turn coordinator look similar to?
How many parts does the instrument consist of? What are their functions?
What is the difference between basic turn coordinators and sophisticated turn
coordinators?
VOCABULARY
Pitch the movement of a ship up and down in the water or of an aircraft in the air
Confusion a state of not being certain about what is happening, what you should do, what
something means, etc. There is some confusion about what the correct procedure should be.
Regarding concerning somebody/something; about somebody/something. Call me if you have any
problems regarding your work.
Obtain to get something, especially by making an effort. Further details can be obtained by
writing to the above address.
Crucial extremely important, because it will affect other things. Winning this contract is crucial to
the success of the company.
Assign designate or set (something) aside for a specific purpose. Managers happily assign large
sums of money to travel budgets.
Execute perform (a skilful action or manoeuvre). The pilot executed a perfect landing.
Bank the sideways tilt of an aircraft when turning in flight. a rather steep angle of bank
Utilize to use something, especially for a practical purpose. The Romans were the first to utilize
concrete as a building material.
Efficient doing something well and thoroughly with no waste of time, money, or energy. As we get
older, our bodies become less efficient at burning up calories.
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1. Find out synonyms for the words given below from the box.
bewilderment access central designate

carry out make use of competent
a) Confusion_________________
b) Obtain____________________
c) Crucial____________________
d) Assign____________________
e) Execute___________________
f) Utilize____________________
g) Efficient__________________
2. Talk about the working principle

of turn coordinators.
3. Match the phrasal verbs with their definitions.
1 turn down a to draw a line through a word, usually because it is wrong
2 give back b to give something as a gift
3 give away c to return something to its owner
4 keep up d to be a guide for somebody when they visit a place for the first time
5 cross out e to reject or refuse to consider an offer, a proposal
6 show round f to move or increase at the same rate
4. Complete the sentences using one of the

verbs above (in the correct form) +
it/them/her/you:
turn down show round give away cross out

give back
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1 If you make a mistake on the form, just____________.
2 I had a lot of books that I didn’t want to keep, so I_________ to a friend.
3 I don’t like people who borrow things and don’t_____________.
4 Would you like to see the factory? Would you like me to_______________?
5 Sue was offered a job as a translator but
she_____________________.
6 You’re walking too fast. I can’t
______________________ with _____.
5. True or false.
1 Turn coordinator is designed to tell the pilot only the

rate of turn, or the rate of change in the aircraft's heading.
2 The display is the same as the attitude indicator.
3 The turn coordinator operates using gyroscopes powered by the aircraft's electrical system.
4 More sophisticated aircrafts use laser technology for operating of turn coordinators.
5 The standard rate for the turns is 3° per second.
6 The miniature airplane component of the turn coordinator relays showing the slip or skid of the
turn.
6. A) Read the article and underline correct words.
LEONARDO DA VINCI AND FLIGHT

Leonardo, born in Vinci, Italy, (had possessed, possessing, possessed) a genius which went
far beyond simply being a remarkable (architect, artist, sculptor). Leonardo da Vinci’s (had, has,
have) many areas of study, perhaps this Renaissance (mens’, man’s, mans’) favorite was the area of
aviation. Da Vinci seemed truly (excited, exciting, was excited) by the possibility of people soaring
through the skies like birds. He (had been, was, had), perhaps, the first European interested (on, in,
of) a practical solution to flight. Leonardo designed (the, -, a) multitude of mechanical devices,
(besides, except, including) parachutes, and studied the flight of birds as well as (their, its, them)
structure. About 1485 he drew (detailing, was detailed, detailed) plans for a human-powered
“ornithopter”. The “ornithopter” ideally displays his (powered, powers, powering) of observation
and imagination, as well as his enthusiasm for the potential of flight. The design for this invention is
clearly inspired by the flight of winged animals, (what, that, which) da Vinci hoped to replicate. In
fact, in his notes, he mentions bats, kites and birds as sources (of, by, from) inspiration.
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B) Use your dictionary and write definitions for the new words from the article.
a) to possess____________________________________________________
b)
genius______________________________________________________
c) to soar______________________________________________________
d) solution_____________________________________________________
e) multitude____________________________________________________
f) enthusiasm___________________________________________________
g) to inspire____________________________________________________
h) to replicate___________________________________________________
7. Talk about the differences between historical (figure 1) and modern (figure 2)
structures of the flying objects.
Figure 1 Figure 2
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Lesson 8 Vertical Speed Indicator
Read the text below and answer the following questions.
A vertical speed indicator (VSI) is an instrument used to indicate the rate at which aircraft
climb or descend. The VSI is a static instrument that is connected to the aircraft's static air lines and
static ports. These instruments are marked with a zero point which will, if correctly calibrated,
indicate level flight and identical positive and negative scales above and below the zero point. A
positive reading indicates and increase in altitude or climb status; a negative reading shows a
descent or decrease in altitude.
Rates of climb and descent are critical factors in the flight regimens of any aircraft; accurate,
reliable indication of these trends is one of the most basic instrumentation requirements on both
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fixed and rotary wing types. This makes the vertical speed indicator one of the basic flight
instruments found in most aircraft. Also known as a variometer or a rate of climb and descent
indicator (RCDI), the VSI is a static air pressure instrument that relies on pressure differentials for
its operation. The dial needle is connected via a series of linkages to a diaphragm that features an
unrestricted connection to the aircraft's static air lines.
When an airplane is in level flight, there is no pressure differential between the diaphragm
and casing pressure, and the vertical speed indicator should display a zero reading. If the aircraft
climbs or descends, the static pressure either increases or decreases. In each case, the diaphragm
and casing will react to the changes in pressure at different rates due to the restriction in the casing
static line. This known and controllable pressure differential is the mechanism which allows the
diaphragm to move the needle in precise increments to indicate climb and descent rates.
Although the vertical speed indicator usually reacts to changes in altitude far quicker than
altimeters, it features a short time lag before it begins to accurately indicate a deviation. This delay
is usually between 6 and 9 seconds and is experienced before the needle shows accurate climb or
descent readings and before it returns to zero or level flight indication. Although the needle will
immediately show a climb or descent trend, pilots should wait at least 10 seconds before relying on
exact ft/min readings.
Limitations in the use of the vertical-speed indicator are due to the calibrated leak. Sudden or
abrupt changes in aircraft attitude cause erroneous instrument readings as the air flow fluctuates
over the static ports. Both rough control technique and turbulent air result in unreliable needle
indications. When used properly, the instrument provides reliable information to establish and
maintain level flight and rate climbs or descents.
Describe the face of the instrument.

What is the difference between positive and negative readings?
What are the other names for the vertical speed indicator?
Talk about the limitations in the use of the vertical-speed indicator.
VOCABULARY
Turbulent (of air or water) changing direction suddenly and violently. The aircraft is designed to
withstand turbulent conditions.
Fluctuate to change frequently in size, amount, quality, etc, especially from one extreme to
another. Temperatures can fluctuate by as much as 10 degrees.
Abrupt sudden and unexpected. I was surprised by the abrupt change of subject.
Lag to move or develop slowly or more slowly than other people, organizations, etc. We still lag
far behind many of our competitors in using modern technology.
Increment (formal) an increase in a number or an amount. We need more troops in order to secure
the region, and we then need an additional increment of non-American troops so we can begin to
bring some of our men and women home.
Status the situation at a particular time during a process. A spokesman for Aberdeen also refused to
shed any light on the status of the bidding process.
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Rotary (of a machine or piece of equipment) having parts that move in this way. a rotary engine
Deviation (technical) the amount by which a single measurement is different from the average. The
average numbers and average deviation of five measurements are reported.
Precise taking care to be exact and accurate, especially about small details. Doctors found it hard to
establish the precise nature of her illness.
Restriction a limiting condition or measure, especially a legal one. Often the speed restrictions in
rural villages extend out into the countryside.
1 scale A not smooth

2 trend B to allow liquid or gas to get in or out through a small hole or crack
3 rate C by means of
4 indicate D a device that links two or more things
5 leak E a general direction in which something is developing or changing
6 linkage F point out, show
7 rough G a range of levels or numbers used for measuring something
8 via H a measurement of the speed at which something happens
2. According to the text explain the working principle of the vertical speed indicator.
1 Airline aircraft engine A travel recently in

monitoring systems are narrowbody jets.
used to check the health of
2 The data from the B higher passenger
sensors are accumulated volumes is necessary to
and transmitted at regular connect the increasing
intervals to number of aviation
megacities and hubs.
3 The commercial aircraft C the aircraft engines to
industry has been avoid costly repairs,
discovering the future of especially the time and
air cost of removing engines
prematurely.
4 Air travel in the D tension not only in your
21st century demands these back, but also with your
efficiencies. The ability to neighbor as your elbows
carry battle for those extra
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inches on the armrest.
5 Economy class can be incredibly E ground stations monitored by the engine
uncomfortable. A narrow seat can cause manufacturers.
4. Fill in the table with the words and write down your own sentences using the words from
the same table.
mis- un- im-
lock lay certain pronounce pure common patient perfect treat polite
heated
a) _____________________________________________________________
b) _____________________________________________________________
c) _____________________________________________________________
d) _____________________________________________________________
e) _____________________________________________________________
5. Read the text about “Charter Flights”.

A) Choose the correct word and write it in the blank. Discuss your answers with your
partner.
CHARTER FLIGHT
There (were, are, is) generally two types of tickets which can be (booked, book, booking) by
customers looking for a flight to a particular destination: charter flights and scheduled flights.
Charter flights differ (by, to, from) scheduled flights in that they are never booked directly with the
airline, and are instead booked through a third party provider such as (the, an, a) tour operator or
travel agency.
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Much more scheduling flexibility is available (on, at, in) charter flights, since the people who
purchase (them, their, those) services determine when and where they will fly. Charter flights are
also almost always direct, meaning (that, which, what) passengers don't have to change planes or
wait during layovers. These flights may also be able to service smaller regional airports, which
(should, could, can) be useful for some passengers, such as those
flying into (the, a, __) remote region.
Most charter airlines can result (in, through, on) financial instability;
there (had, have, has) been some extreme examples of airlines going
bankrupt and leaving those (that, which, who) bought charter tickets
stranded. Additionally, tour operators or the airline may choose to
cancel (a, the, an) charter flight due (for, to, on) they have failed to
adequately fill the flight. Charter flights are also typically more
expensive, particularly if the trip (was, are, is) chartered for a small group or one piece of cargo.
B) After reading the text answer the following questions.
a. Have you ever heard about charter flights before? What did you know about it?
b. Talk about the advantages and disadvantages of charter flights?
c. How do you think whether all the charter flights are for people or not? Try to prove
your ideas.
C) Find out synonyms or definitions for the words from the text above.
a) to book______________________________________
b) to look for____________________________________
c) schedule_____________________________________
d) to provide____________________________________
e) flexible______________________________________
f) to purchase___________________________________
g) layover______________________________________
h) remote______________________________________
i) stranded_____________________________________
j) bankrupt_____________________________________
k) cancel_______________________________________
6. Speaking. Read the texts below, discuss the questions below.
PILOTS’ HOROSCOPE
A better professional future is predicted for you for the year 2014. But beware of frauds and false
allegations that would dampen your work spirit. Your present projects shall go on and try to learn
from your past mistakes. You would progress at a nominal rate during this year and shall earn the
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favor of your higher authorities. The first half of the year shall bring in major changes in your
career. And the second half shall help you to consolidate your interests. Co-operative deals with
peers shall bring in good rewards.
1. Which animal represents the year of your birth?

2. Do you believe in astrology?
3. Do you ever read your horoscope?
4. Do you think astrology is an art, a science or something else?
5. If you had a consultation with an astrologist, what would you want to know?
Lesson 9 Magnetic Compass
The Earth is a huge magnet, spinning in space, surrounded by a magnetic field made up of
invisible lines of flux. These lines leave the surface at the magnetic north pole and reenter at the
magnetic South Pole.
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Lines of magnetic flux have two important characteristics: any magnet that is free to rotate
will align with them, and an electrical current is induced into any conductor that cuts across them.
Most direction indicators installed in aircraft make use of one of these two characteristics.
One of the oldest and simplest instruments for indicating direction is the magnetic compass.
A magnet is a piece of material, usually a metal containing iron, which attracts and holds lines of
magnetic flux. Regardless of size, every magnet has two poles: north and south. When one magnet
is placed in the field of another, the unlike poles attract each other, and like poles repel.
An aircraft magnetic compass has two small magnets
attached to a metal float sealed inside a bowl of clear compass
fluid similar to kerosene. A graduated scale, called a card, is
wrapped around the float and viewed through a glass window with
a lubber line across it. The card is marked with letters representing
the cardinal directions, north, east, south, and west, and a number
for each 30° between these letters. The final “0” is omitted from
these directions. For example, 3 = 30°, 6 = 60°, and 33 = 330°.
There are long and short graduation marks between the letters and
numbers, each long mark representing 10° and each short mark
representing 5°.
The float and card assembly has a hardened steel pivot in its center that rides inside a
special, spring-loaded, hard glass jewel cup. The buoyancy of the float takes most of the weight off
the pivot, and the fluid damps the oscillation of the float and card. This jewel-and-pivot type
mounting allows the float freedom to rotate and tilt up to approximately 18° angle of bank. At
steeper bank angles, the compass indications are erratic and unpredictable.
The compass housing is entirely full of compass fluid. To prevent damage or leakage when
the fluid expands and contracts with temperature changes, the rear of the compass case is sealed
with a flexible diaphragm, or with a metal bellows in some compasses.
Some compass errors:
Compass Deviation Errors Magnetic deviation is the difference between the compass
indications when installed in the aircraft compared to the indications when the compass is outside
the aircraft. The cause of this difference is that the compass magnets can be influenced by magnetic
fields within the aircraft due to electronic equipment and other factors.
Compass Dip Errors Any time the compass card is not perfectly level, the magnets dip
downward toward the earth. The result is that the compass does not correctly align with Magnetic
North the same as when the card is level. This results in erroneous indication while in the non-level
state. Dip occurs under 2 conditions.
1. During turns from the north and south. (i.e. Plane is in a bank)
2. During acceleration or deceleration while on an East or West heading.
What do you know about the Earth’s magnetic poles?

What is the importance of the magnetic compass?
What problems can occur during the working of the magnetic compass?
VOCABULARY
114
Float 1 to move slowly on water or in the air 2 to stay on or near the surface of a liquid and not
sink. The smell of new bread floated up from the kitchen. Wood floats.
Flux the rate of flow of a fluid, radiant energy, or particles across a given area. The energy flux was
measured with a short-wave ultraviolet intensity meter.
Graduate arrange in a series or according to a scale. The inheritance tax is graduated into three
classes according to the ‘nearness’ of family connection.
Induce bring about or give rise to, to cause something. none of these measures induced a change of
policy. drugs which induce sleep.
Repel if one thing repels another, or if two things repel each other, an electrical or magnetic force
pushes them apart. Like poles repel and unlike poles attract.
Seal 1 to close a container tightly or fill a crack, etc, especially so that air, liquid, etc. cannot get in
or out 2 to cover the surface of something with a substance in order to protect it. The organs are
kept in sealed plastic bags. The floors had been stripped and sealed with varnish.
Spin to turn round and round quickly; to make something do this. a spinning ice skater. The plane
was spinning out of control.
1 steep a the central point on which a mechanism turns or oscillates

2 oscillation b the ability of something to float in water or other fluid
3 tilt c slightly wet
4 buoyancy d movement back and forth in a regular rhythm
5 damp e move or cause to move into a sloping position
6 pivot f rising or falling sharply; almost perpendicular
2. Circle the right answer.
1 The magnetic compass is for

a indicating direction
b observing aircraft’s flight
c indicating position
2 Compass Deviation Errors is the difference between

a the compass indications in cold and hot weather
b the compass indications in and outside the aircraft
c the compass indications in the air and in the ground
3 The card
a is marked with letters representing the cardinal directions
b consists of two small attached magnets
c has a pivot in its center
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causes heading affected magnets removed error
1 The __________ in a compass align with any magnetic field.

2 This dip __________ two very noticeable errors: northerly turning __________ and acceleration
error.
3 When starting a turn from a northerly __________, the compass lags behind the turn.
4 Any error that cannot be __________ is recorded on a compass correction car.
5 Deviation is different on each heading, but it is not _________ by the geographic location.
4. Make up your own sentences using the following words.
damp slip float seal tilt
a_________________________________________________________________
b_________________________________________________________________
c_________________________________________________________________
d_________________________________________________________________
e_________________________________________________________________

1 Most airports have a compass rose, which is A prescribed by the AMT, and if authorized
a series of lines marked out on a ramp to do so, the AMT can also taxi and maneuver
the aircraft.
2 The pilot can taxi the aircraft to the B marked N to be heavier than the opposite
compass rose and maneuver the aircraft to the end.
headings
3 The float is balanced with a small dip- C to the right, and the float rotates, causing
compensating weight, to dampen the effects the card to rotate toward west, the direction
opposite the direction the turn is being made.
4 The vertical component of the Earth’s D or maintenance run up area where there is
magnetic field pulls the north seeking end of no magnetic interference.
the magnet
5 In acceleration error, the dip-correction E of dip when operating in the middle
weight causes the end of the float and card latitudes of the northern hemisphere.
116
6. Read the passage below and do the following exercises.
A History of the Magnetic Compass
Inhospitable as it can be, the sea has played an essential role in human history, and so did
that indispensible navigation tool, the magnetic compass. Navigating the oceans successfully also
played a pivotal role for many countries in gaining political and military power.
Though the behavior of lodestone, a naturally magnetized piece of the mineral magnetite,
was observed by the ancient Greek philosophers Thales of Miletus and Socrates, the evidence is
clear that the idea for using it in a compass first appeared in China. There are allusions in the
manuscript Wu Ching Tsung Yao, written in 1040, to “an iron fish” suspended in water that pointed
to the south. And the earliest reference to a magnetic direction-finding device for land navigation is
recorded in a Song Dynasty book dated to 1040-44.
In Europe, the magnetic compass first appeared in Amalfi, Italy, around the turn of the 14th
century. But it is not known if the magnetic compass was also
invented in the West or if it migrated to Europe along trade
routes from China. However, it is clear that because sea trade
and military advantage were of far more strategic importance
to Western nations, they pushed the technology of the magnetic
compass far more intensely than did the Chines.
A) Match the words with their definitions.
1 lodestone a difficult to stay in because there is no shelter from the weather

2 intense b too important to be without
3 inhospitable c a piece of iron that acts as a magnet
4 migrate d something that is said that refers to another subject in an indirect way
5 indispensable e very great; very strong
6 allusion f to move from one place to another
B) Compile a list of the inventions in chronological order, find out the year of each
invention, write a short text (100 words) about the positive and negative effects of
one of the inventions named.
the internet (most recent) thermometer
light bulb microscope
telephone printing
refrigerator paper
braille wheel
117
7. Speaking.
Talk about the inventions that you know, give their advantages/ disadvantages.
Lesson 10 Radio Magnetic Indicator
To save space in the instrument panel and to consolidate related information into one easy to
use location, the radio magnetic indicator (RMI) has been developed. It is widely used. The RMI
combines indications from a magnetic compass, VOR, and ADF into one instrument.
118
The azimuth card of the RMI is rotated by a remotely located flux gate compass. Thus, the
magnetic heading of the aircraft is always indicated. The lubber line is usually a marker or triangle
at the top of the instrument dial. The VOR receiver drives the solid pointer to indicate the magnetic
direction TO a tuned VOR station. When the ADF is tuned to an NDB, the double, or hollow
pointer, indicates the magnetic bearing to the NDB.
Since the flux gate compass continuously adjusts the azimuth card so that the aircraft
heading is at the top of the instrument, pilot workload is reduced. The pointers indicate where the
VOR and ADF transmission stations are located in relationship to where the aircraft is currently
positioned. Push buttons allow conversion of either pointer to either ADF or VOR for navigation
involving two of one type of station and none of the other.
What has the radio magnetic indicator (RMI) been developed for?
How can you give explanation to the flux gate compass?
VOCABULARY
Airborne in the air. Do not leave your seat until the plane is airborne.
Elapse pass or go by. weeks elapsed before anyone was charged with the attack.
Erroneously not correct; based on wrong information. He seems to be under the erroneous
impression that she is in love with him.
Incidentally in a way that was not planned but that is connected with something else. The
information was only discovered incidentally.
Interrogations 1 to obtain information from a computer or other machine 2 to ask somebody a lot
of questions over a long period of time, especially in an aggressive way. She hated her parents'
endless interrogations about where she'd been.
Radial having a pattern of lines, etc. that go out from a central point towards the edge of a circle.
the radial pattern of public transport facilities
Subtract to take a number or an amount away from another number or amount. 6 subtracted from 9
is 3
Tune adjust to the frequency of the required signal. The radio was tuned to the BBC.
Workload the amount of work that has to be done by a particular person or organization. We have
taken on extra staff to cope with the increased workload.
1. Make up the word combinations.
life-saving triangular canopy wing-type strap harness drag brake

packing steerable
119
parachute + + parachute
2. Put each of the following words in its correct place in the passage below.
airliner cabin crew aisle turbulence seat belts headphones land
Flying is fun. I like being in a big (a) __________ with the (b) __________ (stewards and
stewardesses) looking after me. They walk up and down the (c) __________ bringing meals and
drinks; and if the flight is going through some (d) _________, they warn everybody that it might be
bit bumpy and ask us to fasten our (e) __________. On a long flight I like listening to music
through the (f) __________ available to all passengers, and sometimes I have a sleep. I enjoy it all
so much that I never want the plane to (g) __________.
1 Airlines began to not only reduce A purchasing the struggling Dutch

flying the first generation 35-50 manufacturer Fokker to gain access to the
F-100 line.
2 According to “The Wall Street B “side stick” controllers to pilot the
Journal” Delta has limited the 50- aircraft, seems to have contributed to
seaters the confusion.
3 Bombardier was first to explore the C to trips of a maximum of 2 hours or 700
possibility of larger RJs, first miles.
considered
4 Boeing has always begged to D seat regional jets, but wrote their values
differ, persisting with conventional down to zero in many cases.
controls
5 The high-tech Airbus flight control E on its fly-by-wire aircraft,
system, which uses video-game-like including the new 787 Dreamliner,
introduced into service this year.
4. Read the passage. Fill in the blanks with the correct variant.
120
Due to differences 1 _____ (at, on, in) air pressure, it is usually not in fact 2 _____ (impossible, -,
possible) to open an airplane door during flight 3 _____ (off, at, on) normal cruising altitudes. This
goes for all doors of 4 _____ (an, -, the) aircraft, including
emergency exit and main doors; you could fuss 5 _____ (by,
from, with) the opening mechanism as much as you like, but
you 6 _____ (hadn’t, won’t, wouldn't) ultimately be
successful. Commercial aircraft have pressurized cabins 7
_____ (for, to, in) facilitate passenger comfort and so that
the oxygen level in the cabin can be easily 8 _____
(controlling, controls, controlled). Without a pressurized cabin, passengers would need 9 _____ (not
to, -, to) wear oxygen masks, and they might get physically uncomfortable 10 _____ (at, -, in) high
altitude. The difference in pressure 11 _____ (between, among, besides) the inside of a plane and
the outside essentially seals the doors of an aircraft even without latching, although most planes 12
_____ (would, had, have) pressurized seals as well, for safety.
5. Read the newspaper article. Rearrange the paragraphs, guess the definitions for the
words given below. Check your answer through dictionary.
Police Arrest Man Who Shined Laser at Helicopter
A The entire episode was captured on police video from the helicopter as a group of three young
men in a neighborhood can be seen in the video running from approaching police. One of the men is
seen throwing an object, which turns out to be an air gun fitted with a laser scope.
B While laser strike incidents in Canada haven't drawn as much attention as those in the United
States, Transport Canada authorities say 443 such events were reported by pilots in 2013.
C Canadian police wasted no time apprehending a suspect who shined a bright laser at the Air2
police helicopter over Vaughn, Ontario, this week, using their infrared camera from on high to
direct officers to a 19-year-old man's location as he tried to evade arrest.
D While such a laser sight probably isn't anywhere near as powerful as the handheld laser weapons
that have been wreaking havoc on air crews in the skies over the United States for the last few
years, it's still illegal in Canada to shine a "bright light" into "navigable airspace."
1 ___ 2 ___ 3 ___ 4 ___
1 scope _______________________________________________
2 apprehend ___________________________________________
3 evade _______________________________________________
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4 havoc _______________________________________________
How can you imagine aviation industry in50/100 years time?

What changes do you expect to see?
According to your imagination or point of view what
commercial aviation will look like in 2150?
CHAPTER 6 AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS
Lesson 1 Ice Detection System
122
Rain, snow, and ice are transportation’s longtime enemies. Flying has added a new
dimension, particularly with respect to ice. Under certain atmospheric conditions, ice can build
rapidly on airfoils and air inlets. On days when there is visible moisture in the air, ice can form on
aircraft leading edge surfaces at altitudes where freezing temperatures start. Water droplets in the
air can be supercooled to below freezing without
actually turning into ice unless they are disturbed in
some manner. This unusual occurrence is partly due to
the surface tension of the water droplet not allowing
the droplet to expand and freeze. However, when
aircraft surfaces disturb these droplets, they
immediately turn to ice on the aircraft surfaces.
The two types of ice encountered during flight are clear and rime. Clear ice forms when the
remaining liquid portion of the water drop flows out over the aircraft surface, gradually freezing as
a smooth sheet of solid ice. Formation occurs when droplets are large, such as in rain or in
cumuliform clouds. Clear ice is hard, heavy, and tenacious. Its removal by deicing equipment is
especially difficult.
Rime ice forms when water drops are small, such as those in stratified clouds or light
drizzle. The liquid portion remaining after initial impact freezes rapidly before the drop has time to
spread over the aircraft surface. The small frozen droplets trap air giving the ice a white appearance.
Rime ice is lighter in weight than clear ice and its weight is of little significance. Rime ice is brittle
and more easily removed than clear ice.
Ice build up increases drag and reduces lift. It
causes destructive vibration and hampers true
instrument readings. Control surfaces become
unbalanced or frozen. Fixed slots are filled and
movable slots jammed. Radio reception is hampered
and engine performance is affected. Ice, snow, and
slush have a direct impact on the safety of flight. Not
only because of degraded lift, reduced takeoff
performance, and/or maneuverability of the aircraft, but when chunks break off, they can also cause
engine failures and structural damage. Fuselage aft-mounted engines are particularly susceptible to
this foreign object damage (FOD) phenomenon. Wingmounted engines are not excluded however.
Ice can be present on any part of the aircraft and, when it breaks off, there is some probability that it
could go into an engine. The worst case is that ice on the wing breaks off during takeoff due to the
flexing of the wing and goes directly into the engine, leading to surge, vibration, and complete
thrust loss. Light snow that is loose on the wing surfaces and the fuselage can also cause engine
damage leading to surge, vibration, and thrust loss.
GA aircraft and turboprop commuter-type aircraft often use a pneumatic deicing system to
break off ice after it has formed on the leading edge surfaces. The leading edges of the wings and
stabilizers have inflatable boots attached to them. The boots expand when inflated by pneumatic
pressure, which breaks away ice accumulated on the boot. Most boots are inflated for 6 to 8
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seconds. They are deflated by vacuum suction. The vacuum is continuously applied to hold the
boots tightly against the aircraft while not in use.
What can cause icing?

What is the difference between clear and rime ice?
Which problems can ice build-up cause?
Where can icing occur in the aircraft?
VOCABULARY
Boot an enclosed space at the back of a car for carrying luggage or other goods. The boot space
takes the luggage of a family of four, excluding quad bikes.
Brittle hard but easily broken. The paint was brittle with age.
Destructive causing destruction or damage. Opencast coal mining is among the most
environmentally destructive activities carried out in Wales.
Dimension a measurement in space, for example the height, width or length of something. We
measured the dimensions of the kitchen.
Flexing bend or become bent. It’s important to prevent the damaged wrist from flexing.
Moisture very small drops of water that are present in the air, on a surface or in a substance. the
skin's natural moisture.
Rime frost formed on cold objects by the rapid freezing of water vapour in cloud or fog. For the
first time in several minutes, I looked up from the instruments and saw rime ice on our windscreen.
Stratify arrange or classify. With this index, patients are stratified into three risk categories based
on their total points.
Tenacious continuing to exist, have influence, etc. for longer than you might expect. a tenacious
illness
Trap 1 a device or enclosure designed to catch and retain animals a fox with its leg in a trap 2 an
unpleasant situation from which it is hard to escape. Some women see marriage as a trap.
1 degrade a needing to be filled with air or gas before you use it

2 slush b move reluctantly, or with difficulty
3 susceptible c hinder or impede the movement or progress of
4 drag d partly melted snow that is usually dirty
5 inflatable e become worse, especially in quality
6 deflate f a thick, solid piece of something
7 hamper g to be influenced, harmed or affected
8 chunk h to let air or gas out of a tyre, balloon, etc
2. Use the words below for filling gaps.

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tenacious deflate destructive brittle slush
a) __________ the economy means to set out to deliberately reduce the level of economic activity.
b) Ice cracked at the lake's edges at first, revealing a frozen __________ beneath.
c) All attempts to dissuade him from this resolution failed before his __________ will.
d) Sirian and Rissa glared at each other with animosity that bespoke a __________ relationship.
e) During the rest of the year the winds blow from west-north-west and north, with rain and
occasional __________ hurricanes.
3. True or false.
a) Clear ice forms when water drops are small, such as those in stratified clouds.
b) Rime ice is brittle and more easily removed than clear ice.
c) Ice build up increases drag, but doesn’t affect lifting process.
d) The boots expand when inflated by pneumatic pressure.
e) Ice build up causes destructive vibration and hampers true instrument readings.
4. Read the passage and do the exercise below (choose the sentences that best describe
the photo).
Aircraft Ground De/Anti Icing procedures serve three purposes: removal of any frozen or
semi frozen moisture from critical external surfaces of an aircraft on the ground prior to flight;
and/or, protection of those surfaces from the effects of such contaminant for the period between
treatment and becoming airborne; and/or, removal of any frozen or semi frozen moisture from
engine intakes and fan blades and protection of external surfaces from subsequent contamination
prior to takeoff. It should be noted that fan blade ice which may be accumulated after the pre-start
visual inspection, including whilst the engines are running at low thrust prior to take off, is removed
by following prescribed engine handling procedures.
1 a De-icing is taking longer than expected.

b De-icing finished more than 10 minutes ago.
c Singapore 107 is still waiting for de-icing to start.
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2 a
The apron is covered with snow and ice.

b The apron is covered with slush and water.
c The apron has been cleared once, and is wet in some places.
3 a Heavy fog has made visibility really bad.

b Snow isn’t a problem today and visibility is good.
c Visibility is not very good, because of some blowing snow.
4 a The snowploughs probably won’t be needed today.

b The snowploughs are working on clearing the snow again.
c If the weather becomes worse, the snowploughs will need to get to work.
5. Put each of the following words or phrases in its correct place in the passage below.
departure lounge immigration officer check runway

departure gate security guard board on board
departures board excess baggage check in duty free
hand luggage conveyor belt taxi passengers
announcement check-in desk trolley take off
security check
When you travel by air you have to get to the airport early in order to (a)_______ about an
hour before your flight. If you have a lot of luggage, you can put
it in a (b)_______ and push it to the (c)_______, where someone
will (d)_______ your ticket and weigh your luggage. If you have
(e)_______, it can be expensive. Your heavy luggage is put on
a(f)_______ and carried away. A light bag is classed as
(g)_______ and you can take it with you on to the plane. An
(h)_______ looks at your passport and a (i)_______ checks your
hand luggage before you go into the (j)_______ to wait till your
flight is called. If you want to, you can buy some cheap
(k)_______ goods here. Then you see on the (l)_______ or you
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hear an (m)_______ that you must (n)_______ your plane. You go through the (o)_______, then
there is sometimes a (p)_______ before you actually enter the plane. When all the (q)_______ are
(r)_______, and when the captain and his crew are ready in the cockpit, the plane begins to
(s)_______ to the end of the (t)_______. Finally, permission is received from the control tower and
the plane moves faster and faster in order to (u)_______.
6. Complete the words or phrases below using words from the box.
number control locker card luggage baggage

desk lounge reclaim
1 boarding__________ 4 flight__________ 7 baggage________

2 excess__________ 5 overhead__________ 8 passport_______
3 check-in__________ 6 departure__________ 9 hand__________
7. Complete these sentences with a suitable word.
lounge delay board luggage customs cards
1 There was a mechanical problem, and we ended up with a two-hour__________

2 Several passengers had to fill in landing__________
3 I went through passport control and sat in the departure__________
4 If you have nothing to declare, you follow the green sign when you go through__________
5 A woman at the check-in desk weighed my__________
6 I looked for our flight number on the departures__________
8. Write your own sentences using the newly taught words.
a_________________________________________________________________
b________________________________________________________________
c________________________________________________________________
d________________________________________________________________
9. Speaking. Discuss the following questions.
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Do you like to travel by airplane?
What seat do you prefer: window, center or aisle?
Is being a flight attendant considered a good job in your
country?
Do you think being a pilot is a good job? Why or why not?
Do you like to watch movies or TV about airplane crashes?
Why or why not?
Lesson 2 Fire and Overheat Protection

128
Because fire is one of the most dangerous threats to an aircraft, the potential fire zones of
modern multiengine aircraft are protected by a fixed fire protection system. A fire zone is an area,
or region, of an aircraft designed by the manufacturer to require fire detection and/or fire
extinguishing equipment and a high degree of inherent fire resistance. The term “fixed” describes a
permanently installed system in contrast to any type of portable fire extinguishing equipment, such
as a hand-held Halon or water fire extinguisher. A complete fire protection system on modern
aircraft, and on many older aircraft, includes a fire detection system and a fire extinguishing system.
Typical zones on aircraft that have a fixed fire detection and/or fire extinguisher system are: 1.
Engines and auxiliary power unit (APU); 2. Cargo and baggage compartments; 3. Lavatories on
transport aircraft; 4. Electronic bays; 5. Wheel wells; 6. Bleed air ducts.
To detect fires or overheat conditions, detectors are placed in the various zones to be
monitored. Fires are detected in reciprocating
engine and small turboprop aircraft using one or
more of the following: 1. Overheat detectors; 2.
Rate-of temperature-rise detectors; 3. Flame
detectors; 4. Observation by crewmembers.
Engine Fire Detection On modern
commercial passenger jet aircraft, engine
compartments are usually divided into two zones
‘1’ and ‘2’ for the purposes of fire protection. Two electrically operated extinguishers containing
Halon 1301 are usually installed in the nose cowling of the nacelle and, when activated, the contents
are discharged into Zone 1, the engine fan assembly. Fires in Zone 2, the engine core, are
extinguished by shutting down the engine. The flight crew engine fire drill includes shutting off fuel
supply to the engine concerned and the supply of oil, the other potential readily-inflammable
substance, is rapidly diminished since it is an isolated supply to each engine/APU. Activation of
engine fire bottles is normally also advised as a precautionary measure whenever an engine
shutdown drill is carried out because of severe damage.
Cargo and Baggage Compartment Fire Detection The cargo compartment smoke detection
system gives warnings in the flight deck if there is smoke in a cargo compartment. Each
compartment is equipped with a smoke detector. The smoke detectors monitor air in the cargo
compartments for smoke. The fans bring air from the cargo compartment into the smoke detector.
Before the air goes in the smoke detector, in-line water separators remove condensation and heaters
increase the air temperature.
Lavatory Smoke Detectors Airplanes that have a passenger capacity of 20 or more are
equipped with a smoke detector system that monitors the lavatories for smoke. Smoke indications
provide a warning light in the cockpit or provide a warning light or audible warning at the lavatory
and at flight attendant stations that would be readily detected by a flight attendant. Each lavatory
must have a built-in fire extinguisher that discharges automatically. The smoke detector is located
in the ceiling of the lavatory.
What is a fire zone?

129
What is a complete fire protection system?
How does engine fire detection system work?
What is the difference between cargo and lavatory smoke detectors?
VOCABULARY
Bay a compartment with a specified function in an aircraft. The front wings now incorporate an air
duct, which helps keep the engine bay cool during operation.
Diminish to make something become smaller, weaker. His influence has diminished with time.
Drill a practice of what to do in an emergency, for example if there is a fire
Duct a pipe or tube carrying liquid, gas, electric. a heating/ventilation duct
Monitor observe and check the progress or quality. The system monitors all workflows in progress
and interprets the results upon completion of each step.
Nacelle 1 a streamlined casing on the outside of an aircraft or motor vehicle, especially one housing
an aircraft engine, 2 the passenger compartment of an airship
Permanent existing all the time. The gallery hosts various exhibitions and a permanent collection.
Portable that is easy to carry or to move. The equipment is lightweight, portable and easy to store.
Reciprocate to move backwards and forwards in a straight line. a reciprocating action
1. Find opposites for the given words from the text above and write their right
definitions.
a conceal________________ precaution
b begin__________________ discharge
c load___________________ inherit
d neglect_________________ detect
e forfeit____________________ shut down
a_________________________________________________________________
b_________________________________________________________________
c_________________________________________________________________
d_________________________________________________________________
e_________________________________________________________________
2. True or false.
1. The term “fixed” describes a system in contrast to any type of portable fire extinguishing
equipment.
2. A complete fire protection system includes a fire detection system and a fire extinguishing
system.
3. Fires in Zone 2 are extinguished by extinguishers containing Halon 1301.
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4. The smoke detectors monitor air in the cargo compartments for smoke.
5. Airplanes that have a passenger capacity of 7 are equipped with a smoke detector system for the
lavatories.
6. Due to not getting excited pilots are unaware of the fire during flights.
3. Fill in the blanks with the correct prepositions from the box.
at(x2) for(x3) in(x4) to of(x4) within
Fire Extinguishers
There must be ___ least one hand held, portable Passenger capacity No. of
fire extinguisher ___ use ___ the pilot compartment extinguishers
that is located ___ easy access ___ the pilot while 7 through 30 1
seated. There must be ___ least one hand held fire
extinguisher located conveniently ___ the passenger 30 through 61 2
compartment ___ each airplane accommodating 61 through 200 3
more than 6 and less than 30 passengers. Each
extinguisher ___ use ___ a personnel compartment 201 through 300 4
must be designed ___ minimize the hazard ___ 301 through 400 5
toxic gas concentrations. The number ___ portable,
401 through 500 6
hand held fire extinguishers ___ transport aircraft is
shown ___ the table below. 501 through 600 7
601 through 700 8
4. Using the idioms from the box say how you would probably feel if…
on cloud nine over the moon(x2) in a black mood down in the dumps
to be browned off
1 you were told you had just won a vast sum of money_________________
2 your boss said you had to do again a piece of work you’d already done three
times__________________
3 you were told you’d got a very high mark in an exam____________________
4 you had a bad toothache and your neighbour was making a lot of noise late at
night__________________
5 nothing seemed to have gone right for you that day_____________________
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6 someone you were secretly in love with told you they were in love with
you___________________
1 In designing an airplane’s fire protection

A risks and be fully proficient in
systems, Boeing uses firefighting drills and techniques.
2 Continuous heat-sensitive detectors B fires during their starting phase and report
monitor hot gas lines, which convey them to the cockpit.
3 The smoke alarm systems installed in theC the principles of separation, isolation, and
cargo hold detect control.
4 All crew members must be aware of all D vary from inconsequential to catastrophic
potential fire depending upon the type and location of the
fire.
5 The effect of an operational fire on an E bleed air from the engines and auxiliary
aircraft, its passengers and crew can engines to the air-conditioning systems.
6. Read the article from a newspaper and put the paragraphs in order.
The people who fell to earth
More than half the passengers in plane crashes escape with their lives... but how? Six survivors
told their stories. Let’s read one of them.
A) The plane was in pieces. Some of the others went through the windscreen, but I was still
strapped into my seat, with no injuries - the only thing I had lost were my shoes. I found myself
taking off the seatbelt. The seats had been thrown from their position.
B) The others died one by one. The first day we lost three of our group. They didn't have the
strength to keep going and disappeared into the jungle. By the ninth day, I was on my own. I
was rescued finally on the 10th day of walking, by a UN organisation and people from the
Ugandan army.
C) We knew the Congo rebels were in that area and we were afraid we might be found and killed.
We divided ourselves into two groups of five to look for rescue parties. We got up at six and
walked until seven or eight at night. It was raining and snowing, and we had nothing to eat or
drink. I didn't know which direction I was walking in, but I believed my life had been saved and
the rest was up to me.
D) It was a chartered flight from Uganda and we were just coming into Congo. I was seated over
the wing, by the window. I was the only woman on board, with nine men.
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E) About 45 minutes into the flight, I could see from my seat that the plane was flying very low
over the mountains. The pilot announced he was losing control and I put on my seat belt. Other
people panicked. I was thinking about my family, and praying.
1______ 2______ 3_____ 4_____ 5_____
What is a charter flight?

