CHAPTER

SYNERGIC EFFECTS OF PASSIVE

AND ACTIVE ICE PROTECTION
SYSTEMS
26
Tobias Strobl*, Stefan Storm†, Salvatore Ameduri‡
3DSE Management Consultants, Muenchen, Germany* Airbus Group Innovations, Ottobrunn, Germany†
The Italian Aerospace Research Centre, CIRA SCpA, Capua (CE), Italy‡

CHAPTER OUTLINE
1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 842
2 Pros and Cons of Considered IPS .................................................................................................... 843
2.1 Thermoelectric IPS ........................................................................................................ 844
2.2 Low-Power Consuming Piezoelectric Deicing Systems ....................................................... 844
2.3 Hydrophobic Coatings .................................................................................................... 844
2.4 Alternative Strategy Based on a Hybrid Approach ............................................................. 845
3 Design and Realization of the IPS ................................................................................................... 845
3.1 Hydrophobic Coating Design and Process Assessment ....................................................... 846
3.2 Thermoelectric system design and ice shedding prediction ................................................ 848
3.3 Piezoelectric IPS Sizing and Parameters Assessment ........................................................ 851
4 Experimental Validation .................................................................................................................. 856
4.1 First WT Test Campaign ................................................................................................. 856
4.2 Second WT Test Campaign ............................................................................................. 859
5 Conclusions ................................................................................................................................... 861
Acknowledgment ................................................................................................................................ 862
References ........................................................................................................................................ 863
Further Reading ................................................................................................................................. 864

NOMENCLATURE
AF adhesive film
AGI Airbus Group Innovations
AoA angle of attack
Asurf_ice surface area covered with ice
C electrical current
°C Celsius degree, temperature
C3D8E eight-node three-dimensional linear piezoelectric brick elements

Morphing Wing Technologies. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-100964-2.00026-5

# 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
841
842 CHAPTER 26 COMBINED PASSIVE AND ACTIVE ICE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

C3D8R eight-node three-dimensional linear brick elements

CAA contact angle advancing
CAH contact angle hysteresis
CAR contact angle receding
CFD computational fluid dynamics
DSLR digital single-lens reflex
EDM electro-discharge machining
FE finite element
FEA finite element analysis
FEM finite element model
fn natural frequency
IPS ice protection system
L reference length to compute the Re number
LEWICE Lewis Ice Accretion Program
LWC liquid water content
m meter, length
MVD median volume diameter
NACA National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics
P electrical power
PSA phosphoric sulfuric anodization
Pd_tot total power density of the hybrid system
Pheater power density of the heater system
Ppiezo power density of the piezoelectric system
q power density of the heater system
Qm mechanical quality factor
Ra surface roughness level
Re Reynolds number
S shear stress
T∞ airstream temperature
Ton ton
Ttot stagantion temperature
V voltage
V∞ airstream velocity
WT wind tunnel
W watt, power
α mass proportional Rayleigh damping coefficient
β stiffness proportional Rayleigh damping coefficient
θCB contact angle according to the Cassier-Baxter model
μ dynamic viscosity
ρ air density
τ adh adhesion shear

1 INTRODUCTION
Ice accretion events on general aerodynamic surfaces including aircraft empennages may represent a
serious safety problem. The drastic modification of the shape close to the leading-edge zone causes
a sudden lift decrease and drag arise with a consequent degradation of the airfoil performance.
 2 PROS AND CONS OF CONSIDERED IPS 843

In the worst scenario, such phenomenon can lead to the loss of the aircraft [1–3]. For this reason, aero-
nautical institutions are spending more and more efforts to develop methodologies to predict ice growth
mechanisms and, from those, to develop more convenient and effective strategies to prevent ice accre-
tion or remove formed particles before they accumulate beyond certain thresholds.
Generally, ice protection systems (IPS) can be classified under two families: anti-icing, aimed at
preventing ice formation, and deicing devices, aimed at detaching already established ice accumula-
tion. Among the most popular of these systems, thermal IPS are well-suited for aircraft surfaces prone
to ice accretion. Energy demands are maximized when these systems operate in a running-wet, anti-
icing mode [4]. This implies that the temperature of the contact area must be kept above 0°C, making
the systems power consumption strongly dependent on the environmental temperature, which typically
ranges from 0.6 to 7.2°C; this results in a very high power density requirement, spanning from 16.4 to
26.4 kW/m2 [4,5]. This is generally associated with another drawback: the local action of this system is
confined only to a small area around the heat source. These two shortcomings suggest that this
equipment has limits, and should, for example, be flanked with other devices of a different nature.
In this study, thermal heating was used only to inhibit ice accretion at the stagnation point, where
the aerodynamics generate maximum pressure value (stagnation pressure) and minimum flow velocity
value (stagnation, v ¼ 0). Even in the presence of a hydrophobic coating, this situation makes it
difficult to implement mechanical shear systems that would work only in conjunction with
significant airflow.
The idea at the basis of this project is to melt ice on the leading edge, encourage the droplets to slide
downward through the hydrophobic coating and, when ice starts reforming, remove it through piezo-
electric actuators integrated inside the airfoil. Experiments utilizing a small-scale demonstrator in the
laboratory-size icing wind tunnel of Airbus Group Innovations (AGI) supported this hybrid strategy,
proving that the hybrid IPS can reduce power consumption up to 91% [6,7] as compared to a classical
thermoelectric system, working on identical geometry.
The process of manufacturing the specific coating is described in detail, highlighting the different
effects produced by the texture morphology. The optimal configuration is identified via an experimen-
tal test campaign, carried out on flat coupons excited by an electromagnetic inductor. Then, a NACA
0012 symmetric airfoil is machined to mirror finishing and coated with the icephobic film. Under cer-
tain conditions (wind speed, chamber temperature), the experimental tests proved the possibility of
removing ice formation through only the action of aerodynamic forces. In another campaign, a piezo-
electric actuator system is implemented to facilitate and anticipate detachment. The actuators were
driven by a sweep signal, with a bandwidth able to detect the main resonant frequency of the airfoil
structure, strongly dependent on the current ice shape and thickness. These last WT test results
demonstrated the efficacy of combined use of the three IPSs and validated the design approach, the
developed models, and the basic assumptions about the investigated phenomenon, with particular
reference to the droplets behavior and the ice accretion dynamics.

