Pavement Deterioration Modeling For Low

Journal Of The
Indian Roads Congress

Volume 73-4
CONTENTS
Paper No. 590 “Pavement Deterioration Modeling for Low Volume Roads” 67
Vandana Tare, H.S. Goliya, Atul Bhatore and Kundan Meshram
Paper No. 591 “Study on Rutting Characteristics of Bituminous Binders and Mixes” 82
I. Srinivasa Reddy and M. Amaranatha Reddy
Paper No. 592 “Consistency Evaluation of Horizontal Curves on Rural Highways” 91
A.U. Ravi Shankar, M.V.L.R. Anjaneyulu and N. J. Sowmya
Paper No. 593 “Crossing Behaviour of Pedestrians at Midblocks in Mixed Traffic” 100
Satish Chandra, Rajat Rastogi and Vivek R. Das
Paper No. 594 “Applying ‘Carbon Critical Design’ to Highway Design and Construction: 111
A Comparison of the Carbon Footprint of Concrete Viaduct and Reinforced Soil Flyovers”
Adrian Anderson and Anjay Kumar
Discussions held during 73rd Annual Session of IRC at Coimbatore on Papers 117
Published in Volume 73 Parts 1, 2 & 3
LIST OF ADVERTISERS
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Inside Back Cover - Advertisement Tariff
Outside Back Cover - Nehemiah Reinforced Soils (India)
Consulting Engineering Services (India) Pvt. Ltd. 154
TechFab India Industries Ltd. 155
Gloster Limited 156
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Paper No. 590
PAVEMENT DETERIORATION MODELING FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

Vandana Tare*, H.S. Goliya**, Atul Bhatore*** And Kundan Meshram***
Abstract
In the present work ten rural roads in three different districts namely Indore, Dhar and Jhabua are selected. The length of
each study section was fixed as 0.5 km. Each study stretch was further divided into 10 sections of 50 m each. Detailed
surveys have been carried out on all the ten road sections. Road Inventory Survey includes properties of bitumen and soil,
rainfall, temperature, properties of shoulders, sub base, base and type of adjoining land etc. In periodic survey, surface
drainage ratings, MERLIN roughness, DCP of shoulder and sub-grade moisture content have been observed. In Pavement
Condition Survey rut depth, longitudinal depression, cracking, patching and edge drop have been measured. In traffic survey
different types of vehicles including Commercial Vehicle Per day (CPVD) have been counted. Total six times data have been
collected from Apr. 07 to Nov. 09 that is before monsoon & after monsoon.
The main distresses observed on these roads were cracking, longitudinal depression, edge drop, rut depth and roughness.
Regression analysis has been done considering Pavement Condition Index (PCI) as dependent variable and time in year,
CVPD, annual rainfall & sub-grade moisture content (%) as independent variables. Combined regression equations for
three districts viz. Jhabua, Dhar and Indore have also been developed. Regression equations are also validated. Regression
equations developed between pavement condition index and time in year, commercial vehicles per day, annual rainfall and
sub-grade moisture content will give assessment about performance of pavement with time.
1 INTRODUCTION out on performance of rural roads. The construction

practices and traffic characteristics for rural roads are
Rural road connectivity is a key component of rural very much different from those of National Highways
development in India since it promotes access to and State Highways. The current study deals with
economic and social services and thereby increases the pavement performance study of rural roads under
agricultural income and productive employment PMGSY.
opportunities. As a result, it is also a key ingredient
in ensuring sustainable poverty reduction. Not 1.1 Objectives of the Study
withstanding the efforts made, over the years, both at
1. Selection of ten rural road sections in different
state and central levels, through different programs, regions based on rainfall, soil type and pavement
many of the habitations in the country are still not type.
connected by all weather roads. It is well known that
even where connectivity has been provided, the roads 2. Collection of periodic performance data- before
constructed are of such quality that they cannot always monsoon & after monsoon, and traffic data- in
be categorized as all weather roads. peak period & in normal period.
Various pavement performance studies have been 3. To identify various distresses of rural roads and
conducted in the past at the National Highway and State ascertain their causes from detailed distress
Highway levels, but very few studies have been carried survey, destructive and non-destructive tests.
* Professor
** Associate Professor } E-mail: vtare@rediffmail.com
CE & AMD S.G.S.I.T.S. Indore, E-mail: hsgoliya20@gmail.com
*** Ph.D Students, E-mail: bhatore_atul01@yahoo.co.in

Written comments on this Paper are invited and will be received upto 13th August, 2013
Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, April-June 2013