Have you ever heard/read /watched a plane accident?
Can you enumerate any causes for aircraft accidents?
How can you describe people’s feelings in this situation?
Are you a person who panics easily in odd situations?
How can you help your fellow in extreme cases to overcome his/her panic?
7. Study the patterns and use them in your speech while talking about the accident
given below.
Telling to Be Calm/ not to Worry
Calm down You don’t have to worry

Take it easy Don’t take things so seriously
Stay calm Don’t let it bother you
Keep cool There’s no need to worry
Hold on to yourself Worrying isn’t going to do any good
Don’t let things get to you
8. Speaking.
Think about how you might handle the following situation:

You and a friend are out for a drive. You come upon an
accident. Your friend becomes hysterical. You want to help
the people in the accident.
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Lesson 3 Aircraft Fire Protection System
Because fire is one of the most dangerous threats to an aircraft, the potential fire zones of
modern multiengine aircraft are protected by a fixed fire protection system. A fire zone is an area,
or region, of an aircraft designed by the manufacturer to require fire detection and/or fire
extinguishing equipment and a high degree of inherent fire resistance. The term “fixed” 5describes
a permanently installed system in contrast to any type of portable fire extinguishing equipment,
such as a hand-held Halon or water fire extinguisher. A complete fire protection system on modern
aircraft, and on many older aircraft, includes a fire detection system and a fire
extinguishing system.
To detect fires or overheat conditions, detectors are placed in the various zones to be
10monitored. Fires are detected using one or more of the following:
1. Overheat detectors
2. Rate-of-temperature-rise detectors
3. Flame detectors
4. Observation by crewmembers
Overheat detector Rate-of-temperature-rise detector Flame detector
15 In addition to these methods, other types of detectors are used in aircraft fire protection
systems but are seldom used to detect engine fires. For example, smoke detectors are better suited
to monitor areas where materials burn slowly or smolder, such as cargo and baggage compartments.
Other types of detectors in this category include carbon monoxide detectors and
20chemical sampling equipment capable of detecting combustible mixtures that can lead to
accumulations of explosive gases.
A smoke detection system monitors the lavatories and cargo baggage compartments for the
presence of smoke, which is indicative of a fire condition. Smoke detection instruments that collect
air for sampling are mounted in the compartments in strategic locations. A smoke 25detection
system is used where the type of fire anticipated is expected to generate a substantial amount of
smoke before temperature changes are sufficient to actuate a heat detection system. Two common
types used are light refraction and ionization: Light Refraction Type and Ionization Type.
The light refraction type of smoke detector contains a photoelectric cell that detects light
30refracted by smoke particles. Smoke particles refract the light to the photoelectric cell and, when
it senses enough of this light, it creates an electrical current that sets off a light.
Some aircraft use an ionization type smoke detector. The system generates an alarm signal
(both horn and indicator) by detecting a change in ion density due to smoke in the cabin. The
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system is connected to the 28 volt DC electrical power supplied from the aircraft. Alarm 35output
and sensor sensitive checks are performed simply with the test switch on the control panel.
Smoke detectors
Smoke detector installed on the ceiling
Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless gas that is a byproduct of incomplete combustion.

Its presence in the breathing air of human beings can be deadly. To ensure crew and passenger
safety, carbon monoxide detectors are used in aircraft cabins and cockpits. Therefore, 40no threat of
carbon monoxide presence is posed. Carbon monoxide gas is found in varying degrees in all smoke
and fumes of burning carbonaceous substances. Exceedingly small amounts of the gas are
dangerous if inhaled. Prolonged exposure or higher concentrations may cause death. There are
several types of carbon monoxide detectors. Electronic detectors are common. Some are panel
mounted and others are portable. Chemical color-change types are also common. 45Normally, the
color of the chemical is tan. In the presence of carbon monoxide, the chemical darkens to grey or
even black.
Carbon monoxide detector
There must be at least one hand held, portable fire extinguisher for use in the pilot
compartment that is located within easy access of the pilot while seated. There must be at least one
hand held fire extinguisher located conveniently in the passenger compartment of each 50airplane
accommodating more than 6 and less than 30 passengers. Each extinguisher for use in a personnel
compartment must be designed to minimize the hazard of toxic gas concentrations.
135
How can you define the term “a fire zone”?
How are fires detected?
Where can smoke detectors be found in aircrafts?
What can you say about carbon monoxide detector?
Vocabulary
Accumulation a mass or quantity of something that has gradually gathered. Therefore, there is a
strong possibility that dangerous accumulations of this toxicant exist in humans and animals.
Combustion 1 the process of burning something. Twenty-five percent of total worldwide emissions
come from fossil fuel combustion. 2 rapid chemical combination of a substance with oxygen,
involving the production of heat and light. Heat causes combustion by increasing the oxidation rate
of the fuel/oxygen mix.
Inherent existing in something as a permanent, essential. You may question his characters'
motivation, but never doubt their sincerity or inherent goodness.
Portable able to be easily carried or moved, especially because being of a lighter and smaller
version than usual. A colleague had a tiny portable television with a black and white screen.
Pose present or constitute (a problem or danger). The great number of visitors is posing a threat to
the area.
Smolder burn slowly with smoke but no flame. The bonfire still smouldered,
the smoke drifting over the paddock.
1. True or false.
1 A complete fire protection system on modern aircraft, and on many older aircraft, includes a fire
detection system.
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2 Smoke detectors are better suited to monitor areas such as cargo and baggage compartments.
3 The light refraction type of smoke detector contains a photoelectric cell that detects light refracted
by smoke particles.
4 An ionization type smoke detector generates an alarm signal by detecting a change in the
temperature of the cabin.
5 Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless gas and it is not harmful for the human beings.
6 There must be at least one hand held fire extinguisher in the passenger compartment of each
airplane accommodating more than 12 and less than 36 passengers.
2. Fill the gaps using the words from the text (words can be found in the following lines
with numbers 4, 14, 16, 17, 21, 26, 31, 37, 49, 51).
1They displayed a narrow-minded __________ to change.

2 Units kept enemy forces under __________ for days.
3 Neighbours said they __________ saw the couple and that the daughters seldom visited them.
4 So far she could only see fire and the ruins of houses that had already burned down or were
__________ing in the flames.
5 You drop a tank of fuel and a small _________ charge is enough to burst it apart.
6 This would not happen if we had __________ staff and resources to do our job properly.
7 The very small particles stream through wires and circuits creating __________s of electricity.
8 Exhaust fans installed in the chamber ensure an __________ system.
9 This house is very __________ located.
10 In order to __________ the heating effect of the light, we must take action.
1 together/ A/ detect/ working/ fire/ fire/ system/ is/ smoke/ number/ when/ of/ devices/ to/ and/
alert/ or/ is/ present/ alarm
_____________________________________________________________________________
2 smoke/ fire/ your/ If/ is/ need/ a/ in,/ spreads/ home/ alarms/ fast/ and/ you/ to/ there/ smoke/ you/
time/ to/ out/ get/ give
_____________________________________________________________________________
3 resulted/ deaths/ two-thirds/ of/ home/ fire/ alarms/ fires/ from/ in/ no/ homes/ Almost/ smoke/
with
_____________________________________________________________________________
137
4 save/ A/ fire/ can/ small/ and/ putting/ portable/ fire/ property/ by/ lives/ extinguisher/ out/ a
_____________________________________________________________________________
5 reported/ fires/ automobile/ hour/ On average,/ 17/ per/ were
_____________________________________________________________________________
6 of/ air/ with/ hazardous/ in/ is/ Fire/ crew/ one/ the/ can/ that/ most/ a/ the/ flight/ be/ faced/
situations
_____________________________________________________________________________
7 structural/ Heat/ aircraft/ systems/ from/ fires/ and/ ultimately/ the/ will/ wholeness/ affect
_____________________________________________________________________________
1 Several characteristics of Halon A it's important to know the procedures for

dealing with a fire.
2 Using a dry chemical extinguisher in the B start, electrical fires, in-flight engine fires,
cockpit during flight and post-crash fires.
3 Fortunately, aircraft fires are relatively rare, C air, and an ignition source (heat).
but
4 Aircraft fires often occur following forced D make it attractive for fighting cockpit fires.
landings, and the result is
5 Detecting an in-flight engine fire may E of highly flammable fuel and very limited
possibilities of escape.
6 Pilots can face four types of aircraft fires — F can have serious side effects.
fires during engine
7 A fire needs only three ingredients — fuel, G led to significant decrease of accidents.
8 Fire in aircraft is a severe threat to life due to H often more dangerous than the forced
large quantities landing itself.
9 During the last years, advancements in I not be as easy as we might think.
aircraft fire safety
138
5. Speaking.
How do you behave in emergency cases?

What is the reason of people behaving in emergency cases?
If it happens, how can you put out the fire in your house?
Lesson 4 Cockpit Voice Recorder

questions.
Often one of the first pieces of techno-speak that springs to mind when we hear of an
aviation disaster - and a catch-all phrase popular with the media - is ‘Black Box,’ but how much
do you really know about these vital pieces of equipment?
Any commercial aeroplane or corporate jet is required to be equipped with a cockpit voice
recorder and a flight data recorder. It is these two items of separate equipment which we commonly
refer to as a ‘Black Box.’
The main purpose of the cockpit voice recorder is, unsurprisingly, to record what the crew
say and monitor any sounds that occur within the cockpit. There are several microphones built into
the cockpit that listen to flight crew conversation. These microphones also track any ambient noise
in the cockpit, such as switches being thrown or any knocks or thuds. Microphones send audio to
the CVR, which digitizes and stores the signals. There may be up to four microphones in the plane's
cockpit, each connected to the cockpit voice recorder. The four microphones are place in the pilot's
headset, co-pilot's headset, headset of a third crew member (if there is a third crew member) and
near the center of the cockpit, to pick up audio alerts and other sounds. Most magnetic-tape CVRs
store the last 30 minutes of sound. They use a continuous loop of tape that completes a cycle every
30 minutes. As new material is recorded, the oldest material is replaced.
Of equal, if not more significance to the Cockpit Voice Recorder, is the Flight Data
Recorder. This piece of equipment is essential to the work
of
Air Crash Investigators as it records the

many different operating functions of a
plane all at once, such as the time, altitude,
139
airspeed and direction the plane is heading. But these are just the primary functions of the recorder,
in fact, modern Flight Data Recorders are able to monitor countless other actions undertaken by the
plane, such as the movement of individual flaps on the wings, auto-pilot and fuel gauge.
Information stored in the Flight Data Recorder of a plane that has crashed is invaluable for
investigators in their search for determining what caused a specific crash. The data stored on the
recorders helps Air Crash Investigators generate computer video reconstructions of a flight, so that
they can visualize how a plane was handling shortly before a crash. The Flight Data Recorder and
the Cockpit Voice Recorder are invaluable tools for Air Crash Investigators worldwide and will
continue to play a major role in finding out the causes of aviation accidents, as well as offering
plane manufacturers and government’s considerable ideas to help make air travel as safe as
possible.
Did you have any information about “black boxes” beforehand?

Were there any accidents investigated by using “black boxes”?
How above mentioned equipment help crash investigators?
What is the differences/similarities between a cockpit voice recorder and flight data
recorder?
VOCABULARY
Ambient relating to the surrounding area; on all sides. ambient temperature/light/conditions

Digitize to change data into a digital form that can be easily read and processed by a computer. a
digitized map
Flap a flat piece of paper, cloth, metal, etc. that is attached to something. He was wearing a
deerstalker hat with flaps to cover the ears.
Invaluable extremely useful. The research should prove invaluable in the study of children's
language.
Loop a set of instructions that is repeated again and again until a particular condition is satisfied.
With the exception of the HD demo loops, all programming is identical.
Thud a sound like the one which is made when a heavy object hits something else. She could hear
the thud of her own heartbeat sounding heavily in her ears.
Undertake promise to do a particular thing. The firm undertook to keep price increases to a
minimum.
Visualize make (something) visible to the eye. It can help to visualize yourself making your speech
clearly and confidently.
1. True or false.
a) “Black boxes” consists of two separate equipment.

b) Being useful for crash investigators is the secondary function of the “black boxes”.
c) Six microphones are essential parts of the CVR.
d) FDCs save only voice files.
140
e) Information from FDC helps to visualize airplane crash.
2. Put the appropriate word from the box for each sentence.
undertake digitized thud invaluable
a) But his experience was __________ and soon he became prominent in public affairs.
b) In 488 Theodoric, king of the East Goths, received commission from the Greek emperor,
Zeno, to __________ the affairs of Italy.
c) Note this only contains the newly __________ objects, and not any of the objects that
formed part of the original vector map.
d) She brought the machete down with a dull __________, anchoring the blade in the log.
severe release allow increases recording
a) It is illegal for the National Transportation Safety Board, who regulates these recordings, to
___________ them to the public.
b) The airlines, who own the original __________, are legally allowed to release it if they so
choose.
c) At first, black boxes were equipped with a toggle switch that would __________ the pilot to
erase the recording at the end of a safe flight.
d) Flight recorders are required to be capable of surviving the conditions likely to be encountered
in a __________ aircraft accident.
e) Putting “black boxes” in the back of the aircraft __________ their chances of survival.
1 The National Transportation Safety board A find them, early versions were painted
is currently looking into the use of flight black, and the name stuck.
deck imaging in large aircraft and they
2 The earliest cockpit sound recorder, and B in the ceiling of the galley, in the aft
painted black, was a black box was cargo hold or in the tail cone that covers
the rear of the aircraft.
3 While a modern-day black box is painted C are expected to cost $6,000 and would
bright orange to help investigators include a mini-cam and built-in
microphone in the cockpit to record
instrumentation.
4 The precise location of the recorders D data that estimates the site of the crash to
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depends on the individual plane, however be seven hundred miles further northeast
sometimes they are located than was originally thought.
5 The search for the shoebox-sized black E developed by Edmund Boniface, an
boxes from Malaysia 370 has recently been engineer with Lockheed, in 1961.
refocussed, following a new analysis of
radar
5. Do the following exercises concerning the paragraphs.
a) Find correct definitions for the words from the paragraphs below.
1 folks A in a way that is wrong and not correct

2 experience B a friendly way of addressing more than one
person
3 evacuation C to make a judgement about something
4 improperly D the process of moving people from a place of
danger
5 assess E skill that you have gained through doing
something
b) Fill in the blanks with the words using the exercise above.
Match the titles with the paragraphs.
Things Your Pilot Won’t Tell You

Titles:
1 You may not be getting the airline you paid for.
2 You'll never hear, "One of our engines just failed.”
3 There's a good reason for everything we ask you to do.
Paragraphs:
A What they’ll say instead: “One of our engines is indicating 1 __________.” (Or more likely,
they’ll say nothing, and you’ll never know the difference. Most planes fly fine with one engine
down.)You'll also never hear, "Well, 2 __________, the visibility out there is zero.” Instead they'll
say: “There’s some fog in the Washington area.”
B We ask you to put up the window shade so the flight attendants can see outside in an emergency,
to 3 __________ if one side is better for an 4 __________. It also lets light into the cabin if it goes
dark and helps passengers get oriented if the plane flips or rolls over.
C You may go to an airline website and buy a ticket, pull up to its desk at the curb, and get onto an
airplane that has a similar name painted on it, but half the time, you’re really on a regional airline.
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The regionals aren’t held to the same safety standards as the majors: Their pilots aren’t required to
have as much training and 5 __________, and the public doesn’t know that.
6. Speaking. Discuss the following questions with your class, then check your answers
by doing a research.
1. Do commercial airlines or companies that charge passengers to fly on their airplanes
or helicopters owe a special duty of
care to passengers?
2.
3. Does an airplane have to crash for
the airline to be found responsible
for injuries?
4. Who can be held liable for airplane accidents?
5. What damages are recoverable in aviation accident cases?
CHAPTER 7 AIRCRAFT COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
Lesson 1 Passenger Address System
Passenger transport and business aircraft are fitted with a range of cabin electronic
equipment for passenger safety, convenience and entertainment. Typical applications for this
equipment include lighting, audio and visual systems. Audio systems include the passenger address
system used by the flight or cabin crew to give out safety announcements and other flight
information. These announcements are made from handheld microphones and are heard over
loudspeakers in the cabin and passenger headsets.
The passenger address (PA) system is primarily a safety system that provides passengers
with voice announcements and chime signals from the flight or cabin
crew; its secondary purpose is for the audio entertainment system.
The crew make these voice announcements via the interphone
system. The PA amplifier provides a level of sidetone to the crew’s
handset or headsets during voice announcements. Sidetone is the
technique of feeding back a small amount of sound from the
mouthpiece and introducing this at low level back into the earpiece
of the same handset, acting as feedback to confirm that the handset
or headsets are functional.
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The PA system audio outputs are transmitted through to speakers located in the cabin typical
locations include: 1 passenger service units 2 galleys 3 washrooms 4 cabin crew areas.
PA voice announcements are integrated with the passenger entertainment system so that
safety announcements can be made over and above entertainment channels.
A typical PA system is controlled by a selector panel located at cabin crew stations; an
amplifier makes chime sounds in response to discrete signals from the cabin interphone system;
examples of these chimes include: 1 a single low chime to indicate when the ‘no smoking’ and
‘fasten seat belt’ lights have been switched on 2 a single high/low chime for calls between cabin
crew stations 3 three high/low chimes when the flight crew needs to gain the attention of the cabin
crew 4 a single high chime when a passenger needs to gain the attention of the cabin crew.
What is passenger address system?

What is sidetone?
Where can passenger address system be located?
What can you say about passenger address system’s controller?
VOCABULARY
Amplifier an electrical device or piece of equipment that makes sounds or radio signals louder. a
25 watt amplifier
Chime (of a bell or a clock) to ring; to show the time by making a ringing sound. Eight o'clock had
already chimed.
Confirm to state or show that something is definitely true or correct, especially by providing
evidence. Please write to confirm your reservation.
Convenience something that is useful and can make things easier or quicker to do, or more
comfortable. The house had all the modern conveniences that were unusual at that time.
Discrete independent of other things of the same type. The organisms can be divided into discrete
categories.
Earpiece the part of a telephone, radio receiver, or other aural device that is applied to the ear
during use. And when riders do get away, the others hear all about it in their radio earpiece.
Feedback The return of a fraction of the output signal from an amplifier, microphone, or other
device to the input of the same device; sound distortion produced by this. I don’t want to interrupt
the debate, but there is a bit of feedback coming through the microphones.
Fit to put or fix something somewhere. The rooms were all fitted with smoke alarms.
Integrate to combine two or more things so that they work together; to combine with something
else in this way. These programs will integrate with your existing software.
Mouthpiece the part of a musical instrument, telephone, etc. designed to be put in or against the
mouth. He shouted into the mouthpiece, but there was no response.
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1. Find synonyms for the words given below.
bell assimilate approve disconnected accessibility
1 confirm____________________
2 integrate____________________
3 chime______________________
4 convenience_________________
5 discrete_____________________
2. Complete the sentences with the words from the box.
chime feedback confirm fitting earpiece
a) We're working to solve these problems, and your __________ will help us do so.
b) She tapped her __________, listened intently, and responded with a few words.
c) By this time, you've probably heard the doorbell __________, which means the mail's in.
d) Adam, our installer, was __________ some other stuff and left to go on to another job whilst I
changed 16 of the handles.
e) Absolutely, but in order to __________ their existence, particularly strong evidence is required.
1 in/ first/ shown/ in-flight/ ‘movie’/ The/ was/ 1925.

_______________________________________________________________________
2 can/ system/ be/ PA/ to/ tracks/ sound/ play/ used/ automatic.
_______________________________________________________________________
3 Audio/ available/ are/ at/ systems/ positions/ the/ individual/ seat/ also.
_______________________________________________________________________
4 size/ The/ and/ of/ will/ for/ application/ determine/ the/ effective/ most/ type/ PA/ the/ system/
aircraft/ the.
_______________________________________________________________________
4. Complete the following statements.
1 Automatic sound tracks are often used for A to select manually the output to a high level
announcements in foreign languages, shall be provided at, at least, one flight
attendant’s station.
2 Airstairs allow passengers, flight crew and B conditions by injecting broad-band random
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ground personnel to board or depart noise into the public address amplifier.
3 Where the output level of the system is C broadcast so as to be audible and intelligible
controlled automatically as a function of flight at all passenger seats, lavatories, and flight
phase, means attendant seats and work stations.
4 The overall performance of the equipment D or to play background music during
and its installation shall be such that messages boarding and disembarkation.
may be
5 A subjective, but effective, check of E advisory information and entertainment.
broadcast coverage may be performed under
quiet
6 Passenger Address systems are utilized F the aircraft without the need for a mobile
inside the aircraft for staircase or access to a terminal.
5. Choose the appropriate answer.
1. The passenger address (PA) system is primarily a

safety system that provides passengers with:
(a) in-flight entertainment
(b) reduced amount of IFE wiring to a seat
position
(c) voice announcements and chime signals
2. A typical PA system is controlled by a selector panel located:
(a) at cabin crew stations

(b) near the passenger seats
(c) in the cockpit
3. The PA system audio outputs are transmitted to speakers not from the__________ locations:
(a) washrooms
(b) cargo
(c) passenger service units
6. Read the passage and open the brackets correctly.
The aviation industry is the global transportation network that carries goods and passengers (in,
with, by) air. While air travel (had, was, is) only made possible in the early 20th century, the
aviation industry now (generates, generating, generate) billions of dollars (on, at, in) annual
revenue. It also provides essential services to numerous other industries, (by, from, with) medicine
and national defense to tourism and sports. The bulk of the worldwide aviation industry is
(involving, involved, involve) with the use and manufacture of airplanes.
Lightweight industrial materials first available (at, on, in) the 1800s allowed for the creation of
the earliest aircraft, lighter-than-air devices such as balloons. In 1903, the American Wright
Brothers (had created, created, was created) the first heavier-than-air flying vehicles. Within a
146
decade, airplanes (are, had, were) developed for commerce, travel, and military (use, usage,
using), still the major applications for aircraft in the present day. Lighter materials and new
technology such as jet engines made planes faster and more efficient in (a, -, the) second half of the
20th century. The business that (manufacture, manufacturing, manufactures) specialized
aviation parts and equipment is itself a global industry.
(Many, Much, Most) of the aviation industry is focused (on, in, at) tourism and travel,
generating more than $400 billion US Dollars (USD) globally in revenue per year. Air travel means
that almost any location on Earth can be reached in a matter of hours, a
vast difference from travel options (after, before, during) the 20th
century.
Another sector of the aviation industry is concerned (by, -, with) the
transport of goods. Air freight is much faster than other means of
delivering cargo and readily available in (the, -) most locations. Thus,
aircraft play an essential role in providing supplies to various other
industries, ranging from entertainment to manufacturing to medicine.
Write definitions for the words given below.
revenue_______________________________________________________
essential______________________________________________________
vast__________________________________________________________
industry_______________________________________________________
How can you imagine aviation industry in50/100 years time?

What changes do you expect to see?
According to your imagination or point of view what commercial aviation will look like in 2150?
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Lesson 2 Interphone Systems
The airplane communication system consists of a flight interphone

system and audio control panels, VHF and HF communication
systems, selective calling (SELCAL) system, service interphone
system, call system, passenger address (PA) system, and cockpit voice
recorder (CVR).
Flight interphone system. The flight interphone system provides
communication transmit and receive capability, and audio monitoring
of the communication and navigation receivers. System selection is accomplished through the audio
control panels. A communication or navigation receiver may be
monitored by moving the respective volume control levers on the audio panel to adjust volume. A
communication transmitter is selected by pushing the respective microphoneFlight interphone
switch-light
handset
on the
audio panel.
The microphone switch on the outboard horn of either control wheel, the push-to-talk
(PTT) switch on either hand microphone, and the radio/intercom PTT switch on each audio control
panel provide transmit capability. A hand microphone connector, a boom microphone jack, and a
headset jack are installed at the Captain's and First Officer's stations.
Hand microphone connectors and headset jacks are also installed at the Observer's
station and in the electrical/electronic (E/E) compartment. In addition, a handset jack is located on
the external electrical power receptacle panel. Two speaker assemblies are installed overhead for
the Captain and First Officer. Operation of the either the Captain's/First Officer's microphone mutes
both speakers. However, operation of the Observer’s microphone or keying the cockpit handset for
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Pilot’s headset
PA does not mute either speaker. Keying any microphone or cockpit handset for PA mutes both the
Captain’s and the First Officer’s speakers. However, keying any microphone or cockpit handset on
service interphone does not mute the cockpit speakers.
Service interphone system. The service interphone system allows communication between
the various service and maintenance areas, the cockpit, and the cabin attendant stations. Service
interphone jack outlets for maintenance handsets are installed outside the cockpit and cabin areas, at
the engine nacelles, in the wheel wells, and in the electrical/electronics (E/E) compartment, vertical
stabilizer, ground power panel, air conditioning compartment, right wing fuel service panel, forward
accessory compartment, and the forward, center and aft cargo compartments. The maintenance
interphone switch on the aft overhead panel, when in OFF, disconnects all service interphone jacks
from the service interphone system except those in the cockpit, the E/E compartment, the ground
power panel, and the cabin attendant panels. When the switch is ON, all service interphone jacks
are active.
Audio Control Panel. As we said before the system selection is accomplished through the
audio control panels. Audio control panels are provided for the Captain, First Officer, and Observer.
The audio control panels for Captain and First Officer are located on the aft pedestal or right and
left consoles. The audio control panel for the Observer is located on the aft overhead panel.
Different kinds of Audio control panel
Transmitter selection is accomplished by pushing the applicable microphone switch-light on

the audio control panel. Mechanical interlock prevents multiple switch selection at the same time.
Volume control is accomplished by moving the corresponding volume control lever to the desired
volume level.
What does the airplane communication system consist of?

What does the flight interphone system provide aircraft with?
What does PTT stand for?
What is the use of the service interphone system?
Who are audio control panels provided for?
Vocabulary
Accomplish achieve or complete successfully. The planes accomplished their mission.

149
Aft at, near, or towards the stern of a ship or tail of an aircraft.
Applicable relevant or appropriate. This fact is applicable to all strata of society, but is more
visible in the lower sections.
Console a panel or unit accommodating a set of controls for electronic or mechanical equipment.
However, when she hit the ground, her left shoulder came in contact with the side panel of the
control console.
Interlock Lock or join (things) together. The two planes were almost interlocked as
they climbed together.
Mute refraining from speech or temporarily speechless. Harry sat mute, his cheeks burning resentfully.
Receptacle a hollow object used to contain something. Giant jerry cans turn into receptacles for
rainwater harvesting.
Respective belonging or relating separately to each of two or more people or things.
They chatted about their respective childhoods.
1. True or false.
1 A communication or navigation receiver may be monitored by moving the respective volume

control levers. _____
2 A hand microphone connector, a boom microphone jack, and a headset jack are installed at the
station accessible for everyone. _____
3 The service interphone system allows communication between aircrafts. _____
4 Audio control panels are provided for the Captain, First Officer, and Observer. _____
5 Mechanical interlock doesn’t prevent multiple switch selection at the same time. _____
1 audio monitoring A the audio control panels

2 monitored by moving the B on the outboard horn
3 accomplished through C receptacle panel
4 external electrical power D of the communication
5 microphone switch E respective volume control levers
efficiency civil stretched communication technology disconnecting

disappearance fuselage manual downwards
1 A pilot can shut the whole thing down by (a) __________ a circuit breaker, and the plane's (b)
__________ would tell him how to do it.
2 If the motive behind the plane's (c) __________ is indeed criminal, it begs the question: Why can
these systems be turned off at all?
3 The second (d) __________ system on the missing Boeing 777 is the transponder.
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4 This important design marked a major shift in (e) __________ for Boeing, which aimed for
maximum fuel (f) __________ in a number of ways.
5 Most noticeably, the windows are amongst the largest in a (g) __________ airliner and are lower
on the (h) __________ than is usual, so that passengers have a better view (i) __________.
6 Embraer is also building the Embraer 175, (j) __________ by 1.77m (5ft 10in) over the Embraer
170.
1 Photographs of the wrecked aircraft A as it generates huge amounts of

show failure of the operational data, perhaps 500 GB per leg.
2 Despite some recent improvement, B the safety benefits of synthetic vision.
IATA says air cargo needs
3 Airbus is accelerating its studies of C gain FAA approval to use iPads for all
an upgraded A380 and, after talks phases of flight in 2012, other airlines
quickly followed suit.
4 Data-sharing challenges will only D from Long Beach Airport near the
expand as the A350 enters service, Heli-Expo site in Anaheim, California for
potential customers.
5 For the first time, the company is E held last month with engine makers in
carrying out a series of demonstration Toulouse, appears to be closing on an
flights initial agreement with Rolls-Royce.
6 Business jet and general aviation F structural changes to become a

pilots already enjoy sustainable business field.
7 When American Airlines became the G center wing box’s rear attachments to

first U.S. carrier to the fuselage.
1 into/ has become/ but experts/ thing/ Aviation/ automated,/ difficult/ hacking/ an/ aircraft's
controls/ increasingly/ is still/ a very/ say/ to do.
_____________________________________________________________________________
2 hours/ removed/ questioned/ earlier,/ airport/ he/ had been/ a United flight/ and/ from/ days/ by
authorities/ for/ Three/ four.
_____________________________________________________________________________
3 demand/ internet/ for/ Passengers/ work,/ increasingly/ games,/ movies/ and/ the like/
connectivity.
_____________________________________________________________________________
4 fuselages/ additional/ holes/ antennae/ inefficient/ in/ costly/ for/ Drilling/ and/ is.
_____________________________________________________________________________
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5 aware/ are/ actively/ and/ of/ the/ Airlines/ danger/ and/ the/ taking steps/ to/ threat/ address/
authorities/ are.
_____________________________________________________________________________
6 the/ Wi-Fi system/ a firewall/ A/ would have to/ first/ system/ bypass/ that/ from/ the/ avionics/
hacker/ separates.
_____________________________________________________________________________
6. Fill in the blanks with the words from the box and rearrange the text.
susceptibilities chaos access sophistication entertainment

conceivably allowed remotely targets security military
vulnerable
Ground control: Analysts warn airplane communications systems vulnerable to

hacking
1 For now, terrorist groups are believed to lack the __________ to bring down a plane__________,
but it is their limitations, and not aviation safeguards, that are keeping the flying public safe,
according to __________ analysts. Chris Roberts Colorado based cyber security intelligence says:
2 “I discovered a backdoor that __________ me to gain privileged __________ to the Satellite Data
Unit, the most important piece of SATCOM (Satellite communications) equipment on aircraft,” said
Ruben Santamarta, principal security consultant.
3 Commercial and even __________ planes have an Achilles heel that could leave them
__________ to hackers on the ground, who experts say could __________ commandeer cockpits
and create __________ in the skies.
4 While commercial planes are potential__________, business, private and military aircraft also are
at risk, according to another aviation security analyst who shared his findings.
5 “We can still take planes out of the sky thanks to the flaws in the in-flight __________ systems,”
said Roberts, who discovered __________ in the system passengers use to watch television at their
seats and is sharing his findings with the federal government.
7. Speaking.
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Hacking Airplanes
Imagine this: A terrorist hacks into a commercial airplane from the ground, takes over the
controls from the pilots and flies the plane into the ground. What happens next? Make a story
and share it with the class.
Lesson 3 Antennas
As stated, antennas are conductors that are used to transmit and receive radio frequency waves.
Although the airframe technician has limited duties in relation to maintaining and repairing
avionics, it is the responsibility of the technician to install, inspect,
repair, and maintain aircraft radio antennas.
Three characteristics are of major concern when considering
antennas: 1. Length 2. Polarization 3. Directivity
The exact shape and material from which an antenna is made can
alter its transmitting and receiving characteristics. Also note that
some non-metallic aircraft have antennas imbedded into the
composite material as it is built up.
Installation of Aircraft Antenna Systems
Knowledge of antenna installation and maintenance is especially important as these tasks are
performed by the aircraft technician. Antennas take many forms and sizes dependent upon the
frequency of the transmitter and receiver to which they are connected. Airborne antennas must be
mechanically secure. The air loads on an antenna are significant and must be considered. Antennas
must be electrically matched to the receiver and transmitter which they serve. They must also be
mounted in interference free locations and in areas where signals can be optimally transmitted and
received. Antennas must also have the same polarization as the ground station.
153
A transmitting or receiving antenna is connected directly to its
associated transmitter or receiver by a transmission line. This
is a shielded wire also known as coax. They must transfer
energy with minimal loss. Transponders, DME and other pulse
type transceivers require transmission lines that are precise in
length. The critical length of transmission lines provides
minimal attenuation of the transmitted or received
The V-shaped VOR navigation antenna is a
common dipole antenna.
signal. Refer to the equipment manufacturer’s installation manual for the type and allowable length
of transmission lines.
What does VHF stand for?

What purpose is VHF used for?
How can you define line-of-sight communication?
What can you say about VHF transmission?
What is a transceiver?
VOCABULARY
Assist to help something to happen more easily. activities that will assist the decision-making
process
Discretion the freedom or power to decide what should be done in a particular situation. I'll leave it
up to you to use your discretion.
Disregard pay no attention to; ignore. The board completely disregarded my recommendations.
Encompass to include a large number or range of things. The job encompasses a wide range of
responsibilities.
Enforce to make sure that people obey a particular law or rule. It's the job of the police to enforce
the law.
Ensure to make sure that something happens or is definite. Victory ensured them a place in the
final.
Expedite to make a process happen more quickly. We have developed rapid order processing to
expedite deliveries to customers.
Issue supply someone with. Everyone was issued with a gas mask.
Nautical mile a unit used in measuring distances at sea, equal to 1,852 metres.
1. Fill in the table with the suitable synonyms.
154
advice destruction blunder harm control fault
inaccuracy counsel impairment injury mistake help wrong
instruction misunderstanding mischief recommendation
guidance error damage
2. Read the paragraph about flight envelope protection and do the exercise below (choose
a word in bold from the paragraph for each definition).
Flight envelope protection is a human machine interface extension of an aircraft’s control system

that prevents the pilot of an aircraft from making control commands that would force the aircraft to
exceed its structural and aerodynamic operating limits. It is used in some form in all modern
commercial fly-by-wire aircraft. Its advantage is that it restricts pilots in emergency situations so
they can react quickly without endangering the safety of their aircraft. The Airbus A320 was the
first commercial aircraft to incorporate full flight-envelope protection into its flight-control
software. This was instigated by former Airbus senior vice president for engineering Bernard
Ziegler. In the Airbus, the flight envelope protection cannot be overridden completely, although
the crew can fly beyond flight envelope limits by selecting an alternate "control law". Boeing in
the Boeing 777 has taken a different approach by allowing the crew to override flight envelope
limits using excessive force on the flight controls.
A to put somebody in a situation in which they could be harmed _______________

B the act of increasing the area of activity _________________________________
C to stop a process that happens automatically and control it yourself____________
D to cause something bad to happen______________________________________
E to include something so that it forms a part of something____________________
F to stop from moving or acting freely____________________________________
3. Fill in the blanks with the words from the box and rearrange the text.
susceptibilities chaos access sophistication entertainment

conceivably allowed remotely targets security military
155
vulnerable
Ground control: Analysts warn airplane communications systems vulnerable to
hacking
1 For now, terrorist groups are believed to lack the

__________ to bring down a plane__________, but it is
their limitations, and not aviation safeguards, that are
keeping the flying public safe, according to __________
analysts. Chris Roberts Colorado based cyber security
intelligence says:
2 “I discovered a backdoor that __________ me to gain
privileged __________ to the Satellite Data Unit, the most
important piece of SATCOM (Satellite communications)
equipment on aircraft,” said Ruben Santamarta, principal security consultant.
3 Commercial and even __________ planes have an Achilles heel that could leave them
__________ to hackers on the ground, who experts say could __________ commandeer cockpits
and create __________ in the skies.
4 While commercial planes are potential__________, business, private and military aircraft also are
at risk, according to another aviation security analyst who shared his findings.
5 “We can still take planes out of the sky thanks to the flaws in the in-flight __________ systems,”
said Roberts, who discovered __________ in the system passengers use to watch television at their
seats and is sharing his findings with the federal government.
4. Speaking. Pair work.
Work with your partner. As a representative of a

company manufacturing aviation devices and
electronic components make your own
announcement on the subject for an expo.
156
Lesson 4 Radio Communication
Radio communications are a critical link in the ATC system. The link can be a strong bond
between pilot and controller or it can be broken with surprising speed and disastrous results.
The single, most important thought in pilot-controller communications is understanding. It is
essential, therefore, that pilots acknowledge each radio communication with ATC by using the
appropriate aircraft call sign. Brevity is important, and contacts should be kept as brief as possible,
but the controller must know what you want to do before he can properly carry out his control
duties. The pilot must know exactly what the controller wants the pilot to do. Since concise
phraseology may not always be adequate, they should use whatever words are necessary to get their
message across.
Radio communications may seem complicated at first, but one gets used to them. Most
things a controller will say are standard and will become familiar to the pilots.
Things an air traffic controller might say:
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Cleared…
ATC has given you the permission and right to do something. "Cleared to land, runway 11"
"Cleared for takeoff." "Cleared to enter Class B."
Continue
Keep doing what you're doing. Go straight if you were told to go straight. If you were told earlier to
enter the pattern downwind on the 45, then do that.
Report…
ATC is telling you that when you arrive at the given position, you should radio the tower and tell
them so.
State (your) intentions

This is most often tower's polite way of saying that they don't understand what you're doing, or that
you are not on the right heading, or that you are not following instructions. They want to know what
you want to do, or what you think you're doing. Then they can give you appropriate guidance.
Maintain…
Stay at a given altitude. "Climb and maintain 4500" means you should climb up to 4500 MSL and
stay there until they tell you otherwise. "Maintain 1500 until Cider Hill": do not descend below
1500 until you reach this landmark.
Climb to/descend to…
Go to the altitude they give you.
Fly heading…
Turn to the direction given. "Fly heading 180": go south until told otherwise.
Check wheels down

At some airports, this is a standard thing to say whether your wheels are down or not. It would be a
good time to check, though, as this is only said once you're cleared to land.
Why is radio communication so important?

How can poor radio communication affect the flying process?
Vocabulary
Bond a thing used to tie something or to fasten things together. She brushed back a curl which had
strayed from its bonds.
Brevity the quality of using few words when speaking or writing. For the sake of brevity, I’d like to
make just two points.
Disastrous causing great damage. a disastrous fire swept through the museum
158
1 While radio communication is not required A of Air Traffic Control (ATC), two-way
at uncontrolled airports, safety radio communication is mandatory.
2 It is always best to end the transmission B means of an audio panel, misuse of this
piece of equipment is a common cause of
communication failure.
3 When flying into airspace that is under the C is greatly enhanced by the use of proper
authority radio technique.
4 A pilot departing an airport that has radar D with a repetition of the airport name.
services
5 Although communications management can E under the authority of the tower controller.
be efficiently accomplished by
6 All aircraft on the runway side of the hold F available will probably have to deal with a
line are more complex set of ATC procedures than
will be encountered at a non-radar tower.
2. Guess the meaning of the air traffic controller’s words.
1 Confirm... 3 Recycle
2 Position and hold 4 Cleared out of class
A Go on to the runway and wait in position to take off.

B ATC isn't reading your transponder, so they want you to turn your transponder off, then turn it
back on again.
C ATC is informing you that you are leaving its airspace
D ATC wants you to repeat some instruction you've been given.
3. Rearrange the paragraphs and fill in the blanks with the words.
development threats available 3D targets providers manufacturer

marketing provide option traffic range outside
A For business jets, SVS is now not being seen as an (a) __________ but “is expected to
come with new aircraft,” said John Peterson, director of avionics and flight controls (b) __________
at Rockwell Collins. “As a matter of fact, it is a negative if it is not (c) __________ with whatever
(avionics) system they are contemplating retrofitting.”
B As synthetic vision systems become more mainstream, technology (d) __________ are
refining their offerings to appeal to a wider (e) __________ of customers. Along with general and
business aviation operators, key (f) __________ include the rotorcraft and commercial transport
markets.
159
C “Synthetic vision is no longer a ‘fringe’ technology;
every major avionics (g) __________ has some form of synthetic
vision, and it is certified in every class of aircraft,” said Gordon
Pratt, director of business (h) __________, Cobham Commercial
Systems.
D The chief selling point for SVS, which delivers real-
time, color (i) __________ imagery of the terrain (j) __________
the aircraft to the pilot, is situational awareness. When “visibility
is less than ideal,” people appreciate “the enhanced situational
awareness … that it can (k) __________not only for IFR but for VFR flying as well,” said Jim
Alpiser, director of aviation aftermarket sales for Garmin. The system can identify key (l)
__________, such as towers and mountains, and can show pilots (m) __________ that is in front of
them using data from Mode S data link or an active onboard traffic system.
1_____ 2_____ 3_____ 4_____
4. Speaking.
Read the facts about airplanes and discuss whether they are reliable or not.
a) Donkeys kill more people annually than plane crashes.

b) More than 80% of the population is afraid of flying. 5% completely abandons flights and take
alternative forms of travel.
The scientific name of fear and flight altitude - aerophobia.
c) Air pumped in the planes is one of the cleanest in the world.
d) More people fall in love with flight attendants than representatives of other professions.
e) If the chance of daily disaster was only 0.01%, this would mean that 13 air-planes must crash.
The odd of a plane crash are around 0.001%.
f) Every 3 seconds in the world a plane makes a landing.
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Lesson 5 SELCAL (Selective-Calling Radio System)
In international aviation, SELCAL is a selective-calling radio system that can alert

an aircraft's crew that a ground radio station wishes to communicate with the aircraft. SELCAL uses
a ground-based encoder and radio transmitter to broadcast an audio signal that is picked up by a
decoder and radio receiver on an aircraft. The use of SELCAL allows an aircraft crew to be notified
of incoming communications even when the aircraft's radio has been muted. Thus, crewmembers
need not devote their attention to continuous radio listening.
USE
SELCAL operates on the high frequency (HF) or very high frequency (VHF) radio
frequency bands used for aircraft communications. HF radio often has extremely high levels of
background noise and can be difficult or distracting to listen to for long periods of time. As a result,
it is common practice for crews to keep the radio volume low unless the radio is immediately
needed. A SELCAL notification activates a signal to the crew that they are about to receive a voice
transmission, so that the crew has time to raise the volume.
An individual aircraft has its own assigned SELCAL code. To initiate a SELCAL
transmission, a ground station radio operator enters an aircraft's SELCAL code into a SELCAL
encoder. The encoder converts the four-letter code into four designated audio tones. The radio
operator's transmitter then broadcasts the audio tones on the aircraft's company radio frequency
channel in sequence: the first pair of tones are transmitted simultaneously, lasting about one second;
a silence of about 0.2 seconds; followed by the second pair of tones, lasting about one second.
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The code is received by any aircraft receiver monitoring the radio frequency on which the
SELCAL code is broadcast. A SELCAL decoder is connected to each aircraft's radio receiver.
When a SELCAL decoder on an aircraft receives a signal containing its own assigned SELCAL
code, it alerts the aircraft's crew by sounding a chime, activating a light, or both.
The crew next turns up the volume on the aircraft radio to hear the incoming voice
transmission. Using ICAO radio protocol, they must verify with the transmitting operator that they
are the intended message recipients. The crew then uses the received information.
There is a critical shortage of possible 4-letter codes, which has required re-use of the same
code by more than one aircraft. Duplicate codes are usually assigned to aircraft operated in widely
separated areas of the world, and usually do not have the same HF radio frequency assignment.
However, there are occasions when two or more aircraft having the same code may be operating in
the same general area, and will respond to the same transmission. Therefore, SELCAL should not
be used as a substitute for proper voice identification procedures.
What does SELCAL stand for?