2 PROS AND CONS OF CONSIDERED IPS

In this work, the combined use of three different IPS is examined. In detail, it is proposed to combine a
classical thermal device with a suitable icephobic surface and an integrated and distributed mechanical
exciter, based on piezoelectric actuators. Hereafter, a critical discussion on the advantages and the lim-
itations of the three investigated IPS is provided.
844 CHAPTER 26 COMBINED PASSIVE AND ACTIVE ICE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

2.1 THERMOELECTRIC IPS

Thermoelectric IPSs are more convenient than bleed air systems, which require a considerable amount
of fuel. A practical approach is to utilize heater blankets in the regions that need protection from ice.
These devices are usually activated in the running-wet mode; in other words, the protected zone is con-
tinuously kept at a temperature higher than that at which water freezes [8–10]. They have three main
drawbacks:

(1) their energy supply is strongly affected by the outside temperature;

(2) they have a markedly localized effect, so that they must be materially extended to all the areas that
have to be protected, with a consequent higher power supply;
(3) the running-wet mode produces ice accretions downstream.

These disadvantages impel the search for some alternative or cooperative solutions that could somehow
improve the overall performance.

2.2 LOW-POWER CONSUMING PIEZOELECTRIC DEICING SYSTEMS

Electromechanical systems seem to be a valid way to lower the power consumption, even if specific
zones like the leading edge stagnation point are difficult to treat this way because of the adverse action
of aerodynamic loads which tends to press, and then preserve, the ice on the airfoil.
Like others of their class, electro-magnetic pulse actuators use high-intensity currents that are limited
in duration to generate internal magnetic fields to deform the overlying skin and cause ice separation.
However, the required elevation in amperage peak potentially leads to breakdown of the dielectric insu-
lation, air electric arcs, and so on. Piezoelectric actuators may represent a suitable alternative [11–13].
The resulting apparatus is compact, reliable, and completely embedded in the reference architecture
(smart structure). Its major limit is related to the low operational temperatures that have a remarkable
impact upon the materials performance (authority degradation, fragility, bonding failure, etc.).

2.3 HYDROPHOBIC COATINGS

Passive systems do not need any power supply. This kind of protection can be then considered as the
ideal solution to the problem.
The idea at the basis moves from considerations on the droplets surface tension. A droplet laying on
a conventional aluminum alloy skin tends to spread and wet an increasingly larger portion of the surface
as the liquid surface tension decreases. An illustration of liquids propensity to wet the surface is pro-
vided by the so-called contact angle (defined as the angle between the surface line and the tangent of the
droplet profile) at the contact point, θCB in Fig. 1. By giving the surface a controlled nano-textured
roughness, the situation sketched in the same Fig. 1 occurs: the droplet leans onto very small
“pillars,” but each other close enough to avoid any liquid penetration [16]. The main weakness of this
system is in its functionality itself: because the aerodynamic forces are not able to induce the ice dis-
connection by themselves, the use of additional active protections is mandatory [7].
 3 DESIGN AND REALIZATION OF THE IPS 845

qCB

FIG. 1
Droplet adhesion and contact angle, according to the Cassie-Baxter behavior [14,15].

(C)

(A)
(B)
FIG. 2
Schematic of the integrated active-passive IPS: (A) thermoelectric heating wire, (B) piezoelectric actuators, and
(C) icephobic surface (on the airfoil top surface—not depicted).

2.4 ALTERNATIVE STRATEGY BASED ON A HYBRID APPROACH

To overcome the weaknesses of the individual systems above, a combination of them is proposed. Be-
cause of its large energy demand and limited influence area, the thermoelectric device is used only at
the most critical region of the wing, i.e., along the stagnation line. Here, neither the icephobic surface
nor the piezoelectric-based device could be efficient because of the adverse flow pressure action that
entraps the droplets and favors ice formation. The approach presented in this study differs from others
presented in literature [4,5] exactly because heat is generated only at one specific zone. The melted
beads then move fast downstream pushed by the aerodynamic flow, thanks to the reduced adhesion
provided by the special coating. Away from the stagnation region, at the point where the ice should
start forming, the action of the piezoelectric actuators produces a dynamic mechanical shear that de-
finitively separates the accreted masses, aided by the peculiar properties of the prepared surface and the
presence of the external air flow [17]. A sketch of the hybrid IPS layout is presented in Fig. 2.

3 DESIGN AND REALIZATION OF THE IPS

In this section, the processes and the design approach adopted to define the main features of the three
IPS are presented.
846 CHAPTER 26 COMBINED PASSIVE AND ACTIVE ICE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

