Special Relativity

1. Introduction to Relativity: The dependence of various physical phenomena on relative motion

of the observer and objects, especially regarding the nature and behaviour of light, space,
time and gravity is called relativity. When we have two things and if we want to find out the
relation between their physical properties i.e. velocity, acceleration then we need relation
between them that which is higher and which is lower. In general way we referred it to as
relativity. The famous scientist Einstein has firstly found out the theory of relativity and he
has given very useful theories in relativity.
2. What is Special Relativity? In 1905, Albert Einstein determined that the laws of physics are
the same for all non-accelerating observers, and that the speed of light in a vacuum was
independent of the motion of all observers. This was the theory of special relativity.

3. Galilean Transform: Conditions of the Galilean Transformation Parallel axes (for

convenience) S‟ frame has a constant relative velocity in the x-direction with respect to S
frame. Then x = x - vt; y = y; z = z and t = t. Time (t) for all observers is a Fundamental
invariant, i.e., the same for all inertial observers.

4. Galilean Inverse Transformation Relations:

Step 1. Replace the vector „v‟ by vector „–v‟.

Step 2. Replace “primed” quantities with “unprimed” and “unprimed” with “primed.” i.e. x = x‟
+ vt and t = t‟ where „v‟ is speed of frame not speed of object.

5. The First Postulate of Special Relativity is a person playing pool on a smooth and fast
moving ship does not have to compensate for the ship‟s speed. The laws of physics are the
same whether the ship is moving uniformly or at rest.
6. The First Postulate of Special Relativity: Einstein‟s first postulate of special relativity
assumes our inability to detect a state of uniform motion. Many experiments can detect
accelerated motion, but none can, according to Einstein, detect the state of uniform motion.

7. The Second Postulate of Special Relativity: The second postulate of special relativity states
that the speed of light in empty space will always have the same value regardless of the
motion of the source or the motion of the observer.

8. The Ether: Historical Perspective Light is a wave. Waves require a medium through which to
propagate. Medium as called the “ether” (from the Greek aither, meaning upper air).
Maxwell‟s equations assume that light obeys the Newtonian - Galilean transformation.

9. The Michelson-Morley Experiment: This Experiment designed to measure small changes in

the speed of light was performed by Albert A. Michelson (1852 – 1931, Nobel) and Edward
W. Morley (1838 – 1923). Used an optical instrument called an interferometer that Michelson
invented. Device was to detect the presence of the ether. Outcome of the experiment was
negative, thus contradicting the ether hypothesis.

10. (x, y, z, t) are the coordinates of position of an object from S frame which is at rest and (x', y',
z', t‟) are the position of the same object from frame S' moving with speed v along x-x'
 direction. The Lorentz Transformation: The relations between the primed and unprimed
space and time coordinates are the Lorentz transformations, each coordinate in one frame is
a linear function of all the coordinates in the other frame, and the inverse functions are the
inverse transformation. Depending on how the frames move relative to each other and how
they are oriented in space relative to each other. Other parameters that describe direction,
speed, and orientation enter the transformation equations.

11. LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION EQUATIONS

12. Time Dilation: We explore the rate of time in different inertial frames by considering a special
kind of clock – a light clock – which is just one arm of an interferometer. Consider a light
pulse bouncing vertically between two mirrors. We analyze time it takes for the light pulse to
complete a round trip both in the rest frame of the clock (labeled S‟), and in an inertial frame
S where the clock is observed to move horizontally at a velocity v.

13. Length Contraction: Length contraction is the phenomenon of a decrease in length of an

object as measured by an observer who is traveling at any non-zero velocity relative to the
object. This contraction (more formally called Lorentz contraction or Lorentz–FitzGerald
contraction after Hendrik Lorentz and George Francis FitzGerald) is usually only noticeable
at a substantial fraction of the speed of light. Length contraction is only in the direction
parallel to the direction in which the observed body is travelling.

Newton's Laws of Motion:

Let's review certain basic concepts of motion, namely Newton's Laws of
Motion, which are presumably as basic and fundamental as any natural law
can be:
(1) The Law of Inertia: A body which has no force acting on it will move
with uniform motion (that is, with constant speed and direction).
(2) The Force Law: If a force acts on a body, it will not move uniformly, but
will be accelerated in the direction of the force at a rate proportional to the
force and inversely proportional to its inertia or mass.

If we see an object which is moving uniformly, we presume that it must not

have any force (or at least, any net force) acting on it; whereas if we see an
object which is accelerating, we presume it must have some force acting on it,
in the direction of its acceleration.