What is the use of SELCAL?
What can you say about SELCAL code?
What is the problem with SELCAL code?
Vocabulary
Convert be able to change from one form to another. The seating converts to a double or two

single beds.
Devote give all or most of one’s time or resources to (a person or activity). I wanted to devote more
time to my family.
Initiate cause (a process or action) to begin. He proposes to initiate discussions
on planning procedures.
Recipient receiving or capable of receiving something: a recipient country
1 selective-calling A radio listening

2 communicate with B transmission
3 ground-based C code
4 continuous D encoder
5 high levels of E radio system
6 four-letter F identification procedures
7 incoming voice G background noise
8 widely separated H the aircraft
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9 voice I areas
2. Fill in the table with the suitable synonyms.
advice destruction blunder harm control fault
inaccuracy counsel impairment injury mistake help wrong
instruction misunderstanding mischief recommendation
guidance error damage
3. Make up word combinations.
restricted unlimited gradient poor edge reduced ground

shoulder horizontal threshold length
runway + + visibility
pair allowable comprising sequence excluding repeated letters
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The code is a 1 __________ of four letters,
written or transmitted as an ordered two sets of two
letters each (e.g., AB-CD). The 2 _________ are
chosen from a subset of the Latin script 3
__________ A through S, 4 __________ I, N and O.
The letters within a given 5 __________ are written
or transmitted in alphabetical order (e.g., AB-CD is an
allowable distinct SELCAL code, as is CD-AB,
but CD-BA is not). A given letter can be used only
once in a SELCAL code; letters may not be 6 __________ (e.g., AB-CD is 7 __________, but AA-
BC and AB-BC are not).
5. Read the announcement from a magazine and do the following exercises.
7 Reasons You Should Attend Flying Aviation Expo
We're just a couple of weeks away from Flying Aviation Expo and the excitement for
Southern California's premier aviation event is growing by the day. If you haven't made up your
mind whether you're coming, here is a list of reasons why you have to be there.

A) Fill in the blanks with the prepositions.
with at for of in from on
• The airplanes – Dozens 1 _____ new airplanes 2 _____ LSAs to turboprops to jets will be 3 _____
the Palm Springs Convention Center 4 _____ the show, giving you easy access to everything 5
_____ your wish list 6 _____ one convenient place.

• The exhibit hall – Our footprint inside the convention center is nearly full, 7 _____ hundreds of
aviation brands represented by our long list of exhibitors and partners.

B) 5 definite articles (the) were omitted. Figure out their correct places of use.
• The seminars and tech talks – Throughout show we'll be holding educational seminars and
technical discussions on everything from flying technique to how to get most out of your iPad.

• The Parade of Planes – One of the highlights of the show again this year will be Parade of Planes
featuring over three dozen aircraft taxiing through streets of Palm Springs to convention center.

C) Fill in the blanks with the correct words.

164
attend fans social register
great details costume
• The parties – We'll be hosting a number of 8 __________

events throughout the show, including a wine tasting at the
Palm Springs Hilton and a can't-miss bash at the Palm
Springs Air Museum that we've turned into a 1940s-themed 9
__________ party.

• The weather – The weather in Palm Springs in October is
always 10 __________. And we're going to guarantee it. If you register to 11 __________ the show
and plan to fly in and conditions aren't gorgeous VFR, we'll give you your money back. More 12
__________ on that promotion in a few days.

• The people – Perhaps the number one reason to come to Flying Aviation Expo is to hang around
with thousands of other aviation 13 __________ who share the same passion you do. There's only a
couple days left to 14 __________ for a free exhibit hall pass. I'm looking forward to seeing you
there.
6. Speaking. Pair work.
Work with your partner. As a representative of a company manufacturing aviation devices

and electronic components make your own announcement on the subject for an expo.
165
Lesson 6 HF (High Frequency) Communication System
In difference of VHF radio waves high frequency (HF) radio waves bounce off of the
ionosphere layer of the atmosphere. This refraction extends the range of HF signals beyond line-of-
sight. As a result, transoceanic aircraft often use HF radios for voice communication. The frequency
range is between 3 to 30 MHz. These kinds of radio waves are known as sky waves. Due to
variations in height and intensities of the ionised regions, different frequencies must be used at
different times of day and night and for different paths. There is also some seasonal variation
(particularly between winter and summer). Propagation may also be disturbed and enhanced during
periods of intense solar activity. The upshot of this is that HF propagation has considerable vagaries
and is far less predictable than propagation at VHF.
Sky waves propagation illustration
The high frequency (HF) communication system provides communication between the
airplane and ground, and/or another airplane, in the frequency range of 2.000-29.999 MHz.
Frequencies are selected on the HF control panel. Most of the HF control panels have selector
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knobs for tuning the appropriate frequency ranges (1-Kilohertz, 10-Kilohertz, 100-Kilohertz, and 1-
Megahertz), a frequency readout (display), and a mode selector to change the operation mode.
During tuning operations, the receiver being tuned is muted. A 1000 Hz tone will normally be heard
following the tuning cycle each time a new frequency is selected.
Different HF communication systems
HF communication systems provide aircraft with an effective means of communication over

long distance oceanic and trans-polar routes. In addition, global data communication has recently
been made possible using strategically located HF data link ground stations. These provide access
to different airline networks. An aircraft HF radio system operates on spot (fixed) frequencies
within the HF spectrum. Unlike aircraft VHF radio, the spectrum is not divided into a large number
of contiguous channels but aircraft allocations are distributed with many other services, including
short wave broadcasting, fixed point-to-point, marine and land-mobile, government and amateur
services.
External wire antennas were frequently used on early aircraft. Such antennas would usually
run from the fuselage to the top of the vertical stabiliser and they were sufficiently long to permit
resonant operation on one or more of the aeronautical HF bands. Unfortunately this type of antenna
is unreliable and generally unsuitable for use with a modern high-speed passenger aircraft.
HF antenna (inside) location example
The design of antennas used with HF

communication systems vary with the size and
shape of the aircraft. Aircraft which cruise 300
mph generally use a long wire antenna between the
fuselage and the fin.
In all aircrafts there are more than one HF
communication systems. For example, in Boeing
787 there are 2 identical systems- left and right,
but only one antenna. In other words one HF
communication antenna is shared by both HF
systems. This antenna is part of the leading edge of
the vertical fin. It has a fiberglass-aluminum
bonded leading edge surface.
Location of HF Transceivers (systems) in Boeing 787
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What is the difference between VHF and HF systems?
Why must different frequencies be used?
How are frequencies selected?
What is the use of HF communication systems?
What can you say about external wire antennas?
Vocabulary
Allocate distribute (resources or duties) for a particular purpose. Of course, Budgets are also about

allocating resources in the here and now to deal with current problems.
Bounce come into contact with an object or surface and be reflected back. That's when transmitted
radio signals bounce off barriers and take multiple paths to get to a receiver, resulting in
interference.
Propagation transmit or be transmitted in a particular direction. Sound waves are propagated within
a medium, and simply do not exist ‘in the absence of interactions’.
Tune adjust (a receiver circuit such as a radio or television) to the frequency of the required signal.
The radio was tuned to the BBC.
Upshot the final or eventual outcome or conclusion of a discussion, action, or series of events. The
upshot of this discussion for the questions with which we started can be put somewhat simply.
Vagary an unexpected and inexplicable change in a situation or in someone’s behaviour. The
problem is that security in old age depends increasingly on the vagaries of the stock market.
1 ionosphere A is a wireless communications system

2 refraction B directly from the sender to the receiver
3 resonant C is the behavior of radio waves when they are
transmitted into various parts of the atmosphere
4 point-to-point D deep, clear, and continuing to sound
5 land-mobile E the layer of the earth’s atmosphere which extends
from about 80 to 1,000 and is able to reflect radio waves
2. Fill in the blanks with words from the box.
bounce propagation upshot vagaries tuned allocating
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1 We were certainly aware of the earthquake waves and their __________ and spread.
2 We have always felt somewhat dangerous to the __________ of political change.
3 Are we __________ our resources in the right direction, according to your estimates?
4 The __________ of the meeting was that he was on the next plane to New York.
5 Some radio telescopes can be __________ to this frequency, but some simply can't.
6 Short sound waves __________ off even small objects.
3. True or false.
1 Like VHF radio waves HF radio waves bounce off of the ionosphere layer. ____
2 Radio waves between 2 to 30 MHz are also known as sky waves. ____
3 The HF communication system provides communication only between the airplane and ground.
____
4 External wire antennas would usually run from the fuselage to the top of the vertical stabilizer.
____
5 External wire antennas are unreliable and unsuitable for a high-speed passenger aircraft. ____
6 Generally in all aircrafts there is one HF communication system. ____
1 The HF band is a major part of the shortwave band of frequencies_______________________
2 HF radio waves can travel beyond the horizon, ______________________________________
3 The maximum usable frequency regularly drops below 10 MHz ________________________
4 HF radio waves travel in a straight line and do not ___________________________________
5 Frequencies immediately below HF are denoted Medium-frequency (MF), and ____________
6 Frequency in summer during daylight _____________________________________________
A can easily surpass 30 MHz.
B curve to follow the earth’s surface.
C and is often called shortwave radio.
D the next higher frequencies are known as Very high frequency (VHF).
E in darkness during the winter months.
F around the curve of the Earth.

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radio military bridging long-distance satellite equipment
infrastructure vehicles unique spectrum preparatory properties
High Frequency (HF: 1.6 MHz to 30 MHz) radio is (a) __________ in that it can provide
reliable (b) __________ communications, using simple and inexpensive (c) _________, both within
a country and internationally from isolated areas where the communications (d) __________ is
either non-existent or where (e) __________ is denied by disaster or (f) __________ conflict. It is
the only practicable means of (g) __________ long distances (up to thousands of kilometers)
without the need for intermediate relay facilities, such as (h) __________ or telecommunications
line providers. HF (i) __________ also includes more
localised coverage. One example is military mobile
communications including long and short range links to
man-packs, (j) __________, ships and aircraft.
HF communications are able to provide the services
most likely needed, be they voice, data or video traffic at
very low cost and with little (k) __________ work to
establish a network. It has these unique (l) __________ because of the existence of a natural
resource available to virtually everyone on the globe, the High Frequency (m) __________ and the
ionosphere that provides the conduit for the exchange of information.
6. Speaking.
Work with your partner. Make up a story using the words above in the box.
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Lesson 7 VHF (Very High Frequency) Communication System
VHF (Very High Frequency) communication radios are the primary communication radios
used in aviation. Seven hundred and twenty
separate and distinct channels have been
designated in this range with 25 kilohertz spacing
between each channel. Further division of the
bandwidth is possible, such as in Europe where
8.33 kilohertz separate each VHF communication
channel. VHF radios are used for communications
between aircraft and air traffic control (ATC), as well as air-to-air communication between aircraft.
When using VHF, each party transmits and receives on the same channel. There are more then one
separate, identical VHF communication systems in all modern civil aviation aircrafts. They provide
communication between the airplane and ground and/or another airplane. All systems operate
separately or simultaneously to provide short range line-of-sight communications in the 118.000 to
136.975 MHz frequency range. The theoretical range of transmission is 123 miles between an
aircraft at a height of 10000 ft and a ground station at sea level. In practice, however, useable range
will also vary depending upon factors such as transmitter power, receiver sensitivity, atmospheric
and temperature conditions, ground station geographical situation etc. and any obstruction in
between aircraft and ground station e.g. mountains, hills and trees. As a general rule, satisfactory
two-way communication can typically be maintained up to 200 miles, this range dependent on the
aircraft height.
There are a lot of different types of VHF communication systems. Some of them are small
and simple; others are big and difficult system with a variety of different additional functions.
As we said before VHF communication is a line-of-sight communication. Line-of-sight
communication is a characteristic of radio wave propagation. In that case the radio waves traveling
in a straight line. This waves may be diffracted, refracted, reflected, or absorbed by atmosphere and
obstructions with material and generally cannot travel over the horizon or behind obstacles.
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With the microphone continuously keyed, VHF transmission is available for 30 seconds.
Four warning beeps sound during the last 5 seconds prior to transmit capability cutoff. Transmit
capability may be continued beyond the 30-second segment by releasing and then re-keying the
microphone switch. VHF communication control panels are located on the pedestal in the cockpit.
Frequencies are selected at any of the VHF communication control panels. Each VHF
communication panel has two frequency readouts and a transfer switch for selection of the active
frequency, a light emitting diode (LED) above each frequency readout to indicate the active
frequency, and two frequency selector knobs.
VHF aircraft communication radios are usually transceivers. A transceiver is a
communication radio that transmits and receives. The same frequency is used for both. When
transmitting, the receiver does not function. The push to talk (PTT) switch blocks the receiving
circuitry and allows the transmitter circuitry to be active. In a transceiver, some of the circuitry is
shared by the transmitting and receiving functions of the device. So is the antenna. This saves space
and the number of components used. Transceivers are half duplex systems where communication
can occur in both directions but only one party can speak while the other must listen.
The main reason of using more than one VHF transceiver in the same aircraft is high
reliability. If one of them will be inoperative, the other one will support communication. For
example, there are 3 VHF communication
transceivers in Boeing 787- left, center and
right. Moreover, there are 3 antennas for each
of them. The center radio is usually used for
data transmission but can be used for voice
communication. The right VHF radio can be
used for voice or data. The left VHF radio can
be used only for voice communication.
The crew members control VHF
transceivers by audio control panel (ACP). By
this panel they can turn off or turn on any of
transceivers. ACPs also change the transmitted audio from an analog signal to a digital signal.
There are 3 ACPs in the cockpit.
What does VHF stand for?

What purpose is VHF used for?
How can you define line-of-sight communication?
What can you say about VHF transmission?
What is a transceiver?
Vocabulary
172
Bandwidth 1 a range of frequencies within a given band, in particular that used for transmitting a
signal. Since kinetic energy increases with increasing frequency, the bandwidth of the low-
frequency regime is limited. 2 the transmission capacity of a computer network or
other telecommunication system. It is also the amount of cache memory rather than the memory
bandwidth that determines the speed of the system in popular games.
Obstruct block (an opening, path, road, etc.). As for the problem of motorbikes for hire and rental
vehicles obstructing the roads and walkways, the mayor said the city plans to designate parking
areas, which he said should alleviate that particular problem.
Segment each of the parts into which something is or may be divided.
The market for private cars can be broken down into several segments.
Pedestal the base or support on which a statue, obelisk, or column is mounted. But the designs
show two male statues on pedestals in the entrance hall below vast battle paintings and two more in
the great domed central hall.
Cutoff a sudden drop in amplification or responsiveness of an electric device at a certain frequency.
Aldroubi and Gröchenig have developed a new sampling theory that can handle situations where
having such a cut-off frequency is undesirable.
Diffract the process by which a beam of light or other system of waves is spread out as a result of
passing through a narrow aperture or across an edge, typically accompanied by interference
between the wave forms produced. It is a fact of physics that all light beams suffer from diffraction;
it was not thought that much could be done about it.
bandwidth obstruct segment pedestal cutoff
1 The authorities attempted to __________ the activities of Bradlaugh and other freethinkers.
2 The pump also has a fuel __________ valve, operated by a solenoid with a removable coil.
3 A special __________ examines the properties of atoms, explaining how atomic mass and atomic
numbers are calculated.
4 This prevents delays in presenting and sharing documents and improves performance and
__________ utilization.
5 It does not have any __________, being buried directly into the earth.
2. Unscramble the words, find out synonym for each.
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Scrambled Unscrambled
bepe
teagaprop
eargn
eatdisgen
ttcsiind
scale _______________________
transmit ____________________
clear-cut ____________________
short-sound _________________
label _______________________
3. Match the halves of the word combinarions.
1 primary communication A communication

2 division of B control panels
3 provide short range C functions of the device
4 two-way D communication radios
5 radio wave E capability cutoff
6 transmit F the bandwidth
7 transmitting and receiving G propagation
8 VHF communication H -of-sight communications
4. Choose the correct variant.
1 Pilots give what name to Universal Time Coordinated (UTC)?

A zero hour B GMT C prime time D zulu time
2 For what field of endeavor are the Wright Brothers known?

A telegraphy B computer science C food preservation D aviation
3 Which of the following is not a part of an airplane?

A propeller B vortex C fuselage D aileron
4 What is found on an airplane?

A airport B airfield C airframe D airship
5 What is the name for the aircraft body?

A aileron B fuselage C fuse D feud
6 Which of these helps fly a plane?

A automatic transmission B automatic pistol C automatic pilot D automatic withdrawal
7 What is the name for a jet-powered propeller engine?

A turbine B turbot C tureen D turboprop
174
5. Fill in the blanks using the prepositions from the box below.
to (x3) by in on (x2) of (x7)
1 Pilots use the letter Z, coded as Zulu, ___ indicate Universal Time Coordinated (UTC). This
assures that pilots all around the world are not confused ___ time-zone changes.
2 ___ 1903 the Wright Brothers ___ Ohio mounted a
gasoline engine and a propeller ___ a specially
adapted glider and produced the first successful
airplane.
3 A vortex is a spinning flow ___ air or water.
4 The airframe ___ an airplane includes the
fuselage, wings, tail assembly, engine mounts, and
landing gear.
5 The fuselage is the body ___ the aircraft. It
consists ___ a rigid frame and a covering ___
aluminum, magnesium, or molded plastic or
fiberglass.
6 An instrument called the automatic pilot can be
used ___ keep a plane ___ course without the pilot's
help.
7 One type of jet engine, the turboprop, is used ___ turn a propeller.
6. Speaking.
Project.
Work with your partner, get information about the history of telecommunication and share it
with the class.
175
CHAPTER 8 AIRPORT OPERATIONS
Lesson 1 Lights
Lighting is needed for the illumination of instruments, switches and panels. Lighting on aircraft has
different functions: safety, operational needs, servicing, the convenience of passengers. The
applications of aircraft lights can be broadly grouped into four areas: flight compartment (cockpit),
passenger cabin, exterior and servicing (cargo and equipment bays).
Passenger cabin lights Incandescent lamps
Interior lighting depends on the size of aircraft and is controlled from the flight attendants’ station.
Cabin signs, e.g. ‘return to seat’ or ‘no-smoking’, are normally activated by the flight crew. They
are consist of incandescent lamps and integrated lighting. Traditionally, each cabin light is
controlled individually.
Integrated lighting
Flight compartment lights
In the flight compartment the following types of lighting are used: dome lights, flood lighting,
emergency lights. Dome lights are located on the ceiling and provide the compartment with non-
directional distribution of light. Flood lighting in the flight compartment provides a general
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illumination of panels, pedestals etc. Emergency lights are installed in the flight compartment for
escape purposes.
The color of flight compartment lights is normally white; this reduces the power and heat, improves
contrast on the instruments, and reduces eye fatigue.
Exterior lights
Exterior lighting is used for logo illumination, landing/taxiing, wing illumination,
anti-collision/navigation. Logo lights are used to illuminate the tail fin; this is primarily for
promotional purposes. Apart from the advertising value at airports, they are often used for
additional awareness in busy airspace. Landing/taxiing lights are located on the nose, the fuselage,
landing gear or wing roots/tips. They improve visibility during ground operations. Wing lights are
often installed to check ice formation on wing leading edges and engine intakes.
Anti-collision/navigation lights can be green, red, clear (white) and orange. The different colors
make it possible for an outside observer, such as the pilot of another aircraft, to determine which
direction the plane is flying.
Service lights
Service lights are powered from the aircraft ground servicing bus. Examples include: cargo bays,
wheel wells, equipment bays, fuelling panels. Wheel wells lights are normally only used during the
turnaround at night during the pre-flight inspection.
What is the essential use of lighting?

How can you group the applications of aircraft lights?
What can you say about each of these groups?
Vocabulary
Application 1 a formal (often written) request for sth, such as a job or a formal request to an
authority: licences are available on application 2 the practical use of sth: The intention would have
wide application in industry
Convenience the quality of being useful, easy or suitable for sb: We have provided seats for the
convenience of our customers
Fatigue a feeling of being extremely tired, usually because of hard
work or exercise: physical and mental fatigue
Pedestal the base or support on which a statue or column is
mounted: I replaced the vase carefully on its pedestal
177
1. Find right definition for each picture.
______________ _______________ ________________
a dome light
b flood lighting
c emergency light
2. Choose the correct word from the box to fill in the blanks in the sentences below.
navigation logos exterior illuminate emergency
1 Ninety percent of the energy used to ___________ a regular bulb is spent on heat rather than
light.
2 ___________ aircraft cleaning process consists of bright working, polishing, wet and dry
washing.
3 This technology provides the ability to deliver traffic information over FM radio into
conventional on-board __________ systems.
4 After considering all the____________, he concluded that none of them were right for his
website.
5 Our climate crisis may, at times, appear to be happening slowly, but in
fact it is
happening very quickly-and has become a true planetary __________.
3. Choose the right answer to the given definitions below.
taxiing intake bay cockpit flight attendant
178
A __________ a compartment with a specified function in an aircraft
B __________ a compartment for the pilot, and sometimes also the crew, in an aircraft
C __________ move slowly along the ground before take-off or after landing
D __________ a steward or stewardess on an aircraft
E __________ the action of taking something in
4. Read the advertisement by “B/E Aerospace Company”. Fill in the table with the
correct statements for each column.
Cabin Lighting Emergency Lighting & Ordinance

Signs
1 Our systems offer a range of cabin lighting solutions, from simple white-only LED lighting to
advanced color-shifting technology, which provide the utmost in passenger experience and energy
savings.
2 B/E has a complete line of reliable emergency and informational lighting systems for all in-flight
safety and communication needs.
3 Proper cabin lighting is essential to modern aircraft interiors. Our innovative LED lighting
systems offer cabin illumination options that enhance the passenger experience, from boarding to
disembarkation.
4 From emergency exit and “no-smoking/fasten seat belt” signs to suite information panels, we
offer reliable, durable, emergency and informational lighting systems for all of your in-flight safety
and communication needs.
5 Enhance the aircraft cabin atmosphere with interior cabin, passenger, and crew work lighting from
B/E.
1 White and red proximity lighting A exceed FAA and SAE interior-cabin
provides occupants with visual guidance requirements and recommendations.
for emergency cabin
2 Ordinance signs, including "no- B both AC and DC power sources.
smoking/fasten seat belt" and status
indicators for portable
179
3 Clearly visible wall and C to enjoying the food, better
ceiling (pendant style) exit cabin lighting makes
signs and emergency lighting everything better.
meet and
4 Company offers a variety of D evacuation when all
wash lighting solutions sources of cabin lighting are
ranging from white-only to totally obscured from the
passengers' sight.
5 The systems of our E their perception of the
company are available for entire flight.
6 As the leading expert for F advanced color-shifting
LED lighting in aviation, mood lighting system.
EMTEQ has vast experience
installing and
7 Lighting impacts every G electronic devices, provide
single passenger with the passengers with useful visual
power to influence direction.
8 Aircraft lighting is H certifying LED lighting on
important for from feeling a variety of aircraft in a
safe and secure variety of applications.
6. PROJECT WORK
Gather information about LED lights, their uses, advantages and disadvantages.
Lesson 2 Air Traffic Control
Air traffic management is an aviation term encompassing all systems that assist aircraft to
depart from an aerodrome, transit airspace, and land at a destination aerodrome, including air
traffic control (ATC), aeronautical meteorology, air navigation
systems (aids to navigation), Air Space Management (ASM), Air
Traffic Services (ATS), and Air Traffic Flow
Management (ATFM), or Air Traffic Flow and Capacity
Management (ATFCM).
Air traffic control (ATC) is a service provided by ground-
based controllers who direct aircraft on the ground and through
controlled airspace from departure to arrival, and can provide
advisory services to aircraft in non-controlled airspace. The
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primary purpose of ATC worldwide is to prevent collisions, organize and expedite the flow of
traffic, and provide information and other support for pilots. To prevent collisions, ATC
enforces traffic separation rules, which ensure each aircraft maintains a minimum amount of empty
space around it at all times. Many aircraft also have collision avoidance systems, which provide
additional safety by warning pilots when other aircraft get too close.
In many countries, ATC provides services to all private, military, and commercial aircraft
operating within its airspace. Depending on the type of flight and the class of airspace, ATC may
issue instructions that pilots are required to obey, or advisories (also flight information) that pilots
may, at their discretion, disregard. Generally the pilot in command is the final authority for the safe
operation of the aircraft and may, in an emergency, deviate from ATC instructions to the extent
required to maintain safe operation of their aircraft.
The primary method of controlling the immediate airport environment is visual observation
from the aerodrome control tower (TWR). The tower is a tall, windowed structure located on the
airport grounds.
Aerodrome or Tower controllers are responsible for the separation and efficient movement
of aircraft and vehicles operating on the taxiways and runways of the airport itself, and aircraft in
the air near the airport, generally 5 to 10 nautical miles (9 to 18 km) depending on the airport
procedures.
The task of ensuring safe operations of commercial and private aircraft falls on air traffic
controllers. They must coordinate the movements of thousands of aircraft, allocate different heights
to aircraft or by arranging minimum horizontal distances between them, direct them during takeoff
and landing from airports, direct them around bad weather and ensure that traffic flows smoothly
with minimal delays.
While you are enjoying your flight, your plane gets passed from sector to sector and center
to center. In each sector, center controllers give instructions to the pilots. The path of your plane
may have to be changed from the original flight plan to move around bad weather or avoid a
congested sector. Your pilots may request a change in altitude to avoid or reduce turbulence. The
controller gives instructions to your pilot, such as changes in heading, speed and altitude, to place
your plane in line with these other aircraft. Depending on traffic conditions, the controller may have
to place your plane into a holding pattern, which is a standard route around each airport, where you
wait until the airport can handle your arrival.
What is an air traffic management system? What components does it consist of?
What is an air traffic control and its primary purposes?
What are the duties of the tower controllers?
How can controllers help the pilot while the
aircraft is on airspace?
VOCABULARY
Assist to help something to happen more easily. activities

that will assist the decision-making process
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Disregard pay no attention to; ignore. The board completely disregarded my recommendations.
Encompass to include a large number or range of things. The job encompasses a wide range of
responsibilities.
Enforce to make sure that people obey a particular law or rule. It's the job of the police to enforce
the law.
Ensure to make sure that something happens or is definite. Victory ensured them a place in the
final.
Expedite to make a process happen more quickly. We have developed rapid order processing to
expedite deliveries to customers.
Issue supply someone with. Everyone was issued with a gas mask.
Nautical mile a unit used in measuring distances at sea, equal to 1,852 metres.
1. Complete the sentences with the appropriate word from the box.
disregard discretion encompass expedite assist
a) If they came from someone other than the man who'd supported his father and grandfather,
he'd __________ the warning and have the messenger killed.
b) That night they slept under the stars - Bordeaux a respectable distance from her, but close
enough to __________ if anything went wrong in the night.
c) It will greatly __________ students' research if the older material is also eventually searchable
electronically.
d) Other projects and responsibilities may be added at the company’s __________.
e) The world and its mythologies are large, and they __________ contradictions.
1 deviate a to give sth officially to sbd for a particular purpose
2 grounds b connected with seeing or sight
3 immediate c happening or done without delay
4 allocate d to be different from something
5 visual e an area of land that is used for a particular purpose
3. Read the passage and do the following exercises.
a) Read the paragraph and fill in the blanks with the appropriate articles from the box.
182
the an the an the a the
International Civil Aviation Day

International Civil Aviation Day was established in 1994 by ICAO to mark _____ 50th anniversary
of _____ Organization, created on 7 December 1944. In 1996, pursuant to _____ ICAO initiative
and with _____ assistance of the Canadian Government, the United Nations General Assembly by
resolution officially recognized 7 December as International Civil Aviation Day and listed it as
_____ official UN day. The purpose of the global celebration is to generate and reinforce worldwide
awareness of _____ importance of international civil aviation in the social and economic
development of States, and of the role of ICAO in promoting the safety, efficiency and regularity of
international air transport.
International Civil Aviation Day is a global observance and not _____ public holiday.
b) Using your dictionary, try to find out definitions for the unknown words and use them in
your own sentences.
pursuant____________________________________________________
B initiative___________________________________________________
C generate____________________________________________________
D reinforce___________________________________________________
E observance__________________________________________________
4. Read the article and fill in the blanks with the correct answers from the box below.
5.5 million 32 million 12% 2% 2.2 billion 2050 628,000,000 tonnes
Aviation & Environment
The importance of aviation

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Air transport moves over __________ passengers annually.
Air transport generates a total of __________ jobs globally of which __________ work directly in
the aviation industry.
The environmental impact of aviation

Air transport's contribution to climate change represents __________ of human-induced CO2
emissions and __________ of all transport sources.
Flights produce __________ of CO2 yearly.
Worldwide, it is estimated that the equivalent of 1300 new international airports will be required by
__________ with a doubling in the commercial aircraft fleet.
5. Study numbers and write the given numbers in words.
a 8,218,054 /
2,760,300______________________________________________
__
b 354 /
691__________________________________________________________
c 1706 / 1865________________________________________________________
d ½ / ¼ / 0.5 / 0.25____________________________________________________
1 During peak air travel times in the United A in the weather conditions to give the
States, there are about 5,000 pilot time to effectively prepare to rough
weather.
2 When you think about air traffic control, B airplanes in the sky every hour. This
the image of men and women in the tower translates to approximately 50,000 aircraft
operating in our skies each day.
3 Within controlled airspace, pilots must C helps you to get to your destination fast,
follow controllers’ instructions. Outside without any delays.
controlled airspace
4 The global airspace has been divided into D of an airport probably comes to mind.
several airspace blocks and regions However, the air traffic control system is
much more complex than that.
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5 Not only does the air traffic control E and each is manned by air traffic
system guarantee your safety, it also controllers.
6 In addition to guiding the pilots, F they take full responsibility for their own
controllers also keep the pilots informed safety, although they can ask for help.
about changes
7. Speaking. Discuss the following questions with your partner.
Did you have any information about International Civil Aviation Day beforehand?
According your opinion how do pilots celebrate this day?
What other official UN days do you know?
Which international holidays are celebrated in your country?
Lesson 3 Weather Radar
185
Weather systems such as weather radar and lightning detectors are important for aircraft
flying at night or in instrument meteorological conditions, where it is not possible for pilots to see
the weather ahead. Heavy precipitation (as sensed by radar) or severe turbulence (as sensed by
lightning activity) are both indications of strong convective activity and severe turbulence, and
weather systems allow pilots to deviate around these areas.
Lightning detectors and weather radar are used
together to detect storms. Lightning detectors indicate
electrical activity, while weather radar indicates
precipitation. Both phenomena are associated with
thunderstorms and can help indicate storm strength.
A lightning detector is a device that detects lightning
produced by thunderstorms.
Three common threats to aircraft are turbulence,
hail and wind shear at low altitude. All three of these are
byproducts of thunderstorms. Weather radar is a popular
method of alerting the flight crew to the presence and
location of thunderstorms. An airborne weather radar is technically called a Weather AVOIDANCE
Radar. The radar system will provide the pilot with the necessary weather information to avoid, not
penetrate, severe and dangerous weather.
Weather radar works on a principle of sending radio waves and measuring the radio waves
energy that returns, and also the time it takes to return. The reflectivity of water particles will
depend on its size, concentration, and composition of the precipitation. The bigger the size of the
water droplet and the intensity, the greater the reflectivity. The ‘wetter’ the precipitation, the greater
the reflectivity. It needs to be noted that the frequency band of the radio waves (X band) is selected
not to detect any cloud, small precipitation such as drizzle, fog or wind, as the droplets are too little
or don’t exist. It also cannot detect wind shear or clear air turbulence, as the precipitation do not
exist, except in a microburst.
Is it necessary for the pilot to know weather forecast and why?

What do you know about weather radars?
What is the importance of weather radars?
Is lightning dangerous for flying vehicles?
VOCABULARY
Convection the movement caused within a fluid by the tendency of hotter and therefore less dense
material to rise, and colder, denser material to sink under the influence of gravity, which
consequently results in transfer of heat
186
Detector a piece of equipment for discovering the presence of something, such as metal,
smoke, explosives or changes in pressure or temperature
Deviate to be different from something; to do something in a different way from what is usual or
expected
Droplet a small drop of a liquid
Instrument a device used for measuring speed, distance, temperature, etc. in a vehicle or on a piece
of machinery
Penetrate to go into or through something
Precipitation rain, snow, etc. that falls; the amount of this that falls
Reflect to show the image of somebody/something on the surface of something such as a mirror,
water or glass
Reflectivity the degree to which a material reflects light or radiation
Turbulence a situation in which there is a lot of sudden change, confusion, disagreement and
sometimes violence
Wind shear variation in wind velocity occurring along a direction at right angles to the wind’s
direction and tending to exert a turning force
1. Fill in the blanks with right definitions.
Interpretation of radar returns
green yellow red magenta
1. _________ light precipitation

2. _________ medium precipitation
3. _________ heavy precipitation
4. _________ extremely high precipitation
2. Read the text below and find words in the text which mean the following.
1 Average 6 Rays from the sun

2 Dry 7 Make less extreme
187
3 Height above sea level 8 Situated very far from the sea
4 Distance from the equator 9 Differing weather conditions at different times of the year
5 Rain and snow
Schemes for dividing the Earth into climatic regions are based on a combination of indices
of mean annual temperature, mean monthly temperature, annual precipitation totals and seasonality.
The climate of a place is affected by several factors. Latitude affects the amount of solar radiation
received, with the greatest in equatorial regions and the least in polar regions. Elevation affects both
temperature and precipitation; mountainous areas generally cooler and wetter. Location close to the
sea or to large bodies of water moderates temperature; continental areas are generally more arid and
more affected by extremes of temperature.
3. Using the following vocabulary list, match the lettered clouds in the diagram with
the appropriate terminology.
Cirrus _____ Alto-cumulus _____

Stratus _____ Stratus-cumulus _____
Cumulus _____ Nimbo-stratus _____
Cirro-stratus _____ Alto-stratus _____
Cirro-cumulus _____ Cumulo-nimbus _____
4. Put the correct

weather-
related idioms into the box in each sentence.
it never rains but it pours under the weather has her head in the clouds
188
storm in a teacup every cloud has a silver lining
1 Are you feeling a bit ____________________? You have been looking a bit tired and ill since
you arrived in the office this morning.
2 First the bank sent us that rude letter about our loan, then the house got broken into to, then this
morning John lost his job! ____________________.
3 When I lost my job three years ago, I felt so depressed but it is true that ____________________:
I started my own business and have been happier ever since.
4 Daisy always ____________________ - a real dreamer who finds it difficult to accept the
mundane in life. She is a typical teenager!
5 I only touched his new car and he went crazy. He is over-protective of it and made a real
____________________.
5. Choose the words from the box and write them next to the corresponding picture,
use the words in the following sentences.
tornado tsunami hail eruption lightning drought fog
1 It
didn’t rain for a long time and the __________ ruined the harvest.
2 __________ consists of small balls of ice that fall from the sky.
3
We couldn’t see anything

because of the _________.
4 A flash of light in the sky is called __________.
5 A __________ took Dorothy’s house to the land of Oz.
6 The __________ was moving to the coast of the Mexico.
7 You have to stay away from the volcano during the __________.
189
6. Speaking.
Describe with your partner weather

forecast during the four seasons using
new words.
Lesson 4 Glide Slope
The vertical guidance required for an aircraft to descend for a landing is provided by the
glide slope of the ILS. Radio signals funnel the aircraft down to the touchdown point on the runway
at an angle of approximately 3°. The transmitting glide slope antenna is located off to the side of the
190
approach runway approximately 1,000 feet from the threshold. It transmits in a wedge-like pattern
with the field narrowing as it approaches the runway.
A glide slope antenna broadcasts radio signals to guide an aircraft vertically to the runway
The transmitting frequency range is ultra high frequency (UHF) between 329.3 MHz and
335.0 MHz. The frequency is paired to the localizer frequency of the ILS. When the VOR/ILS
receiver is tuned for the approach, the glide slope receiver is automatically tuned. Like the localizer,
the glide slope transmits two signals, one modulated at 90 Hz and the other modulated at 150 Hz.
The aircraft’s glide slope receiver detects the signals similar to the method of the localizer receiver.
It drives a vertical course deviation indicator (CDI) known as the glideslope indicator. The
glideslope indicator operates identically to the localizer CDI only 90° to it. The VOR/ILS localizer
CDI and the glide slope are displayed together on whichever kind of instrumentation is in the
aircraft.
There may be three situations: 1. aircraft is above the glide slope path; 2. aircraft is below
the glide slope path; 3. aircraft is on the glide slope path.
191
Three situations during landing
The UHF antenna for aircraft reception of the glideslope signals comes in many forms. An antenna
mounted inside the nose of the aircraft is a common option. Antenna manufacturers have also
incorporated glideslope reception into the same dipole antenna used for the VOR/ILS localizer
reception.
The pilot controls the aircraft so that the glide slope indicator remains centered on the
display to ensure the aircraft is following the glide path to remain above obstructions and reach the
192
runway at the proper touchdown point (i.e., it provides vertical guidance). A glide slope station uses
an antenna array sited to one side of the runway touchdown zone.
Glide slope ground stations and antennas
What does glide slope of the ILS provide aircraft with?

How can you describe working principle of glide slope?
What are the three situations during landing?
193
Vocabulary
Dipole a pair of equal and oppositely charged or magnetized poles separated by a distance. The

succeeding positive slope arises due to the orientation of the headgroup dipoles.
Funnel guide or channel (something) through. Some $12.8 billion was funnelled
through the Marshall Plan.
Wedge a piece of wood, metal, etc. having one thick end and tapering to a thin edge, that is driven
between two objects or parts of an object to secure or separate them. The door was secured by a
wedge.
1. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate preposition.
to on of in on to of in from in on
in or to within
1 A glide slope station uses an antenna array sited _____ one side _____ the runway touchdown
zone.
2 The pilot controls the aircraft so that the glide slope indicator remains centered _____ the display
_____ ensure the aircraft is following the glide path.
3 The higher the ground speed, the higher the descent rate to stay _____ the three-degree profile.
4 The signal is radiated to produce two intersecting lobes, one _____ top _____ the other.
5 Both the localizer and glideslope needles and flags are located _____ the same indicator.
6 _____ the old days, glideslope receivers were large, remote boxes that weighed several pounds
and took a lot of space.
7 Another point to keep _____ mind is the closer you get to the runway, the more sensitive the
needle is which increases the pilot workload _____ keep it centered.
8 There are procedures that must be followed if a glideslope flag is _____ view.
9 There's a big difference _____ flying a 2.5 versus a 3.3 degree glideslope.
10 If a problem occurs within the aircraft glideslope receiver _____ the radiated signal _____ the
ground becomes a problem, the glideslope warning flag will be in view.
2. Read the article by “Aviation Week” magazine and fill in the blanks with the correct
words.
announced effective wing payload derivative artificial freight

predicted significantly cargo containers cockpit debut emergency
predicts
194
It’s the same, but different. Although the
Antonov An-148 and its stretched -158
(a)__________ have graced Le Bourget’s skies and
concrete on previous occasions, the aircraft set to
make its Western (b)__________ at the Paris Air
Show this week differs subtly but (c)__________,
with a rear loading ramp and military-style gray
camouflage.
When (d)__________ in February 2010 with its design already underway, first flight was
(e)__________ in 2013. The aircraft’s stated role was as a replacement for the turboprop An-26 and
An-32. The (f)__________ outer panels (including winglets), front fuselage with (g)__________
and nosewheel leg come from the An-158. The (h)__________ hold is slightly enlarged, and there
is an extra pair of mainwheels on each side.
Antonov says the 18-ton (i)__________ can include all existing types of packaged
(j)__________, including 2.44 x 2.44−meter high-capacity sea (k)__________. This makes the
aircraft an (l)__________ transport for logistics support and (m)__________ situations.
In the best Antonov traditions, the An-178 can operate from any runway, including those
with (n)__________ pavement, unpaved airfields and alpine airdromes. Antonov (o)__________
sales of up to 1,100 An-178s by 2035.
1 affect/ engine/ and/ Every/ dirty/ performance/ can/ this/ engine/ gets.
_____________________________________________________________________________
2 through/ Its/ the/ is/ to/ the/ capability/ waste/ of/ costs/ improve/ engine supply/ and/ quality/
eliminating/ mission/ reduce.
_____________________________________________________________________________
3 SAE International/ ultimate/ a/ being/ to/ the/ knowledge/ the/ source/ for/ global/ committed/
engineering/ is/ association/ profession.
_____________________________________________________________________________
4 good/ vehicle emissions/ not/ Traffic gridlock,/ and/ accident fatalities,/ things/ are.
_____________________________________________________________________________
5 in/ premium-class,/ have/ focused/ Cabin/ been/ on/ but/ past/ there/ in/ have/ lots/ the/ of/ things/
going on/ first/ business/ really/ or/ been/ changes/ class.
_____________________________________________________________________________
6 maintenance/ services/ will/ a/ The/ including/ range/ development/ provide/ of,/ plant/ of/ new/
methods/ full/ repair.
_____________________________________________________________________________
195
7 engine/ looking/ the/ has/ data,/ can/ if/ one/ a/ By/ at/ stable/ determine/ this/ performance.
_____________________________________________________________________________
4. Speaking.
Group work. Find answers according to the questions below.

