MODULE 1: The Principle of Relativity

This unit explores the Special Theory of Relativity that explains the behavior of objects, especially objects
moving at close to the speed of light. This module discusses the foundation for the exploration by describing
the core idea of the theory and linking it to Newtonian mechanics. It focuses on the principle of relativity
itself, and on developing an understanding of its meaning in the context of Newtonian physics prior to
proceeding with the changes Einstein proposes.

A. Introduction to the Principle

An informal statement of the principle of relativity states,

“The laws of physics are the same inside a laboratory moving at a constant velocity as they are in a
laboratory at rest”.

This is the unpolished statement of the principle of relativity and is the foundation of Einstein’s special
theory of relativity.

The principle of relativity was not stated by Einstein rather by Galileo Galilei in his book Dialog
Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (1632). Einstein asserted the applicability of the principle of
relativity to all the laws of physics, and most particularly to the laws of electromagnetism. His main
contribution was to reinterpret the principle of relativity as being fundamental and to explore insightfully
its implications regarding the nature of light, time, and space.

The principle of relativity is a postulate.

The principle of relativity is one of those physical assumptions that have to be accepted on faith: it cannot
be proved experimentally or logically derived from basic ideas. The principle of relativity, while it cannot
be proved, it has not yet been disproved.

Reviewing the statement:

“The laws of physics are the same inside a laboratory moving at a constant velocity as they are in a
laboratory at rest”.

What does it mean by “laws of physics are the same”?

What does it mean by “a laboratory at rest”?
How can it be considered that the laboratory is “at rest” or not?
B. Events and Spacetime Coordinates

What is a laboratory?

A laboratory is presumably a place where one performs experiments and tests the laws of physics.

In this case, the physicists seek to specify and test the laws of physics to give means of mathematically
describing the motion of a particle in space.

In understanding the theory of relativity, one must be very careful about describing exactly how the motion
of the particle will be measured.

Definition of Event

An event is any physical occurrence that can be considered to happen at a definite place in space and at
a definite instant in time.

Since an event occurs at a specific point in space and at a specific time, it can be quantified using four
numbers: three that specified location of the event in some three- dimensional spatial coordinate system
and one number specifies what time and the event occurred. These four numbers are the event’s spacetime
coordinates.

Note that the exact values of an event’s spacetime coordinates depend on certain arbitrary choices, such as
the origin and the orientation of the special coordinate axes and what time is t = 0.

A motion of a particle can be quantified by treating at as a series of events. For

example, imagine an airplane moving along an axis of some coordinate system.
The airplane carries a blinking light. Each blink of light is an event that occurs at
a definite place in space and at a definite instant time. The motion of the airplane
can be described by plotting a graph of the position coordinate versus the time
coordinate.

The motion of any particle can be mathematically described to arbitrary accuracy by specifying the
spacetime coordinates of a sufficiently large number of events suitably distributed along its path.

“The most fundamental task of a ‘laboratory’ (as a place in which the laws of physics are to be tested)
is to provide a means of measuring the spacetime coordinates of events.”
C. Reference Frames

There is a challenge on how to measure the time of an event.

The trick is to take the cubical lattice and imagine that a clock to every lattice intersection is attached. The
time coordinate of an event can be defined based on the time displayed on the lattice clock nearest the event
(relative to the specified time t = 0) and the event’s three spatial coordinates to be the lattice coordinate
that nearest clock (measured from the specified spatial origin to the clock).

A reference frame visualized

as a cubical lattice with a
clock at every lattice
intersection.

Why is it important to have a clock at every lattice intersection?

The point is to make sure that there is a clock essentially at the location of any event to be measured. If
there is an attempt to read the time of an event by using a clock located substantial distance away, there is
a need to make assumption about how long it took the information that the event has occurred to reach that
distant clock.

Note the clocks must all be synchronized in some meaningful and self-consistent manner to get a meaningful
result. This idea is precisely where Newton’s and Einstein’s models diverge.

Operational Definition of spacetime coordinates: an operational definition of a physical quantity defines

that quantity by describing how the quantity can be measured.

Technical terms involving reference frames:

A reference frame is defined to be a rigid cubical lattice of appropriately synchronized clocks or its
functional equivalent.

The spacetime coordinates of an event in a given reference frame are defined to be an ordered set of
four numbers, the first specifying the time of the event as registered by the nearest clock in the lattice,
followed by three that specify the spatial coordinates of the clock in that lattice. For example, an event
happened in the coordinate of [3s, -3m, 6m, -1m]. This means that the event occurred at 3m West, 6m
North, and 1m below the frame’s spatial origin, and 3s after whatever event defines t = 0.

An observer is defined to be a (possibly hypothetical) person who interprets measurements made in a

reference frame (e.g. the person who interprets the spacetime coordinates collected by a central computer
receiving information from all the lattice clocks).
Note that the act of “observing” means an act of interpretation of measurements generated by the frame
apparatus, and that may have little or nothing to do with what that observer sees with this or her own eyes.