Inertial Frames of Reference:

To understand a frame of reference is simply that portion of the world
around us, which we use to measure the motion of moving bodies. For all
practical purposes, the world around us appears to be at rest, and insofar as
that statement is true, then any motion we measure relative to our
surroundings is correctly observed, and if a motion appears uniform, it must
truly be uniform, and if the motion appears non uniform, then it must truly be
non-uniform.
But suppose that instead of using the world around us, we use some
particular portion, such as a train, which is moving relative to the rest of the
object. As the train moves along its tracks, the motion of whatever objects we
are observing will not be measured correctly, but will have an error equal to
the motion of the train. As long as the motion of the train is absolutely
uniform and unchanging, whatever error we make in observing the moving
object will be absolutely constant and unchanging; so if the object has uniform
motion in the everyday world that is our normal frame of reference, then it
will appear to have a different but still absolutely uniform motion in the frame
of reference represented by the train. And if the object is moving non-
uniformly, because there is a force acting on it then it will also be moving non
uniformly, by exactly the same amount, in the frame of reference of the
moving train.
This concept, that a uniformly moving frame of reference, such as the train,
should not change the laws of motion. Galileo proposed that in all frames
of reference which are moving uniformly relative to each
other, the laws of nature must be the same. This statement is
not only Newton's Laws, but all the laws of nature, and is the basis of what we
call Galilean relativity.
Now, let's suppose that in the everyday world, Newton's Laws of Motion
are correct, and most particularly, that the Law of Inertia is correct. If so, then
in any frame of reference that is moving absolutely uniformly relative to the
everyday world, the Law of Inertia will still be correct. All frames of reference,
in which the Law of Inertia is correct, are called inertial frames. Frames of
reference, in which the Law of Inertia is not correct, are called non-
inertial frames.
Non-Inertial Reference Frames
If the motion of the train is not constant? Then the error introduced into
measurements of the moving object would be changing with time, which
would make a constant motion look non-uniform, and therefore accelerated,
which would suggest that a force is acting on the moving object, which is
obviously incorrect, if it is really moving with constant motion. In other
words, if your frame of reference has a non-uniform, or
accelerated motion, then the Law of Inertia will appear to
be wrong, and you must be in a non-inertial frame of
reference. So, although all frames of reference which are moving uniformly
relative to an inertial reference frame are also inertial reference frames, all
frames of reference which are moving non-uniformly (are accelerated) relative
to an inertial reference frame are non-inertial reference frames.

i. e. The frames with respect to which an unaccelerated body appears to be

unaccelerated are Inertial frames. In other words the frames which are at rest
or in uniform translatory motion relative to one another are inertial frames.

The frames relative to which an unaccelerated body appears accelerated are

called non inertial frames. In other words the accelerated frames are non-
inertial.

The Galilean Transformation

Suppose there are two reference frames S and S' such that the co-ordinate axes
are parallel (as in figure 1). In S, we have the co-ordinates (x, y, z, t) and in S' we
have the co-ordinates (x of any point. S' is moving with respect to S
with velocity (as measured in S) in the direction. The clocks in both
systems were synchronized at time and they run at the same rate.
*P

Figure 1: Reference frame S' moves with velocity v (in the x direction) relative to reference
frame S.
We have the intuitive relationships x = x' + vt' where, t = t'

………… (A)

This set of equations is known as the Galilean Transformation equations

relating the observations of position and time made by two observers in two
different inertial frames. They enable us to relate a measurement in one
inertial reference frame to another. For example, suppose we measure the
velocity of a vehicle moving along the -direction in system S, and we want to
know what would be the velocity of the vehicle in S'.

(1)

We have stated that we would like the laws of physics to be the same in all
inertial reference frames. Physically, we should be able to perform the same
experiments in different reference frames, and find always the same physical
laws. Mathematically, these laws are expressed by equations. So, we should be
able to “transform'' our equations from one inertial reference frame to the
other inertial reference frame, and always find the same answer.

**When the frame S' is moving along a straight line relative to first at any
arbitrary direction:

Then the relative velocity v = vxi + vyj + vzk ; vx, vy, vz are the components of
velocity v along x, y and z direction respectively.

At that time x' = x – vxt

 y' = y – vyt

z' = z - vzt ………… (2)

& t' = t

These are the Galilean transformation equations relating to observations of

position and time made by two observers in two different frames. The first
three equations may be represented in the form of a single equation:

r' = r – vt ………. (3)

where, r and r' are the position vectors relative to frames S and S'
respectively.

From equation (3) we can write u' = u – v ……….. (4)

Where u' is the velocity of the particle in S' and u is the velocity of the same in
S frame respectively. This equation (4) represents the Galilean transformation
of velocity of a particle.

To get acceleration of a particle under Galilean transformation we have to

differentiate (4) w. r. t. time gives a' = a, thus acceleration observed by
observer from different frames is same i. e. acceleration is invariant
under Galilean transformations but not the velocity. As mass is also
invariant so F = ma is invariant in all inertial frames.

On the other hand we may say that Newton's Second Law is valid in all inertial
frames i. e. it is invariant under Galilean transformation. i. e. same in two
different reference frames.

Indeed, it does not matter which inertial frame we observe from, we recover
the same Second Law of Motion each time. In the parlance of physics, we say
the Second Law of Motion is invariant under the Galilean Transformation.

Galilean transformations satisfy the principle of relativity according to laws of

Newtonian mechanics; but not the laws of propagation of light