What can you say about the recent events in aviation?
Do you have any information about the new technology or systems used in avionics?
196
Lesson 5 Radar Transponder
One of the key means of tracking the position of aircraft is via

radar, a system that evolved before World War II and has been
constantly refined since then. The word RADAR is an acronym
for Radio Detection And Ranging, and in its simplest form it
consists of a transmitted radio signal aimed by an antenna in a
particular direction, and a receiver that detects the echoes off any
objects in the path of the signal. The transmitter consists of an
electronic circuit that oscillates at a specific frequency, usually
much higher than those frequencies used for radio or TV
broadcasts.
This signal is sent out in short bursts of electromagnetic energy, called pulses, through the
antenna which produces a narrow beam like that of a torch. The distance to the target is determined
from the time taken between transmitting the pulse and receiving the echo. This can be accurately
determined because the radar signal travels at the speed of light, which is constant.
For air traffic control radars, the beam is shaped like a fan, narrow in the horizontal direction, and
wide in the vertical direction, to accommodate high-flying planes. This beam scans around in a
circle once every two or three seconds and echoes are displayed on a circular display called a plan-
position indicator.
The air traffic controller — or a computer — can
track the echoes or 'blips' on the display to determine
where the aircraft is heading. This is called primary
radar. Air traffic controllers mostly use secondary radar
to track commercial aircraft and only use real radar in the
case where transponders are not fitted, are turned off or
are broken. If the aircraft transponder is switched off, it
can be difficult to identify which one of the many
primary radar "blips" on the air traffic control display
corresponds to the aircraft you are interested in.
Most people will have heard the expression 'flying below the radar'. This is named after a true
phenomenon. It is caused by the interaction of the radar beam with the ground, which results in the
beam 'lifting' off the horizon. If an aircraft is flying low enough, the beam hardly illuminates it and
the range at which it can be seen is limited.
There are also limits to the distance over which radar can be used. The main problem with radar
for long distance operation is the fact that the amount of power required to send and receive the
signal is dependent on the distance to the aircraft raised to the power of four.
Hiding from radar

Electromagnetic waves "bounce" off objects that conduct electricity, so old-fashioned aircraft
made from wood and canvas didn't produce big radar echoes. The same applies to modern planes
made from carbon fibre composites. Aluminium skinned planes make the best targets.
197
The shape of the aircraft is also important, and metal aircraft made from flat plates, sharp
corners and edges generally produce strong echoes, so if you want to make an aircraft invisible, you
can either make it from flat plates or facets that are aligned in such a way that the radar signals
reflect away from the receiver.
What types of radars did you have information about?

In which spheres radar can be used?
How can you define the working principle of radars?
What are primary and secondary radars for?
Is it possible for the aircraft hiding from radars?
VOCABULARY
Refine to improve something by making small changes to it. She has refined her playing technique
over the years.
Detect to discover or notice something, especially something that is not easy to see, hear, etc. The
tests are designed to detect the disease early.
Oscillate to keep moving from one position to another and back again. Watch how the needle on
the dial oscillates.
Burst to go or move somewhere suddenly with great force. The words burst from her in an angry
rush.
Beam a line of light, electric waves. The car's headlights were on full beam.
Accommodate to provide enough space for somebody/something. Over 70 minutes of music can be
accommodated on one CD.
Blip a small flashing point of light on a radar screen, representing an object
Correspond have a close similarity; match or agree almost exactly. About 60 percent of chicken
genes correspond to a similar human gene.
Interact to communicate with somebody/something. Teachers have a limited amount of time to
interact with each child.
Illuminate to make something clearer or easier to understand. This text illuminates the
philosopher's early thinking.
Bounce to move up and down. Her hair bounced as she walked.
Align to arrange something in the correct position. The top and bottom line of each column on the
page should align.
1. Write definitions for the new words from the text above.
a) invisible____________________________________________________
b) canvas_____________________________________________________
c) phenomenon________________________________________________
198
d) composite__________________________________________________
e) constant____________________________________________________
f) transmit____________________________________________________
g) torch______________________________________________________
2. Fill in the table with the appropriate word from the box.
illuminate constant invisible oscillate composite
WORDS SYNONYMS ANTONYMS
1 imperceptible obvious
2 nonstop discontinuous
3 flash darken
4 complex homogeneous
5 fluctuate remain
3. Circle the best or correct variant.
1) Radar system was used

a. before World War II and has been constantly refined since then;
b. during World War I and has been constantly refined since then.
2) The distance to the target is determined from

a. the time taken between transmitting the pulse and receiving the echo;
b. from bursts of electromagnetic energy, called pulses.
3) “Blips” help to determine

a. place of a hidden aircraft;
b. where the aircraft is heading.
4) The expression 'flying below the radar' is

a. caused by the interaction of the radar beam with the ground;
b. caused by the aircrafts made of wood and canvas.
5) If the aircraft transponder is switched off

199
a. it becomes impossible to find out an aircraft’s position;
b. it can be difficult to identify the “blip” of the aircraft you are interested in.
1 Unmanned aircraft controlled A the most well-known of these was

remotely or the Concorde.
2 American aviation pioneers The B to those in the first and business
Wright Brothers are believed class.
3 There have only been two C by computers are known as drones.
commercial aircraft capable of
supersonic transport,
4 Boeing 747 is famed because it was D in Atlanta, with more than 970.000
the first huge body aircraft airplane movements a year.
5 The busiest commercial airport in E to be have created the first
the world is the Hartsfield- Jackson successful airplane.
Airport
6 There is one rule that pilots must be F ever produced. A Boeing 747 is
fed the same multi-course meal given made up of six million parts.
5. A) Read the interview with an expert, underline unknown words and using your
dictionary try to find out their meaning.
Q. What information does a transponder send, and who does it send it to?
A transponder is a radio transmitter in the cockpit
that works with ground radar. When the transponder
receives a signal from a more sophisticated ground
"secondary" radar, it returns a squawk code with the
aircraft's position, its altitude and its call sign. It is
constantly being radar pinged, helping air traffic
controllers on the ground determine the airplane's
speed and direction, too.
Q. What does "squawk" mean?
It's a four-digit identifying code that the pilot enters into a transponder for each flight. It helps air
traffic control recognize each plane.
Q. Why are transponders necessary?
Primary radar is more basic, effective only at seeing the radar reflection of objects. It paints targets,
displaying them with a blip on a screen. The bigger the object, the bigger the reflection.
Transponders enhance the reflected signal and provide the additional information for air traffic
control.
Q. Is there a way to use it to indicate a problem on board the aircraft?
200
There are codes for different emergencies. For a hijacking, it's 7500. For communications failure,
7600, emergencies are 7700.
B) Read the definitions for the words written on the article above and find answers
from the puzzle.
a) __________________ to make a loud sharp sound

b) __________________ send an email or other electronic message
c) __________________ any of the numbers from 0 to 9
d) __________________an image in a mirror, on a shiny surface, on water
e) __________________ a result that you try to achieve
f) __________________ to increase or further improve the good quality
g) __________________ to use violence or threats to take control of a vehicle, especially a
plane
h) _________________ a sudden serious and dangerous event
A B E Y D I G I T M F Q G P Z
T B M H T Y L O T L D A B O X
A M E O X V H I J A C K I N G
R T R E Z U Q W K K S Z Y I C
G D G W C S P S O J A W H U V
E O E F U R D Q L H P S N Y B
T R N P K T Y U Z G O X U X N
S E C Q H C A A X F I E J F M
P I Y S O V Z W C E U D M E A
K J O S M B N K V N Y C I W S
J F Q R Z N M D B H T R K Q D
A E G T X T E I N A R F O H F
G P I N G U T P O N E V L G H
K E L A F G H J E C W T P S I
P R Q S D R E F L E C T I O N
6. Speaking.
Pair work. Work with your partner, make up a dialogue –

like an interview with avionics expert – and role play it.
201
Lesson 6 Marker Beacon
Marker beacons are components of an instrument landing

system. There are up to three marker beacons on any ILS. They are an
outer marker, middle marker, and inner marker, and their purpose is to
provide range information relative to the runway threshold.
The marker beacons are directional transmitters situated on the
ground along the final approach course of an ILS approach. They
transmit an elliptical pattern upward. One thousand feet above the
antenna, the pattern of the signal being transmitted is approximately
2,400 feet wide and 4,200 feet long. An aircraft passing directly
overhead at 120 knots groundspeed receives the beacon signal for approximately 12 seconds.
When an aircraft flies over the top of the marker beacon, the airborne receiver does two
things. First, it emits a flashing light specific to the type of marker being overflown. It also emits an
aural Morse Code tone that corresponds to the type of marker. In real aircraft, the marker beacon
receiver can be turned on and off and set to high or low sensitivity.
Middle marker
A middle marker works on the same principle as an outer marker. It is normally positioned
0.5 to 0.8 nautical miles (1 km) before the runway threshold. When the aircraft is above the middle
marker, the receiver's amber middle marker light starts blinking, and a repeating pattern of audible
morse code-like dot-dashes at a frequency of 1,300 Hz in the headset. This alerts the pilot that the
CAT I missed approach point (typically 200 feet (60 m) above the ground level on the glideslope)
202
has been passed and should have already initiated the missed approach if one of several visual cues
has not been spotted.
Inner marker
Similar to the outer and middle markers; located at the beginning (threshold) of the runway
on some ILS approach systems (usually Category II and III) having decision heights of less than
200 feet (60 m) AGL. Triggers a flashing white light on the same marker beacon receiver used for
the outer and middle markers; also a series of audio tone 'dots' at a frequency of 3,000 Hz in the
headset.
On some older marker beacon receivers, instead of the "O", "M" and "I" indicators (outer,
middle, inner), the indicators are labeled "A", "O" and "M" (airway, outer, middle). The airway
marker was used to indicate reporting points along the centerline of now obsolete "Red" airways.
As the airway beacons used the same 3,000 Hz audio frequency as the inner marker, the "A"
indicator on older receivers can be used to detect the inner marker.
Outer marker
The Outer Marker, which normally identifies the final approach fix (FAF), is situated on the
same course/track as the localizer and the runway center-line, four to seven nautical miles before
the runway threshold. It is typically located about 1 NM (2 km) inside the point where
the glideslope intercepts the intermediate altitude and transmits a 400 Hz tone signal on a low-
powered (3 watts), 75 MHz carrier frequency. Its antenna is highly directional, and is pointed
straight up. The valid signal area is a 2,400 ft (730 m) × 4,200 ft (1,280 m) ellipse (as measured
1,000 ft (300 m) above the antenna.) When the aircraft passes over the outer marker antenna, its
marker beacon receiver detects the signal. The system gives the pilot a visual (blinking blue outer
marker light) and aural (continuous series of audio tone morse code-like 'dashes') indication.
What can you say generally about marker beacons?

What are the differences among outer marker, middle marker, and inner marker?
What is the indication difference between older and modern marker beacons?
VOCABULARY
Amber A yellow light used as a cautionary signal between green for ‘go’ and red for ‘stop’: the
lights were at amber
Intercept Obstruct (someone or something) so as to prevent them from continuing to a destination.
I intercepted Edward on his way to work.
1. Match the phrases.
1 runway A receiver
2 final approach B receiver
3 elliptical C audible morse code
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4 airborne D threshold
5 flashing E marker light
6 marker beacon F course
7 repeating pattern of G pattern
8 blinking H light
2. True or false.
1 The marker beacons transmit an elliptical pattern downward.

2 Middle marker is normally positioned 0.5 to 0.8 km before the runway threshold.
3 The final approach fix (FAF) is normally identified by the outer marker.
4 The outer marker system gives the pilot both visual and aural indication.
5 In aircraft, the marker beacon receiver can’t be turned on and off, but can be set to high or low
sensitivity.
3. Fill in the blanks.
aurally aeronautical infrastructure offers conjunction

independent developed cone complement reception
radio obsolete functions position switches
1 A marker beacon is a type of __________ beacon used in aviation, usually in __________ with
an instrument landing system.
2 In more __________ parts of the world GPS and other technologies have made marker beacons
increasingly ___________.
3 Airborne marker beacon receiver indicates, __________ and visually, when the aircraft is
directly over the transmitter facility.
4 Marker beacon receiver installations vary between classes of aircraft but the operational
__________ remain identical.
5 Ground marker beacon is a fully __________ system which requires no significant
airport __________ such as transponders, ACARS, differential GPS systems, etc.
6 All flight deck audio systems are equipped with __________ and volume controls for the
__________ of marker beacon audio.
7 Ground marker beacon __________ a stand-alone system for smaller airports, or as a
__________ to more advances surface surveillance systems at larger airports.
8 The International Telecommunication Union dedicates 75MHz to the __________ navigation

service for marker beacons.
9 Marker beacons produce __________ or fan-shaped radiated patterns directed upward.
10 The marker beacon lights up when overflying the outer or middle marker, giving the pilot an
additional __________ information.
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4. Read the newspaper article, do the exercises and rearrange the paragraphs.
Cabin air contamination is going to be researched by EASA. Why?
a) Find the places for the omitted articles
a the (x2)
When instrumentation and testing methodology has been

established, EASA says it intends larger-scale test programme on
board commercially operated large transport aeroplanes. This is
where real work will take place.
b) Fill in the table.
Aerotoxic syndrome, a disabling medical condition that has afflicted hundreds of pilots and
cabin crew worldwide is caused by the presence in cockpit and cabin air of pyrolised
organophosphates from engine oil that get into the engine bleed air that feeds the cabin. But the
existence of this serious health and safety risk in commercial airliners is ignored by governments
and disputed by the aviation establishment. A great deal depends on the independence (from
industry) of the research, and the competency and integrity of the researchers. The research contract
has been awarded to a pair of Germany-based organisations, one a medical school and the other an
applied research establishment.
i: eı əː ʌɪ
c) Fill in the blanks.
basis results operating quality composition health

board
EASA’s call for research bids states: “The (a) __________ of the air that passengers and air
crews are exposed to on (b) __________ commercial transport aeroplanes has been the (c)
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_________ of a continuing debate over the last 60 years, both from the (d) __________ and safety
points of view. Discussions about cabin or cockpit air quality need to differentiate between single
cabin/cockpit air contamination [fume] events and the cabin air composition in normal (e)
__________ conditions, for example the (f) __________ of the cabin air in the absence of any
abnormal event and which can be compared, for instance, to the composition of the outside air or to
the air at other workplaces.”
(g) __________are expected in October 2016, says EASA.
1 _____ 2 _____ 3 _____
5. Speaking.
Project.
Work with your partner, prepare a
presentation on “Bleed Air Fume Event”.
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Lesson 7 Localizer
In aviation, a localizer is the lateral component of the instrument landing system (ILS) for
the runway centerline when combined with the vertical glide slope, not to be confused with a
locator, although both are parts of aviation navigation systems. A localizer (like a glide slope)
works as a cooperation between the transmitting airport runway and the receiving cockpit
instruments.
In modern cockpits, is the localizer seen as a colored dot (usually in the shape of a diamond)
at the bottom of the artificial horizon gauge. It does not appear during cruise, but comes up during
the descent and approach to the selected runway, provided that the navigation radio is set to the ILS
frequency of that specific runway. If the transmitted localizer beam, which usually, but not always,
is directed in the heading of the runway extension. If the aircraft is located on this line, the localizer
dot will appear in the middle of the scale. But if the aircraft is located a little left of the beam, the
marker will appear to the right on the localizer gauge scale
in cockpit. The pilot then knows he or she must adjust
the heading towards the dot. On the next picture the
localizer is shown below the spherical horizon. Its
scale is shown by three white short bars.
old modern
Artificial horizon
The localizer broadcast is a very high frequency (VHF) broadcast in the lower range of the
VHF Omni-directional Radio Range (VOR) frequencies (108 MHz–111.95 MHz) on odd
frequencies only. Two modulated signals are produced from an antenna complex beyond the far end
of the approach runway. They create an expanding field that is 2.5 degree wide (about 1,500 feet) 5
miles from the runway.
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Localizer antenna complex (different views)
The field tapers to runway width near the landing threshold. The left side of the approach
area is filled with a VHF carrier wave modulated with a 90 Hz signal. The right side of the approach
contains a 150 MHz modulated signal. The aircraft’s VOR receiver is tuned to the localizer VHF
frequency that can be found on published approach plates and aeronautical charts. The circuitry
specific to standard VOR reception is inactive while the receiver uses localizer circuitry and
components common to both.
If the aircraft receives a 150 Hz signal, the course deviation indicator (CDI) of the display
deflects to the left. This indicates that the runway is to the left. The pilot must correct course with a
turn to the left. This centers course deviation indicator on the display and centers the aircraft with
the centerline of the runway. If the 90 Hz signal is received by the VOR receiver, the CDI deflects
to the right. The pilot must turn toward the right to center the CDI and the aircraft with the runway
center line.
Flying a precision approach requires tuning the required frequencies, configuring the
navigation indicator to display localizer course indications, and flying the approach. For aircraft
equipped with multiple navigation radios, the localizer frequency can go into one receiver, while a
second navigational facility used as a cross-radial can be set in the other receiver. As you come
within range of the localizer and glide slope, the course deviation and glide slope indicators will
show position with respect to the localizer and glide slope.
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The location of all localizer and glide path
What is a localizer?
What are the characteristics of a localizer?
What can you say about the localizer broadcast?
Vocabulary
Modulate alter the amplitude or frequency. Radio waves are modulated to carry

the analogue information of the voice.
Confuse make (something) more complex or less easy to understand. The points made by
the authors confuse rather than clarify the issue.
Taper diminish or reduce in thickness towards one end. David asked my dressmaker to taper
his trousers.
Threshold the beginning of an airport runway on which an aircraft is attempting to land. Try not to
think of taxiing as just driving to the runway threshold.
Deviation the action of departing from an established course or accepted standard. deviation
from a norm
Deflects cause (something) to change direction; turn aside from a straight course. The bullet was
deflected harmlessly into the ceiling.
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1. True or false.
1 A localizer is the component of the instrument landing system (ILS).

2 The localizer is seen as a colored dot at the bottom of the turn coordinator gauge.
3 You can see the dot for localizer during cruise, descent and approach to the selected runway.
4 If the aircraft receives a 150 Hz signal, the course deviation indicator of the display deflects to the
left.
5 If the aircraft receives a 90 Hz signal, there is no need for turning to the left or right.
2. Find out the correct words according to the definitions given below.
combine precision cruise extension scale gauge deviation chart

configure
1 the action or process of enlarging or extending something __________

2 a sheet of information in the form of a table, graph, or diagram __________
3 an instrument that measures and gives a visual display of the amount, level, or contents of
something __________
4 travel smoothly at a moderate or economical speed __________
5 join to form a single unit or substance __________
6 the action of departing from an established course or accepted standard __________
7 a graduated range of values forming a standard system for measuring something __________
8 the quality, condition, or fact of being exact and accurate __________
9 arrange or put together in a particular form __________
3. Arrange the paragraphs.
A Spokesperson for the company commented: “Fire safety is a vital component in any
building, but even more so when that building is used for the storage and distribution of aircraft
fuel. Everything about this building is of the highest quality and we felt that Axis AX panels from
Advanced were the obvious choice to recommend to the client, given their track record of quality
and reliability.”
B Abu Dhabi International is one of the fastest growing airports in the world and
Advanced’s Axis AX system covers a new extension to the aviation fuel depot on site.
C A multi-million dollar extension to one of the most high-risk areas of Abu Dhabi
International Airport is being protected by an industry-leading Axis AX fire system from Advanced.
D The Axis AX panels supplied by Advanced are networked together in a fault-tolerant,
‘ring network’. Optical smoke detectors are specified in the main buildings, while flame and gas
detectors are being used in operational areas.
E The new depot is a key part of the wider expansion of the airport and, as it is used to
handle jet fuel, requires a high quality UL864 approved fire system. Advanced’s Axis AX system
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was selected as it offered the highest quality and reliability standards, while also allowing redundant
communication with the existing system in the rest of the facility.
F A spokesperson for ADNOC FOD, the owner and operator of Abu Dhabi International
Airport, said: “Safety is paramount right across the airport, and even more so in the tightly
controlled environment of the aviation fuel depot. We have been extremely pleased with the
performance and adaptability of the Advanced Axis AX system that was specified for the new
extension and feedback from staff, relating to programming and usability, has also been very
positive.”
1 paramount A a place where large amounts of goods or equipment are stored

2 feedback B the quality of being able to operate for long periods without
breaking down
3 tightly C necessary in order for something to succeed or exist
4 redundant D a person who speaks on behalf of a group or an organization
5 facility E not needed or useful
6 fault-tolerant F more important than anything else
7 depot G advice, criticism about how good or useful something or
somebody’s work is
8 reliability H closely and firmly
9 vital I a special feature of a machine, service that makes it possible to do
something extra
10 spokesperson J system or component designed so that, in the event that a component
fails, a backup component can immediately take its place with no loss
of service
1 In nearly 60 years of use ILS systems were A broadcast area like large buildings or
never hangars.
2 If there is a predominance of either 90 Hz or B as sensitive as a VOR needle.

150 Hz modulation,
3 Localizer systems are sensitive to C and were not included in the artificial
obstructions in the signal horizon nor any compass, but at a gauge of its
own.
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4 The expression "Catch the localizer" refers D approaches with a few slight differences.
to
5 The very first generation of localizer gauges E disregard any glide slope indication.
had a different cockpit interface,
6 The localizer course needle is four times F the aircraft is off the centreline.
7 You might be surprised to learn that the G from the approach direction and are aligned
Instrument Landing System with the runway centerline.
8 Localizer approaches are very similar to H found at fault in an airplane Crash.

VOR
9 Localizer antennae are sited at the opposite I keep their aircraft aligned with the extended
end of the runway runway centerline.
10 The controller will give the pilot headings J pre-dated the invention and deployment of
to fly, to direct them to, and the VOR system.
11 Pilots flying a back course should K runway approaches with the autopilot on.
6. Speaking.
Use your fantasy, how do you imagine future planes,

their appearance, extra functions, their convenience for
passengers. If you have some other extraordinary
visions, share them with your class.
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CHAPTER 9 INFORMATION SYSTEMS
Lesson 1 Head-Down Display

questions.
In recent years aircraft flight and navigational

information have migrated from conventional
round mechanical dials mounted on the instrument
panel, to software-dependent electronic displays,
capable of showing many types of information. In
particular, a head-down display (HDD) is a rear
projection information system that displays
essential flight information, helping the pilots
“artificially” see their surroundings and the ground.
The HDD began its life as a radar display. Towards the end of the '60s the radar began to
track several targets at once and the conventional scope was found to be less than ideally suited to
the task of displaying alphanumerical, symbolic and numerical information. An alternative was
chosen - the cathode-ray tube (CRT), as used in television. In this application, the HDD displayed
information from the weapon systems computer which was tied to the radar and its processing
circuitry. Further development required a small, compact computer which would free the HDD
from the weapon system and enable it to cover other functions. The microprocessor chip satisfied
that demand and the '70s saw the HDD take over other tasks. Current applications are wide ranging.
HDDs are being used for displaying television type images - typically the cameras used on the
aircrafts, or the low light TV channels.
Radar pictures can also be displayed, it is merely a matter of processing electronics to do the
job. Symbology, the original task of the HDD, has been complemented with numerical and
alphanumerical information.
One of the newer uses to which the HDD/CRT has been put is the displaying of attitude
information - direct substitution of the artificial horizon. Altitude, heading, airspeed may also be
combined in this type of display, giving the pilot, at a glance, all the information he would have to
gather from all over the panel. This type of display will dominates in all the airliner cockpits of the
modern aviation. The most notable current application is the Space Shuttle Orbiter cockpit, which
uses a number of CRT displays, both for critical information and systems status information.
Reliability is enhanced by the flexibility of the system, as information can be channeled into any of
the displays, enabling a faulty display to be simply bypassed.
A Head Down Display inside the cockpit, usually a LCD, or a CRT (cathode-ray tube)
construction with different types of control buttons. Sometimes there are some sensors on the face
panel of display. It normally is placed below or alongside the instrument panel.
A Head Down Display is any display for which a crew member has to change his line of
sight (usually down) to be able to look at it. Head Down Displays come in many sizes, have many
uses and make extensive use of color and shapes to show information. They can be used to display
simple video images (a TV camera or FLIR, for example), or they can display mission or flight
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critical information. In the latter case, an external computer generates the elements of the image,
and the Head Down Display renders them. Often, the Head Down Display is mounted with a bezel
surrounding the display itself, and this bezel can be equipped with various types of buttons, in order
to control the image, or to control an external computer or processor.
Almost all modern aircrafts in civil aviation has 5 liquid crystal display (LCD) head-down
displays (HDD). They are:
- Captain (left) outboard
- Captain (left) inboard
- First officer (right) outboard
- First officer (right) inboard
- Lower.
The HDDs get data from different sources such as inboard computers, sensors etc. on fiber
optic or electrical buses. The outboard HDDs usually show primary flight display (PFD) data. An
inboard HDD usually shows EICAS.
For example, in Boeing 787 the 2 inboard HDDs and the lower HDD are multifunction
displays (MFD). The MFDs can show many display formats. Each HDD is 13.6 inches (34.5
centimeter (cm)) wide, 10.7 inches (27.2 cm) high, and 6.8 (17.3 cm) inches deep. The display area
is 12 inches (30.5 cm) by 9 inches (22.9 cm). Each HDD weighs 17 pounds (7.6 kg). Each HDD has
a bezel light sensor (BLS) on the bottom of the faceplate. Each HDD has 2 front handles to help
with removal and installation. Each HDD gets 28v dc.
These are the examples of displays located in the cockpit such that the pilot has to look
down to the instrument panel to observe them. They are distinguished from the instruments in that
they show, in part or entirely, a computer generated image. The information may be a replication of
the traditional instruments showing attitude, speed altitude or navigation data for example. Other
formats might show engine data or stores management. More sophisticated systems display a map
with superimposed steering cues and waypoints.
What is head-down display (HDD) used for?

What can you say about the history of HDD?
How are HDD arranged in the cockpit?
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What does MFD stand for?
Vocabulary
Scope The extent of the area or subject matter that something deals with or to which it is relevant.

The content is specific to areas within the scope of an executive's responsibilities.
Alphanumeric Consisting of or using both letters and numerals. The screen is a 160 × 160 backlit
LCD, and the 55-key alphanumeric keypad comprises the bulk of the device's front face.
Substitution The action of replacing someone or something with another person or thing. At the
same time, he raises the issue of substitution and exchange in a social and economic sphere.
Enhance Intensify, increase, or further improve the quality. Improving democracy is about
enhancing the opportunities for local communities to make their own decisions.
Render Provide or give. It provided them an opportunity to appreciate the various services
rendered by these organisations.
Bezel A grooved ring holding the cover of a watch face or other instrument in position. Also, the
silver bezels around the instruments reflect passing street lights and this produces distractions.
1. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate word from the box.
bezel enhance alphanumeric substitution rendered

scope
a. The classic brand management system usually limited its __________ to the relevant market in
a single country.
b. This is a talking, laptop-style, battery-operated, electronic learning aid with an __________
keyboard and a full dot matrix LCD screen which provides clear animated pictures.
c. There is no other member of the club who can currently replace him, and that showed after his
___________.
d. It may be sensible to use it to pay for a major home repair or improvement that will
___________ the quality of your life.
e. The services __________ by unqualified and unprofessional staff of old-age homes and day-
care centres for the aged with limited resources are found wanting.
f. Instead, the touch screen device only covers the __________, leaving users with a bright, clear
on-screen image.
1 software-dependent A chip
2 alphanumerical B outboard
3 micro processor C information
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4 direct substitution D traditional instruments
5 face panel E electronic displays
6 first officer F of the artificial horizon
7 replication of the G of display
1 Displays positioned in the middle of the A to both speed limit signs and urgent events
vehicle’s control panel than the HDD.
2 In comparison to the HDD interface, B which is one of the major causes of traffic
accident.
3 With respect to ‘‘average speed’’, this C formatted, users may move attention away
research found no major differences from the road for a long time.
4 The HUD produced better speed control D the head-up display (HUD) reduces the number
and faster reaction and duration of the driver’s sight deviations from
the road
5 If the visual information in the HDD is E would free the HDD from the weapon system
hard to process or not well and enable it to cover other functions.
6 Gaze-off-the-road longer than 2s greatly F are referred to as head-down display.

increases traffic accident,
7 Further development required a small, G construction with different types of control
compact computer which buttons.
8 A Head Down Display inside the cockpit, H between the use of the HUD and HDD on
usually a LCD, or a CRT speed maintenance.
4. Unscramble the given words and find out synonyms for them.
Scrambled Unscrambled
rare
tailneses
aircatlifliy
moptact
baneel
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nametiod
ttiissecahop
small-scale _______________________
crucial __________________________
permit___________________________
behind __________________________
unreal ___________________________
influence ________________________
experienced ______________________
5. Speaking.
Work with your partner. Make up a story using the

words above.
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Lesson 2 Moving Maps
The moving map function uses the Multi Function Display (MFD) to provide a pictorial
view of the present position of the aircraft, the route programmed into the Flight Management
System (FMS), the surrounding airspace, and geographical features. Moving maps offer a number
of options that allow you to specify what information is presented on the MFD and how it is
displayed. Moving maps typically offer several different map orientations (e.g., north up, track up),
a range control that allows you to “zoom” in and out to see different volumes of airspace, and a
means to adjust the amount of detail shown on the display (declutter). The moving map display
does not replace looking outside the aircraft to avoid other aircraft and obstructions.
A moving map display has a variety of uses that can aid your awareness of position and
surroundings during almost any phase of flight. Verification of the displayed data with a chart
accomplishes three functions:
1. Provides you practice for retention of your map reading skills.
2. Contributes to your readiness for continued safe navigation to a destination in the event of
equipment problems.
3. Ensures that you maintain situational awareness.
Moving map displays can help you verify a basic understanding of the planned route and
aircraft position with respect to the route, nearby terrain, and upcoming waypoints. For example, the
moving map display in figure shows the aircraft slightly to the left of the programmed flight route,
presumably heading in the correct direction, and operating to the west of rising terrain.
The moving map in this figure makes several nearby alternative airports visually apparent. A
classic technique used by pilots to maintain awareness is to periodically ask the question, “Where
would I go if I lost engine power?” The moving map can be used in this way to maintain
preparedness for an emergency, if you are aware of the map scale and aircraft capabilities.
On most units, you can change the range on the moving map to see a more detailed picture
of the airport surface while operating on the ground. This feature is especially useful when the
218
arrangement of runways and taxiways is complex. The moving map in next figure shows the aircraft
prepared to taxi onto one of two possible runways.
Most moving map displays can portray surrounding airspace as well as the vertical limits of
each airspace segment. This feature is particularly useful during visual flight rules (VFR) flights,
but can also serve to remind you of speed restrictions that apply to airspace transitions during
instrument flight rules (IFR) flight.
The moving map display is an especially useful aid for recognizing arrival at various points,
including the missed approach point during an instrument approach. Figure below shows two
indications of an aircraft arriving at a missed approach point. The position of the aircraft on the
moving map is very clear, and the range setting has been used to provide a more detailed view of
the missed approach waypoint.
A moving map provides a wealth of information about your route of flight and gives you the
opportunity to consider many similar questions along the way. Where would you land if you lost
engine power? Which alternate airport would you use if weather at your destination deteriorated
below minimums? Which nearby VOR stations could be used (and should be tuned as the flight
progresses) in the event that the global positioning system (GPS) signal or other navigation data
source is lost? Is a more direct routing possible? Diligent pilots continually ask questions like these.
219
Which options do moving maps have?
How can moving maps be used on the airport surface?
In which cases can moving maps be essential?
Vocabulary
Accomplish achieve or complete successfully. The planes accomplished their mission.

Declutter remove unnecessary items from (an untidy or overcrowded place). There’s no better time
to declutter your home.
Presumably used to convey that what is asserted is very likely though not known for certain. It was
not yet ten o’clock, so presumably the boys were still at the pub
Retention the fact of keeping something in one’s memory: the children’s retention of facts
Verification the process of establishing the truth, accuracy, or validity of something: the
verification of official documents
1 surrounding A of the present position

2 missed B route
3 pictorial view C airspace
4 readiness for D orientations
5 different map E continued safe navigation
6 programmed F approach point
1 can/ discover/ maps/ help/ PFD/ you/ programming/ Moving/ made/ in/ and/ errors/ the/ FMS or
RNAV.
_____________________________________________________________________________
2 easy/ is/ mistake/ detect/ the/ when/ It/ the/ pictorially/ information/ is/ to/ shown.
_____________________________________________________________________________3
A/ moving/ display/ such/ as/ a/ sometimes/ an/ map/ is/ display/ to/ as/ error-evident/ referred.
_____________________________________________________________________________4
familiar/ indications/ equipment/ your/ the/ with/ Be/ specific/ to/ failure.
_____________________________________________________________________________5
pilot/ Vector/ require/ additional/ may/ training/ maps.
____________________________________________________________________________
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1 Since the volume of information now A accuracy or information as are the

available in the cockpit cannot be primary navigation CDI and related
presented on a single display, or would system components.
clutter a single display
2 Familiarity with the capabilities of the B avoid the out-of-the-loop phenomenon.
MFD not only increases the information
available,
3 Moving maps are particularly useful for C tactical tasks and to allow the aircrew to
catching errors made while focus their attention on performing these
tasks with a minimum amount of head-
down time.
4 The moving map display is designed to D to the point of unintelligibility, you
provide supplemental navigation must decide what information is needed at
any given point in your flight.
5 The simple task of pointing out E entering modifications to the
geographical features was enough to programmed route during flight.
6 The moving map is not required to meet F screen in front of you, it is easy to let
any certification standards for the computers do the work of monitoring
flight progress.
7 With the position of the aircraft G but also allows quick access to that
conveniently displayed at all times on a information for safe flight decision-
color making.
8 Aircraft digital moving-map systems are H information, but is not approved as a
designed to provide useful information for substitute for primary navigation
navigation and instruments.
4. Read the paragraphs.
A) Fill in the blanks with the words from the box.
image display thermal synthetic operational remote

energy depiction development reduced
After years of direct involvement in EVS (a) __________ and application, today’s thermal
image-based EVSs are very good. Remarkable, even. In helping pilots see through the murk and the
dark, they instill confidence and enhance (b) __________ safety. For helicopter pilots landing at
221
night at a (c) __________ location, an EVS can be the only means of spotting obstacles and ground
personnel.
EVS is currently available in three (d) __________ configurations, each with a different
acronym, price tag and certification. All offer improved situational awareness during times of (e)
__________ visibility due to darkness or weather, or both.
EVS: Enhanced Vision System. A stand-alone (f) __________ imaging camera that sees
infrared energy emitting, or radiating, from objects and forms a real-time video (g) __________ that
is displayed on an MFD or dedicated video display screen.
EFVS: Enhanced Flight Vision System. A thermal imaging camera that sees infrared (h)
__________ radiating from objects coupled with and displayed on a HUD flight guidance system.
CVS: Combined Vision System. A thermal imaging camera combined with (i) __________
imagery, whereby the real-time EVS (j) __________ is presented as a translucent overlay on the
database-derived synthetic visuals on the PDF.
B) Find out words for the definitions given below using bold lines clues.
1 the state of being able to see or be seen __________________

2 the fact of participating in something ___________________
3 see, notice, or recognize __________________
4 darkness or thick mist that makes it difficult to see ________________
5 devoted to a task or purpose ________________
6 an arrangement of parts or elements in a particular form, figure, or combination ____________
7 able to operate independently of other hardware or software _______________
8 produce and discharge _________________
9 allowing light, but not detailed shapes; semi-transparent __________________
10 gradually but firmly establish (an idea or attitude) in a person’s mind ___________________
5. Speaking. Discuss the following questions with the

class.
1) Human-machine relationships: what the future may

bring.
2) The next 5 years in technology.
3) Will robots replace humans?
222
Lesson 3 Cockpit Weather System
Advanced avionics cockpit weather systems provide many of the same weather products
available on the ground and have a variety of uses that can enhance awareness of weather that may
be encountered during almost any phase of flight. Radar images, satellite weather pictures, Aviation
Routine and other products are readily accessible at any time during flight. Weather products
provided by cockpit weather systems are typically presented on a Multi Function Display (MFD).
Some installations allow the overlay of this data in the (Primary Flight Display) PFD.
One of the most important parts of cockpit weather system is weather radar. Thunderstorms
and general areas of precipitation are detected through the use of radar. In the advanced avionics
cockpit, radar data can come from one of two sources: an onboard weather radar system or a ground
weather surveillance radar system, such as the Next Generation Radar (NEXRAD) system. Ground
weather surveillance system data is transmitted to the cockpit via a broadcast (or data link) weather
service. Onboard weather radar and ground weather surveillance radar systems each offer
advantages and disadvantages to the pilot. Some aircraft use a combination of both systems. While
onboard radar is real time, many downloaded radar images and other reports are delayed for some
time period for various reasons. Given the nature of thunderstorms and other weather hazards, this
delay could prove hazardous. Most MFDs are capable of presenting radar data together with aircraft
position and the programmed route, as shown in figure.
Onboard weather radar uses an adjustable aircraft mounted radar antenna to detect, in real
time, weather phenomena near the aircraft. The coverage of an onboard weather radar system is
similar to a flashlight beam, as illustrated in figure below. You should always remember that the
radar displays only areas of water or moisture (rain, sleet, snow, and hail). Radar does not display
turbulence or lightning. Although the tilt of the radar antenna can be adjusted upward and
downward, the weather phenomena that the weather radar can detect are limited in both direction
and range. The radar system in figure fails to detect the two cells that lie below and beyond the
radar beam. As illustrated in figure below, you must be careful not to assume that the only cells in
223
the area are the ones shown on the radar display. The two additional cells are present, but not
detected by the onboard weather radar system.
When a cell is detected by an onboard weather radar system, that cell often absorbs or
reflects all of the radio signals sent out by the radar system. This phenomenon, called attenuation,
prevents the radar from detecting any additional cells that might lie behind the first cell. Figure
below illustrates radar attenuation, in which one cell “shadows” another cell.
Except in those areas for which no ground radar coverage is available, the range of ground
weather surveillance radar systems is essentially unlimited. Ground radars have the luxury of large
antennas; big, heavy power supplies; and powerful transmitters—without the constraints of
aerodynamic drag, power, weight, and equipment volume restrictions and concerns. Unlike onboard
weather radar systems, weather data received from a ground weather surveillance radar system is
not realtime information. The process of collecting, composing, transmitting, and receiving weather
information naturally takes time. Therefore, the radar data reflect recent rather than current weather
conditions.
What can you say about advanced avionics cockpit weather systems?
What are the two sources of weather radar data?
224
How can you define the term attenuation?
Vocabulary
Constraint a limitation or restriction. The availability of water is the main constraint on food

production.
Data link a telecommunications link over which data is transmitted. The user just needs to phone
the other number or use the name in the phone's address book, and the system will automatically
set up a data link to that person.
Overlay lie on top of. A third screen which will overlay the others.
1 advanced A surveillance radar system

2 programmed B together with aircraft position
3 onboard weather C route
4 ground weather D avionics cockpit
5 presenting radar data E of weather
6 enhance awareness F radar system
7 transmitting and receiving G the radar beam
8 cells lying below and beyond H weather information
1 of/ fog,/ radar/ not/ most/ turbulence/ other/ Weather/ hazardous/ detect/ kinds/ weather/ such/ as/
icing,/ and/ does.
_____________________________________________________________________________
2 does/ The/ display/ of/ way/ radar/ on/ a/ any/ not/ in/ mean/ return/ absence/ radar/ “clear skies.”
_____________________________________________________________________________
3 The/ that/ beware/ areas/ coverage/ of/ no/ must/ pilot/ offer/ radar.
_____________________________________________________________________________
4 capable/ MFDs/ of/ lightning/ electrical/ that/ are/ activity/ of/ also/ depicting/ is/ Most/ indicative.
_____________________________________________________________________________
5 systems/ must/ onboard/ keep/ in/ weather/ the/ limitations/ mind/ You/ of.
_____________________________________________________________________________
225
1 One popular broadcast weather service A to center on any location along the route.
offers graphical displays of visible
2 An onboard lightning detection system B an onboard lightning system are usually
consists of a simple antenna and processing quite accurate.
unit that senses electrical discharges in the
atmosphere
3 Most systems offer a movable cursor that C weather phenomena in the immediate
allows scrolling through the display proximity of the aircraft.
4 Broadcast weather services are useful forD to determine which weather products to
making strategic decisions about display at what times.
5 Onboard weather sensor systems provide E cloud cover along with the cloud top
real-time information about altitude as determined from satellite
imagery.
6 Since not all weather products can be F think about weather briefing and the
viewed at once, a key pilot skill is the weather decision-making process.
ability
7 The increased availability of weather G which areas to fly into and which areas
information is changing the way pilots to avoid.
8 Estimates of the direction of electrical H and attempts to determine which
discharges provided by electromagnetic signals have the
“signature” of lightning strikes.
4. 1) Before reading the article below match the words with their definitions.
1 imagery A not long ago, close to the present

2 warn B characteristic
3 actual C relating to a large company or group
4 corporate D existing now; current
5 fatal E visually descriptive
6 recent F causing death
7 stamp G inform of a possible danger, problem
2) Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words from the box.
crashed available recent know corporate small

stamp imagery minutes actual suffered warned
226
fatal death
Weather (a) __________ that private
pilots see on cockpit displays - advertised as
"real time" data - could be up to 20 (b)
__________ old, giving pilots a dangerously
false sense of existing conditions, federal safety
officials (c) __________ this week.
While pilots generally (d) __________
that weather information is five minutes old, the
(e) __________ age can be much older. That "could mean the difference between life and (f)
__________" in rapidly changing weather conditions, said NTSB Chairwoman Deborah A.P.
Hersman.
The problem affects thousands of general aviation aircraft, ranging from (g) __________
two-seat aircraft to large (h) ___________ jets, which use NEXRAD systems.
Old weather information may have played a role in at least two (i) __________ crashes in (j)
__________ years, the NTSB said.
In March of 2010, a medevac helicopter (k) __________ in Tennessee when the pilot tried
to beat a storm back to his home base. And in December of 2011, a Piper PA-32 (l) __________ an
in-flight breakup in stormy weather near Bryan, Texas.
In each case, the NTSB said, the pilots may have misinterpreted a time (m) __________ on
the weather monitor. In the helicopter crash, the weather data (n) __________ to the pilot was about
five minutes old. In the Piper crash, the data was between six and eight minutes old.
5. Speaking.
Look at the pictures below. Work with your partner and make up a story.
Lesson 4 Fuel Management System
227
A fuel management system can help you make the fuel calculations needed for in-flight
decisions about potential routing, fuel stops, and diversions. A fuel management system offers the
advantage of precise fuel calculations based on time, distance, winds, and fuel flow measured by
other aircraft systems. When a route has been programmed, the fuel management function is
capable of displaying currently available fuel and aircraft endurance and providing an estimate of
fuel remaining as the aircraft crosses each waypoint in the programmed route. A fuel management
function is useful not only for making primary fuel
calculations, but also for backing up calculations
performed by the pilot. If there are leaks, plumbing
malfunctions, or inadequate leaning, the fuel
display can be deceptive. You must always land at
the earliest gauge indication of low fuel in the
tanks, time of normal landing, or any sign of fuel
value disagreement with the flight planning. Errors
can be determined when the aircraft is safely on the
ground.
Many fuel management functions lack a
fuel quantity sensor. Without access to this raw
data of fuel quantity, fuel management functions
perform calculations using an initial fuel estimate
that was provided by the pilot prior to departure. Figure illustrates how an initial fuel estimate is
given for one manufacturer’s fuel management unit.
It is important to make accurate estimates of initial fuel because the fuel management
function uses this estimate in making predictions about fuel levels at future times during the flight.
The accuracy of the fuel calculations made by the fuel management function is only as good as the
accuracy of the initial fuel estimate.
You must know the capacity of the aircraft fuel tanks and amount of fuel required to fill the
tanks to any measured intermediate capacity. When full fuel capacity is entered into the fuel
management system, the tanks must be filled to the filler caps. For some aircraft, even a fraction of
an inch of space between the filler cap and the fuel can mean that the tanks have been filled only to
several gallons under maximum capacity.
Since the fuel management function’s predictions are often based on the initial quantity
entered, it is important to monitor the fuel gauges to ensure agreement with the fuel management
function. It is always prudent to use the most conservative of these measures when estimating fuel
on board.
A primary function of the fuel management function or system is to allow you to predict fuel
remaining at a future time in the flight. The fuel management system uses a combination of the
currently available fuel and the current rate of fuel consumption to arrive at the measures. Some
units require the current or estimated fuel burn rate to be entered. Some units have optional sensors
for fuel flow and/or quantity. Since the rate of fuel consumption instantly changes when power or
mixture is adjusted, (usually with altitude) the fuel management function or system should
continually update its predictions.
228
A fuel range
ring.
What is the use of a fuel management system?