68 Tare, Goliya, Bhatore & Meshram on
4. To observe the trend of deterioration with Azm S. Al- Homound (1996) developed a model
time. to study the effect of pavement characteristics on
pavement condition. The procedure followed was
5. To establish regression equations between based on the concept of pavement condition index
various parameters such as – Pavement which depends on the severity and intensity of each
Condition Index, pavement age, commercial of the four distress parameters i.e. alligator cracking,
vehicles per day, annual rainfall & sub-grade depression, rutting and swelling. Jain et. al (2006)
moisture content. suggested optimal maintenance options for low
volume roads constructed under PMGSY and other
1.2 Selection of Test Sections similar schemes for different design traffic level. Rao
and Prasad (2006) suggested five types of maintenance
The test sections on ten various roads have been
activities which are in practice (1) Routine Maintenance,
selected, as given in Table 1, on the basis of variations
(2) Periodic Maintenance, (3) Emergent Maintenance,
in conditions of rainfall (Less than 500 mm/year, 500 to
(4) Rehabilitation and (5) Reconstruction and Up
1000 mm/year & More than 1000 mm/year), soil type
gradation. Udaykumar et al (2008) described a ranking
(Gravelly and Sandy, Silty, Black Cotton/Clayey &
technique for the prioritization of selected arterial and
Moorum) and Pavement surface (Bituminous surface
sub-arterial roads. Veeraragavan (2008) explained that
or cement concrete road).
appropriate and timely maintenance will extend the
2 Literature Survey service life of rural roads already constructed. Gupta
et. al (2008) explained that pavement performance
Nagaraj et. al (1995) developed a composite ranking model is an equation that relates some extrinsic ‘time
methodology for prioritization of highway pavement factor’ to a combination of intrinsic factors with
for maintenance work. Al-Suleiman (obeidat) and performance indicators.
Table 1 List of Selected Road Sections

Section ID District / Name of Road Section Length of Type of Road Type of Soil Rainfall (mm/
Block Chainage Road Year)
(km. to km.) (km)
R1 Jhabua Bokadia Approach kms Bituminous Sandy & Above 1000

(Katthiwara) Road 2.15 to 2.65 5.00 Gravelly
R2 Jhabua Akola kms Bituminous Silt + Fine Above 1000

(Katthiwara) Approach Road 3.40 to 3.90 8.65 sand
R3 Jhabua Akola kms Bituminous B.C. + Fine Above 1000

(Katthiwara) Approach Road 7.60 to 8.10 8.65 sand
R4 Jhabua Guda kms 3.00 Bituminous Moorum Above 1000

(Katthiwara) Approach Road 3.00 to 2.50
R5 Indore (Indore) Bilawali Approach kms 1.80 C. C. B.C. Soil 500 to 1000
Road 1.00 to 1.50
R6 Indore (Indore) Ahirkhedi Approach kms Bituminous B.C. Soil 500 to 1000
Road 0.35 to 0.85 2.00

Pavement Deterioration Modeling For Low Volume Roads 69
R7 Indore (Indore) Hansa khedi kms Bituminous Moorum 500 to 1000

Approach Road 3.00 to 2.50 3.30
R8 Indore (Indore) Hansa khedi kms Bituminous B.C. Soil 500 to 1000
Approach Road 1.50 to 2.00 3.30
R9 Dhar Manawar road to kms 5.50 Bituminous B.C. Soil Less than 500
(Dharampuri) Piplyakhoont 1.00 to 1.50
R10 Dhar Dhani to Lalbag kms Bituminous Moorum Less than 500
(Dharampuri) 1.00 to 1.50 2.00
3 Data Collection properties of hard shoulder material, properties of

existing sub grade material, properties of different
Under this study, following data has been collected WBM layers & properties of granular sub base (GSB)
from 10 different road sections: material etc. The grading of soil, sub-grade, GSB and
WBM have been done in laboratory. The results are
3.1 Road Inventory Data
found to be matching with standard grading. Plasticity
Road inventory data consists of thickness of various Index of binding material in case of WBM is found to
layers, general details of new road, binder properties, be less than 6. The data is summarized in Table 2.
Table 2 Road Inventory Data for all the Ten Road Sections
Name of Road R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8 R9 R10

Thickness
1. Crust Details (A) Old pavement composition
Sub-grade (mm) 150 - 100 - 100 - - - - -
Sub base GSB (mm) - 150 - - - - - - - -
Base Course (mm) 50 75 - - 75 - - - - -
Surface Course (mm) - - - - - - - - - -
Total Thickness (mm) 200 225 100 - 175 - - - - -
(B) New pavement composition
Sub-grade (mm) & 150 150 150 150 75 210 210 210 150 150
Sub base, GSB (mm)
Base Course (mm) 150 150 150 150 75 150 150 150 150 150
Surface Course (mm) 20 20 20 20 200 20 20 20 20 20
Total Thickness (mm) 300 300 300 300 350 360 360 360 300 300

2. General data
Type of adjoining land AL AL AL AL AL+BU Resi AL AL AL AL
New construction UG UG UG NC UG NC NC NC NC NC
(NC) or up- gradation
(UG)
Annual average 1081 1081 1081 1081 890 890 890 890 453 453
rainfall (mm/year)
Ave max and min 45/10 45/20 45/10 45/20 43/5 43/5 43/5 42/5 43/6 43/6
temp(oc)
Lowest /Highest Min 1.50/ 1.50/ 10.0/ 1.20/ 1.80/ 1.5/ NA NA 6.50/ 6.00/ N.A
depth of GWT from 5.50 5.50 6.00 6.00 12.0 NA NA
road surface (m)
Month/year of Jan. 04 Jan. 04 Jan. 04 Nov./ May 04 May 04 April 04 April 04 May 04 June 04
opening to traffic Dec. 05
3. Binder Properties
Grade of bitumen used 60/70 60/70 60/70 60/70 C.C. 60/70 60/70 60/70 60/70 60/70
(60/70)
Penetration in mm 68 67 68 62 N.A. 64 49.5 49.5 64 62
Softening point, 0C 55 54 52 55 N.A 55 62 62 55 56
AL – Agricultural Land; BU – Built Up; Resi – Residential;