3.1 HYDROPHOBIC COATING DESIGN AND PROCESS ASSESSMENT

The definition of the solid hosting support and the type of surface machining were fundamental steps in
the design and the realization of an icephobic coating. In this case, the installation was performed on a
177.8 mm chord NACA 0012 airfoil, made from milled aluminum alloy 2024-T3. Wire-cut electro-
discharge machining (EDM) was used to produce the hollow shape in the leading-edge area. The ex-
ternal surface was machined to obtain a mirror finish, as illustrated in Fig. 3 [7]. A phosphoric sulfuric
anodization (PSA) process was then carried out to achieve a surface porosity level sufficient to fix the
coating. The applied voltage and electrolyte temperature were the key parameters in this process.
A number of different combinations of these variables are used to conduct tests on four different flat
specimens (see Table 1 [7]). All of them were applied to a mirror finishing surface, Fig. 4 [7], to achieve
a 0.9-μm-thick nanostructured aluminum oxide coating (minimum value), sufficient for icephobic pur-
poses. Configuration (B) resulted the best porosity compromise between (A) and the two other cases,
(C) and (D), leading respectively to a poor and an excessive density of nanopores, Fig. 4 [7]. In the first
case, the result is due to the low chemical reactive level consequent to the application of low voltage
and temperature values, generating few but larger pores. In the other arrangements, excessive voltages
led instead to acceleration of the material accumulation process, while the effect of the increased tem-
perature favored the chemical reactivity, which in turn generates a bigger distribution of tiny holes.
Indexes that helped evaluate the objective performance of a generic icephobic surface were the con-
tact angles, measured downstream (CAA, contact angle advancing) and upstream (CAR, contact angle
receding), together with its difference (CAH, contact angle hysteresis). These values were evaluated for
the different products and reported in Table 2 [7]. They confirmed that texture (b) has better icephobic
behavior. In the same table, the surface roughness (Ra) is also shown.
To enhance the icephobic layers operation, a special chemical agent (Episurf solution by Surfactis
Technologies) was applied through a dip-coating process, assuring a more accurate leveling of the

FIG. 3
NACA 0012: appearance of the airfoil surface after mirror polishing the leading-edge area [7].

Table 1 Voltage and Electrolyte Couples of Parameters Used for the Anodization [7]
Sample No. (a) (b) (c) (d)

Voltage (V) 18 18 18 22
Temperature (°C) 20 26 30 26
 3 DESIGN AND REALIZATION OF THE IPS 847

(A) (B)

(C) (D)
FIG. 4
Nanostructured patterns obtained for the voltage-temperature value couples [7].

Table 2 Contact Angles Versus Anodization Parameters (Voltage and Temperatures) [7]
Sample No. (a) (b) (c) (d)

Ra (μm) 0.020  0.002 0.073  0.005 0.077  0.005 0.070  0.007

CAA (°) 151.5  1.21 160.6  0.59 158.6  0.56 160.0  0.37
CAR (°) 136.3  1.48 158.1  0.14 155.8  0.21 156.5  0.47
CAH (°) 15.2 2.5 2.9 3.5

peaks of the rough, porous aluminum oxide cover. After this step, the ice adhesion strength was
assessed through the use of an electromagnetic shaker [7,16,18]. As shown in Fig. 5 [7], the lowest
shear necessary to remove the ice from the different samples (τadh) was observed for the texture
(b), confirming the former attainments.
848 CHAPTER 26 COMBINED PASSIVE AND ACTIVE ICE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

0.03

0.025
Adhesion shear, tach, [MPa]

0.02

Sample (a)
0.015
Sample (b)

0.01 Sample (c)

Sample (d)
0.005

0
0 5 10 15 20
Hysteresis adhesion angle, CAH [degree]
FIG. 5
Ice adhesion shear on nanostructured patterns [7].

3.2 THERMOELECTRIC SYSTEM DESIGN AND ICE SHEDDING PREDICTION

Under the combined action of the three proposed systems, the impinging water particles undergo the
following evolution: the droplets move away from the heated zone, slide onto the icephobic treatment,
are broken by the action of the mechanical exciters as they start slowing down and solidify, and finally
are wiped away by the aerodynamic flow. This process can be simulated through three subsequent
modeling steps:
• Simulation of the residual ice accretion through the LEWICE2D numerical tool;
• Computation of the aerodynamic loads generated by the ice distribution, by using proper CFD tool;
• Estimates of the shear at the interface between the ice and the airfoil surface by means of finite
element analysis (FEA).
LEWICE (Lewis Ice Accretion Program) is a public software, realized by NASA that is widely used
throughout the world for predicting the ice formation process and define anti-icing or deicing system re-
quirements [19,20]. The code allows setting several environmental parameters; the results are generally
used as inputs to CFD tools or for reference to wind tunnel or flight tests. In the specific application, to take
into account the effect of the heat source, the IDEICE variable is set to 2. Setting the card ISH to 1, it is
instead possible to simulate the ice shedding progression due to the delamination produced in zones where
the temperature is higher than the freezing point. The ice adhesion strength is modeled by setting the ISTD
entry to 1 (section mode) or 2 (nodal mode), representing high and low cohesion conditions, respectively.
Assuming the effects of the local curvature are negligible, a strong simplification of the model was
achieved, and 2D schematics may be applied, Fig. 6 [6,21]. This is strictly valid only for the heat trans-
fer part of the simulations.
The thermoelectric system implemented Joule heating of a carbon fiber cord, 95 mm long and
1.2 mm thick, bonded in correspondence of the stagnation line within the leading edge. To improve
the adhesion quality and assure an adequate thermal continuity with the aluminum skin, the interface
 3 DESIGN AND REALIZATION OF THE IPS 849

Ice

Aluminum

Adhesive

Heater

Air

FIG. 6
Model for the LEWICE2D thermal deicing simulations [6,21].

was properly machined to guarantee the maximum contact surface between the elements. 3M Scotch-
Weld Structural AF 3109-2, a high-temperature epoxy adhesive film, was used to connect the parts.
Table 3 collects the parameters used to model the heat transfer and to verify, in the design process,
that the attained temperature was compatible with ice melting [6,21].
The air temperature in the cavity was assumed constant and equal to the static freestream temper-
ature, according to the Dirichlet’s boundary condition. The simulation included the external ice layer,
since it affects the conduction mechanism; on the other side, the temperature at the airfoil interface
influences the ice thickness itself. An iterative approach was then necessary: at first, a trial thickness
outline was assumed for the ice layer; then, by using the three-step simulation defined above, an
updated distribution was computed. Heater power needs were estimated to range between 200 and
325 kW/m2. The LEWICE2D code runs covered periods of 120 s, with intervals of 5 s. As expected
(Fig. 7) [6,21], this thermal system was able to produce a local ice-free region, very close to the energy
source. Power densities greater than 200 kW/m2 could shed the majority of the ice. However, excessive
power densities favored ice accretion downstream. A good compromise between the need of pushing
the ice from the leading edge as far as possible while keeping the power consumption reasonably low,
was achieved with values of 275 kW/m2.
The computation of the aerodynamic forces was performed through Loci/CHEM [25,26], a full fea-
tured flow solver based in the Loci framework [27,28]. Flow at 90 and 120 m/s velocity and Reynolds
number (Re) in the ranges 1.25–1.37  106 and 1.70–1.87  106 were considered. In the formula for