What is the fuel management function useful for?
Vocabulary
Deceptive giving an appearance or impression different from the true one; misleading. He put the
question with deceptive casualness.
Endure remain in existence; last. These cities have endured through time.
Plumbing the system of pipes, tanks, fittings, and other apparatus required for the water or fuel
supply. You may be able to get a grant to install proper plumbing and bathrooms.
1 precise fuel A currently available fuel

2 fuel management B about fuel levels
3 capable of displaying C an initial fuel estimate
4 indication of D function
5 calculations using E calculations
6 making predictions F aircraft fuel tanks
7 capacity of the G low fuel
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fuel efficiency CO2 consume optimum emissions exhaustion

vehicles operating
1 The principle threat during abnormal operations is fuel (a) __________.

2 Fuel is approaching 40 percent of total (b) __________ expenses for passenger airlines.
3 Aircraft must (c) __________ fuel to supply the energy needed to move the (d) __________ and
their passengers.
4 Flying slower or faster than (e) __________ speed increases fuel consumption per mile flown.
5 Flight altitude affects engine (f) __________.
6 Aircraft engine (g) __________ are directly related to fuel burn.
7 Airlines have adopted a voluntary (h) __________ efficiency goal. This is to reduce fuel
consumption and (i) __________ emissions by at least 25% by 2020, compared to 2005 levels.
1 Refueling the aircraft offers a good A crosscheck the fuel remaining against
opportunity to compare the amount of fuel flightplan predictions.
2 Most fuel management function or systems B more lift-generating drag results as weight
display increases.
3 Under normal operations, conduct regular C consumption is increased tremendously.
fuel monitoring and
4 Aircraft weight is also a factor in fuel D the amount of fuel remaining, as well as the
economy, because endurance of the aircraft given the current fuel
flow.
5 Today's turboprop airliners have better fuel E air crew labor costs were higher relative to
efficiency than current jet airliners, because of fuel costs than today.
their
6 For supersonic flight, fuel F burned with that predicted by the fuel
management system and your own
calculations.
7 The early jet airliners were designed at a time G to reduce fuel requirements and associated
when emissions.
8 IATA has launched a fuel action H lower cruising speed and propellers that are
campaign and is working with industry more efficient than those of the 1950s-era
partners piston-powered airlines.
230
4. Read the newspaper article. Rearrange the paragraphs, guess the definitions for the
words given below. Check your answer through dictionary.
Police Arrest Man Who Shined Laser at Helicopter
A The entire episode was captured on police video from the helicopter as a group of three young
men in a neighborhood can be seen in the video running from approaching police. One of the men is
seen throwing an object, which turns out to be an air gun fitted with a laser scope.
B While laser strike incidents in Canada haven't drawn as much attention as those in the United
States, Transport Canada authorities say 443 such events were reported by pilots in 2013.
C Canadian police wasted no time apprehending a suspect who shined a bright laser at the Air2
police helicopter over Vaughn, Ontario, this week, using their infrared camera from on high to
direct officers to a 19-year-old man's location as he tried to evade arrest.
D While such a laser sight probably isn't anywhere near as powerful as the handheld laser weapons
that have been wreaking havoc on air crews in the skies over the United States for the last few
years, it's still illegal in Canada to shine a "bright light" into "navigable airspace."
1 ___ 2 ___ 3 ___ 4 ___
1 scope _______________________________________________
2 apprehend ___________________________________________
3 evade _______________________________________________
4 havoc _______________________________________________
5. Complete the story by filling in the blanks.
crew exhaustion gear destination abnormal base operated landing

functioning damage insufficient deflation
On 24 August 2001, an Airbus A330-200 being (a) __________ by Air Transat on a

passenger flight from Toronto to Lisbon experienced (b) __________ engine indications during the
cruise in VMC at night which the (c) __________ eventually realised were indicative of (d)
__________ fuel remaining to reach the planned (e) __________. A diversion to Lajes Air Force (f)
__________ in the Azores was successfully completed despite the onset of complete fuel (g)
__________ when the aircraft was still a considerable distance from the runway. A (h) __________
was made after 19 minutes with neither engine (i) __________ and just 5 minutes after the
beginning of official daylight. It resulted in (j) __________ of most of the tyres but the aircraft
came to a stop on the runway with some resultant structural (k) __________ to the fuselage and
damage to the main landing (l) __________. The emergency evacuation of the 306 occupants
231
ordered by the aircraft commander resulted in two persons sustaining serious injuries and sixteen
others sustaining minor injuries.
6. Speaking.
Read the story above again, use your imagination and make up a story describing the
reason of aircraft’s abnormal landing.
232
Lesson 5 Traffic Data System
A traffic data system is designed to help you visually acquire and remain aware of nearby
aircraft that pose potential collision threats. All traffic data systems provide aural alerts when the
aircraft comes within a certain distance of any other detected aircraft. Traffic data systems coupled
with MFDs can provide visual representations of surrounding traffic. Most traffic data systems
allow you to set the sensitivity of the system and display only traffic that exists within a specific
distance from the aircraft.
There are two basic types of traffic data systems available today: one using onboard sensors
to detect nearby aircraft, the other relying on traffic information transmitted from ground facilities
to the cockpit.
Traffic Data Systems Using Onboard Sensing Equipment
Traffic collision avoidance systems (TCAS) and traffic advisory (TA) systems use onboard
sensing equipment to locate nearby aircraft and provide alerts and advisories. Both TCAS and TA
systems work by querying the transponders of nearby aircraft to determine their distance, bearing,
altitude, and movement relative to your aircraft. In addition, TCAS and TA systems use Mode C
information from transponders to determine altitude and vertical movement of surrounding aircraft.
Using these capabilities, TCAS and TA systems provide traffic alerts and advisories. TCAS I and
TA systems can issue a TA whenever another active transponder-equipped aircraft comes within an
approximately 40-second range of the aircraft. Traffic advisories take the form of an aural alert:
“Traffic! Traffic!”
Advanced TCAS systems (TCAS II)
can also issue a resolution advisory (RA)
when another active transponder-equipped
aircraft comes within an approximately 25-
second range of the aircraft. RAs take the
form of an avoidance command that instructs
you how to fly the aircraft in order to avoid
the threat. An aural alert is issued that
instructs the pilot to perform a vertical
avoidance maneuver. Example aural alerts
are: “Climb! Climb!” and “Descend!
Descend!”
TCAS and traffic advisory systems
use similar symbology to present traffic information. Figure 1 shows four Figure 1
common traffic symbols used on traffic displays. The resolution advisory
symbols appear only when an advanced TCAS II system is used. The colors used to display traffic
symbols vary with the capabilities of the display.
Despite their many advantages, TCAS and traffic advisory systems have several important
limitations. For example, TCAS and traffic advisory systems cannot detect aircraft that do not have
active transponders. Another limitation of TCAS and traffic advisory systems is that they give
unwanted alerts when the pilot is purposefully operating in the vicinity of other aircraft. For
233
example, two aircraft making approaches to
parallel runways will probably receive traffic
alerts. These alerts can be distracting.
Traffic Data Systems Receiving
Information From Ground-based Facilities
The traffic information service (TIS) is
a second type of traffic data system. Unlike
TCAS, the TIS system does not require each
aircraft to have an onboard sensor that locates
nearby aircraft. However, each aircraft must
have operational and active transponders to be
indicated on the ATC system. Rather, TIS
captures traffic information that appears on radar scopes at nearby air traffic control facilities and
broadcasts that information to appropriately equipped aircraft. In order to use TIS, aircraft must be
equipped with a transponder capable of receiving TIS broadcasts. When TIS is operational, TIS-
capable aircraft can observe traffic information in the cockpit and receive traffic advisories for
proximate aircraft.
There is an important limitation of TIS. TIS data is only transmitted from approach radar
facilities. No information is broadcast from en route (air route traffic control center (ARTCC))
facilities, so the effective coverage of TIS is limited to larger metropolitan areas. Some approach
radar facilities are not equipped to send TIS information. Note that the aircraft must be within range
(approximately 50 NM) and within line of site of the TIS station to receive broadcasts.
What is a traffic data system designed for?

What basic types of traffic data systems do you know?
What is a Traffic Data Systems Using Onboard Sensing Equipment?
What are the limitations for TCAS and traffic advisory?
What is a Traffic Data Systems Receiving Information From Ground-based Facilities?
Vocabulary
Query a question, especially one expressing doubt or requesting information. If you have any

queries please telephone our office.
Advisory 1 recommended but not compulsory. The European Community has put forward an
advisory maximum figure. 2 an official announcement or warning. a frost advisory
234
1 aware of A of surrounding traffic

2 operational and B traffic information
3 symbology to present C alerts
4 equipment providing D active transponders
5 specific distance E nearby aircraft
6 visual representations F alerts and advisories
7 aural G from the aircraft
1 Most traffic data systems allow you to adjust A where the selection controls are located, and
sensitivity and configure how to use those controls.
2 Since both the directions and altitudes of B especially refresh rates and delays from data
intruding aircraft provided to the aircraft’s acquisition to presentation.
traffic data receiver are subject to error,
3 Most traffic data systems automatically C the system to track targets occurring only
switch to a standby mode when within a specified distance and altitude.
4 When departing from an uncontrolled airport, D monitor aircraft better on taxiways and
the traffic data system can help runways.
5 You must check equipment documentation to E the aircraft is on the ground or operating
determine when the transponder actually below a minimum speed.
transmits,
6 One potential future application of ADS-B is F you must widen your scan to all areas around
allowing controllers and pilots to the location presented on the traffic display.
7 You must know the limitations of the data G you learn of other traffic in the vicinity of
presented and all of the details of the displays, the airport.
3. Read the paragraph about ADS-B and fill in the blanks with the words from the box.
equipped trajectory airborne transmitted broadcast systems

ADS-B traffic better determine
235
Advanced Traffic Data Systems Based on ADS-B
Future (a) __________ avoidance systems will

probably be able to (b) __________ position
and digitally exchange information with (c)
__________ and ground-based facilities.
Using the automatic dependent surveillance-
broadcast (ADS-B) system, participating
aircraft will continuously (d) __________
their own position, altitude, airspeed, (e)
__________, and identification to air traffic
control facilities. (f) __________ aircraft
continuously receive the same information
from like (g) __________ aircraft in the area
(line of sight), which allows onboard displays for surrounding traffic. ADS-B has been used with
much success in Alaskan trials and requires less infrastructure to be usable. ADS-B equipment is
demonstrating promise for (h) __________ traffic separation on transoceanic routes well out of
range of land-based (i) __________. ADS-B signals are transmitted on the 978 MHz channel. The
information gathered from all participating aircraft can then be (j) __________ back to each TIS
aircraft to provide a detailed picture of the traffic situation, even if those aircraft do not have
ADS-B onboard.
4. 1) Match the words with their definitions.
1 plume A harmed, damaged
2 medevac B the remains of something that has been badly damaged
3 transport C complete
4 injured D the evacuation of military or other casualties
5 wreckage E a long cloud of smoke
6 intact F to become crushed into
7 crumple G to make a fire stop burning
8 extinguished H take or carry (people or goods) from one place to another
2) Read the paragraphs and rearrange them.
A Eyewitnesses said the Malibu was turning on short final for Runway 27 at low altitude when the
crash occurred. The wreckage was mostly intact minus the right wing, with fire damage contained
to the crumpled nose as firefighters quickly extinguished the flames.
B Four of those on board were able to get out of the airplane on their own and one was airlifted by
medevac helicopter. All five were transported to a local hospital, according to officials. The FAA
said one person on the ground was injured as well.
236
C Officials from the FAA and NTSB are on scene
investigating. Arriving aircraft were diverted to
other local area airports while Wittman Regional
was closed.
D The airplane involved in the crash, N4BP, is a
1984 Piper PA-46-310P Malibu piston single
registered to a Chicago real estate holding
company.
E A Piper Malibu with five aboard crashed next to the runway at Wittman Regional Airport at
around 8 o’clock local time this morning, sending up a plume of black smoke and closing the
airspace over Oshkosh for about three hours.
1 _____ 2_____ 3_____ 4_____ 5_____
5. Speaking.
In the old days how do you imagine planes flying

without any advanced systems?
What could those problems lead to?
237
Lesson 6 Terrain Systems
Terrain systems provide information about significant terrain along your route of flight.
Terrain systems were designed to help reduce controlled flight into terrain (CFIT) accidents.
Remember, however, that use of these terrain proximity information systems for primary terrain
avoidance is prohibited. The terrain proximity map is intended only to enhance situational
awareness; it remains the pilot’s responsibility to ensure terrain avoidance at all times. Safe flight
practices include pilot having knowledge of the maximum elevation figures (MEF) and planning
flight altitudes above those elevations. Also the competent pilot always allows for sufficient
clearance for unknown towers and buildings. Experienced pilots have learned that many aircraft
cannot outclimb certain mountainous slopes. You should always fly down (descend) into a valley or
canyon, rather than attempting to fly up the valley and become trapped in a box canyon too narrow
for a turn and too steep to climb over. One regularly overlooked factor is the loss of power
generally associated with the higher elevations at which canyons and steep slopes are often found.
Early Systems
Various terrain avoidance systems have been

certificated and used in the past. One early system was
termed Ground Proximity Warning System (GPWS,
often pronounced “GipWhiz”). One major shortcoming
of the system was a lack of predictive terrain warnings.
Most early systems simply used a radar altimeter as the
sensor. The radar altimeter simply indicated the altitude
of the aircraft above the ground immediately below the
airframe. The subsequently developed enhanced GPWS
used GPS location data combined with a worldwide terrain database to predict that a canyon wall
was just ahead and a climb should be started. The older GPWS had no indication of a very close
hazard. However, the system offered warnings when terrain presented a slope to much higher
terrain.
Terrain Display
The most basic type (not necessarily certified) of terrain system is the terrain display. A
terrain display uses the MFD to plot the position of the aircraft against a pictorial presentation of
surrounding terrain. A terrain display usually relies on a GPS location signal to compare the
position and altitude of the aircraft against the terrain found in an internal topographical database.
Terrain displays use a simple color-coding convention to portray the difference between the
present altitude of the aircraft and the height of the surrounding terrain. Terrain more than 1,000
feet below the aircraft is coded black. Terrain less than 1,000 feet but more than 100 feet below the
aircraft is coded yellow. Terrain less than 100 feet below the aircraft is coded red. Man-made
obstacles (e.g., radio towers, power lines, buildings) generally do not appear in a topographical
database.
238
What are terrain systems used for?
How were early terrain systems like? What was their shortcoming?
What can you say about color- coding convention of terrain systems?
Vocabulary
Elevation height above a given level, especially sea level. The area has

a topography that ranges from 1,500 to 3,000 metres in elevation.
Overlook fail to notice. He seems to have overlooked one important fact.
Plot mark (a route or position) on a chart. He started to plot lines of ancient sites.
Slope a surface of which one end or side is at a higher level than another; a rising or falling
surfaces. He slithered helplessly down the slope
Steep (of a slope, flight of stairs, or angle) rising or falling sharply; almost perpendicular. She
pushed the bike up the steep hill.
1 pictorial A shortcoming
2 worldwide B altitudes
3 major C elevation figures
4 mountainous D terrain database
5 flight E flight
6 maximum F slopes
7 pilot’s G information systems
8 enhance situational H presentation
9 terrain proximity I awareness
10 route of J responsibility
2. Fill in the table with the synonyms.

more vacant additional central key auxiliary blank
clear essential supplemental fundamental unfilled
primary vital unoccupied
empty extra basic
239
3. Fill in the table with the correct words.
delivery flammable supply incompressible de-icing leakage washing

flow pressure cleansing
fluid + +
fluid
4. Find out the right words from the crossword according to the definitions.
1 material such as coal, gas, or oil that is burned to produce heat or power __________
2 the distance one can see as determined by light and weather conditions __________
3 suitcases or other bags in which to pack personal belongings for travelling __________
4 a strip of hard ground along which aircraft take off and land __________
5 the accidental escape of liquid or gas through a hole or crack __________
6 goods carried on a ship, aircraft, or motor vehicle __________
7 a traveler on a public or private vehicle other than the driver, pilot, or crew __________
8 the action of turning something aside from its course __________
9 move or fall downwards __________
10 save (someone) from a dangerous or difficult situation __________
240
5. Fill in the blanks with the right numbers.
45 124 1994 41 42 16% 65 2004
Wire strikes by helicopters happen often, and too frequently result in fatalities. The U.S. Helicopter
Safety Team found that approximately (a) _____ of all rotary-wing accidents involve wire or
obstacle strikes. Meanwhile, an FAA study of wire-strike accidents between (b) _____ and (c)
_____ found (d) _____ of (e) _____ of those involving civil helicopters were fatal. Combined, the
accidents resulted in (f) _____ fatalities, (g) _____ serious injuries and (h) _____ minor injuries.
T A B L E A S D L K I L T O D I
6. Read
F T A N K L U G G A G E E L E N
the
U V C H E C K I N A N A M O S O
E I H U R I C A N E S K E G C U
L S P A S S E N G E R A R O E T
C I S I L K W A Y C O G G U N C
R B T R A E I N O R R E E T D U
E I A U M N D T Y I A T N H F P
W L F N B T E E O S L C A R G O
T I F W D I V E R S I O N B Y F
O T O A T A P E R E C O R D E I
P Y F Y V I S I B I L I T Y O N
M A N O E U V R E B R A N D N E
passage and fill in the blanks with the words from the box.
241
altitude private rocky severe unthinkable sustain
descended restart harnesses
One sunny July afternoon, a 1 __________ pilot was returning to his home base from a lunch run to
a nearby airport. He was flying a 1946 Luscombe, a well-worn classic but a new airplane to him. As
he 2 __________ along the mountains skirting a populated area, the 3 __________ happened — the
engine quit. At his 4 _________ and position, the pilot had very little time to react and very few
choices. Unable to 5 _________ the engine, he selected a small clearing up against the mountains.
If there hadn't been a 6 __________ berm at the approach end of the field, or if he'd had a couple of
feet more altitude, or if the field had been just a tad longer — if, if, if, if — he would have made it.
But Lady Luck wasn't his copilot that day. The Luscombe hit the berm and landed hard on its nose,
causing the pilot to 7 __________ severe injuries. Although the aircraft had seat belts,
unfortunately, it didn't have shoulder 8 __________. Had they been installed, the pilot's injuries
probably would have been much less 9 __________. The moral of the story: Make sure you have
the best restraint system you can afford, and then inspect, maintain and use it properly.
Make up sentences using the words from the paragraph above.

1 ____________________________________________________________________________
2 ____________________________________________________________________________
3
____________________________________________________________________________
4 ____________________________________________________________________________
5 ____________________________________________________________________________
7. Group Work.
242
Work with your partner, make a presentation of the most common aircraft accident causes.
Share your material with the class.
Lesson 7 TAWS (Terrain Awareness and Warning Systems)
Controlled Flight Into Terrain (CFIT) describes an accident where a completely airworthy
aircraft is flown into the terrain. To reduce the occurrence of Controlled Flight Into Terrain
accidents, Terrain Awareness and Warning Systems (TAWS) were developed to provide a warning
of a possible terrain conflict. Aircraft inputs such as position, altitude, air speed, glideslope and
flight plan along with internal terrain and airport databases allow TAWS to predict a potential
conflict between the aircraft’s future flight path and terrain. The resulting unprecedented look-ahead
capability provides warnings and alerts well in advance of potential hazards, allowing time for the
pilot to make the necessary maneuvers or data corrections for terrain avoidance.
Two classes of TAWS are offered to meet your aircraft and regulatory requirements, TAWS
Class A and TAWS Class B. Providing the highest level of protection against CFIT accidents,
243
TAWS Class A provides all the
functionality of the Class B system, plus a
terrain awareness display to the aircraft’s
display system and a “fully autonomous”
Ground Proximity Warning System
(GPWS).
The high-resolution terrain database
is stored in internal flash memory and updated using the Data Transfer Unit via a high-speed
Ethernet bus. It features a data point approximately every 0.5 mile world-wide and up to 0.1 mile at
mountainous airports. The terrain database also includes data for depicting oceans and large inland
bodies of water.
Depiction and alerting of man-made obstacles is available in the Class A and Class B
systems as an optional configuration in the TAWS software. The Obstacle Database, required for
depiction of man-made obstacles, contains the latest obstacle features. Use of obstacle alerting
requires the installation of an external annunciator on the flight deck.
For those airplanes that require Class-A TAWS, the systems include a minimum of five
basic functions: 1 Forward looking terrain avoidance 2 Premature descent alert 3 Attention alerts 4
Terrain awareness display 5 Indications of imminent contact with the ground.
For those aircraft that require Class-B TAWS, the systems include a minimum of four basic
functions: 1 Forward looking terrain avoidance 2 Premature descent alert 3 Attention alerts 4
Indications of imminent contact with the ground.
The TAWS model is also capable of generating alerts from a variety of equipment versions;
this is especially important when understanding how equipment upgrades may reduce alert rates.
The model has been validated against over 500 historical flights with alerts, and 95 percent of all
historical alerts were replicated by the TAWS model within a nautical mile. Currently, the model is
undergoing a more extensive validation across a larger historical dataset.
Color-coding is utilized to depict terrain relative to the aircraft’s altitude. Red shows terrain above.
The yellow band is flight phase dependent reflecting terrain down to 1,000 feet below during
enroute, 500 feet in terminal areas, and 250 feet on approach.
What is the expediency of the TAWS?

How can the TAWS provide pilots with help?
How many classes are offered by TAWS?
What are the differences between TAWS Class A and TAWS Class B?
VOCABULARY
Accident something that happens unexpectedly and is not planned in advance. Their early arrival
was just an accident.
Airworthy safe to fly.
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Terrain used to refer to an area of land when you are mentioning its natural features, for example,
if it is rough, flat, etc. They walked for miles across steep and inhospitable terrain.
Hazard a thing that can be dangerous or cause damage. Growing levels of pollution represent a
serious health hazard to the local population.
Regulatory having the power to control an area of business or industry and make sure that it is
operating fairly. regulatory procedures
Ethernet a system for connecting a number of computer systems to form a network
Configuration the equipment and programs that form a computer system and the way that these are
set up to run
Premature happening or made too soon. It is premature to talk about success at this stage.
Imminent likely to happen very soon. The system is in imminent danger of collapse.
Upgrade to make a piece of machinery, computer system, etc. more powerful and efficient
Validate 1 to prove that something is true. to validate a theory 2 to state officially that something is
useful and of an acceptable standard. Check that their courses have been validated by a reputable
organization.
Replicate to produce exact copies of itself. The drug prevents the virus from replicating itself.
1. Fill in the blanks with the synonyms from the box.
clone untimely approve area peril
1 validate__________________
2 replicate__________________
3 hazard___________________
4 terrain____________________
5 premature_________________
2. Complete the sentences with the words given in the box.
validates hazards imminent terrain airworthy
a) When an attack was __________, I called Brady and made him swear to take care of you.
b) The company can deliver complete fleets of _________ aircraft or helicopters coming from
active duty.
c) The response level was high for a voluntary question, and __________ the accuracy of the
resulting analyses.
d) The minister said that farming is probably the only employment sector that poses such
enormous direct risks and __________ for both children and elderly people.
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e) Mr Feeney said most people were unused to walking over rough __________ and their ankles
are not strong enough.
1 The whole time your display is changing A the future flight path of the aircraft and
color, there’s a complementary aural terrain, visual and audible warnings are
given to the pilot.
2 TAWSs are recent technology advances B awareness of the terrain, no audio or
introduced internationally to reduce visual warnings are given.
3 The TAWS computer receives position C the risk of aircraft accidents.
information from a
4 The terrain mapping systems are only D warning blasting in your headset.
capable of giving the pilot the general
5 If the TAWS computer detects a possible E for the flight crew to take appropriate
conflict between action.
6 The purpose of a TAWS is to provide a F GPS receiver, and compares that
warning with enough time position with the internal terrain or
obstacle database.
4. Make up your own sentences using the new words.
a)_____________________________________________________________
b)______________________________________________________________
c)______________________________________________________________
d)______________________________________________________________
e)_______________________________________________________________
5. Open the brackets.
TAWS equipment is (classifying, classified, classifies) as Class A or Class B according to the

degree of sophistication (by, with, of) the system. In essence, Class A systems are required for all
but the (small, smaller, smallest) commercial air transport aircraft, while Class B systems (are,
were, is) required by larger General Aviation (GA) aircraft and recommended for smaller
commercial or GA aircraft.
Class-B TAWS - For those aircraft that (require, requires, required) Class-B TAWS, (a, -, the)
systems include a minimum of four basic functions:
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1 Forward looking terrain avoidance. (This, That, These) function looks
ahead and below the aircraft flight path (for, to, -) provide a suitable alert
if (the, -, a) potential threat exists.
2 Premature descent alert. This function uses the predicted flight (-, of,
by) path information (determined from an approach navigation source) and
(it’s, its, it is) own airport database to determine if the aircraft is below the
normal (typically 3 degree) approach path for the nearest runway. If a
conflict is detected, a warning (is being given, has given, is given) to the
pilot.
3 Attention alerts. The system provides appropriate visual and audio alerts for (either, both, as)
cautions and warnings.
4 Indications of imminent contact with the ground. The TAWS equipment provides (indicators,
indications, indication) of possible terrain conflicts for the following conditions: Excessive rates of
descent; Negative climb rate or altitude loss (after, before, during) takeoff; Voice callout “five
hundred” when the aircraft descends to 500 feet above the terrain or nearest runway elevation.
6. Speaking.
Read pilot quotes and discuss with your partner what is

the intention of the authors by expressing these
statements.
a) The bad news is time flies. The good news is you’re

pilot. (Michael Althsuler)
b) Any coward can sit at his home and criticize a pilot for
flying into a mountain in a fog. But I would rather, by
far, die on a mountainside than in bed. (Charles
Lindbergh)
c) To most people the sky is the limit. For those who love
aviation, the sky is home. (Anonymous)
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Lesson 8 Automatic Test Equipment

Automatic test equipment (ATE) is a dedicated ground test instrument that provides a
variety of different tests and functional checks on an LRU (Line Replaceable Units) or printed
circuit card. By making a large number of simultaneous connections with the equipment under test,
ATE is able to gather a large amount of data very quickly, thus avoiding the need to make a very
large number of manual measurements in order to assess the functional status of an item of
equipment. ATE systems tend to be dedicated to a particular avionic system and are expensive to
develop and manufacture. Because of this they tend to be only used by original equipment
manufacturers (OEM) and licensed repairers. ATE systems usually incorporate computer control
with displays that indicate what further action (repair or adjustment) is necessary in order maintain
the equipment. Finally, it is worth noting that, individual items of equipment may often require
further detailed tests and measurements following initial diagnosis using ATE.
Built-in test equipment (BITE)
As the name implies, BITE is primarily a self-test feature built into airborne equipment as an
integral fault indicator. BITE is usually designed as a signal flow type test. If the signal flow is
interrupted or deviates outside accepted levels, warning alerts indicate a fault has occurred. The
functions or capabilities of BITE include the following:
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real-time, critical monitoring
continuous display presentation
sampled recorder readout
module and/or subassembly failure isolation
verification of systems status
go/no-go alarms
quantitative displays
degraded operation status
percentage of functional deterioration
The Electronic Centralised Aircraft Monitoring system (ECAM) oversees a variety of

aircraft systems and also collects data on a continuous basis. While ECAM automatically warns of
malfunctions, the flight crew can also manually select and monitor individual systems. Failure
messages recorded by the flight crew can be followed-up by maintenance personnel by using the
system test facilities on the maintenance panel in the cockpit and on the BITE facility located on
each computer. The majority of these computers are located in the aircraft’s avionics bay.
What is automatic test equipment (ATE) dedicated for?

Why do aircraft need Built-in test equipment (BITE)?
What are the functions or capabilities of BITE?
Vocabulary
Dedicate devote (time or effort) to a particular task or purpose. Joan has dedicated her life to
animals
Degrade to make something become worse, especially in quality. Vast areas of
natural habitats have been degraded
Deviate o be different from something; to do something in a different way from what is usual or
expected. He never deviated from his original plan.
Verification the process of establishing the truth, accuracy, or validity of something. the
verification of official documents
1. Find out the full meaning of the following abbreviations (do not use the text above).
1 ATE _________________________________________
2 OEM _________________________________________
3 BITE _________________________________________
4 ECAM ________________________________________
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2. Put the verbs in the brackets into the correct tense form.
1 When a fault __________ (to detect) and the test sequence stops, the avionics technician can
access the manual mode.
2 An ATE can __________ (to be) a simple computer controlled equipment or a complicated
system containing dozens of complex test instruments.
3 During the tests, the system __________ (to execute) the measurement and monitoring of
mechanical, hydraulic and electrical parameters.
4 Test Equipment __________ (to be) available for various electronic components.
5 ATE widely __________ (to use) in the electronic manufacturing industry to test electronic
components and systems after being fabricated.
1 is/ an/ performs/ that/ on/ ATE/ tests/ device/ apparatus/ a.

_____________________________________________________________________________
2 The/ incorporates/ ATE/ instrumentation/ the/ state-of-art/ latest.

_____________________________________________________________________________
3 ATE/ to/ also/ is/ used/ in/ test/ modules/ automobiles/ electronic.
_____________________________________________________________________________
4 EUT/ ATE/ is/ as/ DUT,/ or/ known/ UUT/ also.

_____________________________________________________________________________
5 improve/ way/ time/ test/ is/ One/ to/ multiple/ test/ once/ to/ devices/ at.
_____________________________________________________________________________
4. Read the article from a newspaper and put the paragraphs in order.
The people who fell to earth

More than half the passengers in plane crashes escape with their lives... but how? Six survivors
told their stories. Let’s read one of them.
F) The plane was in pieces. Some of the others went through the windscreen, but I was still
strapped into my seat, with no injuries - the only thing I had lost were my shoes. I found myself
taking off the seatbelt. The seats had been thrown from their position.
G) The others died one by one. The first day we lost three of our group. They didn't have the
strength to keep going and disappeared into the jungle. By the ninth day, I was on my own. I
was rescued finally on the 10th day of walking, by a UN organisation and people from the
Ugandan army.
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H) We knew the Congo rebels were in that area and we were
afraid we might be found and killed. We divided ourselves
into two groups of five to look for rescue parties. We got
up at six and walked until seven or eight at night. It was
raining and snowing, and we had nothing to eat or drink. I
didn't know which direction I was walking in, but I
believed my life had been saved and the rest was up to me.
I) It was a chartered flight from Uganda and we were just coming into Congo. I was seated over
the wing, by the window. I was the only woman on board, with nine men.
J) About 45 minutes into the flight, I could see from my seat that the plane was flying very low
over the mountains. The pilot announced he was losing control and I put on my seat belt. Other
people panicked. I was thinking about my family, and praying.
1______ 2______ 3_____ 4_____

5_____
What is a charter flight?

Have you ever heard/read /watched a plane accident?
Can you enumerate any causes for aircraft accidents?
How can you describe people’s feelings in this situation?
Are you a person who panics easily in odd situations?
How can you help your fellow in extreme cases to overcome his/her panic?
5. Speaking.
Think about how you might handle the following situation: You and a friend are out for a
drive. You come upon an accident. Your friend becomes hysterical. You want to help the people
in the accident.
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Lesson 9 SVS (Synthetic Vision System)

questions.
Aviation has been witness to the introduction

of many new avionics systems that have sought to
overcome the issues associated with limited outside
visibility for the pilot. For example, attitude
indicators, radio navigation and etc. One of these
systems is a Synthetic Vision System (SVS).
A “synthetic vision system” is an aircraft
cockpit display technology that uses 3D to provide
pilots with clear and intuitive means of
understanding their flying environment. Synthetic Vision was developed by NASA and the U.S. Air
Force in the late 1970s and 1980s in support of advanced cockpit research, and in 1990s as part of
the Aviation Safety Program.
The synthetic vision system is composed of four elements: Enhanced intuitive view, hazard
detection and display, integrity monitoring and alerting, and precision navigation guidance.
A Enhanced Intuitive View: - Synthetic vision systems present the display of
pertinent and critical features of the environment when weather conditions prevent the pilot
from effectively seeing these factors through the cockpit window. The display shows the
data in the way that the pilot normally would see in daytime.
B Hazard Detection and Display: - Terrain, traffic, obstacles, and other hazards are
graphically represented to the pilot to maintain the pilot’s situation awareness.
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C Integrity Monitoring and Alerting: - Some level of integrity monitoring and alerting is
required in all SVS applications because pilots must trust that the synthetic vision system provides
an accurate portrayal. If the integrity monitoring discovers a mismatch, the displays inform the pilot
that synthetic vision is no longer available nor reliable. The system effectively prevents a pilot from
using erroneous or misleading synthetic vision information.
D Precision Navigation Guidance: - Synthetic vision system elements allow pilots to rapidly
and accurately correlate position to relevant terrain, desired flight paths/plans, cultural features, and
obstacles. These elements enable the pilot to monitor navigation precision to meet Required
Navigation Performance criteria and compliance with complex approach and departure procedures
without the need for land-based navigation aids that are expensive to install and maintain.
What do the pilots do in case of a bad vision occurring due to various causes?
Guess how these system elements can be useful for the pilot.
VOCABULARY
Alert - Warn (someone) of a danger or problem

Enhance - Intensify, increase, or further improve the quality, value, or extent of
Guidance - The directing of the motion or position of something, especially an aircraft, spacecraft,
or missile
Hazard - A danger or risk
Integrity - Internal consistency or lack of corruption in electronic data
Intuitive - (Chiefly of computer software) easy to use and understand
Monitor - Observe and check the progress or quality of (something) over a period of time; keep
under systematic review
Precision - The quality, condition, or fact of being exact and accurate
Synthetic - (Of a substance) made by chemical synthesis, especially to imitate a natural product
Terrain - A stretch of land, especially with regard to its physical features
1. Circle the right answers:
Which problems synthetic vision may help to reduce:
A unclear path guidance on the surface

B loss of terrain and traffic awareness
C loss of altitude awareness
D runway incursions
E cabin air pressure problems
F in-flight entertainment trouble
G fire accidents
2. Choose the appropriate word from the box:
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obstacle relevant accurate visibility reliable advanced
1. He said the religious site was just one of several __________ blocking a peace deal.
2. Did the Minister leave __________ matter out of account in deciding to make the Order?
3. “From measurements on the map and __________ measurements on the ground there is
something wrong in that area”, he said.
4. “Most accidents in the past two months were the result of poor __________ because of rainy
conditions”, reported the newspaper.
5. In fact, when you look closely, the Net is not a very __________ source of information at all.
6. Negotiations are at an __________ stage.
3. Describe the functions in a few words:
Precision Navigation Guidance ____________________________________________________
Integrity Monitoring and Alerting __________________________________________________
Hazard Detection and Display _____________________________________________________
Enhanced Intuitive View _________________________________________________________
4. Fill in the blanks with the correct prepositions:
in (x4) over (x2) of (x5) by (x2) about without
There are more UFO sightings (a) ___ China than anywhere else (b) ___ the world, with one
(c) ___ every five "flying saucers" reportedly seen (d) ___ the mainland. It has the world's biggest
network (e) ___ clubs, the China UFO Research Organisation, and a monthly UFO magazine that
sells 400,000 copies. It has some (f) ___ the most spectacular sightings and some (g) ___ the most
bizarre tales of encounters; estimates (h) ___ the UFO Research Organisation suggest more than
half (i) ___ China's 1.2 billion population believes (j) ___ flying saucers. Sightings are reported
widely (k) ___ state media and pilots talk openly (l) ___ close encounters, (m) ___ the fear their
counterparts have (n) ___ the West (o) ___ being dismissed as dangerous cranks.
5. Rearrange the paragraphs and fill in the blanks with the words.
development threats available 3D targets

254 providers manufacturer
marketing provide option traffic range outside
A For business jets, SVS is now not being seen as an (a) __________ but “is expected to
come with new aircraft,” said John Peterson, director of avionics and flight controls (b) __________
at Rockwell Collins. “As a matter of fact, it is a negative if it is not (c) __________ with whatever
(avionics) system they are contemplating retrofitting.”
B As synthetic vision systems become more mainstream, technology (d) __________ are
refining their offerings to appeal to a wider (e) __________ of customers. Along with general and
business aviation operators, key (f) __________ include the rotorcraft and commercial transport
markets.
C “Synthetic vision is no longer a ‘fringe’ technology; every major avionics (g) __________
has some form of synthetic vision, and it is certified in every class of aircraft,” said Gordon Pratt,
director of business (h) __________, Cobham Commercial
Systems.
D The chief selling point for SVS, which delivers real-
time, color (i) __________ imagery of the terrain (j) __________
the aircraft to the pilot, is situational awareness. When “visibility
is less than ideal,” people appreciate “the enhanced situational
awareness … that it can (k) __________not only for IFR but for
VFR flying as well,” said Jim Alpiser, director of aviation
aftermarket sales for Garmin. The system can identify key (l) __________, such as towers and
mountains, and can show pilots (m) __________ that is in front of them using data from Mode S
data link or an active onboard traffic system.
1 _____ 2_____ 3_____ 4_____
6. Project work:
Work with your partner and find out useful information about night vision on airplanes and
share your knowledge with the class.
7. Read the facts about airplanes and discuss whether they are reliable or not.
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g) Donkeys kill more people annually than plane crashes.
h) More than 80% of the population is afraid of flying. 5% completely abandons flights and take
alternative forms of travel.
The scientific name of fear and flight altitude - aerophobia.
i) Air pumped in the planes is one of the cleanest in the world.
j) More people fall in love with flight attendants than representatives of other professions.
k) If the chance of daily disaster was only 0.01%,
this would mean that 13 air-planes must crash.
The odd of a plane crash are around 0.001%.
l) Every 3 seconds in the world a plane makes a
landing.
CHAPTER 10 AUTOMATED FLIGHT CONTROL
Lesson 1 Autopilot Concepts & System
An autopilot is a system used to control the trajectory of a vehicle without constant 'hands-on'
control by a human operator being required. Autopilots do not replace a human operator, but assist them
in controlling the vehicle, allowing them to focus on broader aspects of operation, such as monitoring
the trajectory, weather and systems.
The autopilot system on airplanes is sometimes colloquially referred to as "George".
Not all of the passenger aircraft flying today have an autopilot system. Older and smaller general
aviation aircraft especially are still hand-flown, and even small airliners with fewer than twenty seats
may also be without an autopilot as they are used on short-duration flights with two pilots. The
installation of autopilots in aircraft with more than twenty seats is generally made mandatory by
international aviation regulations.
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Autopilots in modern complex aircraft are three-axis and generally divide a flight into taxi, takeoff,
climb, cruise (level flight), descent, approach, and landing phases. Autopilots exist that automate all of
these flight phases except taxi and takeoff.
Modern autopilots use computer software to control the aircraft. The software reads the aircraft's
current position, and then controls a Flight Control System to guide the aircraft.
Planes are controlled three dimensionally by adjusting pitch, yaw, and roll. A change in pitch would
point the nose of the plane up or down; yaw, left or right; and roll would rotate the length of the plane
left or right. These adjustments are made by moving elevators, the rudder, and ailerons respectively.
A basic autopilot system can mechanize control of pitch, yaw, and roll based on parameters given
by a pilot. Because a pilot must give commands to the autopilot, it’s better to think of autopilot as an
automatic flight control system (AFCS). A simple single-axis ACFS will only control one dimension of
the plane’s movement. In this case, it’s usually roll, which would be used to level the wings at cruising
heights. Two-axis AFCS would control pitch and roll; three-axis controls pitch, yaw, and roll.
What is autopilot system?