Table 2: continued……….
CR STA CR STA CR STA CR STA CR STA CR STA CR STA CR STA CR STA CR STA
Embank- 0.5 0.6 - 0.8 0.5 0.8 - 0.7 NA 0.4 NA 0.6 1 0.8 0.5 0.5 NA 1 NA 0.5
ment (m)
Details of New Road
Side 1.5:1 2:1 1.5:1 1.9:1 1.5:1 1.9:1 1.2:1 1.2:1 1.2:1 1.2:1 NA 1.7:1 1.2:1 1.2:1 1.2:1 1.2:1 NA 1.2:1 1.2:1 1.2:1
Slopes
Carriage 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8
way (m)
Shoulder 1.9 1.5 1.9 1.8 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.1 1.3 1.9 1.2 1.9 2 1.9 2 1.5 1.9 1.9 2
width (m)
Liquid 22 22 24 25 20 21 23 24 22 24 24 24 26 26 30 35 28 27 27 26
Properties of shoulder material
limit %
Plasticity 6 6.4 5.6 6 5.4 6 4.5 6 5.5 5 11.5 6.5 4 7 2.8 3.4 5.2 5.6 4.2 5
Index
Field dry 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.8 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.9 2.2 2 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.9 2 1.9
density
(gm/cc)
4 days 13 13 14 15 14 13 14 13 14 13 14 15 12 12 12 14 11 14 12 15
Soaked
CBR (%)

40 mm 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 95 100 96 100 96 100 97 100 100 100 94 98
25 mm 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 81 100 84 100 83 100 92 100 94 100 88 80
Properties of the existing sub-grade soil
Sieve Analysis (% of passing by wt.)
20 mm 93 100 95 100 97 100 95 95 75 100 78 100 77 68 78 100 71 100 72 66
10 mm 83 73 85 100 87 100 83 83 72 100 73 100 74 58 72 100 55 100 71 60
4.75 mm 71 71 70 95 80 100 69 69 62 100 64 100 65 54 66 100 30 100 69 55
2.36 mm 46 35 52 90 67 92 48 48 54 94 55 96 55 42 55 92 22 95 51 39
1.18 mm 37 33 37 79 43 84 31 31 46 91 46 85 47 36 45 84 20 90 48 28
0.6 mm 24 16 26 71 25 73 20 20 34 88 34 73 33 27 35 51 17 84 35 22
0.425 mm 13 10 16 58 14 64 14 14 25 28 25 60 24 25 26 23 10 74 26 12
0.075 mm 5 5 9 3 8 2 7 4 18 5 4 56 5 4 19 5 5 3 11 1
LL % 35 20 30 33 35 34 30 31 30 35 29 35 34 30 32 32 31 35 35 30
PI 18 8 16 18 16 15 13 13 12 15 12 16 14 15 16 14 12 17 18 13
Properties of existing Sub-grade soil
OMC (%) 12 10 10 15 10 17 10 13 18 21 18 18 18 14 18 19 19 19 13 12
MDD (gm/cc) 2.1 2.0 1.6 1.57 1.4 1.42 1.9 1.87 1.3 1.38 1.9 1.41 1.8 1.89 1.8 1.40 2 1.38 1.8 1.92
Un soaked 10 14 9.5 10 10 12 14 12 13 10 9.3 11 9.5 13 11 9.6 10 9.2 8.6 15

CBR (%)
4 days soaked 8.6 12 7.9 8.5 7.9 8.9 9.3 8.7 9.1 8.3 10 8.5 8 10.6 8.5 8 11 7.8 7.5 10.8
CBR (%)
Field dry 2 1.95 1.56 1.53 1.36 1.37 1.8 1.74 1.26 1.34 1.8 1.36 1.75 1.83 1.75 1.36 1.95 1.34 1.75 1.87
density (gm/cc)
125 mm 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
90 mm 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
63 mm 100 100 95 100 90 100 94 100 98 100 98 100 97 100 98 100 98 100 93 100
Details of WBM II layers
53 mm 30 32 31 39 21 28 28 38 54 100 53 33 53 33 53 35 58 42 57 55
Sieve analysis
45 mm 9 10 12 8 10 7 13 6 8 35 8 11 7 11 10 12 9 10 7 8
22.4 mm 2 3 2 3 6 1 2 1 5 7 2 0.6 2.52 0.6 2.2 2 3 5 3 0.5
13.2 mm - 2 - 1.8 - 0.6 - 0.3 - .8 - 0.3 - 0.3 - 1.3 - 4 - 0.3
11.2 mm - 0.8 - 0 - 0.3 - 0.1 - 0.6 - 0.2 - 1.4 - 1.1 - 2 - 1
P.I. of Binding 5 5 4 5 3 3 5 5 - - 6 6 5 5 5.4 5.4 5 5 5 4