Table 3 Properties of the Materials Involved in the Electrothermal Protection [6,21]

Young Sp. Heat.
Density Mod. Poisson Th. Cond. Cap. (J/ Th. diffusiv.
Layer (kg/m3) (MPa) Rat (W/(m K)) (kg K)) (m2/s)

Aluminum alloy 2780.0 73,100.0 0.33 121.0 875.0 4.974  10–5

2024-T3 [21]
Heater (similar 1440.0 17,550.0 0.14 22.5  10–2 900.0 1.736  10–7
to FR4 [22])
Adhesive 1150.0 2689.0 0.31 0.170 1100.0 1.344  10–7
[23,24]
Ice [20] 916.7 9000.0 0.33 23.2  10–1 – 1.151  10–6
Air [20] 133.5  102 – – 23.7  10–3 1005.0 1.766  10–5
850 CHAPTER 26 COMBINED PASSIVE AND ACTIVE ICE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

0.16

Clean
Iced
q = 200 kW/m2
q = 225 kW/m2
q = 250 kW/m2
q = 275 kW/m2
q = 300 kW/m2
q = 325 kW/m2

0.0
−0.04 0.0 0.12
FIG. 7
Residual ice shapes versus heater density, in wet-running mode [6,21].

Re (Re ¼ ρV∞ L/μ), the reference length was the chord extension, while ρ and μ have the classical
meaning of air density and viscosity, respectively.
The ice shedding phenomenon was modeled moving from the results of the thermal analyses
(LEWICE2D) and CFD investigations (Loci/CHEM), respectively predicting the thermal and the aero-
dynamic force fields. FE analyses, implemented through Abaqus, were used to verify if the downstream
ice deposits break under the occurring aerodynamic forces and moments. To reduce the computational
effort, a symmetrical 2D problem was solved, taking into account the characteristics of the selected
airfoil. A typical mesh, describing both the aerodynamic profile and the ice distribution is illustrated
in Fig. 8 [6,21], corresponding to an exposition time of 120 s.

FIG. 8
2D Abaqus model of the leading edge upper half with accumulated ice and aerodynamic forces acting on the ice
[6,21].
 3 DESIGN AND REALIZATION OF THE IPS 851

The stress field induced by the airflow loads was estimated at the interface between the ice and the
structural skin. Shear values greater than the established threshold for the skin surface (evaluated for
both conventional aluminum alloy and icephobic coating, τadh) indicate detachment events. The con-
tour maps, reported in Fig. 9 [6,21], illustrate the estimated shear distributions every 30 s of exposure,
up to a 150 s global observation time.
A shear threshold of 0.011 MPa was assumed and black and gray regions indicate the complete
overshooting of this limit. The conservative assumption of considering the ice completely detached
only when the threshold was overshot on the entire interface, was done. For this reason ice accretions
were admitted passing from phase (A) to (E), even in presence of a prevalent detached region. Only for
the last phase, when the shear at the interface was completely above the limit, the delamination was
accepted.

3.3 PIEZOELECTRIC IPS SIZING AND PARAMETERS ASSESSMENT

As mentioned, the aim of the piezoelectric IPS is to generate a shear action at the interface between the
structural skin and the ice, greater than the severance threshold to throw away the deposits that have the
attitude to accumulate downstream.
To favor the bonding of the active elements on the structural body, flat zones were milled. In detail,
two couples of multilayer piezoelectric ceramics (CeramTec Sonox P505, 30.0 mm long, 10.0 mm
wide and 2.0 mm thick) were installed on the top and bottom internal surface of the aerodynamic pro-
file. Each actuator consisted of approximately 310 layers with a thickness ranging between 0.09 and
0.092 mm.
The selected piezoelectric material is homogenous and transversely isotropic and presents the
following characteristics [6]:
2 3
156; 000 119; 000 94;000 0 0 0
6 119; 000 156; 000 94;000
6 0 0 0 7 7

Elasticity matrix 
6 94;000 94;000 106; 000
6 0 0 0 7 7 (1)
stress coefficients, N=mm2 : 6
6 0 0 0 18; 000 0 0 7 7
4 0 0 0 0 18;000 0 5
0 0 0 0 0 19;000
2 3
0 0 4:9  106
6
6 0 0 4:9  10 7
6
7

Piezoelectric coupling matrix 
6
6 0 0 1:69  105 7
7
2 6 7 (2)
converse piezoelectric effect constants, C=mm : 6 0 1:27  105 0 7
4 1:27  105
0 0 5
0 0 0
2 12
3
 Dielectric matrix  7:97  10 0 0
F 4 0 7:97  1012 0 5 (3)
electrical permittivity, : 12
mm 0 0 6:91  10

The characteristics of the other materials are reported in Table 4 [6]. The Abaqus code was used to
predict the effectiveness of the action of the actuator system. The numerical model implemented dif-
ferent elements. Eight-node three-dimensional linear brick elements (C3D8R) were used to simulate
the main structure, the reinforcements, the cord heater, and the residual ice.
852 CHAPTER 26 COMBINED PASSIVE AND ACTIVE ICE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