What does AFCS stand for?
How do modern autopilots work?
Which options can’t autopilot do?
How is autopilot referred to?
VOCABULARY
Adjust to change something slightly to make it more suitable for a new set of conditions or to make
it work better. Watch out for sharp bends and adjust your speed accordingly.
Assist to help somebody to do something. Anyone willing to assist can contact this number.
Colloquially used in conversation but not in formal speech or writing
Constant happening all the time or repeatedly. Babies need constant attention.
Cruise taxi down the runway
Mandatory required by law. The offence carries a mandatory life sentence.
Rotate to move or turn around a central fixed point. Winds rotating around the eye of a hurricane.
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1. Fill in the blanks with the correct words.
autopilot hand-flying maintaining sophisticated manually decrease

buttons attempt aviation focus experts automate climbing
1 Today, autopilots are __________ systems that perform the same duties as a highly trained pilot.
2 Human factor __________ are discovering that the constant autopilot use that is typical in modern
glass cockpit airplanes is leading to a __________ in basic hand-flying skills.
3 Every pilot needs to be competent at __________ the airplane.
4 One of the most stubborn myths in all of __________ is this notion that pilots just sit there while
the plane flies itself from City A to City B.
5 More than 99 percent of landings are performed __________.
6 An __________ can be capable of many very time intensive tasks, helping the pilot __________
on the overall status of the aircraft and flight.
7 Every autopilot offers a collection of __________ that allow you to choose and engage autopilot
modes and functions.
8 Good use of an autopilot helps __________ the process of guiding and controlling the aircraft.
9 Autopilots can automate tasks, such as __________ an altitude, __________ or descending to an
assigned altitude, turning to and maintaining an assigned heading and so on.
10 Do not __________ to “help” the autopilot perform a task. In some instances this has caused the
autopilot to falsely sense adverse conditions and trim to the limit to accomplish its tasking.
2. How do you say the following sentences in passive voice?
1. Cabin crew made passengers stand because there were not enough seats.
2. Cabin crew forced passengers to sit in the aisle without seatbelts.
3. Another aircraft with fewer seats replaced the Tatarstan Airlines flight from Antalya to
Ekaterinburg.
4. One passenger told the UK’s Daily Mail newspaper …
5. The cabin crew told passengers to put children on their lap.
6. The passengers have each demanded $4900 in compensation.
7. The airline has not denied the incident.
8. Aviation regulators are probing the incident.
3. Read the text and find answers from the box.
unable to speak deaf psychiatry disability blind

seizure
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Passenger with special needs
While some passengers may think that flight attendants are standing by to top up drinks and
bring more peanuts, you will no doubt be aware that the role of a flight attendant is that of a trained
professional, on board to ensure security and safety of passengers. Passengers who identify as
having special needs will require specific attention.
a) A passenger travelling with her guide dog would be a passenger who is _____
b) A passenger using sign language to communicate might be a passenger who is ________
c)A passenger with epilepsy may warn you he is about to have a
________
d) A passenger travelling under the care of a psychiatrist might
be a passenger with ________
e) A passenger communicating with you via a pen and paper or
speech device might be a passenger who _______
4. Read the questions, try to find out answers, afterwards

read the answers and complete the gaps using the clues in the
boxes.
A What is the vision requirement to becoming an airline pilot?
A You must have 20/20 vision without the aid of corrective lenses.
B You must have 20/10 vision with the aid of corrective lenses.
C You must have 20/20 vision with or without the aid of corrective lenses.
aid required without
Back in the day, you would be __________ to have 20/20 vision without the __________ of glasses
in order to be an airline pilot, but that isn't so anymore. As long as you can see with 20/20 vision
with our __________ glasses or contact lenses, you should be in the clear.
259
B When does an airplane dump fuel?
A In emergency situations when the plane needs to land earlier than expected.
B Planes dump fuel before most landings because planes
usually carry more fuel than necessary, just in case.
C Planes never dump fuel, even when a plane is overweight,
because it's too much of a safety risk.
takeoff evaporates fuel damage wings
A pilot might decide to dump __________ , ejecting it from the __________, if the plane needs to
make an unplanned landing soon after __________. It's not very common, and it's done to avoid an
overweight landing that can __________ the plane. It is, however, a safe procedure, and fuel usually
__________ before it hits the ground.
5. Speaking. Read the following fact and say your own opinion.
Why You Really Shouldn't Use Your Cell Phone Inflight
Passengers often grumble about not being able to use cell phones during flight, how it is safe. Great
perspective from a pilot on this topic...
“People don’t understand why they can’t use their cell phones.
Well, what can happen is 12 people will decide to call someone
just before landing, and I can get a false reading on my
instruments saying that we are higher than we really are.” Jim
Tilmon
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Lesson 2 Auto Landing with ILS (Instrument Landing System)
The Instrument Landing System (ILS) is an internationally normalized system for navigation
of aircrafts upon the final approach for landing.
The equipment that provides a pilot instant information about the distance to the point of
reach is not a part of the ILS system and therefore is for the discontinuous indication used a set of
two or three marker beacons directly integrated into the system. The system of marker beacons can
however be complemented for a continuous measurement of distances with the DME system
(Distance measuring equipment), while the ground part of this UKV distance meter is located co-
operatively with the descent beacon that forms the glide slope. It can also be supplemented with a
VOR system by which means the integrated navigational-landing complex ILS/VOR/DME is
formed.
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AIRPORT GROUND EQUIPMENT Ground part of the traditional ILS system contains 3
basic parts: localizer, glide-slope, marker beacon.
The description and placement of the individual parts of the ILS system
Localizer One of the main components of the ILS system is the localizer which handles the
guidance in the horizontal plane. The localizer is an antenna system comprised of a VHF transmitter
which uses the same frequency range as a VOR transmitter. The localizer, or VHF course marker,
emits two directional radiation patterns. One comprises of a bearing amplitude-modulated wave
with a harmonic signal frequency of 150 Hz and the other one with the same bearing amplitude-
modulated wave with a harmonic signal frequency of 90 Hz. These two directional radiation
patterns do intersect and thus create a course plane, or a horizontal axis of approach, which
basically represents an elongation of the runway’s axis.
The glide slope, or angle of the descent plane provides the vertical guidance for the pilot
during an approach. It’s created by a ground UHF transmitter containing an antenna system
operating in the range of 329,30÷335.00 MHz, with a channel separation of 50 kHz. Like the signal
of the localizer, so does the signal of the glide slope consist of two intersected radiation patterns,
modulated at 90 and 150 Hz. However unlike the localizer, these signals are arranged on top of each
other and emitted along the path of approach.
The purpose of marker beacons is to inform the pilot about the horizontal distance from the
runway touchdown zone, where it is deemed to be significant (e.g. aircraft’s altitude is checked
when passing over the beacon). All beacon types operate at a carrier frequency of 75.0 MHz and
operate in such a way that they vertically transmit a cone of radio waves. The receiver onboard an
aircraft is fixed to 75 MHz and will catch the signal during antenna flyover. Traditional ILS
installation, besides glide-slope and localizer array, also contains at least two marker beacons,
which are generally placed on lots more remote from the airport.
AIRCRAFT’S ONBOARD EQUIPMENT Onboard ILS equipment in an airplane contains
the following: localizer signal receiver, glide slope signal receiver.
262
Localizer signal receiver This equipment enables to receive the localizer signal, process it
and to display the aircraft’s position on an onboard indicator against an axis (azimuth) and
according to this to guide the aircraft into the path axis. The information provided is on the
aircraft’s position toward the axis position, not the path of the plane to the axis direction.
What is the main function of the ILS?

What is the ILS ground equipment?
What is the ILS onboard equipment?
How can you differ localizer and glide-slope signal receiver?
VOCABULARY
Array a set of numbers, signs or values arranged in rows and columns

Beacon a radio station whose signal helps ships and aircraft to find their position. The plane was
guided in by radio beacon.
Complement to add to something in a way that improves it or makes it more attractive. The
excellent menu is complemented by a good wine list.
Discontinuous not continuous; stopping and starting again. Women typically have discontinuous
patterns of employment.
Supplement a thing that is added to something else to improve or complete it. Industrial
sponsorship is a supplement to government funding.
Guidance the process of controlling the direction of a rocket, etc, using electronic equipment. a
missile guidance system
Comprise to be the parts or members that form something. Older people comprise a large
proportion of those living in poverty.
Intersect to divide an area by crossing it. The landscape is intersected with spectacular gorges.
Elongate to become longer; to make something longer. the elongation of vowel sounds
Deem to have a particular opinion about something. The evening was deemed a great success.
1. Complete the sentences below using the words given in the vocabulary above.
a) It is therefore only with caution that we can use them to __________ our knowledge of the true
Basilides.
b) The population is known to __________ a mixture of races.
c) The larvae are ___________ and worm-like, with short legs but often with hard strong cuticle.
d) Prosecution lawyers said he was no longer __________ a flight risk.
e) On the terraces the streets generally __________ at right angles, but on the hills their directions
are irregular.
2. True or false.
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a) Ground part of the traditional ILS system contains 2 basic parts.
b) Localizer handles the guidance in the horizontal plane.
c) The equipment providing a pilot information about the distance to the point of reach is a part of
the ILS system.
d) Localizer signal receiver provides the information on the aircraft’s position toward the axis
position.
e) The purpose of marker beacons is to provide the vertical guidance for the pilot during an
approach.
f) Glide-slope signals are arranged on top of each other and emitted along the path of approach.
indicator requirement alert developed durable
1 The advanced landing system would reduce the visibility __________ for an aircraft for landing.
2 ILS is highly __________ against atmospheric disturbances.
3 The ILS was __________ in the 1940s and in 1949 it was approved by the ICAO to be
commissioned.
4 Localizer information is displayed on the same __________ as your VOR information.
5 Marker beacons are used to __________ the pilot that an action is needed.
1 Precise approaches have a property, where in A mile visibility and a 200 ft. ceiling.
the final phase of approach to the airport they
provide the pilot
2 ILS enables aircraft to safely descent under
B at all the airports in the country, the Airports
the conditions of IMC, i.e. fulfillment of Authority has recently taken up the initiative of
meteorological upgrading the instrument landing system.
3 For the longest time, the minimums for anC conditions for flying by instrumentation up
ILS approach were one-half to altitude as decided, in which the pilot in
order to complete the landing process must
make visual contact.
4 The pilot may determine precise location D with information not only on directional
with respect to the approach path aircraft guidance, but also on its vertical
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position.
5 As a part of its continuing efforts to improve E by referring to a single instrument because
the air navigation facilities for the aircraft and the navigation indicator provides both vertical
passengers and lateral guidance.
5. Read the story and do the exercises.
Investigators probing the July 6 crash of Asiana Airlines Flight 214 at San Francisco
International Airport are working to understand what caused the Boeing 777 (The plane was
carrying 291 passengers and 16 crewmembers. Two passengers died) to make a slow, steady
descent into a sea wall just short of its assigned runway, and why the flight crew did not detect a
problem until just seconds before the plane hit.
While it is too soon to draw firm conclusions, information released by NTSB officials paints
a clear picture of what happened just before the accident. The aircraft slowed below its minimum
safe landing speed well before touchdown, and hit a sea wall just short of the airfield. The crew did
not indicate any trouble with the plane or the approach until seconds before the plane hit, and
investigators have not revealed anything that points to a mechanical malfunction.
Match the words with their definitions.
1 assign a to ask questions in order

to find out hidden information
2 sea wall b not changing and not
interrupted
3 probe c to give somebody some
work or responsibility
4 indicate d to discover or notice
something
5 steady e a large strong wall built
to stop the sea from flowing onto the land
6 detect f to show that something is true or exists
Use some of the words given above in sentences.

a)_________________________________________________________________
b)_________________________________________________________________
c)_________________________________________________________________
6. Project work.
265
Women in Aviation
Some people may believe that aviation is a male-dominated industry. Investigate the role of
woman in aviation, prove whether the mentioned statement is right or wrong.
Lesson 3 Flight Director
Flight Director Functions

An FD is an extremely useful aid that displays cues to guide pilot or autopilot control inputs
along a selected and computed flightpath. The flight director usually receives input from an ADC
and a flight data computer. The ADC supplies altitude, airspeed and temperature data, heading data
from magnetic sources, heading selected on the HSI (or PFD/MFD or electronic horizontal situation
indicator (EHSI)), navigation data from FMS, very high frequency omnidirectional range
(VOR)/distance measuring equipment (DME), and RNAV sources. The flight data computer
integrates all of the data such as speed, position, closure, drift, track, desired course, and altitude
into a command signal. The command signal is displayed on the attitude indicator in the form of
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A flight director
command bars, which show the pitch and roll inputs necessary to achieve the selected targets. To
use the flight director command bars, which are usually shaped as inverted chevrons, or V shaped
symbols, the pilot simply flies to the bars. Some older models use crossed bars, leading the pilot to
the selected point. In both types, you simply keep the aircraft symbol on the attitude indicator
aligned with the command bars, or allow the autopilot to make the actual control movements to fly
the selected track and altitude.
Using the Flight Director (FD). Flight Director Without Autopilot

The FD and autopilot systems are designed to work together, but it is possible to use the
flight director without engaging the autopilot, or the autopilot without the FD, depending on the
installation. Without autopilot engagement, the FD presents all processed information to the pilot in
the form of command bar cues, but you must manually fly the airplane to follow these cues to fly
the selected flightpath. In effect, you “tell” the FD what needs to happen and the FD command bars
“tell” you what to do. This adds to your workload, since you must program the FD for each
procedure or maneuver to be accomplished, while actually flying the aircraft. In many cases, you
will have a decreased workload if you simply disable the FD and fly using only the flight
instruments.
Flight Director With Autopilot

When the aircraft includes both a flight director and an autopilot, you may elect to use flight
director cues without engaging the autopilot. It may or may not be possible to use the autopilot
without also engaging the flight director. You need to be familiar with the system installed. When
you engage the autopilot, it simply follows the cues generated by the flight director to control the
airplane along the selected lateral and vertical paths.
Common Error: Blindly Following Flight Director Cues
The convenience of flight director cues can invite fixation or overreliance on the part of the
pilot. As with all automated systems, you must remain aware of the overall situation. Never assume
that flight director cues are following a route or course that is free from error. Rather, be sure to
include navigation instruments and sources in your scan. Remember, the equipment will usually
perform exactly as programmed. Always compare the displays to ensure that all indications agree. If
in doubt, fly the aircraft to remain on cleared track and altitude, and reduce automation to as
minimal as possible during the problem processing period. The first priority for a pilot always is to
fly the aircraft.
Common Error: Confusion About Autopilot Engagement

Pilots sometimes become confused about whether or not flight director cues are being
automatically carried out by the autopilot, or left to be followed manually by the pilot. Verification
of the autopilot mode and engagement status of the autopilot is a necessary technique for
maintaining awareness of who is flying the aircraft.
What is a Flight Director?

Talk about the working principle of a flight director without autopilot?
Talk about the working principle of a flight director with autopilot?
What can you say about common errors concerning an FD?
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Vocabulary
Elect to choose to do something. Increasing numbers of people elect to work from home nowadays.
Convenience something that is useful and can make things easier or quicker to do, or more
comfortable. It was a great convenience to have the school so near.
Fixation the action or process of fixing or being fixed. sand-dune fixation
Over-reliance Excessive dependence on or trust in someone or something.
Verification the act of showing or checking that something is true or accurate. the verification of
official documents
1. Unscramble the words.
Scrambled word Unscramble here

1 ganlis
2 telecs
3 tipun
4 atad
5 mlalyuna
1 extremely useful A a command signal

2 autopilot B instruments
3 heading data C the airplane
4 integrate the data into D control inputs
5 achieve E workload
6 manually fly F flight director
7 decreased G aid
8 using only the flight H the selected targets
9 engage I the autopilot mode
10 convenience of J from magnetic sources
11 verification of K the autopilot
autopilot pilot engage preprogram workload provides

course decreased important display guidance vertical
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1 It is __________ to note that the normal navigation function __________ only lateral guidance. It
does not attempt to control the __________ path of the aircraft at any time.
2 If you do not __________ the FD in time, or correctly, FD __________ may be inaccurate.
3 The programming of the FD increases the workload for the __________. If that increased
__________ is offset by allowing the autopilot to control the aircraft, then the overall workload is
__________.
4 The downside is that you must program the FD to __________ what you are to do.
5 Good use of an __________ helps automate the process of guiding and controlling the aircraft.
6 A track is a specific goal, such as a heading or __________.
7 Buttons used to ___________ autopilot modes appear along the bottom of the autopilot.
4. Guess what do the acronyms and abbreviations in avionics stand for.
1 ANT ___________________________________________________________
2 AT ____________________________________________________________
3 CNS ___________________________________________________________
4 DP ____________________________________________________________
5 ENG __________________________________________________________
6 FG ____________________________________________________________
7 GS ____________________________________________________________
1 An autopilot can be capable of many A aircraft can have very different

very time intensive tasks, avionics and autopilot functional
capabilities.
2 While the autopilot relieves you from B along the course selected on the
manually manipulating the flight navigation indicator.
controls, you must
3 Due to numerous available options, two C maintain vigilance over the system to
otherwise identical ensure that it performs the intended
functions.
4 The FD’s navigation function can be D the powerplant(s) and be ready to
used to guide the aircraft intervene to ensure operation within safe
parameters.
5 Since there are no definitive rules about E helping the pilot focus on the overall
when an FD should or should not be status of the aircraft and flight.
used, you must
6 Even in very expensive aircraft F learn to consider the benefits and
equipped with autothrottle, you must disadvantages of using the FD in any
monitor given situation.
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6. 1) Before reading the article from the
newspaper match the words with
their definitions.
1 prototype A the area for passengers in

an aircraft
2 cabin B almost, but not completely
3 deployed C capable of working successfully
4 approximately D a first or preliminary version of a device or vehicle
5 viable E the remains of something that has been badly damaged or destroyed
6 wreckage F bring into effective action
2) Rearrange the paragraphs and make up the story.
1 Since the early days of aviation, several companies have tried and failed to develop a viable flying
car. While this unfortunate event may mean the end of the AeroMobil program, the company
appears to view the incident as just a normal part of testing.
2 Testing of the current prototype 3.0 and further product development will continue after the
replacement of the damaged parts, the statement continued. However, from the looks of the images
of the wreckage, it is not a matter of replacing a few parts. It appears that the vehicle would require
major reconstruction to fly again.
3 The AeroMobil 3.0 prototype developed in Slovakia crashed on a test flight on Friday. The pilot
and inventor of the flying car, Štefan Klein, suffered minor injuries as a result of the crash and was
able to exit the cabin by his own strength, according to the Prague Post.
4 The vehicle reportedly entered a spin from which Klein could not recover. He deployed a
parachute at an altitude of approximately 900 feet, according to a statement from AeroMobil.
5 "In the process of developing new vehicles, especially in the prototype phase, the possibility and
likelihood of an unexpected situation is a natural part of the testing program," the AeroMobil
statement said.
7. Speaking.
270
Google and investigate one of the aviation companies. Talk about your search and
share it with the class.
CHAPTER 11
NAVIGATION
Lesson 1 Dead Reckoning

questions.
Dead reckoning is on the curriculum for VFR (Visual Flight Rules) pilots worldwide. It is
taught regardless of whether the aircraft has navigation aids such as GPS, ADF and VOR and is
an ICAO Requirement. Many flying training schools will prevent a student from using electronic
aids until they have mastered dead reckoning.
This navigation technique is based on mathematical calculations of time, speed, distance and
direction. And to predict the movement of your aircraft you will need the following items: TAS,
course, wind speed and direction. From these variables you obtain the wind correction angle to
deduce groundspeed and heading required to navigate.
Plotter
This is an important tool as you will determine true course and distance with it when
drawing a line on your chart. Next you will need current weather for the route: important items to
271
look for are air pressure and temperature, dew point, winds aloft and cloud bases. Armed with this
information you are able to deduce all the variables we mentioned earlier.
Compass
As we fly using compass headings we need some extra information which can be obtained
from the charts. This is the deviation error the compass has with regard to true north used on the
charts. Our compass points to magnetic north and not to the real north pole so we need to correct
for this error.
Navigation log
At this point we have all information required to fill out our navigation log for use in the
aircraft while enroute to our destination.
Give explanation for dead reckoning technique.

What is the ICAO requirement for dead reckoning?
What is the use of plotter or compass for pilots?
Vocabulary
Aloft up in or into the air; overhead. She held her glass aloft.

Deduce arrive at (a fact or a conclusion) by reasoning; draw as a logical conclusion.
They deduced that the fish died because of water pollution.
Deviation the action of departing from an established course or accepted standard. deviation
from a norm
Dew point the atmospheric temperature (varying according to pressure and humidity) below which
water droplets begin to condense and dew can form. When it cools below the dew point, it
condenses back into a liquid - the first phase change.
Predict say or estimate that (a specified thing) will happen in the future or will be a consequence of
something. It is too early to predict a result
Variable an element, feature, or factor that is liable to vary or change. There are too many
variables involved to make any meaningful predictions.
life-saving triangular canopy wing-type strap harness drag brake

packing steerable
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parachute + + parachute
2. Read the article and do the exercises.
A) Rearrange the sentences.
Mountain & Winter Flying
1 Weather can and will change very fast due to orographic effects.
2 Winter time presents different challenges to all pilots, freezing temperatures present a whole
new game.
3 Pilots venturing here unprepared will get lost and sometimes never to be seen again.
4 Before flying in the mountains the pilot must be prepared to do so, it is unlike flying over the
wide open spaces of the flat lands.
5 Thorough preparation is important and we present tips for the pilot, passengers and aircraft.
6 Maybe years later when some hiker finds the wreck and bones, if any.
B) Fill in the blanks with the prepositions.
Amidst High Peaks

to but into with for of in
1 _____ unimaginable views the rewards are tremendous when flying 2 _____ the mountains. 3
_____ the dangers are equally great 4 _____ pilots
flying unprepared 5 _____ these areas. Proper
training and preflight are necessary 6 _____assure a
safe outcome 7 _____ the flight.
C) Fill in the blanks with the appropriate

articles.
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Frosty Conditions
the the a
Low temperature present different challenges to pilots, and wind chill effects can be deadly
should you need to land on 1 _____ desolated airport without shelter.
Being prepared for flying in winter time is important for 2 _____ pilot and passengers but also for
3 _____ aircraft as batteries loose power in frigid conditions and oil becomes very thick.
D) Look through the meanings of the following words. Using them make up your own
sentences.
Venture _____________________________________________________________________
Thorough____________________________________________________________________
Hiker_______________________________________________________________________
Desolated____________________________________________________________________
Frigid_______________________________________________________________________
diagrammatic fixed advanced complex permanent expressive reliable

illustrated complicated delicate schematic secure strong
highly-developed steady
sophisticated pictorial stable
4. Read the article about tablets, fill in blanks and the table.
274
Tablets in the Cockpit — Boon or Bane?
apps provide permanently distraction checklists battery scan

record charged illuminated abundant
A The fact that a tablet is not allowed to be 1 __________ connected to a dedicated power supply in
the aircraft means you are at risk of running out of 2 __________ power during the middle of a trip.
So it is a good idea to make sure it is 3 __________the night before and to put it in airplane mode to
minimize the drain on the battery.
B Pilots find their iPads make so many things easier both in their flight planning and in the cockpit,
and 4 __________ greatly increased situational awareness.
C With the iPad pilots are a lot better at using 5 __________. They still carry their paper checklists,
but they 6 __________ them and find them much easier to read on the iPad. The checklists can be
made larger in an instant with a simple two-finger spread, and they are 7 __________ at night.
D As with about everything else in aviation, the greatest risk of tablet use in the cockpit is from the
pilot. Pilots who do not know their way around the aviation 8 _________ they are using are at risk
of finding their tablet to be a dangerous 9 __________ that keeps them head down when they
should be head-up.
E With so many apps and enticements, the use of a tablet like an iPad in the cockpit provides 10
__________ opportunity for distraction.
F Other pilots use tablets to display traffic and terrain information and as backup attitude and
heading indicators. Instructors use them to 11 __________ flights. Plus, one couple used a tablet as
an emergency navigation system to get to the airport after a complete electrical failure at night.
advantages disadvantages
5. Speaking. Describe the photo given below.
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Lesson 2 VFR (Visual Flight Rules)

There are two sets of rules for flying any aircraft: VFR and IFR. VFR stands for Visual
Flight Rules and IFR means Instrument Flight Rules. Depending on the weather conditions a pilot
may opt for one set of rules or the other. There are a number of other factors that influence the
decision but for simplicity's sake it's the weather that makes you fly VFR or IFR.
VFR – SEE AND AVOID
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VFR requires a pilot to be able to see outside the cockpit, to control the aircraft's altitude,
navigate, and avoid obstacles and other
aircraft. Governing agencies establish
specific requirements for VFR flight,
including minimum visibility, and
distance from clouds, to ensure that
aircraft operating under VFR are visible
from enough distance to ensure safety.
In order to fly VFR Visual
Meteorological Conditions (VMC) have
to be maintained. Basically it means you
cannot fly through clouds and need to
keep a safe distance.
Meteorological conditions that meet the
minimum requirements for VFR flight
are termed visual meteorological
conditions (VMC). If they are not met,
the conditions are considered instrument
meteorological conditions (IMC), and a
flight may only operate under IFR. IFR operations have specific training requirements and
certification required of the pilot, and increased equipment requirements for the aircraft.
Additionally, an IFR flight plan must usually be filed in advance.
In some types of airspace you also have to see the ground. As under VFR you are
responsible for seeing other aircraft and avoid a collision there is also a minimum horizontal
visibility. Depending on the altitude you are flying in that is between 5 km and 8 km.
In some countries VFR flight is permitted at night, and is known as Night VFR, but some
European countries like Spain do not. This is generally permitted only under more restrictive
conditions, such as maintaining minimum safe altitudes, and may require additional training as a
pilot at night may not be able to see and avoid obstacles. For example, in Germany, airspace G
allows for a visibility of just 1.5 km plus you have to be able to see the ground.
The VFR pilot is required to "see and avoid" obstacles and other aircraft. Pilots flying under
VFR assume responsibility for their separation from all other aircraft and are generally not assigned
routes or altitudes by air traffic control (ATC). Depending on the category of airspace in which the
flight is being conducted, VFR aircraft may be required to have a transponder to help Air Traffic
Control identify the aircraft on radar.
How can you describe Visual Flight Rules?

What are the factors that influence choosing VFR or IFR?
What can you say about Night VFR?
Vocabulary
277
Obstacle an object that is in your way and that makes it difficult for you to move forward. The area
was full of streams and bogs and other natural obstacles.
Opt to choose to take or not to take a particular course of
action. After graduating she opted for a career in music.
1 aircraft's A agencies
2 avoid B a safe distance
3 governing C VFR
4 distance from D requirements
5 to keep E altitude
6 operate F horizontal visibility
7 increased equipment G clouds
8 minimum H conditions
9 night I obstacles
10 restrictive J under VFR
aviation tank filter acid-free thin strainer winter

thick pump block quantity gauge lubricating
oil + + oil
3. Read the passage and do the exercise below.
Internationally, a pilot is required to stay more than 1000 feet above any obstacles in a
“congested area” or above any large collection of people. Over uncongested areas, he or she must
stay more than 500 feet above the ground. Also, loss of engine power needs to be considered when
operating a single engine aircraft. The UK is unique. In that country, pilots following VFR may fly
below 500 feet, but they must stay more than 500 feet away from any people or anywhere people
might be expected (vehicles, vessels or structures). According to the German AIP in addition to the
mentioned obstacle clearance, pilots have to be 2000 ft above ground or water when on a cross-
country flight.
To follow VFR, it is internationally agreed that a pilot must be able to see a certain distance
ahead of him. Generally, there must be no cloud within 1500 metres horizontally or 1000 feet
278
vertically from the aircraft, and the “flight visibility” (the distance forward the pilot could see from
the cockpit in flight) must be at least 8 km. The VFR therefore require the pilot to fly his or her
aircraft to stay at least that distance from cloud and in conditions of at least that visibility.
From the list of 9 words (words in bold) that follows, choose the one that corresponds to
each definition below.
congested operate unique expect vehicle vessel

cross-country vertical distance
being the only one of its kind ______________
so crowded with traffic or people as to prevent freedom of movement ______________
across fields or countryside, as opposed to on roads or tracks ______________
a thing used for transporting people or goods, especially on land ______________
the length of the space between two points ______________
at right angles to a horizontal plane ______________
believe that something likely to happen ______________
a ship or large boat ______________
function in a specified manner ______________
4. Fill in the blanks.
Choose the article for blanks.

the a the a the a
Unless you are required by 1 _____ lender to carry liability insurance for your airplane, you likely
don't have to pay for such 2 _____ policy. Only 11 states require some form of liability insurance
for general aviation aircraft operators, according to 3 _____ Government Accountability Office,
unlike automobile owners and commercial airlines, which are federally obligated to be insured.
But this may not be 4 _____ case much longer. 5 _____ GAO says there have been GA accidents
where parties received no compensation for losses because the airplane operator had no insurance.
As a result, Congress recently commissioned the agency to conduct 6 _____ study to determine the
costs of implementing such a mandate.
Choose the correct preposition.

279
to on in of from in
The GAO does not make any hard recommendations 7 _____ its report. It claims it is difficult 8
_____ determine how many cases exist 9 _____ which affected parties received no compensation.
The report makes mention 10 _____ the increased cost 11 _____ the GA community, and the
complexity of implementing and administering such a mandate. Only 13 of 73 aviation stakeholders
who participated in the study predicted that there would be a potential public benefit 12 _____ a
federally mandated insurance requirement. What Congress will do with the report, if anything at all,
remains to be seen.
5. Speaking.
Find out information on “Basic VFR weather minimums”. Share your investigation with the class.
Lesson 3 IFR (Instrument Flight Rules)
IFR - IT USED TO BE CALLED BLIND FLYING
Whenever VMC (Visual Meteorological Conditions) cannot be met a pilot with the proper
skills, rating and an IFR equipped aircraft can still perform a flight. In theory flights can be
performed with zero visibility from start to landing. That of course sounds quite scary and certainly
puts the flight crew under a lot of stress - which is why larger aircraft for commercial service are
not flown by a single pilot.
Unlike VFR flights IFR happens usually within controlled airspace and requires filing a
flight plan (usually) ahead of time. The routing is not completely at the pilot's discretion.
Established waypoints and airways have to be used and the altitude for the flight is determined by
things like minimum airway altitude, minimum radar vectoring altitude (MRVA) and traffic
situation.
280
In Europe all IFR flight plans have to go through the Central Flow Management Unit
(CFMU) by Eurocontrol. Sometimes the routings get inefficient. On the other hand in trip reports
IFR pilots report frequently that ATC all across Europe works hard to offer "directs" as much as
possible thus allowing the pilot to shorten the distance to be flown. The bad thing is that ahead of
the time the flight takes place these shortcuts cannot be known and therefore all other calculations,
including the amount of fuel required, need to be made based on the routing as accepted by CFMU.
Flying by instruments, without any outside references sounds dangerous, but it’s very safe
once you’ve received the proper training. Training includes learning how to use navigational aids
like VORs, ADF and GPS and how to fly approaches using an instrument landing system (ILS).
Instrument training also includes a comprehensive study of weather systems and reports, icing
conditions, and how the human body responds to spatial disorientation.
Instrument flying involves a higher degree of precision and professionalism than VFR
flying, but earning an instrument rating means you won’t be grounded as often because of bad
weather. And it’s a necessary step for becoming a professional pilot.
What is the main occasion for using Instrument Flight Rules?

What is the disadvantage of IFR?
How can IFR help pilots?
Vocabulary
Disorientation a feeling of confusion and not being able to think clearly. She went through a
period of shock and disorientation following her husband's death.
Spatial relating to space and the position, size, shape, etc. of things in it. changes taking place in
the spatial distribution of the population
1 IFR equipped A commercial service

2 zero B waypoints
3 aircraft for C references
4 controlled D flown
5 pilot's routing E aircraft
6 established F altitude
7 minimum airway G airspace
8 distance to be H of weather systems
9 outside I visibility
10 comprehensive study J discretion
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maintain elect charts required instruments two-way regulations

positions route visual
1 Instrument flight rules (IFR) are a set of __________ under which a pilot operates under
conditions in which flight by outside __________ reference is not safe.
2 A pilot may __________ to fly in accordance with instrument flight rules in visual meteorological
conditions or may be __________ to do so by the appropriate ATS authority.
3 Aircraft shall be equipped with suitable __________ and with navigation equipment appropriate
to the __________ to be flown.
4 An IFR flight shall __________ continuous voice communication and establish __________
communication with the appropriate air traffic control unit.
5 In IVAO, some air traffic control __________ can provide flight information service outside their
controlled areas in an airspace published on __________.
3. Correct the mistakes.
Infringement of controlled airspace, danger and restrictes areas etc. are serious aviation hazard and
occurs when an aircraft enter the airspace without permission. This happens several times a day on
the busiest areas of European airspace. Careful planning, and accurately fly the plan, are the best
means of avoiding such infringements. However, it is important that pilot understand the rules they
are expected following.
4. Fill in the table with the appropriate words.
weight insulator clad air oil flame-resistant grease

self-extinguishing pipe sound-proofing
….. material excess …..
5. Read the story. Do the following exercises.
282
A While even a less-than-stellar headset will reduce critical levels of airplane noise, several recent
studies have shown that any unnecessary volume that reaches your eardrum will cause pilot fatigue
as time goes by.
B Any new headset you buy today will likely provide decent noise cancellation, new levels of
comfort and, in many cases, great additional features.
C Aviation headsets have come a long way since the early days, when aviators were forced to suffer
hearing loss as they accrued hours upon hours in the cockpit amid the continuous thrum of roaring
engines.
D Discomfort can also be distracting and detract from the focus needed in the cockpit.
1 ____ 2____ 3____ 4____
Fill in the blanks using the words below.
experience device ability headsets budget scream

addition
These days, many top-of-the-line 1 __________ come with the ability to connect to a portable 2
__________. Music can definitely enhance the flying 3 __________, and it is nice to be able to
connect with friends and family by phone without having to 4 __________over engine noise.
However, to make sure you don’t miss any ATC calls, look for a headset that provides the 5
__________to auto-mute the sound input during ATC communications. Bluetooth is also a very
nice 6 __________ that eliminates clutter in the cockpit.
The most expensive headsets provide all the bells and whistles that are available today. But if your
7 __________ doesn’t support a $1,000 headset, there are some good budget options out there too.
1 Instrument flight rules A are obscured by weather

and regulations established or darkness, instrument
by the FAA to govern flight rules must be used
instead.
2 IFR flight depends upon B backup systems
flying by reference to providing a last layer of
instruments in the defense if a sequence of
errors or omissions causes
a dangerous situation.
3 When operation of an C in instrument
aircraft under VFR is not meteorological conditions
safe, because the visual (IMC).
cues outside the aircraft
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4 It is essential to differentiate between D clouds (or other conditions where there is
flight plan type (VFR or IFR) and zero visibility outside the aircraft) is legal
and safe.
5 Although dangerous and usually illegal, a E flight under conditions in which flight by
certain amount of VFR flying is conducted outside visual reference is not safe.
6 During flight under IFR, there are no F in instrument meteorological
visibility requirements, so flying through conditions (IMC).
7 Although large airliners, and increasingly, G flight deck, and navigation is
smaller aircraft, carry their own terrain accomplished by reference to electronic
awareness and warning system (TAWS), signals.
these are primarily
8 The main purpose of IFR is the safe H weather conditions (VMC or IMC).
operation of aircraft
7. Pair work.
Work with your partner, prepare questions about IFR and ask your partner for the correct
answers.
Lesson 4 Pilotage
To be able to fly an aircraft from one point or airport to

another without getting lost, the pilot has a number of methods
available to navigate the route. Pilotage and dead reckoning are the
two most basic methods that can be used and in addition to that we
can use radio navigation (ground and satellite based) and other
sophisticated systems bringing us to our destination.
In the days when radio navigation systems were not so prevalent, pilots used to fly and find
their way by following roads, rivers, railroads and other prominent landmarks. This is called
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pilotage. Some even call this jokingly IFR: I Follow Roads. And even in this day and age of
multifunction personal devices (iPad, tablet) it still a preferred form of navigation by some pilots.
Pilotage
To navigate successfully using this method you will need a current aeronautical map of the
area of interest and then select an altitude that will allow you to locate symbols depicted on the map
on the ground below you. Flying too high (above 3000 feet AGL, depending on prevailing weather)
will make ground features too small to recognize. Flying too low could result in colliding with tall
structures or even hills.
The advantage of this method is that you will not need any special instruments in the
aircraft. But on the other hand, navigating over areas where few landmarks are present is difficult to
perform, and flying a direct course sometimes even impractical. Even more so when visibility is
reduced by weather, fog or smoke, making genuine pilotage is a real challenge.
Checkpoints and route

There are no rules for selecting checkpoints as long as they can be positively identified
and verified they can be used. For example when verifying a town, do not depend on the water
tower but try to select at least two other features (rivers, railroad etc) specific for that town or city.
When selecting a route, try to fly in a straight line as much as possible and pick your
landmarks on both sides of your desired track. This will reduce your flight time somewhat and
results in more accurate timing and fuel calculations, and possibly not getting lost at all.
What are the two most basic methods for navigating the route?
How can pilotage help pilots?
What is the advantage of pilotage?
What can you say about selecting checkpoints and route?
Vocabulary
Prevailing existing at a particular time; current. The unfavourable prevailing economic conditions
Prevalent widespread in a particular area or at a particular time. The social ills prevalent in

society today.
Verify make sure or demonstrate that (something) is true, accurate, or justified.