mat

125 mm 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 - - 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
90 mm 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 - - 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
63 mm 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 - - 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Details of WBM III layer
Sieve Analysis
53 mm 100 100 96 100 96 100 97 100 - - 98 100 100 100 100 100 98 98 97 100
45 mm 80 76 65 70 72 65 62 62 - - 80 80 33 100 31 88 69 70 72 68
22.4 mm 6 4 6 3 6 3 7 3.5 - - 5 5 5 80 3 3 4 5 6 6
13.2 mm 2 1 0 1 - 0.9 - 0.8 - - 2 2 2 5 - 0.9 - 0.9 - 0.8
11.2 mm 1 1 1.7 1 1 0.9 1 0.8 - - 1 0.7 1 2 2.5 0.9 1.5 0.5 1.7 0.1
P.I. of Binding 5 5 4.1 4 3.2 2.7 5.3 5.3 - - 6 6 5 6.7 5 6.8 5.5 5 5 4.5
mat
75 mm 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
53 mm 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
26.5 mm 84 95 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
9.5 mm 84 81 92 70 91 72 94 68 86 90 86 88 86 90 86 67 69 90 80 88
Sieve Analysis
4.75 mm 78 65 78 65 79 58 80 57 67 60 67 75 67 72 67 60 59 69 78 61
Details of Sub base layer
2.36 mm 65 34 51 52 64 46 54 49 54 48 54 55 53 47 54 49 49 44 52 56
0.425 mm 22 12 22 22 24 27 22 33 26 23 26 29 26 22 26 34 29 29 22 34
0.075 mm 4.5 2 4.2 4.2 5.9 4 4 3 2 6 3.4 7 5.4 2.5 5.4 2 3.6 2.9 3.6 4.1
P.I. of Binding 5.7 4.2 4.9 4.9 4.5 5.2 5.1 5.1 5.5 5.5 NA 6 5.4 5.3 5.1 4 4.5 5.7 4.9 7
mat
FDD (gm/cc) 2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 1.9 1.9 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.3 2.2 2.2
Soaked CBR 24 22 24 23 24 28 24 24 23 23 22 24 23 28 22 33 24 24 24 23
Rating of Surface POOR POOR POOR POOR POOR FAIR FAIR FAIR FAIR GOOD
Drainage
CR – Construction Record; STA – State Technical Agency; NA – Not Available

3.2 General Details surface drainage arrangement, MERLIN roughness

value in mm & DCP value etc. The data have been taken
General details of all the roads have been taken which 6 times that is before monsoon (BM) & after monsoon
consist of condition of shoulders, effectiveness of (AM) during the period from April 07 to Nov.-09.
Table 3 Periodical Data (General Details)

Chainage of Test 2.15 to 3.40 to 7.60 to 2.50 to 1.00 to 0.35 to 3.00 to 1.50 to 1.00 to 1.00 to
Section (in km) 2.65 3.90 8.10 3.00 1.50 0.85 2.50 2.00 1.50 1.50
Length of Road 5 8.65 8.65 3 1.8 2 3.3 3.3 5.5 2

(Km)
Type of Surface Bitu Bitu Bitu Bitu CC Bitu Bitu Bitu Bitu Bitu
G* G G G G G G G G G Apr-07
F* G G F F F G G G G Jan-08
Condition of F G G F F F G G F G Jun-08
Shoulder (Good /
Fair / Poor) F G G F F F G G F G Nov-08
F F G F F F G G F G May-09
F F F F F F G G F G Nov-09
G F G G F F G G G G
G G G F F F G G G G
Effectiveness of
surface drainage G G G F F F G G G G
arrangement (Good/ F F G F F F G G F G
Fair / Poor)
F F G F F F G F F G
F F F F F F G F F G
LS* 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250
RS* 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250
Av.* 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250
LS 250 280 250 270 265 255 250 250 250 250
RS 250 250 250 265 260 260 250 250 250 250
MERLIN
roughness Av. 250 265 250 268 263 258 250 250 250 250
value, in
mm. LS 250 285 250 270 275 275 255 255 250 250
RS 250 260 250 285 265 275 255 250 250 250
Av. 250 273 250 278 270 275 255 253 250 250
LS 260 335 255 345 290 285 255 255 250 250
RS 255 270 260 315 290 280 255 250 250 250
Av. 258 303 258 330 290 283 255 253 250 250