S, S12
0.309
0.011
0.009
0.007
0.005
0.004
0.002
−0.000
−0.002
−0.004
−0.005
−0.007
−0.009
−0.011
(A) −0.209
S, S12
0.193
0.011
0.009
0.007
0.005
0.004
0.002
−0.000
−0.002
−0.004
−0.005
−0.007
−0.009
−0.011
(B) −0.196
S, S12
0.103
0.011
0.009
0.007
0.005
0.004
0.002
−0.000
−0.002
−0.004
−0.005
−0.007
−0.009
(C) −0.011
−0.139
S, S12
0.356
0.011
0.009
0.007
0.005
0.004
0.002
−0.000
−0.002
−0.004
−0.005
−0.007
−0.009
(D) −0.011
−0.393
S, S12
0.377
0.011
0.009
0.007
0.005
0.004
0.002
−0.000
−0.002
−0.004
−0.005
−0.007
−0.009
−0.011
(E) −0.292

FIG. 9
Shear distribution vs. ice exposition times (30–150 s, step 30, top-down sequence) [6,21].
 3 DESIGN AND REALIZATION OF THE IPS 853

Table 4 Properties of the Materials of the Main Components [6]

Component Material Young’s Modulus (N/mm2) Poisson’s Ratio Density (kg/mm3)

Airfoil Aluminum 73.100 0.33 2,78  109

Heater Carbon fiber 17.550 0.14 1,44  109

Ceramics behavior, assumed to be perfectly bonded to the airfoil, was instead reproduced through
eight-node three-dimensional linear piezoelectric brick elements (C3D8E). Proportional viscous
damping was assigned to the actuators: the mass Rayleigh coefficient α was set to zero, while the stiff-
ness coefficient β was computed through the classical equation [6,29,30]:

1
β¼ (4)
2πf n  Qm

fn and Qm being, respectively, the natural frequency of the reference mode shape (the one that was
selected for the simulation) and the mechanical quality factor of the piezo. Qm was set to 80, according
to the data sheet provided by the manufacturer.
Since the mechanical transmission can be magnified by exciting specific resonances, the first four
natural frequencies of the structure were determined. They are equal to 3.445, 4.421, 11.473, and
15.578 kHz [6]. The first mode allowed achieving very high and well distributed shear levels (up to
116.8 MPa), Fig. 10 [6]. Therefore, only this one was excited.
The presence of the ice did significantly affect the structural dynamic response and its contribution
was basically dependent on its mass and its volume. In the integration, such evolution was monitored at
different intervals: 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, and 60 s. The interfacial surface and the ice thickness increase
made the system stiffer, as demonstrated by the first frequency amplification, Table 5 [6].
Shear contour maps, taking into account the ice mass, were recorded every 10 s and shown in
Fig. 11 [6]). The black and gray colors indicate that the absolute value of the shear level exceeded

S, S12 [MPa]
+1.168e + 02
+7.500e + 01
+6.563e + 01
+5.625e + 01
+4.688e + 01
+3.750e + 01
+2.813e + 01
+1.875e + 01
+9.375e + 00
+0.000e + 00
−9.375e + 00
−1.875e + 01
−2.813e + 01
−3.750e + 01
−4.688e + 01
−5.625e + 01
−6.563e + 01
−7.500e + 01
−1.168e + 02
FIG. 10
Shear distribution onto the skin; the dashed lines represent the location of the piezo [6].
854 CHAPTER 26 COMBINED PASSIVE AND ACTIVE ICE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Table 5 First Normal Frequency vs. Maximum Thickness of the Ice vs. Interfacial Area vs.
Time [6]
Time Step t0 t10 t20 t30 t40 t50 t60

First system eigenfrequency 3.445 3.488 3.493 3.577 3.662 3.731 3.819
(kHz)
Ice thickness (mm) 0 0.259 0.254 0.492 0.758 1.063 1.353
Interface area (mm2) 0 2028.9 2450.4 2465.9 2604.6 2639.0 2709.7

S,S12 [MPa]
+1.492e + 00
+8.000e − 03
+7.000e − 03
+6.000e − 03
+5.000e − 03
+4.000e − 03
+3.000e − 03
+2.000e − 03
+1.000e − 03
+6.985e − 10
−1.000e − 03
−2.000e − 03
−3.000e − 03
−4.000e − 03
−5.000e − 03
−6.000e − 03
−7.000e − 03
−8.000e − 03
−1.151e + 00 10 sec
(A)

S, S12 [MPa]
+1.466e + 00
+8.000e − 03
+7.000e − 03
+6.000e − 03
+5.000e − 03
+4.000e − 03
+3.000e − 03
+2.000e − 03
+1.000e − 03
+6.985e − 10
−1.000e − 03
−2.000e − 03
−3.000e − 03
−4.000e − 03
−5.000e − 03
−6.000e − 03
−7.000e − 03
−8.000e − 03
−1.135e + 00 20 sec

(B)
FIG. 11
Interface shear color maps for exposition times of 10–60 s, step 10 s, top-down [6].
S, S12 [MPa]
+1.504e + 00
+8.000e − 03
+7.000e − 03
+6.000e − 03
+5.000e − 03
+4.000e − 03
+3.000e − 03
+2.000e − 03
+1.000e − 03
+6.985e − 10
−1.000e − 03
−2.000e − 03
−3.000e − 03
−4.000e − 03
−5.000e − 03
−6.000e − 03
−7.000e − 03
−8.000e − 03
−1.092e + 00 30 sec
(C)
S, S12 [MPa]
+1.496e + 00
+8.000e − 03
+7.000e − 03
+6.000e − 03
+5.000e − 03
+4.000e − 03
+3.000e − 03
+2.000e − 03
+1.000e − 03
+6.985e − 10
−1.000e − 03
−2.000e − 03
−3.000e − 03
−4.000e − 03
−5.000e − 03
−6.000e − 03
−7.000e − 03
−8.000e − 03
−1.075e + 00 40 sec