His conclusions have been verified by later experiments.
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1 navigate A systems
2 radio B map
3 sophisticated C pilotage
4 multifunction personal D navigation
5 aeronautical E the route
6 making genuine F checkpoints
7 selecting G devices
2. Fill in the table with the appropriate words.
altimeter position allowable airfield measurement instrument in-

flight ground reading rough accidental response taxiing
….. maneuver ….. error
function appear arise handle invade be present manage

manoeuvre develop capture exist happen perform
utilize seize take place work turn up
operate occur occupy
surrounding comparing suitable initial tracks

currently circumstances dependent
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Pilotage and dead reckoning is the fine art of using mainly a chart, a clock, a compass to get
from point A to point B.
Pilotage is the art of knowing where you are by reading a map and 1 __________ it with the
surrounding terrain and landmarks, while dead reckoning is the art knowing where you 2
__________ are by using a compass, your ground speed, a clock and an 3 __________ known
position.
If you are flying very low or even in bad weather you might be very 4 __________ on your
dead reckoning, due to limitations in how much of the 5 __________ terrain you can see.
Usually, the first step in planning is part of the map preparation. That is finding 6
__________ checkpoints, marking them and plotting tracks between the checkpoints. The 7
__________ might involve turn arcs. The size of the turn arcs is depending on the scale of the chart,
the turn angle, and the performance of the aircraft.
While reading the map it is easy to get into the bad habit of trying to figure out where
you currently are. This will result in that you mentally might be a few miles behind the aircraft,
which can be hazardous in some 8 __________.
It is more efficient to plan ahead, in essence thinking of what will you pass some time ahead,
according to the minute marks.
Circle the word that most nearly expresses the meaning of the word printed in bold.
A using mainly a chart

1 as a rule 2 mostly 3 on average
B surrounding terrain and landmarks
1 mark 2 beacon 3 leading light
C the first step in planning
1 arrangement 2 scheme 3 scenario
D plotting tracks
1 mark 2 draw 3 show
E the size of the turn arcs
1 capacity 2 volume 3 width
F trying to figure out
1 investigate 2 resolve 3 estimate
5. Pair work.
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Work with your partner. Try to draw a map of a
town, place that is familiar to you. Use the given
symbols.
Lesson 5 Doppler
Navigation System
A Doppler radar is a specialized radar that uses the Doppler effect to produce velocity data

about objects at a distance. It does this by bouncing a microwave signal off a desired target and
analyzing how the object's motion has altered the frequency of the returned signal. This variation
gives direct and highly accurate measurements of the radial component of a target's velocity relative
to the radar. Doppler radars are used in aviation, meteorology, police speed
guns, radiology and healthcare.
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Doppler radars were used as a navigation aid for aircraft and spacecraft. By directly
measuring the movement of the ground with the radar, and then comparing this to the airspeed
returned from the aircraft instruments, the wind speed could be accurately determined for the first
time. This value was then used for highly accurate dead reckoning.
The doppler navigation system is so named because it utilizes the doppler shift principle.
The doppler shift is the difference in frequency which occurs between a radar signal emitted from
an aircraft radar antenna and the signal returned to the aircraft.
If the signal is sent forward from an aircraft in flight, the returning signal will be at a higher
frequency than the signal emitted. The difference in the frequencies makes it possible to measure
speed and direction of movement of the aircraft, thus providing information which can be computed
to give the exact position of the aircraft at all times with respect to a particular reference point and
the selected course.
A Doppler navigation system:

a) is completely self-contained and requires no ground based navigation aids.
b) is usable worldwide.
c) is most accurate overland.
d) is less accurate during flight over the sea because the surface winds, tides and currents move the
surface in random directions.
e) sometimes fails to measure a ground speed and drift during flight over a smooth, glassy sea.
The advantage of a doppler system is that it is completely contained in the aircraft and
requires no external signals. At the start of a flight, the course or courses to be flown are
programmed into the system. Therefore, continuous information regarding the position of the
aircraft will be displayed on the doppler indicator and the computer controller.
What is the Doppler radar mainly used for?

In which fields can the Doppler radar be used?
What can you say about the working principle of the
Doppler navigation system?
What characteristics does a Doppler navigation system
have?
Vocabulary
Radial (of a road or route) running directly from a town or city

centre to an outlying district. a ring road to which the principal radial roads of London would
connect
Target a person, object, or place selected as the aim of an attack, attention, purpose.

The airport terminal was the target of a bomb.
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1 velocity A the returned signal

2 microwave B instruments
3 frequency of C navigation aids
4 police D the frequencies
5 aircraft E signal
6 doppler F speed guns
7 difference in G data
8 ground based H indicator
9 doppler I shift principle
modern internationally radar drift stable

apparatus measurement reflected
1 DNS is the self-contained __________ system that utilizes the Doppler effect for measuring the
ground speed and drift angle of flying __________ and accomplishes its dead-reckoning navigation.
2 The __________ authorized frequency band of 13.25 to 13.4 GHz has been allocated for airborne
Doppler navigation radar.
3 Measurement of the wind vector and __________ angle of flying apparatus is based on change of
a Doppler frequency of the signal __________ from the underlying surface.
4 There are two basic antenna system concepts used for drift angle __________. These are the
fixed-antenna system, which is used in most __________ systems, and the track-stabilized (roll-
and-pitch-stabilized) antenna system.
5 Measurement is started when a __________ flight at the given altitude, speed of flight, roll and
pitch has been established.
3. Read the passages on “Plane Disappearances” and do the following exercises.
A) Find out the correct places for the given prepositions.

in to on in
As the first woman cross the Atlantic Ocean a plane (1928), Amelia Earhart proved to people across
the globe how high women could go. However, her story met a tragic and mysterious end July
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1937, when, a trip to fly around the world, her plane, a twin-engine Lockheed Electra
disappeared in the central Pacific Ocean.
B) Correct the mistakes (7 mistakes).
In 1962, during the preliminary stages of the Vietnam War, United States Army Flying Tiger Flight
739 vanishes over the bottomly Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean on their way to the
Philippines. Such theory range from claims that it was accidentally shot down with the U.S.
government, who then covered their tracks, to simple engine and communication failure. However,
a true cause remains elusive, and no one may ever knows what really happened.
C) Put the numbers into the right places.

50 2000 1947 1990s 2
British South American Airways Lancastrian plane went missing on August (a) _______, (b)
_______, while finishing its final leg of a connecting flight
from Buenos Aires to Santiago. However, over (c)
_______years later, in the late (d) _______, pieces of
wreckage began to emerge in the Andes Mountains, and in
(e) _______ various body parts from the flight’s passengers
were found, well-preserved by glacial ice. Despite the
circulating rumors, ranging from alien abduction to Nazi
spies and stolen gold, an in-depth investigation uncovered
that inclement weather had caused the crash.
D) Choose five new (unknown) words, look through
their meaning and make up sentences using them.
1
____________________________________________________________________________
2 ____________________________________________________________________________
3 ____________________________________________________________________________
4 ____________________________________________________________________________
5 ____________________________________________________________________________
4. Unscramble and find the words from the table.
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H B A Z X C V B N F L M
W V K J H G F D S R A Q
I T T I C K E T R E E W
O T U Y J S E I Q Q L E
L C U R T A I C F U L A
F A O B O O K A T E K I
L T P C G A M O A N A R
I D L D K M A L B C T P
G O A I A P P I L Y E L
H G Y E N F I E E Y E A
T A I R P O R T A N T N
E M E R G E N C N E V E
B U G C A P T A I N S N
O J U C H A I R S G E D
R D N A V I G A T I O N
D R O X T U D E N N T O
E G T C H I N A W E V E
1 lerapnia _______________ 6 rorptia _______________

2 ictkopc _______________ 7 ninege _______________
3 acio _______________ 8 oginiatvan _______________
4 hlitfg _______________ 9 pinatac _______________
5 kitcte _______________ 10 qenufceyr _______________
5. Speaking.
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Individual Work. Investigate yourself and find out other odd Plane Disappearances, share
your stories with the class.
Lesson 6 GPS (Global Positioning System)
Satellite Navigation is based on a global network of satellites that transmit radio signals in
medium earth orbit. Users of Satellite Navigation are most familiar with the 24 Global Positioning
System (GPS) satellites. GPS data allows pilots to obtain precise three-dimensional or four-
dimensional location data. The GPS system uses triangulation to determine an aircraft's exact
location, as well as speed, track, distance to or from checkpoints, and time. The basic GPS service
provides users with approximately 7.8 meter accuracy, 95% of the time, anywhere on or near the
surface of the earth. To accomplish this, each of the 24 satellites emits signals to receivers that
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determine their location by computing the difference between the time that a signal is sent and the
time it is received. GPS satellites carry atomic clocks that provide extremely accurate time. The
time information is placed in the codes broadcast by the satellite so that a receiver can continuously
determine the time the signal was broadcast.
The main advantages of GPS are: 1 accuracy 2 global application 3 signal fidelity. Very
precisely positioned orbiting satellites transmit very accurate, coded satellite position and time data.
The receiver decodes this data and calculates its position relative to the satellite. If the receiver is
moving then these characteristics must be included for accurate results. Using data from more than
one satellite improves accuracy. The accuracy is ultimately based on very precise atomic clocks in
each satellite. GPS consists of three segments; the Space Segment, the User Segment and the
Control Segment.
Space segment The Space Segment, consists of a minimum of 24 operational satellites in

six circular orbits 20,200 km (10,900 nm) above the earth at an inclination angle of 55 degrees with
a 12 hour period. The satellites are spaced in orbit so that at any time a minimum of six satellites
will be in view to users anywhere in the world.
User segment The User Segment consists of the receivers, processors, and antennas that
allow land, sea, or airborne operators to receive the GPS satellite broadcasts and compute their
precise position, velocity and time.
Control segment The Control Segment consists of a master control station in Colorado
Springs, with five monitor stations and three ground antennas located throughout the world. The
monitor stations track all GPS satellites in view and collect ranging.
GPS satellites orbit about 12,000 miles above us, and complete one orbit every 12 hours.
They are solar powered, fly in medium Earth orbit and transmit radio signals to receivers on the
ground.
Ground stations use the signals to track and monitor satellites, and these stations provide the
master control station (MCS) with data. The MCS then provides precise position data to the
satellites.
The
receiver in an
aircraft receives
time data
from the
satellites' atomic clocks. It compares the time it takes for the signal to go from the satellite to the
receiver, and calculates distance based on that very accurate and specific time. GPS receivers use
triangulation date from at three satellites to determine a precise two-dimensional location. With at
least four satellites in view and operational, three-dimensional location data can be obtained.
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What is GPS for?
In which cases can GPS be useful for pilots?
What are the main advantages of GPS?
What are the three segments of GPS?
What are the characteristics of the three segments?
VOCABULARY
Fidelity the degree of exactness with which something is copied or reproduced. The 1949

recording provides reasonable fidelity.
Inclination the angle at which a straight line or plane is inclined to another. For example, at each
location on the globe, the geomagnetic field lines intersect the Earth's surface at a specific angle of
inclination.
Ultimately finally; in the end. The condition, which is currently incurable, ultimately leads to
premature death.
Velocity the speed of something in a given direction. The velocities of the emitted particles.
1. Complete the phrases.
1 global network A fidelity

2 precise four-dimensional B satellite broadcasts
3 signal C of satellites
4 coded satellite D antennas
5 airborne operators for receiving E location data
6 ground F position
2. Complete the sentences
1 The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a A airport, calculate time en route, fuel on
space-based radio-navigation system consisting board, time of sunset and sunrise, and much
more.
2 Currently 32 GPS satellites orbit the Earth at B system known as GLONASS, have offered
an altitude of approximately 11,000 miles free use of their respective systems to the
providing users international community.
3 The Global Positioning System, formally C of a constellation of satellites and a network
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known as the Navstar Global Positioning of ground stations used for monitoring and
System, control.
4 Because its capabilities are accessible using D that provide extremely accurate time.
small, inexpensive equipment, GPS is
5 The United States, who developed and E was initiated in 1973 to reduce the
operates GPS, and Russia, who developed a proliferation of navigation aids.
similar
6 GPS satellites carry atomic clocks F a precise two-dimensional location.
7 All pilots can appreciate GPS data in G with accurate information on position,
emergency situations, as the database will velocity, and time anywhere in the world and
allow them to search for the nearest in all weather conditions.
8 GPS receivers use triangulation - date from H being utilized in a wide variety of
at three satellites - to determine applications across the globe.
3. Match the words from the exercise above with their definitions.
1 triangulation A group of associated or similar people or things

2 utilize B a large number of something
3 constellation C formation of or division into triangles
4 proliferation D make practical and effective use of
4. Read the passages and do the exercises.
3 Things You Need to Know About Turbulence

A Fill in the blanks with the prepositions.
in out in of
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Turbulence-related injuries do happen—but
rarely. The Federal Aviation Administration
says there are between 30 and 60 cases (1)
_____ turbulence-related injuries each year.
Two-thirds of that number are flight
attendants (mostly because they're the ones who
might not be seatbelted (2) _____ when the bumps hit), which
means that only 20 passengers – (3) _____ of the 800 million
who fly each year (4) _____ the United States—are injured
due to turbulence.
B Open the brackets.

Clear air turbulence, however, (1) _____ (to be) a different
story. Clear air turbulence is the most dangerous kind, as it (2)
_____ (to occur) in cloudless skies with perfect visibility—so
oncoming turbulence cannot (3) _____ (to be pick) up by weather radar. This gives leaves little to
no time for the flight crew to (4) _____ (to warn) passengers to return to their seats and buckle up.
Unsurprisingly, most turbulence-related injuries are due to clear air turbulence.
C Fill in the blanks with the words from the box.
currently ultraviolet ahead avoid
We might soon be able to (1) __________ turbulence altogether. Airlines are (2) __________
testing new technology which can help airplanes avoid turbulence altogether, by using (3)
__________ lasers to send pulses into the air (4) __________.
D Rearrange the sentences and make up the paragraph.
1 While not always active, turbulence has a continual presence in North America, and turbulent
conditions are always possible.
2 Geographically, the United States has many natural phenomena that cause turbulence.
3 A convergence of jet streams, mountain wave over the
Rocky Mountains and a high incidence of convective
activity over the entire contiguous United States creates an
environment of atmospheric instability.
5. Project.
Google for turbulence related aircraft accidents. Share

the most interesting one with your class.
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Lesson 7 ELTS (Emergency Locator Transmitter System)

Distress radio beacons, also known as emergency beacons or Emergency Locator
Transmitter System (ELTS), are tracking transmitters which aid in the detection and location of
aircraft, boats etc. in distress.
298
Strictly, they are radio beacons that interface with worldwide offered service of Cospas-
Sarsat, the international satellite system for search and rescue (SAR). When manually activated, or
automatically activated upon immersion, such beacons send out a distress signal. The signals are
monitored worldwide and the location of the distress is detected by non-geostationary satellites, and
can be located by some combination of GPS satellites.
The basic purpose of a

distress radio beacon is to
help rescuers find
survivors within the
so- called "golden day"
(the first 24 hours following a traumatic event) during which the
majority of survivors can usually be saved.
Since the inception of Cospas-Sarsat in 1982, distress radio beacons have assisted in the
rescue of over 28,000 people in more than 7,000 distress situations. In 2010 alone, the system
provided information which was used to rescue 2,388 persons in 641 distress situations.
Most beacons are brightly colored and waterproof. ELTSs are larger, and would fit in a cube about
30 cm on a side, and weigh 2 to 5 kg. The units have a useful life of 10 years, operate across a range
of conditions −40 to 40°C and transmit for 24 to 48 hours. The cost of radio beacons varies
according to performance and specifications.
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The following is the process through which a transmission usually gets processed:
1. The transmitter is activated, either automatically in a crash or after sinking, or manually by
survivors of an emergency situation.
2. At least one satellite picks up the beacon's transmission.
3. The satellites transfer the beacon's signal to their respective ground control stations.
4. The ground stations process the signals and forwards the data, including approximate
location, to a national authority.
5. The national authority forwards the data to a rescue authority
6. The rescue authority uses its own receiving equipment afterwards to locate the beacon and
commence its own rescue or recovery operations.
Once the satellite data is in, it takes less than a minute to forward the data to any signatory nation.
There are two ways to activate a beacon: manually or automatically. Automatic ELTSs are
water activated. Some ELTSs also deploy; this means that they physically depart from their
mounting bracket on the exterior of the vessel (usually by going into the water). Deployment can
happen either manually – where someone must physically remove it from its bracket – or
automatically – where water pressure will cause a hydrostatic release unit to release the ELTS from
its bracket. If it does not come out of the bracket it will not activate.
Once deployed, ELTSs can be activated, depending on the circumstances, either manually
(crewman flicks a switch) or automatically (when water contacts the unit's "sea-switch".) All
modern ELTSs provide both methods of activation and deployment, and thus are labelled "Manual
and Automatic Deployment and Activation".
How can we name distress radio beacons?

What is the use of the international satellite system for the instrument?
How can ELTS be activated?
What are the characteristics of ELTS?
What can you say about the process through which a transmission usually gets processed?
Vocabulary
Commence begin. Training has commenced for all teams and new players would be very welcome
in any age group.
Deploy bring into effective action. However, the trustees do have a responsibility to ensure that the
centre's income is deployed in the most effective manner.
Distress 1 extreme anxiety, sorrow, or pain. Caring for people experiencing mental distress is often
complex and challenging. 2 The state of a ship or aircraft when in danger or difficulty and needing
help. Three Kingfisher pilots searching for ships in distress radioed they had spotted life rafts in the
stormy Atlantic.
Flick turn (an electrical device) on or off. A torch was flicked on and Tam winced in the light,
screwing up his eyes.
Immersion dip or submerge in a liquid. In our experiments, however, both tip and sample are
completely immersed in liquids.
Inception the establishment or starting point of an institution or activity. Twenty two others have
tried going back to the inception of the tournament a decade ago and all have failed.
Signatory a party that has signed an agreement, especially a state that has signed a treaty. Who
among the list of signatories will be responsible for implementing your strategy?
300
Traumatic deeply disturbing or distressing. His lack of health was incredibly disturbing and
traumatic for all of us, especially a young boy who idolised him.
detects traumatic manual waterproof vessels interface

departing assisting
1 The bridge only opens with two keys, at the moment it is high and open, which would allow ships
and other nautical _________ to pass beneath us.
2 Loss of abilities related to _________ dexterity may affect work performance and may threaten or
end essential career options.
3 The sickness and invalids benefit strategy is showing encouraging results in __________ people
to recover and return to employment.
4 It was a deeply __________ experience anticipating a police dog going berserk in the enclosed
space that is Streatham Hill ticket office.
5 You'd think I'd know better, wouldn't you, than to look at a clear November sky and decide to
leave my hat and my __________ coat behind?
6 The key account manager acts as the primary __________ between the supplier organization and
the customer.
7 As soon as the immune system __________ the presence of a pathogen it mounts a response to
kill it, which is highly successful in most cases in healthy people.
8 Critics of humanism have for centuries declared that freethinkers once __________ from religion
have abandoned morality.
2. Find out synonyms and antonyms for the given words.
Word Synonym Antonym

deploy
commence
worldwide
immerse
rescue
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3. Choose the correct word.
Sensitivity of Aircraft Emergency Locator Transmitters to Non-Distress Impact Events
Hard landings _____ (were, is, are) thought to be one reason _____ (in, for, to) inadvertent
Emergency Locator Transmitter activation. One objective of _____ (it, those, this) research
program was to investigate the sensitivity of ELTs _____ (to, on, of) non-distress events. Non-
distress events can be _____ (divide, divided, divides) into three categories: normal landings, hard
landings, and other impacts. Normal landings are typical aircraft landings. Hard landings are events
_____ (what, where, which) the aircraft experiences higher than typical deceleration rates. Other
impacts include events such as accidental activation of an ELT due _____ (to, in, on) dropping it on
a hard surface.
4. Put the passages into correct order.
A It is best known as the system that detects and locates

emergency beacons activated by aircraft, ships and
backcountry hikers in distress. Over the years many
countries have joined the project, either as providers of
ground segments or as user states.
B The Secretariat of the International Cospas-Sarsat
Programme is based in Montréal, Québec, Canada, and is
headed by Steven Lett of the United States.
C The International Cospas-Sarsat Programme is a
satellite-based search and rescue (SAR) distress alert detection and information distribution system,
established by Canada, France, the United States, and the former Soviet Union in 1979.
D As of 2011, 26 countries (Algeria, Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Chile, People's Republic of
China, Greece, India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, Republic of Korea, New Zealand, Nigeria, Norway,
Pakistan, Peru, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, South Africa, Spain, Thailand, Turkey, United Arab
Emirates, United Kingdom, Vietnam) and two organizations (Chunghwa Telecom of Taiwan and
the Hong Kong Marine Department) are providers of ground segments, while 11 countries are user
states (Cyprus, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Madagascar, Netherlands, Poland, Serbia, Sweden,
Switzerland, Tunisia).
1 _____ 2_____ 3_____ 4_____
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5. Use your dictionary and give definitions for the words given below. Make up
sentences using them.
backcountry hiker to head alert distribution
1 ____________________________________________________________________________
2 ____________________________________________________________________________
3____________________________________________________________________________
4____________________________________________________________________________
6. Speaking.
Pair work.
Invest any aircraft crash story and
share that with your class. Work with
your partner, use internet resources.
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Lesson 8 RNAV concepts (Area navigation)
Area navigation (RNAV) is a method of instrument flight rules (IFR) navigation that allows

an aircraft to choose any course within a network of navigation beacons, rather than navigating
directly to and from the beacons. This can conserve flight distance, reduce congestion, and allow
flights into airports without beacons. Area navigation used to be called "random navigation", hence
the acronym RNAV.
In the United States, RNAV was developed in the 1960s, and the first such routes were
published in the 1970s. In January 1983, the Federal Aviation Administration revoked all RNAV
routes in the contiguous United States due to findings that aircraft were using inertial navigation
systems rather than the ground-based beacons, and so cost-benefit analysis was not in favour of
maintaining the RNAV routes system. RNAV was reintroduced after the large-scale introduction of
satellite navigation.
The continuing growth of
aviation increases demands
on airspace capacity, thus
emphasizing the need for optimum
utilisation of available airspace.
Improved operational efficiency
derived from the application of area
navigation techniques has resulted in
the development of navigation
applications in various regions
worldwide and for all phases of flight.
These applications could potentially
be expanded to provide guidance for
ground movement operations. FMS/RNAV display.
Requirements for navigation applications on specific routes or within a specific airspace
must be defined in a clear and concise manner. This is to ensure that the flight crew and the air
traffic controllers are aware of the on-board RNAV system capabilities in order to determine if the
performance of the RNAV system is appropriate for the specific airspace requirements.
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RNAV systems evolved in a
manner similar to conventional ground-
based routes and procedures. A specific
RNAV system was identified and its
performance was evaluated through a
combination of analysis and flight
testing. For land-based operations, the
initial systems used very high
frequency omnidirectional radio
range (VOR) and distance measuring
equipment (DME) for estimating
position; for oceanic
operations, inertial navigation
systems (INS) were employed. Airspace and obstacle clearance criteria were developed based on
the performance of available equipment, and specifications for requirements were based on
available capabilities. Such prescriptive requirements resulted in delays to the introduction of new
RNAV system capabilities and higher costs for maintaining appropriate certification. To avoid such
prescriptive specifications of requirements, an alternative method for defining equipment
requirements has been introduced. This enables the specification of performance requirements,
independent of available equipment capabilities, and is termed performance-based
navigation (PBN). Thus, RNAV is now
one of the navigation techniques of PBN;
currently the only other is required
navigation performance (RNP).
RNAV and RNP systems are
fundamentally similar. The key
difference between them is the
requirement for onboard performance
monitoring and alerting. A navigation specification that includes a requirement for on-board
navigation performance monitoring and alerting is referred to as an RNP specification. One not
having such requirements is referred to as an RNAV specification. An area navigation system
capable of achieving the performance requirement of an RNP specification is referred to as an RNP
system.
As a result of decisions made in the industry in the 1990s, most modern RNAV systems
provide on-board performance monitoring and alerting, therefore the navigation specifications
developed for use by these systems can be designated as RNP.
Flying an RNAV course.
305
Many RNAV systems, while offering very high accuracy and possessing many of the
functions provided by RNP systems, are not able to provide assurance of their performance.
Recognising this, and to avoid operators incurring unnecessary expense, where the airspace
requirement does not necessitate the use of an RNP system, many new as well as existing
navigation requirements will continue to specify RNAV rather than RNP systems. It is therefore
expected that RNAV and RNP operations will co-exist for many years.
What is RNAV for?

What can you say about the background/history of RNAV?
How can you define the relationship between RNAV and RNP systems?
What is the difference between the old and modern RNAV system?
Vocabulary
Congestion so crowded with traffic or people as to hinder or prevent freedom of movement. The

road was congested with refugees.
Conserve protect from harm or destruction. The funds raised will help
conserve endangered meadowlands.
Evaluate form an idea of the amount, number, or value of; assess. a system for evaluating how well
the firm is performing
Prescriptive made legal or acceptable because they have existed for a long time. prescriptive
powers
Revoke officially cancel (a decree, decision, or promise). The men appealed and the sentence was
revoked.
Utilize make practical and effective use of. Vitamin C helps your body utilize the iron present in
your diet.
1 course within a network A navigation applications

2 inertial B operations
3 need for optimum utilisation C ground movement operations
4 development of D ground-based routes
5 provide guidance for E navigation systems
6 conventional F monitoring and alerting
7 land-based G of available airspace
8 obstacle clearance Hof navigation beacons
9 on-board navigation performance I criteria
2. Use your dictionary and find definitions for the words below.
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1 random______________________________________________________________________
2 acronym_____________________________________________________________________
3 inertia_______________________________________________________________________
4 optimum_____________________________________________________________________
5 guidance_____________________________________________________________________
6 concise______________________________________________________________________
7 obstacle_____________________________________________________________________
8 appropriate___________________________________________________________________
9 conventional__________________________________________________________________
10 monitoring__________________________________________________________________
information electronic globe permit calculate technique

present defined points limitation
Area Navigation (RNAV) is a navigation (a) __________ that allows pilots to navigate directly
between any two (b) __________ on the (c) _________. Using RNAV, any location on the map can
be (d) __________ in terms of latitude and longitude and characterized as a waypoint. Onboard
RNAV equipment can determine the (e) __________ position of the aircraft. Using this positional
(f) __________, the equipment can (g) __________ the bearing and distance to or from any
waypoint and (h) __________ navigation directly between any two waypoints. In this way, RNAV
overcomes a fundamental (i) __________ of conventional navaid point-to-point navigation
techniques, which require navigating between (j) __________ navigation transmitters on the
ground.
1 devices/ to/ allows/ information/ display/ the/ present/ The.

_____________________________________________________________________________
2 particular/ about/ Each/ topic/ information/ a/ page/ presents.

_____________________________________________________________________________
3 To/ controls/ FMS/ you/ buttons/ use/ the/ data/ and/ enter/ knob.
_____________________________________________________________________________
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4 used/ knob/ inner/ is/ dial/ to/ numbers/ letters/ and/ The.
_____________________________________________________________________________
5 IFR/ authorized/ are/ that/ operations/ installation/ for/ specifically.

_____________________________________________________________________________
5. Figure out what do the abbreviation stand for?
1 IFR _________________________________________
2 DME ________________________________________
3 INS _________________________________________
4 VOR ________________________________________
5 RNP ________________________________________
6 FAA ________________________________________
1 FMS units contain much more A keys, and knobs used to operate the unit.
information than they
2 Ensure that this equipment is onboard B that includes much of the information
and operational, and that found on en route and terminal procedure
charts.
3 Every avionics device has a display and a C due to navigation errors related to
collection of buttons, aircraft tracking and positioning.
4 Navigation information in valleys and D cope with traffic capacity, all-weather
canyons that could block conditions and efficiency.
5 In addition to its ability to receive signals E can present on the display at any one
from GPS satellites, a GPS receiver also time.
contains a computer processor and a
navigation database
6 The inability to achieve the F all required checks have been performed.
required lateral navigation accuracy may be
7 The use of lower accuracy in the terminal G operations in controlled airspace.
area is not reasonable
8 The concept of area navigation H airspace must be defined in a clear and
implementation implies concise manner.
9 Safety solutions are a demand in all flight I satellite signals may be severely
phases in order to restricted.
10 The navigation applications on specific J as it will not allow to attain advantages of
routes or within a specific area navigation.
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1 firework A a sum of money demanded as

a penalty
2 pose B a rule made and maintained by
an authority
3 fine C risky; dangerous
4 stiff D break or fail to obey a rule or
formal agreement
5 priority E severe or strong
6 regulation F a small device containing
powder that burns or explodes
7 violate G concerning the essentials of something
8 hazardous H create a threat, problem
9 substantial I strict or harsh
10 severe J fact or condition of being treated more important than others
8. Arrange the paragraphs and make up the story.
A “Safety is our top priority and we want everyone to arrive at their destination safely,” FAA
Administrator Michael P. Huerta said. “The public can help us by leaving dangerous items, such as
fireworks, out of their luggage.”
B Passengers who violate the hazardous materials regulations may face civil penalties of up to
$75,000 per violation, but can run as high as $175,000 per violation in cases that involve death,
serious illness, severe injury or substantial destruction of property. Criminal convictions resulting
from hazardous materials violations can result in criminal fines and up to five years in prison.
However, passengers carrying fireworks may be subject to up to ten years in prison if they release a
hazardous material that results in death or bodily harm.
C Friction can cause fireworks to ignite during flight, posing a safety risk to passengers and crew.
Because of this danger, domestic and international regulations prohibit passengers from carrying
fireworks.
D If you’re flying this July 4th holiday, be sure to leave your fireworks at home. Most travelers
probably don’t realize the risk that fireworks pose on an airplane. The FAA is reminding passengers
that fireworks, including the smallest sparklers, are not permitted aboard airplanes in carry-on or
checked baggage. Fines are stiff for passengers who break the rules. It is also against the law to
mail or ship fireworks as air parcels.
9. Speaking.
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What are the other prohibited items for airplanes?
Why some items are dangerous for flight?
Lesson 9 Missed Approaches

The FMS/GPS unit’s mode provides an easy way to fly missed approach procedures. The
missed approach procedure requires you to climb to 1,900 feet, turn right and climb to 6,000 feet,
then proceed direct to the SNS VOR.
The FMS/GPS helps you navigate between waypoints, which are geographically fixed
locations. The problem is that, given the way the FMS/GPS system uses waypoints, there is no one
way to represent the climbs and turns required on a missed approach
procedure.
To address this issue, all FMS/GPS RNAV units automatically
suspend waypoint sequencing when you reach the missed approach
point. The unit waits until you acknowledge the passing of the MAP
before it continues the sequencing. When the aircraft has gained the
published altitudes and complied with the initial MAP procedures, you
can safely proceed to the missed approach holding waypoint, being
mindful of any altitude requirements. A waypoint for the missed
approach holding point is included as part of the missed approach procedure.
Recognizing the Missed Approach Point With any type of navigation equipment, it is
important to be able to determine when you have reached the missed approach point. The missed
approach point indications given by FMS/GPS units are sometimes subtle.
Complying With ATC-Issued Missed Approach Instructions ATC sometimes issues
missed approach instructions that are different from those published on the approach chart. In this
case, use the techniques described earlier to insert new waypoints into the route, and/or to intercept
and track courses to those waypoints.
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Setting Up Next Procedure in Hold Once in the missed approach holding pattern, the next
task is deciding where to go next and programming the new flight plan into the FMS/GPS unit. In
this high workload situation, it is especially important to be very proficient with the menus,
functions, and “switchology” of a particular unit. If the aircraft is equipped with an autopilot, it is
also essential to have a thorough understanding of how the autopilot interacts and interfaces with
the FMS/GPS navigation equipment.
Common Error: Noncompliance With Initial Missed Approach Instructions The immense
capability of the FMS/GPS may tempt you to follow its directions rather than fly a missed approach
procedure exactly as published on the instrument approach procedure chart. Always fly procedures
as published, especially with respect to the initial climb and turn instructions. GPS as a line-of-sight
navigation aid can display courses and distances to a ground-based navaid even though the navaid is
on the other side of a mountain range and itself cannot be received, because GPS signals are spaced
based.
How can you define the term “missed approach”?

What can you say about the ATC’s role missed approach instructions?
What are the common errors concerning missed approach?
Vocabulary
Comply act in accordance with a wish or command. We are unable to comply with your request.
Immense extremely large or great, especially in scale or degree. The cost of restoration has been
immense.
Intercept obstruct (someone or something) so as to prevent them from continuing to a destination. I
intercepted Edward on his way to work.
Proceed begin a course of action. We were able to, of course, proceed with our work by the end of
the day.
Proficient competent or skilled in doing or using something. I was proficient at my job.
Subtle so delicate or precise as to be difficult to analyse or describe. His language expresses rich
and subtle meanings.
Suspend temporarily prevent from continuing or being in force or effect; delay. Work on
the dam was suspended.
1.Match the halves of the word combinations.
1 missed approach A courses

2 geographically B situation
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3 altitude C procedure chart
4 navigation D fixed locations
5 track E procedures
6 high workload F equipment
6 instrument approach G requirements
2.Fill in the table.
test replace power test failure heat heating run

vibration installation start noise
engine … … the engine
compute combine enumerate tie estimate connect rate fix value

add fasten count link
calculate attach
record increase percent production compared vice

quarter current
Boeing posted better-than-expected third quarter 2015 numbers, delivering 9 (a) __________
revenue growth over third (b) __________ 2014, to the tune of $25.8 billion. The significant uptick
was driven by (c) __________ commercial deliveries, which topped 199 during the quarter, (d)
__________ to 186 aircraft in the same period last year, a 7 percent (e) __________. “Commercial
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airplanes captured $13 billion of net (f) __________ during the third quarter,” said Gregory Smith,
chief financial officer and executive (g) __________ president at Boeing. The demand will remain
strong for commercial aircraft in coming years, according to Boeing President, who said (h)
__________ market outlooks are calling for 38,000 new aircraft and 6 percent year-over-year
passenger growth over the next 20 years.
The increase in demand and air traffic is accelerating the production of new aircraft, such as the
Boeing 787-9, for which deliveries and (i) __________ rate is now outpacing the 787-8.
Match the words with their definitions.

1 revenue A the prospect for the future
2 uptick B rise, or improve faster than the rest
3 outlook C income
4 outpace D a small increase
5.Read the article from the magazine and do

the following exercises.
Aviation industry pushes for sustainable solutio
in to of in through of
A total 1 ___ about six million aircraft were piloted 2 ___ European airspace 3 ___ 1995. Today,
twenty years later, the number 4 ___ aircraft movements 5 ___ the same area has grown 6 ___ nine
million annually.
Find the correct words for the given definitions from the text.
The sky above Europe is overlaid with an elaborate network of

routes for aircraft to follow. Despite this growth, the aviation
industry is only responsible for 2.42 percent of worldwide CO2
emissions. To deal with further increases in the amount of
traffic, sustainable solutions need to be found. The Free Route
Airspace Maastricht and Karlsruhe project spanning the
airspace over Belgium, Germany, Luxembourg and the
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Netherlands has been commended for saving tonnes of CO2
emissions. The project includes the Aviation Climate Solutions
- a collection of hundred examples of how the aviation industry
is collaborating to help reduce its impact on climate change.
1 able to be maintained at a certain rate or level _______________
2 a significant effect or influence _______________
3 A carefully arranged; B detailed and complicated in design _______________
4 gas, etc. that is sent out into the air _______________
5 extend across, cover _______________
6 lie on top of _______________
7 work jointly on an activity or project

_______________
Fill in the blanks with the numbers.
9,000 30,000 466 80 1.5
This project offers a network of (a) _____ cross-border direct route options. Using these
routes, airlines can benefit from an annual reduction of route length of (b) _____ million nautical
miles which corresponds to a reduction of (c) _____ tonnes of CO2 emissions. All in all, (d) _____
tonnes of fuel can be saved.
Up to (e) _____ percent of aircraft that can fly the direct routes actually use them. With
these routes, airlines can plan more efficiently, less fuel has to be taken on board, and there are
fewer deviations from flight plans.
6.Speaking. Discuss the following questions.
Do you like to travel by airplane?

What seat do you prefer: window, center or aisle?
Is being a flight attendant considered a good job
in your country?
Do you think being a pilot is a good job? Why or why not?
Do you like to watch movies or TV about airplane crashes?
Why or why not?
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Lesson 10 En Route
Navigation
Read the text and answer

the following questions.
The FMS provides guidance toward each waypoint in the programmed flight route, and
provides information to help you track your progress.
The Active Waypoint In normal navigation, at any given time, the aircraft is progressing to
the next waypoint in the programmed flight route. This next waypoint is called the active waypoint.
FMSs typically display the active waypoint on a page dedicated to showing flight progress.
Desired Track The FMS/PFD/MFD navigation display also shows the desired track to the
active waypoint. The desired track is the intended course for the active leg in the programmed flight
plan. It is the track that connects the waypoint the aircraft just passed to the active waypoint.
Track The navigation display shows the aircraft’s track over the ground. The track, which is
the result of aircraft heading and winds, tells you which direction the aircraft is actually flying.
Winds make it likely that the track and heading will be different. You can get a very good sense of
what the winds are doing by comparing the track and heading of the aircraft.
Arriving at the Active Waypoint As the aircraft reaches the active waypoint, there are four
new tasks for the pilot: (1) recognizing imminent arrival at the active waypoint; (2) leading the turn
to avoid overshooting the course to the next waypoint; (3) making the next waypoint the new active
waypoint; and (4) selecting the desired course to the new active waypoint.
All FMS/RNAV computers offer a sequencing mode that greatly simplifies the performance of the
first three of these tasks. Sequencing mode provides three services: waypoint alerting, turn
anticipation, and waypoint sequencing.
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Waypoint Alerting The first
service performed by the sequencing mode
is waypoint alerting. Just prior to reaching
each active waypoint, waypoint alerting
advises the pilot of imminent arrival at the
active waypoint.
Turn Anticipation The second
service performed by the sequencing mode
is turn anticipation. During waypoint
alerting and prior to reaching the active waypoint, the FMS indicates that it is time to begin the turn
to fly the desired track to the new active waypoint. The timing of turn anticipation is based on the
aircraft’s observed groundspeed and the angle of the turn required to track to the next waypoint.
Waypoint Sequencing The third service performed by sequencing mode is waypoint

sequencing. Once the aircraft reaches the active waypoint, the FMS automatically makes the next
waypoint in the flight plan sequence the new active waypoint.
How can you define En Route Navigation?

How can you explain the notions active waypoint and track?
What happens as the aircraft reaches the active waypoint?
Vocabulary
Anticipation expectation or prediction. Her eyes sparkled with anticipation.
Imminent about to happen. They were in imminent danger of being swept away.
Overshoot go past (an intended stopping or turning point) accidentally. They overshot
their intended destination.
Sequencing a particular order in which related things follow each other. The content of the
programme should follow a logical sequence.
1. Fill in the table and make up word combinations.
heat-insulated angle-of-attack parachute reusable radio frequency

high-density oxygen mask waste speed oil temperature
sound-proof operational cargo
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… compartment … container … range
1 Other factors such as a fuel burn that is A GPS to have an alternate (non-GPS) means
higher than normal, leaks, or other problems of IFR navigation on board.
are not
2 To help you stay in touch with the progress B displayed unless the system actually
of the flight while the FMS automatically registers and senses fuel tank real- time status.
performs the navigation task, it is a good
practice to announce
3 The FMS/RNAV provides position, track, C and states that the aircraft position
and groundspeed information using signals information can no longer be considered
received reliable.
4 Regulations require aircraft that are D your arrival (mentally, single pilot; or
equipped with an RNAV unit using orally, to the flight crew) at each waypoint in
the programmed route.
5 When reception problems arise, the E from a collection of satellites that are in
FMS/RNAV provides an alert message that constant orbit around the Earth when using
notifies the pilot of a GPS reception problem the GPS navigation source.
3. Fill in the blanks with the right words.
features information waypoint calculations

route signals facilities anticipation access
advanced ensure
1 Many __________ avionics navigation units offer fuel __________ and fuel state monitoring.
2 One of the most useful __________ of an FMS database is its ability to provide quick
__________ to navigational information.
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3 Consequently, the pilot must __________ at all times that the system is operational and that it is
receiving adequate GPS __________.
4 The last step required when arriving at the active __________ is to set the course to the next
waypoint in the planned __________.
5 Most units allow the pilot to access __________ about airports, navigation __________, airway
intersections, and other kinds of waypoints.
6 The FMS will not use turn __________ for a fly-over waypoint; instead, the navigation will lead
the aircraft directly over the waypoint.
4. Read the article from the magazine and do the following exercises.
Orlando International Airport first to adopt facial

recognition technology at border
The technology is part of a new requirement from the U.S.