D. Inertial Reference Frame

A reference frame may be moving or at rest, accelerating, or even rotating about some axis. However, not
all reference frames are equally useful for doing physics. A reference frame can be divided into: inertial
frames and noninertial frames. An inertial frame is one in which an isolated object is always and
everywhere observed to move at a constant velocity (as required in Newton’s first law); in a noninertial
frame such as an object is observed to move with a nonconstant velocity in at least some situations.

Inertial frames move with constant velocities relative to each other.

Any inertial reference frame will be observed to move at constant velocity relative to any other inertial
reference frame. Conversely, a rigid nonrotating reference frame that moves at a constant velocity with
respect to any other inertial frame must itself be inertial.

Consider two inertial reference frames: Home Frame and Other Frame.
y y’

HOME FRAME OTHER FRAME

Object

x x’

z z’ Other Frame’s Motion

For example, a specified isolated object that happens to be at rest relative to the Other Frame. Since such
an isolated object must move at a constant velocity in the Other Frame if the frame is inertial, if the object
is initially at rest, it will have to remain at rest in that frame. Now, consider observing the same object from
the Home Frame. Since the isolated object is isolated and the Home Frame is also inertial, the object must
move at a constant velocity relative to the frame as well. But since the object is at rest with respect to the
Other Frame, this means that the whole Other Frame must be observed to move relative to the Home Frame
at the same constant velocity as the object. Therefore, the Other Frame will be observed to move at a
constant velocity relative to the Home Frame.

E. The Final Principle of Relativity

How can a reference frame “moving at a constant velocity” be distinguished from one “at rest”?

The short answer is it cannot be distinguished.

The principle of relativity specifically states that a reference frame moving at a constant velocity is
physically equivalent to a frame at rest. Therefore, there is no physical basis for distinguishing a laboratory
at rest from another frame moving at a constant velocity.

According to the principle of relativity, there is no physical experiment that can resolve the argument about
who or what “really” is at rest.

Restating:
“The laws of physics are the same inside a laboratory moving at a constant velocity as they are in a
laboratory at rest”

Into:
“The laws of physics are the same in all inertial reference frames”.

This is the final polished statement of the principle of relativity. The principle essentially claims that if
Newton’s first law is the same in two given reference frames, then all laws of physics are the same in both
frames.

F. Newtonian Relativity

Standard Orientation:

1. The Home Frame’s x, y, and z axes point in the same directions as the corresponding axes in the Other
Frame. To conventionally distinguish the Home Frame and the Other Frame axes by referring to the Home
Frame axes as x, y, and z and the Other Frame axes as x’, y’, and z’.

2. It is also conventional to define the origin event (the event that defines t = 0 in both frames) to be the
instant that at which the spatial origin of one frame passes the origin of the other.

3. Choose a conventionally common x axis.

4. Quantities measure in the Other Frame has (‘), read as “prime”.

5. The Other Frame will move at a constant velocity 𝛽⃑ with respect to the Home Frame (the Greek letter β
will be used to represent the relative velocity of frames, standing for the “boost” in velocity that one needs
to go from being at rest in one frame to being at rest in the other.)

Derivation of Galilean Transformation Equations and Velocities

Consider an object moving in space observed from the Home Frame.

y y’

HOME FRAME OTHER FRAME

Event

x x’

z z’ Other Frame’s Motion

The Other Frame is moves at a constant rate of 𝛽⃑ as measure from the Home Frame. Since based on the
assumption that time is universal and absolute, observers in both frame should agree with time of the event
as t = t’.

The spatial position of the Event (at t = t’):

From the Home Frame = 𝑟⃑(𝑡)
From the Other Frame = 𝑟′ ⃑⃑⃑(𝑡)

The Position of the Other Frame (moving at 𝛽⃑) from the Home Frame = 𝛽⃑ 𝑡
(from Position = Velocity x time )

The Event’s Position Vector in the two frames at the time of the event:

𝑟 ′ (𝑡) + 𝛽⃑ 𝑡
𝑟⃑(𝑡) = ⃑⃑⃑⃑

Where: ⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝑟 ′ (𝑡) = Position of the Event in the Other Frame
𝛽⃑ 𝑡 = Position of the Other Frame from the Home Frame

It can also be expressed as:

⃑⃑⃑(𝑡) = 𝑟⃑(𝑡) − 𝛽⃑ 𝑡
𝑟′
Since 𝛽⃑ is directed along the x – axis, the:

⃑⃑⃑(𝑡) = 𝑟⃑(𝑡) − 𝛽⃑ 𝑡
𝑟′
↓ ↓ ↓
𝑥 ′ = 𝑥 − 𝛽𝑡
the other components are:
𝑦′ = 𝑦

𝑧′ = 𝑧

and time is absolute:

𝑡′ = 𝑡
 The Galilean Transformation Equations:
𝒙′ = 𝒙 − 𝜷𝒕

𝒚′ = 𝒚

𝒛′ = 𝒛

𝒕′ = 𝒕

Taking the first derivative of the Galilean Transformation Equation:

NOTE:
1. The “prime” symbol does not indicate the derivative function rather the quantity in the Other Frame
2. Since t’ = t, it really doesn’t matter if the derivative is with respect to t’ on the left and t on the right.