LS 270 410 290 345 355 290 260 260 270 260
RS 265 270 295 325 325 285 260 255 265 260
Av. 268 340 293 335 340 288 260 255 268 260
LS 270 420 300 350 355 295 265 265 270 260
RS 274 300 306 340 328 290 260 265 270 260
Av. 272 360 303 345 342 293 263 265 270 260
DCP Value L1* 4.5 4 4 6 NA 5 4 2 2 3
of Shoulder
L2* 5 4 6 5 NA 5 4 3 2 3
r (mm /
blow) Av.* 4.5 6 5 5.5 NA 5 4 2.5 2 3
L1 5 5 5 7 NA 5 4 4 4 3
L2 6 6 4 6 NA 5 4 3 4 4
Av. 5.5 5.5 4.5 6.5 NA 5 4 3.5 4 3.5
L1 6 6 5 7 NA 5 4 4 4 3
L2 5 6 5 7 NA 5 5 4 4 4
Av. 5.5 6 5 7 NA 5 4.5 4 4 3.5
L1 6 6 5 8 NA 5 4 4 4 4
L2 6 7 5 9 NA 4 4 4 4 4
Av. 6 6.5 5 8.5 NA 4.5 4 4 4 4
L1 6 6 5 8 NA 5 4 4 4 4
L2 6 7 5 9 NA 4 4 4 4 4
Av. 6 6.5 5 8.5 NA 4.5 4 4 4 4
L1 6.5 6 5 8 NA 5 4 4 4 4
L2 6.5 7 6 9 NA 5 4 4 4 4
Av. 6.5 6.5 5.5 8.5 NA 5 4 4 4 4
3.3 Pavement Condition Survey cracking of surface layer, pot holes, ravelling & edge
drop. The data has been taken 6 times before monsoon
Pavement Condition Survey of all the roads has also been & after monsoon and has been summarized in
done which consist of measuring rutting, longitudinal Table 4.
depression* in the central portion of each subsection,
Table 4 Pavement Condition Survey

Rutting 12.1 12.6 13.1 14.1 NIL 16.1 16.4 17.5 15 12.5 Apr-07
measured (mm) 13.8 14 13.9 14.9 NIL 17.3 16.4 18.7 15.6 13.9 Jan-08
15.8 15.6 15.8 16.3 NIL 20 18.9 23.2 19.6 17.7 Jun-08
17.8 17.1 17.1 17.5 NIL 21.9 20.1 25.8 21.7 19.9 Nov-08
19.7 18.7 18.6 18.9 NIL 23.9 25.4 28.4 24.3 22.5 May-09
20.2 20 19.8 21.5 NIL 24.4 26 29.1 25 24.6 Nov-09

10 10 10 10 NIL 11.7 13.2 11.7 10 10.8

Longitudinal 11 10.6 10.3 10.6 NIL 12.9 13.2 13.2 11.3 11.7
Depression
in the central 12.6 12.2 12.4 12.4 NIL 14.9 14.4 16.4 13.3 14.1
portion of each 14.2 13.3 13.8 13.5 NIL 16.8 15.7 19.2 16.1 15.5
subsection
(mm) 15.6 14.5 14.9 15 NIL 19.3 17.2 23.5 17.3 17.2
16 14.8 15.2 15.3 NIL 20 18.1 23.7 17.9 18
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.3 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2
Cracking of
Surface layer 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.2
(%) 0.8 0.8 0.5 0.8 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.2
1 0.8 0.5 0.9 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.2
1 0.9 0.5 1 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1
Pot Holes (%) 0.3 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.2
0.4 0.5 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.5 0.1 0.2
0.4 0.7 0.1 0.5 0.6 0.1 0.1 0.7 0.1 0.2
0.4 0.9 0.2 0.5 0.6 0.2 0.1 0.7 0.1 0.2
Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil
Ravelling (%)
Nil 1 Nil 1.5 1 2 Nil Nil Nil Nil
Nil 1.7 Nil 2 2 2 Nil Nil Nil Nil
Nil 1.8 1.1 2 2.5 2 Nil Nil Nil Nil
Patching (%)
30.2 28.7 26.9 22.3 23.7 19.1 20.8 26.3 24.7 24.2
30.2 28.8 27.1 22.4 23.7 19.1 20.8 26.3 24.7 24.2
Edge Drop 32.7 30.8 29.5 24.7 27.2 19.8 24.6 30.3 27.8 26.5
(mm) 33.8 32.4 30.7 25.6 28.8 27.3 30.2 32.4 30.3 27.5
34.9 33.7 32.4 26.8 30.6 34.8 32.2 34.6 31.9 29.5
35.0 33.9 32.5 27.1 30.8 35.0 32.2 34.7 33.1 30.3
*see Appendix- I

3.4 Traffic Data (2-Axle & 3-Axle), Jeeps/ Cars/Vans, Mini Truck/
Minibus, Tractor-trailer, bicycle/rickshaw & animal
Traffic data of all the roads has been taken which consist drawn carts. The data has been taken at 6 times that
of average of 3 days traffic for different vehicle class is peak period** (P) & in normal period*** (N), and is
viz. Two-Wheelers, Three-Wheelers, Buses, Trucks presented in Table 5.
Table 5 Traffic Data

57 36 52 12 112 66 53 53 43 44 Apr-07
62 53 81 22 129 100 75 86 44 55 Jan-08

Commercial 67 61 87 45 134 123 85 90 49 65 Jun-08
Vehicle per day
(CVPD) 68 69 94 67 113 147 95 96 58 65 Nov-08
70 75 99 69 120 139 102 106 62 77 May-09
75 77 101 73 132 144 115 132 77 79 Nov-09

(** & *** see Appendix- I)
4 Analysis of Data vii) Edge drop (mm).
The statistical analysis of the data, as presented in 4.2 Determination of Weightages