(D)
S, S12 [MPa]
+1.400e + 00
+8.000e − 03
+7.000e − 03
+6.000e − 03
+5.000e − 03
+4.000e − 03
+3.000e − 03
+2.000e − 03
+1.000e − 03
+6.000e − 10
−1.000e − 03
−2.000e − 03
−3.000e − 03
−4.000e − 03
−5.000e − 03
−6.000e − 03
−7.000e − 03
−8.000e − 03
−1.094e + 00 50 sec

(E)
S, S12 [MPa]
+1.467e + 00
+8.000e − 03
+7.000e − 03
+6.000e − 03
+5.000e − 03
+4.000e − 03
+3.000e − 03
+2.000e − 03
+1.000e − 03
+6.985e − 10
−1.000e − 03
−2.000e − 03
−3.000e − 03
−4.000e − 03
−5.000e − 03
−6.000e − 03
−7.000e − 03
−8.000e − 03
−1.123e + 00 60 sec
(F)
FIG. 11, CONT’D
856 CHAPTER 26 COMBINED PASSIVE AND ACTIVE ICE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

the threshold necessary for shedding (experimentally determined to be 0.008  0.001 MPa [7]). Phases
A and B, corresponding to 10 and 20 s, respectively, show small colored zones at the bottom left and right
of the map (upper view of the leading-edge zone), indicating that the ice remained attached to the surface
in these zones. The following maps, on the contrary, show practically no color lines in the same zones,
clear sign that the IPS was really effective everywhere. It was then effective only over a certain thickness
of the ice.

4 EXPERIMENTAL VALIDATION
Two WT test campaigns were organized on a rectangular wing section, characterized by the NACA
0012 profile and by a 177.8 mm chord and a 100 mm span. They had the double aim of appreciating
the actual effects of the combined IPS system and validating the numerical predictions. Both
the experimental campaigns considered symmetric conditions (AoA ¼ 0 degree) within the
100 mm  150 mm test section of the facility at the Airbus Group Innovations laboratory, Fig. 12
[6,21]. In detail:
• The first campaign tested the wing model, integrated with the thermoelectric and the icephobic
treatment;
• The second campaign tested the test article, integrated with all the three considered IPS.

4.1 FIRST WT TEST CAMPAIGN

The first test campaign was conducted with the presence of the thermoelectric and the hydrophobic
IPS. It was mainly aimed at establishing the relation between the ice thickness (somehow related to
the exposure time) and its propensity to remain attached. Glaze, mixed, and rime ice conditions were
tested under two free airstream velocities (V∞ ¼ 90; 120 m/s). Table 6 collects the eight investigated
cases, classified on the basis of wind speed, thermodynamic parameters, type of ice and needed elec-
trical power for melting ice [6,21]. Both the median volume diameter, MVD, and the liquid water

FIG. 12
Airfoil mounted in the icing wind tunnel test section [6,21].
Table 6 Test Cases vs. Static and Total Thermodynamic Parameters, Ice Type, Droplet Generation Parameters and
Electrical Voltage, Current and Power Needed for Melting Ice at the Stagnation Point [6,21]
V∞ LWC MVD P
Case (m/s) Ttot (°C) T∞ (°C) (g/m3) (μm) Ice Type V (V) C (A) (kW/m span)

1 90 1.0 4.0 0.55 20 Warm-glaze ice shape 6.6 0.8 0.05

2 90 5.0 9.0 0.55 20 Horn-glaze ice shape 11.4 1.5 0.17
3 90 10.0 14.0 0.55 20 Mixed-ice accretion 14.6 2.0 0.29

4 EXPERIMENTAL VALIDATION
4 90 15.0 19.0 0.55 20 Rime-ice accretion 16.0 2.2 0.35
5 120 1.0 7.2 0.55 20 Warm-glaze ice shape 6.5 0.8 0.05
6 120 5.0 12.2 0.55 20 Horn-glaze ice shape 12.9 1.8 0.23
7 120 10.0 17.2 0.55 20 Mixed-ice accretion 16.0 2.2 0.35
8 120 15.0 22.2 0.55 20 Rime-ice accretion 17.9 2.6 0.47

857
858 CHAPTER 26 COMBINED PASSIVE AND ACTIVE ICE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

content, LWC (basic parameters, describing the particles quality), were kept constant at 20 μm and
0.55 g/m3, in that order. The carbon fiber cord heater worked in a running-wet anti-icing mode. It cov-
ered only a small area around the stagnation line, where it was installed.
The ice accretion on the airfoil surface was monitored with an original laser-scanning system, de-
veloped by AGI and including a laser diode and a detector. A digital single-lens reflex camera, DSLR,
was used for system calibration by producing reference values for the ice thickness. The images taken
by this camera were also used for verifying the results and checking the data post-processing. The ac-
creted ice thickness is measured on 21 points on the upper airfoil surface, chord-wise, starting at a wrap
distance of 5 mm from the stagnation site, Fig. 13, and spaced 1 and 2 mm (first 15 and the other 6
points, respectively). In this way, the entire region affected by the ice presence was monitored.
The IPS combined system was conceived to work continuously (wet-running modality). By con-
trast, per each test after achieving stable conditions in the WT section (V∞ and T∞), the heater and
the laser scanner were switched on. After 5 s, supercooled water droplets with a MVD of 20.0 μm were
supplied by a spray bar system; the ice was melted near the warm zone and shed downward until it is
frozen again, far from the heater. Finally, it was removed by the aerodynamic loads that increase as the
ice accretion goes ahead.
The ice accretion test runs took 3–10 min; during this time, ice shapes were recorded. The ice thick-
ness was measured through the images acquired by the DSLR camera and the data recorded by the laser
scanning system. An example of the acquired data is shown in Fig. 14 (case 2, Table 6) [6,21]. The
graph describes the ice growing history at six stations: N.1, 3, 5, 10, 15, and 21.