For the motion along the x – axis:

𝑥 ′ = 𝑥 − 𝛽𝑡
𝑑 ′ 𝑑 𝑑
(𝑥 ) = (𝑥) − (𝛽𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Remember that β is constant, thus:

𝒗′𝒙 = 𝒗𝒙 − 𝜷

For the motion along the y – axis:

𝑦′ = 𝑦
𝑑 ′ 𝑑
(𝑦 ) = (𝑦)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝒗′𝒚 = 𝒗𝒚

For the motion along the z – axis:

𝑧′ = 𝑧
𝑑 ′ 𝑑
(𝑧 ) = (𝑧)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝒗′𝒛 = 𝒗𝒛

The Galilean Velocity Transformation Equations:

𝒗′𝒙 = 𝒗𝒙 − 𝜷

𝒗′𝒚 = 𝒗𝒚

𝒗′𝒛 = 𝒗𝒛
Taking the time derivative of the Galilean Velocity Transformation Equations:

Motion along x – axis:

𝑣′𝑥 = 𝑣𝑥 − 𝛽

𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
(𝑣′𝑥 ) = (𝑣′𝑥 ) − (𝛽)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑
Since β is constant, then 𝑑𝑡 (𝛽) = 0. Thus,

𝒂′𝒙 = 𝒂𝒙
Motion along y – axis:

𝑣′𝑦 = 𝑣𝑦

𝑑 𝑑
(𝑣′𝑦 ) = (𝑣′ )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑦
𝒂′𝒚 = 𝒂𝒚

Motion along z – axis:

𝑣′𝑧 = 𝑣𝑧

𝑑 𝑑
(𝑣′𝑧 ) = (𝑣′ )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑧
𝒂′𝒛 = 𝒂𝒛

The Event’s acceleration is the same in all inertial reference frames:

𝒂′𝒙 = 𝒂𝒙

𝒂′𝒚 = 𝒂𝒚

𝒂′𝒛 = 𝒂𝒛

The Event’s acceleration is the same in all inertial reference frames indicates that the observers in both
inertial frames agree about an object’s acceleration at a given time, even though the observers may
disagree about the position and velocity components of the event at the time.
For example, a person inside a moving bus throws an object upward and catches it.

A person throws an object vertically

upward and downward in the bus at a
constant horizontal velocity.

From the point-of-view of the person inside the bus, the objects motion only upward and downward.

Now, consider another person observing from the sidewalk.

From the vantage point of

the person in the
sidewalk, the object
seems to follow a shallow
parabolic trajectory
because of its constant
horizontal velocity (same
as the bus).

The motion of the object in these two reference frames looks very different: it looks entirely vertical inside
the bus but parabolic as seen from the outside. Even so, it can be agreed upon by the two observers that:

(1) the ball has a certain mass (m) and thus should experience a gravitational force of magnitude mg acting
on the object;
(2) this force must be the net force on the object while it is in the bus (since nothing else is in contact with
the object ignoring air resistance); and
(3) the ball has the same acceleration in the respective reference frames.

Taking in consideration of the motion of the ball inside the moving bus (the Other Frame), then in symbols:

𝐹 ′ = 𝑚𝑎′𝑥

Remember that the mass is the same for both observations (m = m’).

Take note that:

𝑑 ′ 𝑑
𝑎′𝑥 = (𝑣 𝑥 ) = (𝑣𝑥 − 𝛽)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Substituting the values:

𝑑
𝑚𝑎′𝑥 = (𝑚) (𝑣 − 𝛽)
𝑑𝑡 𝑥
 𝑑 𝑑
𝑚𝑎′𝑥 = (𝑚) [ (𝑣𝑥 )] − [ (𝛽)]
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑
𝑚𝑎′𝑥 = (𝑚) [ (𝑣 )]
𝑑𝑡 𝑥

𝑚𝑎′𝑥 = (𝑚)(𝑎𝑥 )

But, F = ma. Therefore,

𝐹′ = 𝐹

This shows that the “the laws of Physics are the same” in different inertial frames. Observers in different
inertial frames may disagree about the values of various quantities (particularly position and velocities) but
each observer will agree that if one takes the mathematical equations describing the physical law (such as
Newton’s second law) and plugs in the values measured in that observer’s frame, one will always find that
the equation is satisfied. In other words, the same basic equations will be found to describe the laws of
physics in all inertial reference frames.