Table 2 to Table 5 has been done. Weightages have been
given to various parameters related to the pavements Weightages given to various parameters, as considered
and shoulders. Pavement Condition Index (PCI) has in Para 4.1, are follows:
been calculated based on Weightages. The relation
has been developed between PCI values with CVPD, 1. For parameters of condition of shoulder and
annual rainfall, moisture content and time elapsed. Effectiveness of surface drainage arrangement,
The methodology for statistical analysis is given in Weightages have been given on the basis of
subsequent sub-sections. Good, Fair & Poor condition (3 for Good, 2 for
Fair and 1 for Poor).
4.1 Parameters Considered for Determination 2. For parameters of MERLIN roughness value,
of Pavement Condition Index (Pci)
DCP value, Rutting, Longitudinal depression &
Following parameters have been considered for Edge drop, Weightages have been given on the
determining PCI values: basis of Min. & Max. Values:
i) For Roughness Value: Min. -250 mm & Max.
i) Condition of shoulder [Good/Fair/Poor; -360 mm (3-1)
weightage of 3, 2 &1]
ii) For DCP Value of shoulder: Min. -2 mm &
ii) Effectiveness of surface drainage arrangement
Max. -10 mm (3-1)
[Good/Fair/Poor; weightage of 3, 2 &1]
iii) For Rutting: Min. -12 mm & Max. -35 mm
iii) MERLIN roughness value (mm).
(3-1)
iv) DCP Value of shoulder layer (mm/blow)
iv) For Longitudinal Depression: Min. -10 mm &
v) Rutting (mm) Max. -35 mm (3-1)
vi) Longitudinal Depression in the central portion v) For Edge Drop Value: Min. -19 mm & Max.
of each subsection (mm) -50 mm (3-1)

Table 6 Weightages for Various Parameters for All the Road Section
V** W* V W V W V W V W V W V W V W V W V W
G 3 G 3 G 3 G 3 G 3 G 3 G 3 G 3 G 3 G 3 Apr-07
F 2 G 3 G 3 F 2 F 2 F 2 G 3 G 3 G 3 G 3 Jan-08
Condition
F 2 G 3 G 3 F 2 F 2 F 2 G 3 G 3 F 2 G 3 Jun-08
of Shoulder
(Good / Fair / F 2 G 3 G 3 F 2 F 2 F 2 G 3 G 3 F 2 G 3 Nov-08
Poor)
F 2 F 2 G 3 F 2 F 2 F 2 G 3 G 3 F 2 G 3 May-09
F 2 F 2 F 2 F 2 F 2 F 2 G 3 G 3 F 2 G 3 Nov-09
G 3 G 3 G 3 G 3 F 2 F 2 G 3 G 3 G 3 G 3
Effectiveness G 3 G 3 G 3 F 2 F 2 F 2 G 3 G 3 G 3 G 3
of surface
G 3 G 3 G 3 F 2 F 2 F 2 G 3 G 3 G 3 G 3
drainage
arrangement
F 2 F 2 G 3 F 2 F 2 F 2 G 3 G 3 F 2 G 3
(Good / Fair /
Poor) F 2 F 2 G 3 F 2 F 2 F 2 G 3 F 2 F 2 G 3
F 2 F 2 F 2 F 2 F 2 F 2 G 3 F 2 F 2 G 3
250 3 250 3 250 3 250 3 250 3 250 3 250 3 250 3 250 3 250 3
250 3 265 2.8 250 3 268 2.6 263 2.8 258 2.8 250 3 250 3 250 3 250 3
MERLIN Ave. 250 3 273 2.5 250 3 278 2.4 270 2.6 275 2.5 255 2.7 253 3 250 3 250 3
Roughness
(mm) 258 2.8 303 2 258 2.8 330 1.4 290 2.2 283 2.4 255 2.7 253 3 250 3 250 3
268 2.6 340 1.2 293 2.2 335 1.2 340 1.2 288 2.2 260 2.8 255 2.7 268 2.6 260 2.8
272 2.5 360 1 303 2 345 1.1 342 1.2 293 2.2 263 2.8 265 2.8 270 2.6 260 2.8
4.5 2 4 2.1 5 1.9 5.5 1.8 0.5 3 5 1.9 4 2.1 2.5 2.5 2 2.6 3 2.4
5.5 1.8 5.5 1.8 4.5 2 6.5 1.5 0.55 3 5 1.9 4 2.1 3.5 2.2 4 2.1 3.5 2.2
Ave. DCP
5.5 1.8 6 1.6 5 1.9 7 1.4 0.6 3 5 1.9 4.5 2 4 2.1 4 2.1 3.5 2.2
Value of
shoulder
6 1.6 6.5 1.5 5 1.9 8.5 1 0.67 3 4.5 2 4 2.1 4 2.1 4 2.1 4 2.1
(mm / blow)
6 1.6 6.5 1.5 5 1.9 8.5 1 0.7 3 4.5 2 4 2.1 4 2.1 4 2.1 4 2.1
6.5 1.5 6.5 1.5 5.5 1.8 8.5 1 0.7 3 5 1.9 4 2.1 4 2.1 4 2.1 4 2.1
12 3 13 2.9 13 2.9 14 2.8 14 2.8 16 2.6 16 2.6 18 2.4 15 2.7 13 2.9
14 2.8 14 2.8 14 2.8 15 2.7 15 2.7 17 2.5 16 2.6 19 2.3 16 2.6 14 2.8
16 2.6 16 2.6 16 2.6 16 2.6 18 2.4 20 2.2 19 2.3 23 1.9 20 2.2 18 2.4
Rutting
(mm) 18 2.4 17 2.5 17 2.5 18 2.4 19 2.3 22 2 20 2.2 26 1.6 22 2 20 2.2
20 2.2 19 2.3 19 2.3 19 2.3 21 2.1 24 1.8 25 1.7 28 1.4 24 1.8 23 1.9
20 2.2 20 2.2 20 2.2 22 2 22 2 24 1.8 26 1.6 29 1.3 25 1.7 25 1.7