0.02
2 mm spaced
1 mm spaced points
0.015 points

0.01
5 mm long
wrap zone 0.005
z [m]

−0.005

−0.01

−0.015

−0.02

0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04

x [m]
FIG. 13
Location of the 21 measurement points.
 4 EXPERIMENTAL VALIDATION 859

6
Ice thickness (mm)

Sta
S tion
Sta tation 21
Stat t io n 10 15
Stat io n 5
0 Stat ion 3
0 760 ion 1

Frame number
FIG. 14
Measurement of the ice growth and delamination for case 2 (V∞ ¼ 90 m/s and Ttot ¼  5°C) using the laser-
scanning system [6,21].

Station N.3 shows the max growth level: the thickness reached 5.92 mm. The sharp fall of the curves
at a frame of 760 (T ¼ 1.9 s) highlights the detachment event. For case 3, the max ice thickness before
delamination was 5.24 mm. For the cases 6, 7, and 8, it attained 6.79, 6.73, and 6.37 mm, respectively. No
ice shedding was instead obtained for the warm and mushy shapes, corresponding to cases 1 and 5. De-
lamination was not recorded during the experiment N.4 due to a malfunction of the acquisition system. As
a further result, the investigations showed that none of the residual ice shapes that accreted on the
anticorrosion-prepared surface, separated under the only action of the aerodynamic forces.
The strongly hydrophilic character of the coated surface can explain the observed phenomenology. The
interfacial forces of attraction between the airfoil metal surface and the ice were so strong that the stresses
produced by the aerodynamic forces at V∞ equal to 90 and 120 m/s were insufficient to initiate ice shedding.
A contribution to that strong adhesion was provided by the arithmetical mean roughness, Ra, of
the coated aluminum skin, resulting from a milling process and equal to 1.05 μm. The droplets that
impinged the leading edge could then penetrate the pores and crevices of the surface and be mechan-
ically interlocked. In this way, a strong interfacial bond was generated and remained attached to the
airfoil surface. It should be remarked that the mirror-polished skin of the icephobic aluminum airfoil
had a value of Ra equal to 73  5 nm (1–2 order of magnitude less). It could therefore prevent the
phenomenon above, in principle. However, the anticorrosion primer that was sprayed onto to the air-
foil, was about 2.5 μm thick and hence dramatically reduced the test article characteristics. Wind tunnel
experiments confirmed that successful shedding of the ice deposits was only enabled by using the
ultra-smooth, nanostructured super-hydrophobic layer. In this case, the max value of the ice
thickness before disconnection (5.24 mm), was obtained for case 3 (V∞ ¼ 90 m/s; Ttot ¼  10°C).

4.2 SECOND WT TEST CAMPAIGN

In this test campaign, all the three Ice Protection Systems IPS were jointly considered: the electrother-
mal heater, the electromechanical system and the icephobic coating. An EA-PSI 8720-15 power supply
fed both the active IPS. Three test runs investigated their behavior for a period of 60 s in the presence of
warm-glaze ice, considered the most severe condition. A synthetic version of this WT test plan is
reported in Table 7. As in the previous case, a sole condition for droplet generation was selected
(MVD ¼ 20.0 μm and LWC ¼ 0.45 g/m3), corresponding to the maximum intensity of atmospheric
icing (CS-25, icing conditions [29]).
860 CHAPTER 26 COMBINED PASSIVE AND ACTIVE ICE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Table 7 Test Cases Conditions for the Second WT Campaign [6,21]

Test Run Ice Type Tst (°C) Ttot (°C) Vair (m/s) MVD (μm) LWC (g/m3)

1 Warm-glaze 7.8 0.8 118.9 20.0 0.45

2 Warm-glaze 8.4 1.2 120.1 20.0 0.45
3 Warm-glaze 7.9 0.9 118.7 20.0 0.45

According to the standards [30], the estimate of the actual LWC was performed through an icing
blade method, before starting the deicing experiments with the hybrid IPS. Per each run, the atomiza-
tion of super cooled water droplets started after having achieved WT stable conditions. At that time,
the carbon fiber heater was switched on, operating in a wet running condition, and preventing the
ice accretion at the stagnation line.
Along the tests, the piezoelectric systems were activated six times, by using a MAC audio amplifier,
MPX 4500 type. An arbitrary waveform generator (Agilent 33220A) was used to provide a sinusoidal
excitation signal with a frequency sweep ranging between 4.15 and 4.30 kHz and a 2 s overall cycle
duration. The required total power density (Pd_tot) of the hybrid system includes the electrical power
required by the carbon fiber cord heater (Pheater) and the power required by the piezoelectric mechan-
ical exciter (Ppiezo). It follows:

Pheater + Ppiezo
Pd_tot ¼ (5)
Asurf_ice

where Asurf_ice is the area covered with ice. The value of this area was pre-determined and corre-
sponds to the wet surface in natural conditions, i.e., without using any IPS. It was determined as the
product of the wrap chordwise times the spanwise extension of the impacted region. As for the
absolute values of the specific experiment on the selected test article, the respective length
resulted about 40 mm times 100 mm (the entire model extent). This led to an about 0.004 m2
wet surface.
In Fig. 15 [6,21], a typical deicing sequence is shown, obtained during this second test campaign. It
reports shot frames, taken at 2.5 ms step, by a Phantom v611 high-speed camera. The implemented Ice
Protection System IPS demonstrated to produce deicing within 17.5 ms. The difference between the
first and the second frame is remarkable. They show two different moments of the experiment, before
(first) and after (second) the piezoelectric system was switched on. The third shot shows the dramatic
moment when the ice was shed, following the excitation of the structural resonance (first mode) The
further photograms give an idea of the ice breaking process and how the fragments were moved away
by the airflow.
The carbon heater device was fed with 7.0 V and 0.8 A DC, leading to a global 5.6 W absorbed
power, measured through an HP 4194A impedance analyzer. At the first structural resonance (fre-
quency ranging between 4.15 and 4.30 kHz), the active mechanical system absorbed around
4.47 W. If a 20% safety coefficient is assumed, a final value of 5.36 W is obtained. These values give
an estimate of the power density, equal to 2.74 kW/m2. The experiments were carried out after a 30-s
accretion time, to enable the growth of a sufficient ice volume.
 5 CONCLUSIONS 861

FIG. 15
Deicing sequence of the warm-glaze icing condition for 30 s of icing exposure [6,7,21].