Customs and Border Protection. SITA Photo
Fill in the blanks with the correct prepositions.
in of for from by to
Orlando International Airport has upgraded its automated passport control (APC) kiosks 1 _____
include facial recognition 2 _____ arriving passengers.
Supplied 3 _____ SITA, the global provider 4 _____ border security and IT solutions to
governments, airlines and airports, the technology is part of a new requirement 5 _____ the U.S.
Customs and Border Protection (CBP). This requires that APC kiosks authenticate identity by
matching people’s faces to the biometric record 6 _____ their e-passport.
Figure out the right places for 4 omitted definite articles.
APC kiosks have become a regular feature at U.S. airports over past year; SITA has installed more
than 300 at 10 airports with hundreds more on order. In June, the CBP updated requirements for
APC kiosks at U.S. borders to include facial recognition capability and, with support of SITA;
Orlando Airport is first to put this in place.
A A key advantage of SITA’s kiosks is that they are future-proofed and can meet the CBP’s new
requirement for facial recognition.
B Paul Houghton, SITA President, Americas, said: “Now, there is added security as the CBP
requires facial biometrics to be matched to the e-passport being presented.
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C All the technology works seamlessly and it doesn’t take any extra time for the passenger to have
the facial check performed.
D Almost 500 million e-passports have been issued globally;
these hold facial biometrics while some also contain
fingerprints.
E Our SITA APC kiosks comply with all the latest
requirements and help bolster more efficient security checks
at the airports.”
1 ___ 2 ___ 3 ___ 4 ___ 5 ___
5. Group Work.
Work with your partner, investigate advanced safety technology at airports.
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Lesson 11 ADF and NDB (Automatic
Direction Finder and Non-Directional
Beacon)

questions.
The ADF is an Automatic Direction Finder. They receive radio signals in the medium
frequency band of 190 Khz to 1750 Khz. The ADF receiver can “Home” on both AM radio stations
and Non-Directional Beacons. The aircraft equipment consists of two antennas, the ADF Receiver,
and the ADF Instrument.
ADF Receiver: pilot can tune the station desired and to select the mode of operation. The
signal is received, amplified, and converted to audible voice or morse code transmission and powers
the bearing indicator.
Antenna: The aircraft consist of two antennas. The two
antennas are called LOOP antenna and SENSE antenna. The ADF
receives signals on both loop and sense antennas. The loop
antenna in common use today is a small flat antenna without moving
parts. Within the antenna are several coils spaced at various angles.
The loop antenna sense the direction of the station by the strength of
the signal on each coil but cannot determine whether the bearing is
TO or FROM the station. The loop antenna can sense the direction of
the signal from the station, but cannot discriminate whether the
station is in front or behind the aircraft. The sense antenna provides
this latter information. The sense antenna can discriminate direction,
and solves the ambiguity of the loop antenna.
Control Box (Digital Readout Type): Most modern aircraft has this type of control in the
cockpit. In this equipment the frequency tuned is displayed as digital readout. ADF automatically
determines bearing to selected station and it on the RMI.
An NDB or Non-Directional Beacon is a ground-based, low frequency radio transmitter
used as an instrument approach for airports and offshore platforms. The NDB transmits an omni-
directional signal that is received by the ADF. The pilot uses the ADF to determine the direction to
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the NDB relative to the aircraft. To navigate using the ADF, the pilot enters the frequency of the
NDB and the compass card (or arrow) on the ADF will indicate the heading to the station. The
signal is transmitted on an uninterrupted 24/7 basis. An audible Morse Code call sign of one or
more letters or numbers is used to identify the NDB being received.
What do ADF and NDB stand for?

What is ADF for?
What is NDB for?
How can these equipment help pilots during flight?
VOCABULARY
Ambiguity the state of being difficult to understand or explain because of involving many different
aspects. You must understand the ambiguity of my position.
Band a range of radio waves. Short-wave radio uses the 20-50 metre band.
Bearing a direction measured from a fixed point using a compass. They took compass bearings on
the tower.
Coil to wind into a series of circles; to make something do this. Mist coiled around the tops of the
hills.
Convert to change or make something change from one form, purpose, system, etc. to another. The
hotel is going to be converted into a nursing home.
Discriminate to recognize that there is a difference between people or things; to show a difference
between people or things. The computer program was unable to discriminate between letters and
numbers.
1. True or false.
a) The ADF receives signals in the frequency of 190 Khz to 1250 Khz.
b) The ADF consists of three parts.
c) Within the sense antenna there are several coils spaced at various angles.
d) The NDB transmits an omni-directional signal that is received by the ADF.
e) The signal is transmitted from the NDB on certain days of the week.
f) The sense antennas can discriminate the direction of bearings.
1 If the loop mode is selected, the sense A and atmospheric static also emit radio
antenna is disabled and frequencies that are close to NDB
frequencies and they can affect ADF
accuracy.
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2 NDB radio waves can be reflected off the B in front of you and after you pass over it
ionosphere, shorelines, mountains, or cliffs the NDB station is now behind you.
and lightning
3 Since the ADF pointer always points to C service, and are extremely low cost to
the station, the pilot can simply head the install and operate.
airplane so that the pointer
4 NDBs are highly reliable, typically D all the receiving is done through the loop
provide decades of uninterrupted antenna.
5 When you're approaching the station the E is on the 0 (zero) degree or nose position
ADF's needle is when using a fixed card ADF.
3. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words from the box.
surface errors equipped airport widely knob station
a) NDBs may be located on the __________ of airports, or may be within a few miles from an
__________.
b) The relationship of the aircraft to the __________ is referred to as “bearing to the station”.
c) Some aircraft are __________ with an ADF instrument in which the dial face of the instrument
can be rotated by a __________.
d) The ADF is subject to __________ when the aircraft is banked.
e) The directional properties of a loop antenna were known at the time of World War I and were
__________ used by navies of that era.
4. Match the words with their synonyms.
1 convert a segregate
2 discriminate b braid
3 coil c disciple
Write your own sentences using the words above.
a) ___________________________________________________________
b) ___________________________________________________________
c) ___________________________________________________________
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5. Read the passage from the newspaper and do the following exercises.
a) Match the words with their definitions.
1 sustainable a the production or sending out of light, heat, gas, etc
2 equate b one of a number of payments that are made regularly over a period
of time until something has been paid for
3 emission c involving the use of natural products and energy in a way that does
not harm the environment
4 instalment d to think that something is the same as something else or is as

important
b) Fill in the blanks with the words from the box.
sustainable passengers emissions technology alternative annually

flight aircraft times expected
Airbus unveils its 2050 vision for ‘Smarter Skies’
More flights, fewer __________ and quicker passenger journey__________. Welcome to

Smarter Skies, the latest instalment in The Future by Airbus. For the first time, our vision of
__________ aviation in 2050 looks beyond __________ design to how the aircraft is operated both
on the ground and in the air in order to meet the __________ growth in air travel in a sustainable
way.
Already today, if the Air Traffic Management (ATM) system and __________ on board aircraft
were optimised (assuming around 30 million flights per year), Airbus research suggests that every
__________ in the world could on average be around 13 minutes shorter. This would save around 9
million tonnes of excess fuel __________, which equates to over 28 million tonnes of avoidable
CO2 emissions and a saving for __________ of over 500 million hours of excess flight time on
board an aircraft. Add to this new aircraft design, __________ energy sources and new ways of
flying and you could see even more significant improvements.
c) Fill in the blanks with the words below.

sustainable instalment equate emission
a) Some parents __________ education with exam success.
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b) And we’ve got to deal with the environment, get a __________ development running in this
country.
c) The final __________ on the loan is due next week.
d) The government has pledged to clean up industrial __________.
6. Speaking.
Use your fantasy, how do you imagine future planes,

their appearance, extra functions, their convenience for
passengers. If you have some other extraordinary
visions, share them with your class.
Lesson 12 VOR (VHF Omnidirectional Radio Range)
VHF Omnidirectional Radio Range (VOR), is

an aircraft navigation system operating in the VHF
band. This extensive system consists of several
hundred ground stations that transmit navigation track
guidance signals used by aircraft in flight. VORs
broadcast a VHF radio composite signal including the
station's Morse Code identifier (and sometimes a voice
identifier), and data that allows the airborne receiving
equipment to derive the magnetic bearing from the
station to the aircraft. The VOR transmits in the very
high frequency range of 108.1 through 117.95 MHz;
therefore, it is relatively free from precipitation static
and annoying interference caused by storms or other weather phenomena. The VOR ground station
is oriented to magnetic north and transmits azimuth information to the aircraft, providing 360
courses TO or FROM the VOR station. When DME is installed with the VOR, it is referred to as a
VOR/DME and provides both azimuth and distance information.
Omnibearing Selector (OBS). The desired course is selected by turning the OBS knob until
the course is aligned with the course index mark or displayed in the course window.
Course deviation indicator (CDI). The deviation indicator is composed of an instrument face
and a needle hinged to move laterally across the instrument
face. The needle centers when the aircraft is on the selected
radial or its reciprocal. Full needle deflection from the center
position to either side of the dial indicates the aircraft is 10° or
more off course, assuming normal needle sensitivity. The outer
edge of the center circle is 2° off course; each dot signifies
another 2°.
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TO/FROM indicator (also called The triangle pointer). The TO/FROM indicator shows
whether the selected course will take the aircraft TO or FROM the station. It does not indicate
whether the aircraft is heading to or from the station.
Flags, or other signal strength indicators. The device that indicates a usable or an unreliable
signal may be an “OFF” flag. It retracts from view when signal strength is sufficient for reliable
instrument indications. Alternately, insufficient signal strength may be indicated by a blank or OFF
in the TO/FROM window.
What is the main usage of the VOR?

How can VOR help pilots?
Which elements can you see on the face of the VOR indicator instrument?
What is OBS for?
VOCABULARY
Extensive 1 covering a large area; great in amount. She suffered extensive injuries in the accident. 2
including or dealing with a wide range of information. Extensive research has been done into this
disease.
Composite made of different parts or materials. a composite picture (= one made from several
pictures)
Derive to come or develop from something. The word ‘politics’ is derived from a Greek word
meaning ‘city’.
Relatively to a fairly large degree, especially in comparison to something else. I found the test
relatively easy.
Precipitation rain, snow, etc. that falls; the amount of this that falls. There is heavy precipitation in
some parts of the country.
Azimuth an angle related to a distance around the earth's horizon, used to find out the position of a
star, planet, etc.
Lateral connected with the side of something or with movement to the side. the lateral branches of
a tree
Deflection a sudden change in the direction that something is moving in, usually after it has hit
something; the act of causing something to change direction. The goal was scored with a deflection
off the goalkeeper.
Sufficient enough for a particular purpose; as much as you need. One dose should be sufficient.
Retract to move back into the main part of something; to pull something back into the main part of
something. The undercarriage was fully retracted.
1. Match synonyms for the given words from the box.
1 extensive a drizzle
2 sufficient b avert
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3 precipitation c broad
4 deflection d plentiful
Use three words in your own sentences

a) _____________________________________________________________
b) _____________________________________________________________
c) _____________________________________________________________
2. True or false.
a) VOR is an aircraft navigation system operating in the VHF band.

b) VOR transmits in the frequency range of 108.1 through 117.95 MHz.
c) The deviation indicator shows a usable or an unreliable signal may be an “OFF” flag.
d) OBS needle centers when the aircraft is on the selected radial.
e) The VOR ground station is oriented to magnetic north and transmits azimuth information.
3. Fill in the blanks with the correct words.
receiving triangle readings course facilities

components remaining
1 The __________ or radials projected from the station are referenced to magnetic north.
2 For VOR radio navigation, there are two __________ required: ground transmitter and aircraft
__________ equipment.
3 Aircraft heading has absolutely no effect on the __________of the VOR indicator.
4 Another use for VOR is to take a time check, which informs the pilot of the time __________ to
fly to a station.
5 The __________ pointer points to the hemisphere where the station lies.
6 A large number of VOR __________ are located on airport property, allowing even student pilots
to fly directly to a VOR.
4. Complete the following statements.
1 As the aircraft passes the VOR station, the A or re-intercept the course.
VOR receives two basic
2 When the aircraft has gone half way or B interference from other VOR facilities and
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close to next VOR station a weak signal make it
and VOR unreliable.
3 When navigating using C receiver got that signals
the VOR it is important to from next station the arrow
fly headings that maintain flag will change
from FROM to TO.
4 Above and beyond D building topped with a
certain altitude and flat white disc, upon which
distance limits, signal are located the VOR
antennas and a fiberglass
cone-shaped tower.
5 The ground equipment E indications provided that
consists of a VOR ground the aircraft crosses directly
station, which is a small, over the station.
low
5. Read the article from a newspaper and do the exercise.
safety electric emissions blasted next-generation

public fighter aircraft
Berlin, May 27, 2014
When a Panavia Tornado (a) __________ into the clouds above the Berlin Air Show before
swooping back down toward the Earth, the grounds below shook from the roar of the (b)
__________ bomber's twin engines.
The fully (c) __________ E-Fan aircraft, engineered by Airbus Group, made one of its first (d)
__________ demonstrations here last week following it's first-ever flight in France on March 11.
The novel two-seater (e) __________ was designed from the outset for electrical propulsion,
from its energy management system to (f) __________ features. In developing this technology,
Airbus aims to one day reduce the aerospace industry's carbon dioxide (g) __________ by an order
of magnitude.
In the next step toward achieving this, Airbus will make a (h) __________ two-seater
electric plane, set for launch in 2017, and a four-seater electric plane with a gas-powered range
extender, set for launch in 2019.
Fill in the blanks with the following words.
propulsion blast swooped
a) We'll have a few seconds to __________ the door without affecting the rest of the networks.
b) Swiss police __________ on Friday to arrest a 45-year-old man.
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c) A hybrid is any car that uses two or more sources of power to drive or provide __________.
Make up at least five sentences using

the unknown words from the text.
___________________________________________________________________________
2____________________________________________________________________________
3____________________________________________________________________________
4____________________________________________________________________________
5____________________________________________________________________________
6. Speaking. Discuss the questions below with your class.
Can you imagine future electric planes?

How long can electric planes’ flight duration be?
Where would they get energy in the sky?
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Lesson 13 Ground-Based Radio Navigation

Configuring FMS to Receive Ground-Based Radio Navigation Signals
Most advanced avionics systems include receivers for conventional radio navigation signals
from VOR, localizer, and glideslope transmitters. To display these signals on the navigation display
indicator(s), you need two fundamental skills.
Tuning and Identifying Radio Navigation Facilities
The first fundamental skill in ground-based radio navigation is tuning and identifying a
ground-based radio navigation facility. Figure 3-59 illustrates how a VOR station can be tuned
using two different systems.
Some systems automatically attempt to identify ground-based radio navigation facilities that are
selected by the pilot.
Displaying Radio Navigation Signals on the Navigation Indicator
The second fundamental skill is displaying indications from a ground-based radio navigation
facility on the navigation display indicator in the aircraft. In addition to setting the navigation
indicator to display indications from different navigation sources, you must also know where to
look to double-check which indications are currently being displayed. It is crucial to remain
constantly aware of the navigation source for each indicator. Many systems use color coding to
make a visual distinction between different RNAV navigation sources (GPS, INS, etc.) and
ground-based radio navigation sources.
Awareness: Using All Available Navigation Resources
Looking at the two systems shown in Figure 3-59, you can see that two VOR frequencies
appear in the active windows at all times, regardless of whether VOR or GPS is being used as the
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primary navigation source. To maximize situational awareness and make best use of this resource, it
is a good practice to keep them tuned to VOR stations along your route of flight. If you have two
navigation indicators, you can have one indicator set to show GPS course indications, with the other
to show VOR indications. Used in this way, VOR and GPS can serve as backups for each another.
Maintaining Proficiency: Practicing All Navigation Skills
Advanced avionics systems offer you several ways to navigate. Numerous studies have
demonstrated the potential for deterioration of navigational skills that are not regularly practiced. It
is important to get regular practice using ground- based navigation facilities as well as RNAV
sources. One way to maintain proficiency is to consistently use ground-based navigational facilities
as a backup to RNAV systems.
330
What kind of receiver do modern aircraft have?
What is the tuning and identifying radio navigation facilities?
What can you say about displaying radio navigation signals on the navigation indicator?
Vocabulary
Conventional based on or in accordance with what is generally done or believed. a conventional
morality had dictated behaviour
Deterioration the process of becoming progressively worse. a deterioration in the condition of the
patient
Distinction a difference or contrast between similar things or people. There is a sharp distinction
between domestic politics and international politics.
Proficiency high degree of skill; expertise. He demonstrated his proficiency in Chinese.
Tune adjust (a receiver circuit such as a radio or television) to the frequency of the required signal.
The radio was tuned to the BBC.
1 radio navigation A automatically

2 display B proficiency
3 fundamental C coding
4 deterioration of D the indicators
5 identify E signals
6 visual F awareness
7 color G skill
8 maximize situational H distinction
9 maintain I indicator
10 double-check J navigational skills
2. Read the article from the magazine and do the following exercises.
What To Do When The Pilot Is Unconscious
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It's every passenger's worst nightmare. The flight is going smoothly and then, out of nowhere, the
pilot convulses and passes out at the controls. Suddenly, the front-seat passenger is faced with the
most daunting challenge he or she may likely ever face: to control the airplane and land it safely in
more or less one piece, and walk away with only a bad memory.
Rearrange the sentences and make up the rest of the story.
1 RECOGNIZE AN AIPORT FROM AN AERIAL PERSPECTIVE

2 PULL THE PILOT BACK AWAY FROM THE CONTROLS
3 CUT THE POWER AND KEEP THE NOSE OF THE AIRPLANE LEVEL
4 CONTROL SPEED AND FLY A STABLE FINAL APPROACH
5 ESTABLISH A LEVEL FLIGHT ATTITUDE ABOVE THE RUNWAY
6 USE THE RADIO AND AVIONICS IN THE AIRPLANE
7 STEER AND STOP THE AIRPLANE ON THE GROUND
8 STAY STRAIGHT AND LEVEL, AND MAKE TURNS AND DESCENTS
9 LINE UP ON A 2-MILE FINAL TO A RUNWAY
10 IDENTIFY AND INTERPRET KEY GAUGES ON THE PANEL
Guess the correct definitions for the words from the text above.
1 nightmare A a task or situation that tests someone’s abilities

2 daunting B not able to realize
3 convulse C a very unpleasant or frightening experience
4 challenge D suffer violent involuntary contraction of the muscles
5 unconscious E seeming difficult to deal with
3. Read the passage and do the exercises.
You Think Your Model Airplane

Collection is Big? The
Smithsonian Has More Than 4,000
Tiny treasures at the National Air and
Space Museum
Fill in the blanks with the words

from the box.
gems items public replicas model
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Among the historic 1 __________ in the collection of the National Air and Space Museum are
thousands of 2 __________ aircraft—4,614 to be exact—that help explain the history of flight. The
models aren’t currently on 3 __________ display, but until recently some 640 of them were located
in the Museum’s third floor office space, where staff could see 4 __________ like the Felixstowe
F.5L (a British flying boat from World War I) or solid wood 5 __________ of every variant of the
Boeing B-17.
of in of for in by
Because the Museum on the Mall 6 _____ Washington D.C. is undergoing revitalization, the
models are being packed carefully 7 _____ a move to the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center in northern
Virginia. Each item is surveyed 8 _____ two teams: one to document, photograph, and write a
description 9 _____ the model, including the materials it is made 10 _____ and whether it needs
immediate conservation treatment. The second team then rehouses each model 11 _____ a custom
box that is carefully secured into a shipping container.

12 The collection includes everything from models
built for wind tunnel tests to those built purely for
pleasure.
13 “There are plastic models, wood, and some that are
extremely fragile that have fabric or paper as part of
their components,” she adds.
14 The models are extremely varied, says Samantha
Snell, who coordinates the team in charge of the
move.
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4. Speaking. Read the passage from an
article and express your own point of view
on the subject.
BRAIN MYTH
Crosswords are fun and may improve your

ability to find words, but they don't help your brain's overall cognition or memory.
A lot of people do crossword puzzles each day with the belief that this activity will help
keep the brain young and even keep Alzheimer's or dementia at bay. Unfortunately, there is no
evidence for this belief. Crossword puzzles flex one very specific piece of cognition--the ability to
find words, which is also known as fluency. Fluency is a type of process based in the speech and
language centers of the brain. So doing crosswords might help you get better at word finding, but
that's the sum total of their positive benefits to your brain.
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Lesson 14 DME (Distance
Measuring Equipment)
Distance measuring equipment—often called DME—is one of the most valuable pieces of
avionics in the aircraft. The main purpose of the DME is to display your distance from a VORTAC,
VOR-DME, or localizer. DME reduces pilot workload by continuously showing your distance from
the station. In addition, most DMEs display time-to-station and groundspeed. Combined with VOR,
DME permits you to determine your exact position from a single ground station; VOR tells you
what radial you're on and DME tells how far out on that radial you are. You tune your DME by
selecting a VOR or localizer frequency, either on the DME itself or on a VOR/LOC receiver to
which the DME is channeled. There are 200 DME channels which are paired with the 200
VOR/LOC channels. So for example if you tune to the VOR frequency 112.40 Mhz, your DME is
automatically channeled to 1010.00 Mhz. But pilots normally never see the actual DME channel;
only the paired VOR frequency.
Once you've channeled your DME, it
starts transmitting a stream of interrogations
to the ground station. Each interrogation is
made up of a pair of RF pulses. When the
ground station receives the interrogation, it
waits for 50 microseconds and then sends a
pair of reply pulses back to the aircraft.
Incidentally, the purpose of the 50
microsecond delay is to eliminate the
possibility of uncoordinated operation when the aircraft is very close to the ground station. Your
airborne DME equipment receives the reply and measures the elapsed time from when it sent the
interrogation until it received the reply. It subtracts the 50 microsecond delay that the ground station
introduced to come up with the round-trip time. From this, it can figure out its exact distance from
the ground station using simple arithmetic, given the fact that it takes 12.359 microseconds for a
signal to go out and return one nautical mile. It then displays the computed distance on your DME
readout.
There's one little complication, however. The ground station may be replying to hundreds of
other airborne DMEs in addition to yours. How can your DME sort out replies to its interrogations
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from replies to other aircraft? Here's where some clever magic comes in. Your DME doesn't send an
equally-spaced stream of interrogations, but randomly jitters the spacing of its interrogations to
create a unique "signature". It then examines the ground station replies looking for a sequence with
the same randomly jittered signature. When it finds that, it knows they're replies to its
interrogations.
DME displays distance in nautical miles, groundspeed in knots, and time-to-station in
minutes. Beware, however, that DME groundspeed and time-to-station are only accurate when you
are flying directly to or from the ground station. If you are flying in any other direction, you will see
groundspeed that is erroneously low and time-to-station that is erroneously high. If you are flying
away from the station, groundspeed will be accurate but "time-to-station" will actually show "time-
from-station" and will increase as you get farther and farther from the station.
How can you describe the use of distance measuring equipment?

What are the advantages of DME?
What is the function of VOR?
What is the complication of DME?
What are DME errors?
VOCABULARY
Airborne in the air. Do not leave your seat until the plane is airborne.
Elapse pass or go by. weeks elapsed before anyone was charged with the attack.
Erroneously not correct; based on wrong information. He seems to be under the erroneous
impression that she is in love with him.
Incidentally in a way that was not planned but that is connected with something else. The
information was only discovered incidentally.
Interrogations 1 to obtain information from a computer or other machine 2 to ask somebody a lot
of questions over a long period of time, especially in an aggressive way. She hated her parents'
endless interrogations about where she'd been.
Radial having a pattern of lines, etc. that go out from a central point towards the edge of a circle.
the radial pattern of public transport facilities
Subtract to take a number or an amount away from another number or amount. 6 subtracted from 9
is 3
Tune adjust to the frequency of the required signal. The radio was tuned to the BBC.
Workload the amount of work that has to be done by a particular person or organization. We have
taken on extra staff to cope with the increased workload.
erroneous elapse interrogation incidentally workload
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a) Due to an increased __________, a new position has been created to join the existing small
team in their Basingstoke offices.
b) Long years have since __________, and my memory is feeble through much suffering.
c) Owing to the __________ number of forms and the close similarities of structure, the
subdivision of the group has presented great difficulties.
d) College professors who are __________ millionaires are the exception, even in these roseate
days of the twentieth century.
e) It was frustrating, but the only thing she was accomplishing with this __________ was
making their conversation stiff and formal.
2. True or false.
a) DME is the alternation for VOR.

b) DME reduces pilot workload by continuously showing your distance.
c) Your DME doesn't send an equally-spaced stream of interrogations.
d) Pilots observe the actual DME channel on the display.
e) Your DME doesn't send an equally-spaced stream of interrogations.
3. Put each of the following words in its correct place in the passage below.
airliner cabin crew aisle turbulence seat belts headphones land
Flying is fun. I like being in a big (a)__________ with the (b)__________ (stewards and
stewardesses) looking after me. They walk up and down the (c)__________ bringing meals and
drinks; and if the flight is going through some (d)_________ , they warn everybody that it might be
bit bumpy and ask us to fasten our (e)__________. On a long flight I like listening to music through
the (f)__________ available to all passengers, and sometimes I have a sleep. I enjoy it all so much
that I never want the plane to (g)__________.
Use some of the words in the box above in your own sentences.
a_________________________________________________________________
b_________________________________________________________________
c_________________________________________________________________
d_________________________________________________________________
4. Put one of the following words in each space in the sentences below.
off through in off at to by at on

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1. We decided to go_____ plane.
2. When do we take_____?
3. First you must go_____ customs and immigration.
4. You’d better ask_____ the information desk.
5. His friend went_____ the airport with him to see
him_____.
6. You must check_____ at 10.30.
7. Put your luggage_____ a trolley.
8. He looked_____ my passport.
5. Read the passage. Fill in the blanks with correct words.
Due to differences_____ (at, on, in) air pressure, it is usually not in fact_____ (impossible, -,
possible) to open an airplane door during flight_____ (off, at, on) normal cruising altitudes. This
goes for all doors of_____ (an, -, the) aircraft, including emergency exit and main doors; you could
fuss_____ (by, from, with) the opening mechanism as much as you like, but you_____ (hadn’t,
won’t, wouldn't) ultimately be successful. Commercial aircraft have pressurized cabins_____ (for,
to, in) facilitate passenger comfort and so that the oxygen level in the cabin can be easily_____
(controlling, controls, controlled). Without a pressurized cabin, passengers would need_____ (not
to, -, to) wear oxygen masks, and they might get physically uncomfortable_____ (at, -, in) high
altitude. The difference in pressure_____ (between, among, besides) the inside of a plane and the
outside essentially seals the doors of an aircraft even without latching, although most planes_____
(would, had, have) pressurized seals as well, for safety.
1 waist a a room with a toilet and a washbasin, especially on an airplane

2 porthole b an overhead compartment
3 overhead locker c a small window in the side of a ship or airplane
4 lavatory d stairs that can be moved, used for to get on and off an airplane
5 ramp e the central part of a ship or an airplane
1 Interfering with the operation of an aircraft is A an airplane door during flight, even if one
338
a criminal offense in mechanism fails.
2 The cargo sections of planes may not always
B crew calling out "doors to manual" or
be pressurized, which means
"disarm doors."
3 A series of mechanisms are used to ensure C exert enough force on the door handle to
that it is impossible to open overcome the cabin pressurization and open
the door.
4 As an aircraft approaches the gate, you will
D some regions, however, so you may be
sometimes hear the cabin
penalized for touching the door during flight.
5 A human being – even a large, strong one or
E that cargo doors can come open during
even several of them – would not be able to
flight.
8. Speaking. Read the part of the story and complete it according to your imagination.
339
An armed man who was called Augusto Lakandula with marital problems hijacked a Philippine
Airlines flight, but bailed out after robbing passengers when his demand to have the plane
diverted was rejected.
The hijacker ordered the pilot to return to Davao, but he

refused to do so because there was not enough fuel. The pilot
depressurised the cabin to allow a door to be opened, after
descending to a lower altitude at the hijacker's request.
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
__________
Lesson 15 TCAS (Traffic Collision Avoidance System)
A traffic collision avoidance system or traffic alert and collision avoidance system is

an aircraft collision avoidance system designed to reduce the incidence of mid-air
collisions between aircraft and is also known as the Airborne Collision Avoidance System (ACAS).
It monitors the airspace around an aircraft for other aircraft equipped with a corresponding
active transponder, independent of air traffic control, and warns pilots of the presence of other
transponder-equipped aircraft which may present a threat of mid-air collision. It is a type
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of airborne collision avoidance system mandated by the International Civil Aviation Organization to
be fitted to all aircraft with a maximum take-off mass of over 5,700 kg or authorized to carry more
than 19 passengers.
TCAS scans the vicinity by interrogating the transponders of other aircraft. It then uses the
received transponder signals to compute distance, bearing and altitude relative to the own aircraft.
The evaluated traffic information is displayed as symbols on the ND, the Navigation
Display. Note that altitude and vertical motion information is only available if the received signal
comes from a mode C or mode S transponder. Otherwise the associated symbol on the ND will have
no altitude information and no vertical motion arrow.
As TCAS checks the other aircraft’s relative distance permanently in short time intervals, it
can, therefore, also calculate the other aircraft’s closure rate relative to the own aircraft. The closure
rate is the most important variable and indeed a very fail-safe key to a good collision prediction.
Complex, trigonometric calculations of flight paths and ground speeds are unnecessary and would
only result in unsharp and unreliable extrapolations. Heading or bearing information is not even
required to compute a TCAS alarm.
When TCAS detects that an aircraft’s distance and closure rate becomes critical, TCAS
generates aural and visual annunciations for the pilots.
If necessary, it also computes aural and visual pitch commands to resolve a conflict. If the
other aircraft uses TCAS II as well, these pitch commands are
coordinated with the other aircraft’s pitch commands so that both
aircraft don’t escape to the same direction. Even three aircraft can
be coordinated.
341
By the
way, TCAS
provides
only vertical
ə: o: I aı guidance,
no lateral
guidance.
TCAS
also ignores
performance limitations. In other words, when flying at maximum altitudes TCAS may still generate a
climb command.
Give general explanation for TCAS?

In which situations may collision happen?
Can the pilot avoid collision?
What is TCAS designed for?
What can you say about the working principle of TCAS?
VOCABULARY
Airborne (of a plane or passengers) in the air. Do not leave your seat until the plane is airborne.
Alert aware of something, especially a problem or danger. We must be alert to the possibility of danger.
Aural connected with hearing and listening. aural and visual images
Extrapolate to estimate something or form an opinion about something, using the facts that you have
now and that are valid for one situation and supposing that they will be valid for the new one. We have
extrapolated these results from research done in other countries.
Mandate an official order given to somebody to perform a particular task. The bank had no mandate to
honour the cheque.
Pitch the movement of a ship up and down in the water or of an aircraft in the air
Transponder a piece of equipment that receives radio signals and automatically sends out another
signal in reply. The transponder transmits this coded signal using the turned circuit.
1. Write the words into the right column.
342
permanent, vertical, ignore, airborne, collision, equip, vicinity, guidance
2. Fill in the blanks with the correct word.
interrogate compute associate ignore interval arrow vicinity

permanent equipment
1 He _________ all the ‘No Smoking’ signs and lit up a cigarette.

2 Crowds gathered in the ___________ of Trafalgar Square.
3 The losses were _________ at £5 million.
4 He was __________ by the police for over 12 hours.
5 The __________ between major earthquakes might be 200 years.
6 Most people immediately __________ addictions with drugs, alcohol and cigarettes.
7 The road continues as straight as an___________.
8 The __________ of the photographic studio was expensive.
9 The gallery hosts various exhibitions and a __________ collection.
3. Find the places for the omitted articles.
the (8) an
When It Rains, It Pours
"Last November, my wife and I were scheduled to take American Airlines flight from Newark to
Nassau, connecting in Miami. We boarded flight 30 minutes late only to be told that lightning was in
area and takeoff would be delayed. Then we were told that there was no fuel in plane and takeoff would
be delayed. Then we were told that fuel was in wrong tanks, plane was not balanced, and they could not
take off gas cap. They called Houston and eventually we took off. We missed our connecting flight and
we had to sleep on floor of Miami International Airport because there were no more rooms left due to
Hurricane Katrina."
4. Read the extra information about TCAS, fill in the blanks with the words from the box
and answer the questions below.
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TCAS VERSIONS
traffic technology additional expansion current avoid

general avoidance capable majority
TCAS I is the first generation of collision avoidance (a) __________. It is cheaper but less (b)
__________ than the modern TCAS II system, and is mainly intended for (c) __________
aviation use. TCAS I systems are able to monitor the (d) __________ situation around a plane to a
range of about 40 miles.
TCAS II is the second and (e) __________ generation of instrument warning TCAS, used in the (f)
___________ of commercial aviation aircraft. It offers all the benefits of TCAS I, but will also offer
the pilot direct, vocalized instructions to (g) __________ danger.
TCAS III was envisioned as an (h) __________ of the TCAS II concept to include horizontal
resolution advisory capability. TCAS III was the "next generation" of collision (i) __________
technology.
TCAS IV uses (j) __________ information encoded by the target aircraft in the Mode
S transponder reply to generate a horizontal resolution to an RA.
5. Speaking. Answer the following questions.
What types of TCAS do you know?

What are the main differences between TCAS versions?
In modern avionics which version is the most preferable?
How do you think whether other new types are expected or not?
Lesson 16 FMS (Flight Management System)
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The flight management system typically consists of two units, a computer unit and a control
display unit. The computer unit can be a standalone unit providing both the computing platform and
various interfaces to other avionics. The Control Display
Unit (CDU or MCDU) provides the primary
human/machine interface for data entry and information
display. The flight management system provides the
primary navigation, flight planning, and optimized route
determination and en route guidance for the aircraft and
is typically comprised of the following interrelated
functions: navigation, flight planning, trajectory
prediction, performance computations, and guidance.
To accomplish these functions the flight
management system must interface with several other
avionics systems.
At the center of the FMS functionality is the flight
plan construction and subsequent construction of the
four-dimensional aircraft trajectory defined by the specified flight plan legs and constraints and the
aircraft performance. Flight plan and trajectory prediction work together to produce the four-
dimensional trajectory and consolidate all the relevant trajectory information into a flight
plan/profile buffer. The navigation function provides the dynamic current aircraft state to the other
functions. The vertical, lateral steering, and performance advisory functions use the current aircraft
state from navigation and the information in the flight plan/profile buffer to provide guidance,
reference, and advisory information relative to the defined trajectory and aircraft state.
• The navigation function — responsible for determining the best estimate of the current
state of the aircraft.
• The flight planning function — allows the crew to establish a specific routing for the
aircraft.
• The trajectory prediction function — responsible for computing the predicted aircraft
profile along the entire specified routing.
• The performance function — provides the crew with aircraft unique performance
information such as takeoff speeds, altitude capability, and profile optimization advisories.
• The guidance functions — responsible for producing commands to guide the aircraft along
both the lateral and vertical computed profiles.
The future evolution of the flight management system is expected to focus not on the core
functions as described herein, but on the utilization within the aircraft and on the ground of the
fundamental information produced by the flight management system today. The use of the FMS
aircraft state and trajectory intent, within the aircraft and on the ground, to provide strategic conflict
awareness is a significant step toward better management of the airspace.
345
How can you define the flight management system?
How many units does the FMS consist of?
What is the main functionality of the FMS?
In which cases can FMS be useful for the pilot?
VOCABULARY
Buffer (computing) an area in a computer's memory where data can be stored for a short time
Constraint happening or coming after something else
Dimension a measurement in space, for example the height, width or length of something
Functionality (computing) the range of functions that a computer or other electronic system can
perform
Four-dimensional having four dimensions, usually length, width, depth, and time
Interface (computing) the way a computer program presents information to a user or receives
information from a user, in particular the layout of the screen and the menus
Route a way that you follow to get from one place to another
Standalone able to be operated on its own without being connected to a larger system
Steering the machinery in a vehicle that you use to control the direction it goes in
Subsequent happening or coming after something else
1. True or false?
a The flight management system typically consists of four units.

b The Control Display Unit also provides other avionic interfaces with computing platform.
c FMS doesn’t include trajectory prediction.
d The navigation function allows the crew to establish a specific routing for the aircraft.
e The performance function responsible for determining the best estimate of the current state of the
aircraft.
2. Match the given words to their definitions.
1 specify A a statement that says what you think will happen

2 evolution B to succeed in doing something
3 optimize C a judgement you make without having details
4 comprise D to be joined into one
5 accomplish E the gradual development of something
6 dynamic F including everything, everyone or every part
7 consolidate G to be the parts or members that form something
8 prediction H to state smth by giving an exact measurement
9 estimate I to use something in the best possible way
10 entire J a force that produces change
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3. There is an interview with captain Mark Nebbia of American Airlines, who has
logged over 20,000 hours in the cockpit. He explains what FMS is and how it works.
Match the questions to his answers. (R – reporter, C – captain)
QUESTIONS
R 1: “What is the Flight Management System (FMS)?”
R 2: “Where is it located in the cockpit?”
R 3: “Is the FMS basically the same in all large airplanes?”
R 4: “Who could operate the FMS in a Boeing 777?”
R 5: “When do pilots follow the FMS?”
ANSWERS
C (a): “Yes, it's pretty close. There are a couple of different

manufactures of the system, but if you really break them down
they all operate pretty closely to each other.”
C (b): “They use it for navigation almost immediately after

takeoff, but the decision to fly manually versus on autopilot is up
to the pilot. There are methods of hand flying the airplane that
will keep it on that same course programmed into the FMS, and
some pilots like to hand-fly to keep their skills up.”
C (c): “Anyone trained on the system, so probably a commercial

pilot. An aircraft mechanic might have some idea of how to use it but, at the very least, it would take
someone with a pilot's knowledge of the system itself.”
C (d): “In many ways, it's like the GPS in your car. The FMS will allow the airplane to hook up [that
routing with] the autopilot, and maintain the heading within a few feet. It's amazingly accurate.
C (e): “The FMS is located between the first officer and the captain. Many airplanes, but not all, have
two sets of input units, and you can use either one of them.”
R1_____ R2_____ R3_____ R4_____
1 A Flight Management System A the complexities of the FMS make

(FMS) is an on-board multi-purpose some new kinds of errors possible,
navigation, and techniques to help avoid them.
2 The FMS is designed to provide B ways of informing the pilot which
virtual data and operational harmony chapter and page is currently
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between closed and open elements displayed.
associated
3 The FMS can automatically C performance, and aircraft
perform many of the flight planning operations computer.
4 The FMS can help you detect and D can present on the display at any
correct errors made in the flight one time.
planning process, but
5 FMS units contain much more E with a flight from pre-engine start
information than they and take-off, to landing and engine
shut-down.
6 Different FMS units have different F make entries using the same knobs
ways of allowing the pilot to switch to move among chapters and pages.
between chapters and pages, and
different
7 FMS units that do not feature G calculations that were traditionally
keypads typically require the pilot to performed by hand.
5. Project work.
From the Wright Brothers to Outer Space

For this project, take a timeline of aviation history a step
further by explaining the engineering advances that
continue to make aircraft more reliable, faster and bigger.
348

Aircraft English Avionics

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Aircraft English Avionics

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO AVIONICS

Lesson 1 What Is Avionics?

Read the text and answer the following questions.

Avionics is a conjunction of the words

Who is an Avionics Technician?

Avionics is a specialization within electronic maintenance and

How can you give definition for avionics?

1. Match the halves of the word combinations.

Find out the correct verb/ adjective/ noun + preposition combination.

soldering on soldering with populated with

Bench technicians may 1 _____ _____ navigation and communication radios, autopilots,

3. Complete the sentences and rearrange the text.

1 There's always A trouble-shooters are constantly on the

I sentence _____ III sentence _____

II sentence_____ IV sentence _____

Open the brackets using the right word.

Avionics technicians 1 __________ (were employing, are employed, is employed) in several

Fill in the blanks using the words from the box.

records hangar schedule manufacturer airplane

1 __________ avionics technicians have the luxury of

Bench technicians work in well-lit, air-conditioned rooms

In groups make up funny aviation story and share it with the

Lesson 2 Glass Cockpit

A glass cockpit is an aircraft cockpit that features electronic (digital) flight

Ergonomic relating to or designed for efficiency and comfort in the working environment.

1 A glass cockpit consists of analog dials and gauges.

2. Match the halves of the word combinations.

1 traditional style of A displays

board indicator arise failures conventional blackout flight

B Aero Peru flight 603 was an example of this occurring.

1 ___ 2___ 3___ 4___ 5___

C The pilots were able to land back at their departure aerodrome,

D United Airlines flight 371 is an example of a glass cockpit

E If IFR conditions were present, the aircraft may have crashed.

1 ___ 2___ 3___ 4___ 5___

5. Match the words with their meanings.

1 contradiction A a long narrow strip of material with a

How do the new advanced systems help people

Lesson 1 Control Yoke

Read the text and answer the following

A yoke, alternatively known as a control column, is a device used for piloting some fixed-

When you push the yoke forward, the elevator goes

When you pull the yoke back, the elevator goes up

Give general information about yoke.

2. Fill in the blanks using the words from the box.

devices wires change comfortably mounted elevator

3. Match the halves of the sentences.

1 Airlines began to not only reduce A purchasing the struggling Dutch

The Council of ICAO appointed Raymond Benjamin (France) as Secretary General of

Albert Jean François Roper was born in Paris on

Renato Cláudio Costa Pereira was born in Brazil, on

5. Discuss the following questions with your class.

a At what age do people usually begin to work in your

Read the text and answer the following questions.

A throttle is located on the instrument panel in the

What is throttle used for?

propeller valve gauge blade carburettor

2. Study the examples and change the

American English British

A Fan in the Air

1. circulate the new

TRAVELLING NOW AND THE PAST

In the past traveling was nothing less than a daring

Have you ever been abroad?

Bench technicians may 1 _ _ navigation and communication radios, autopilots,

I sentence _ III sentence _

II sentence_ IV sentence _

1 _ 2_ 3_ 4_ 5___

1 _ 2_ 3_ 4_ 5___

1 _ 2 _ 3 _ 4 _

1 ___ 2_ 3_ 4_ 5___