10 1 10 1 10 1 10 1 11 1.1 12 1.2 13 1.3 12 1.2 10 1 11 1.1

Longitudinal 11 1.1 11 1.1 10 1 11 1.1 13 1.3 13 1.3 13 1.3 13 1.3 11 1.1 12 1.2
Depression
in the central 13 1.3 12 1.2 12 1.2 12 1.2 14 1.4 15 1.5 14 1.4 16 1.6 13 1.3 14 1.4
portion of each 14 1.4 13 1.3 14 1.4 14 1.4 16 1.6 17 1.7 16 1.6 19 1.9 16 1.6 16 1.6
sub-section
(mm) 16 1.6 15 1.5 15 1.5 15 1.5 17 1.7 19 1.9 17 1.7 24 2.4 17 1.7 17 1.7
16 1.6 15 1.5 15 1.5 15 1.5 18 1.8 20 2 18 1.8 24 2.4 18 1.8 18 1.8
30 1.9 29 2 27 2.2 22 2.7 24 2.4 19 3 21 2.8 26 2.3 25 2.4 24 2.4
30 1.9 29 2 27 2.2 22 2.7 24 2.4 19 3 21 2.8 26 2.3 25 2.4 24 2.4
Edge Drop 33 1.6 31 1.8 30 1.9 25 2.4 27 2.2 20 2.9 25 2.4 30 1.9 28 2.1 27 2.2
(mm) 34 1.5 32 1.7 31 1.8 26 2.3 29 2 27 2.2 30 1.9 32 1.7 30 1.9 28 2.1
35 1.4 34 1.5 32 1.7 27 2.2 31 1.8 35 1.4 32 1.7 35 1.4 32 1.7 30 1.9
35 1.4 34 1.5 33 1.6 27 2.2 31 1.8 35 1.4 32 1.7 35 1.4 33 1.6 30 1.9
V –Value, W-Weightage
4.3 Determination of Pci Value in section 4.1 for all the road sections is presented in
Table 7 as PCI value:
Sum of weightages for all the parameters mentioned
Table 7 Value of PCI for All the Road Sections
Name of R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8 R9 R10
Road
16.9 16.5 17 17.3 17.3 16.7 17.8 17.4 17.7 17.8 Apr-07
Pavement 15.6 16.5 17 14.6 16.2 15.5 17.8 17.1 17.2 17.2 Jan-08
condition 15.3 15.7 16.6 14 15.6 15 16.8 16.5 15.7 17.2 Jun-08
Index (PCI
13.7 14.2 16.4 12.5 15.1 15 16.5 16.3 14.6 17 Nov-08
value)
13.4 12 15.6 12.2 13.8 13.3 16 15 13.9 16.4 May-09
13.2 11.7 13.1 11.8 13.8 13.3 16 15 13.8 16.3 Nov-09
4.4 Regression Analysis independent variables. Table 8 gives data regarding

PCI, time in year, CVPD, annual rainfall & sub-
Regression analysis has been done considering PCI grade moisture content (%) for various roads used for
as dependent variable and time in year, CVPD, regression analysis.
annual rainfall & sub-grade moisture content (%) as
Table 8 PCI, Time in Year, CVPD, Annual Rainfall & Sub-Grade Moisture Content for Various Roads
Name R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8 R9 R10
of Road
PCI 16.9 16.5 17 17.3 17.3 16.7 17.8 17.4 17.7 17.8
15.6 16.5 17 14.6 16.2 15.5 17.8 17.1 17.2 17.2
15.3 15.7 16.6 14 15.6 15 16.8 16.5 15.7 17.2
13.7 14.2 16.4 12.5 15.1 15 16.5 16.3 14.6 17
13.4 12 15.6 12.2 13.8 13.3 16 15 13.9 16.4
13.2 11.7 13.1 11.8 13.8 13.3 16 15 13.8 16.3