These tests proved the effective potentiality of the proposed hybrid architecture to reduce the power
consumption: in fact [4], conventional IPS energy absorption ranged between 16.4 and 62.0 kW/m2.
The piezoelectric system and the selected strategy of forcing the structural resonance mode allowed
attaining an approximately 57% saving with respect to competing electromechanical subsystems
[10]. The integrated IPS led also to benefits in terms of weight and compactness. The use of a single
heater, installed at the stagnation line, represented in fact a valid alternative to heavier large-scale
systems, extending all over the entire droplet impingement area (leading edge zone). Furthermore,
the solid or quasisolid nature of the heater and piezo devices made them a profitable solution for
the integration in narrow domains. Finally, their simplicity well matched the increasing demand for
safer and safer life cycle design: the use of solid actuators and resistances represented a good response
to this need. The combined performance of these devices was magnified by the presence of the
selected and deployed icephobic treatment, allowing the ice formation to move further downstream,
where the integrated smart actuators may suitably excite the structure.

5 CONCLUSIONS
In the work at hand, a hybrid Ice Protection System was investigated. Moving from common deicing
and anti-icing approaches, characterized by relatively large energy consumption levels, the idea of
combining some of them in a synergic operational mode was explored. The proposed strategy foresaw
the combination of one passive device (a nano-textured hydrophobic coating) and two active devices (a
carbon chord heater and a piezoelectric-based structural actuator).
862 CHAPTER 26 COMBINED PASSIVE AND ACTIVE ICE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

The systems were used and integrated into an original architecture. In contrast to traditional heating
apparatuses, usually widely distributed over the front side of the wing, only a small carbon chord was
implemented in this case, integrated at the leading edge. Such equipment acted on a very limited zone to
prevent ice formation at the stagnation line. Here, it worked alone. Aerodynamic actions pressed the
droplet onto the surface with a near-zero flow velocity, hindering the actions of the hydrophobic coat-
ing, and then the water slides downstream along the airfoil skin, where general environmental condi-
tions and low temperatures slowed it down and froze it. The action of the dynamic piezoelectric
structural system generated a shear at the ice-structure interface, high enough to produce the desired
shedding. The presence of the icephobic treatment was fundamental in lowering the separation stress to
suitable values, attainable by the installed mechanics.
Pros and cons of each selected IPS were illustrated; then, moving from their working parameters
and their specific peculiarities, the design phase was described. With reference to the hydrophobic sys-
tem, both the materials and the fabrication processes were presented; the effect of some key parameters
were introduced and discussed as the adopted temperature and voltage in the anodizing process. Their
optimal combination, assuring the best icephobic performance, was found. It was finally proved by
experimental measures like contact angles and the surface roughness. Different aspects of the thermo-
electric system design were considered and numerically investigated. Heat transfer from the internally
bonded carbon cable to the external surface of the airfoil was first computed. Then, the evolution and
accumulation of the water as it moves downstream were simulated. Finally, the aerodynamic forces
acting upon the ice-structure interface was estimated as a function of the curvilinear abscissa. The es-
timated ice shape and its position with respect to the stagnation point were used to define the chordwise
location of the piezoelectric actuators working at the systems first structural resonance mode. An FE
model gave essential input to the designers, from the structural eigenmodes determination to the actual
stress distribution. The presence of the ice at different stages was taken into account because it strongly
influences the systems dynamic response.
The results, achieved during two different WT tests at AGI, validated the numerical outcomes.
The first experimental campaign focused on two main objectives: (1) the waters evolution, from
its impact on the surface to ice formation far from the leading edge, in the absence of any piezoelectric
actuation; (2) the quantification of the actual airflow shear, representing its capacity to detach ice
masses. In this case, ice shedding was observed for certain conditions only (some specific ice typol-
ogies and when thicknesses overcome a certain threshold), demonstrating the necessity of deploying
additional mechanical IPS. The second test campaign did instead address the possibility of including a
piezoelectric system as a mechanical facilitator for ultimate ice removal. In the end, the needed power
was estimated in the presence of warm-glaze ice (the most severe condition). Direct observation con-
firmed the systems expected functionality and physical process. It was equivalent to the former, but the
final segment, wherein the action of the ceramics reaches critical shear values, was able to break the
ice. This capability was enabled by the icephobic coating, which was equally important in the first
impinging phase.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work describes research activities carried out by Airbus Group Innovation Works, collected and edited
by CIRA.
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FURTHER READING
[1] Surfactis Technologies, EPISURF Solution Preparation and Surface Treatment: Technical Procedure,
RD_120612_v01, (2012).
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Compound 08-202, RD_020909_v02, 2012.
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Technol. Int. J. Mech. Aerospace Ind. Mechatronic Manuf. Eng. 6 (8) (2012) 1622–1627.
[4] W. Wright, G. Addy, P. Struk, T. Bartkus, Recent Advances in the LEWICE Icing Model, NASA Glenn
Research Center, Report N. GRC-E-DAA-TN23449, 2015.
[5] T. Strobl, Modellbasierter Entwurf eines hybriden Systemansatzes zur Eisentfernung von den Oberfl€achen
einer Flugzeugkonfiguration (in German, “Model-based development of a hybrid approach for aircraft ice
protection”), Master Thesis, Fakult€at f€ur Maschinenwesen, Technische Universitaet Muenchen, Muenchen,
Germany, 2016.