Time 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4
year 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3
1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8
2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3
2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9
3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5
CVPD 57 36 52 12 112 66 53 53 43 44
62 53 81 22 129 100 75 86 44 55
67 61 87 45 134 123 85 90 49 65
68 69 94 67 209 147 95 96 58 65
70 75 99 69 221 139 102 106 62 77
75 77 101 73 232 144 115 132 77 79
Annual 1053 1053 1053 1053 912 912 912 912 480 480
rainfall 1053 1053 1053 1053 912 912 912 912 480 480
1100 1100 1100 1100 856 856 856 856 416 416
1100 1100 1100 1100 856 856 856 856 416 416
1090 1090 1090 1090 878 878 878 878 463 463
1090 1090 1090 1090 878 878 878 878 463 463
Sub- 2 2.5 3 3 NA 3 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
grade 3 3 3 3.5 NA 3.5 2 2 3 2
moisture 3 2.5 3 3.5 NA 3.5 2 2.5 3 2.5
content
4 4 2 6 NA 5 2 2 3.5 2.5
4 4 2 6 NA 5 2 2 3.5 2.5
4 4 2 6 NA 5 2 2 3.5 2.5
Regression equations have been developed based on Table 9. It is found that good correlations exist between
the data given in Table 8 and there are tabulated in dependent and independent variables.
Table 9 Regression Equations with their Coefficient of Correlation for all the Road Sections
Name of Road Equation Coefficient of Correlation
R1 Y = 19.825-1.364X1+0.148X2-0.007X3-0.931X4 0.908
R2 Y = 22.064-3.150X1+1.444X2-0.006X3-0.944X4 0.967
R3 Y = 8.910-3.663X1+0.112X2+0.023X3-1.007X4 0.911
R4 Y = 327.253-6.770X1+0.688X2-0.284X3-5.342X4 0.827
R5 Y = 21.808-1.165X1-0.004X2+0.003X3 0.909
R6 Y = 22.143-1.399X1-0.001X2-0.006X3+0.284X4 0.874
R7 Y = 3.901-3.063X1+0.136X2+0.016X3+0.465X4 0.898
R8 Y = 28.89-2.003X1+0.037X2-0.011X3-0.802X4 0.895
R9 Y = 17.215-0.791X1+0.027X2+0.009X3-0.864X4 0.878
R10 Y = 19.983-0.239X1-0.024X2-0.003X3+0.226X4 0.887
Y=PCI, X1= Time in year, X2=CVPD, X3= Annual Rainfall (mm), X4= sub-grade Moisture content

Combined Regression Equations between PCI (which includes condition of shoulder,

effectiveness of surface drainage, MERLIN roughness,
The Combined regression equations, separately for DCP value of shoulder, rutting, longitudinal depression
each district namely Jhabua, Indore and Dhar have and edge drop) and Time in year, CVPD, annual rainfall
also been developed and these are given in Table 10, and sub-grade moisture content.
Table 10 Combined Regression Equations for Three Districts
Name of District Equation Coefficient of Correlation
Jhabua Y = 22.675-1.546X1+0.026X2-0.004X3-0.514X4 0.939

Indore Y = 23.292-0.713X1-0.016X2-0.005X3+0.120X4 0.857
Dhar Y = 23.206-0.652X1+0.004X2-0.001X3-1.879X4 0.941
5 CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSIONS Appendix- I
Based on the study conducted following conclusions Longitudinal Depression* - Longitudinal Depression
have been drawn: is the longitudinal unevenness measured along the
wheel path. Formation of Longitudinal depression can
1. The traffic observed on selected roads is very be attributed to poor compaction and uneven settlement
low and has least influence on the performance in any of the layers of the pavement. Longitudinal
of rural roads. Hence the causes for the distress depressions also lead to intermittent loss of contact
of these rural can be identified as drainage and between tyres and pavement, reducing the effectiveness
construction quality. of steering and braking. Longitudinal depressions were
measured at the same locations where rutting was
2. The main distresses identified in the rural
measured i.e. in the centre of each subsection with the
roads are Rutting, Edge drop, Cracking and
same straight edge placed in longitudinal direction,
Roughness. along both the wheel paths.
3. Ravelling was found to be absent on the
selected sections. A few numbers of potholes Peak Period**: It means peak harvesting season
are observed on some places of the road sections (March-April & Oct.-Nov.).
due to poor drainage and construction quality.
Normal Period***: It means lean harvesting season
4. Regression equations developed between (remaining months of the year).
Pavement condition Index (which includes
condition of shoulder, surface drainage, References
MERLIN roughness, DCP value of shoulder,
rutting, longitudinal depression & edge drop) 1. Al-Suleiman (obeidat) and Azm. S Al-
and time elapsed, commercial vehicles per day, Homound, “A Model for Effect of Pavement
annual rainfall and sub-grade moisture content Characteristics on Pavement Condition”,
will give better idea about performance of Journal of Indian Roads Congress, Vol. 57-1,
pavement with time. September 1996.
2. Gupta, Ankit, Rastogi, Rajat and Kumar, Praveen

6 Acknowledgement “Flexible Pavement Performance Models: A
Review”, Journal of Indian Roads Congress (2008).
Authors are thankful to NRRDA, New Delhi, for
sponsoring the research project “Rural Road Pavement 3. Jain, S.S., Parida, M. and Thube D.T., “Optimal
Performance Study” to the institute. Strategies for Maintenance of Rural Roads in

Uttaranchal” IRC International Seminar on “Performance Based Rural Roads Maintenance”

innovations in construction and maintenance IRC International Seminar on innovations
of Flexible pavements, Agra, 2-4, sept. 2006, in construction and maintenance of Flexible
pp. 4-45 to 4-56. pavements, Agra, 2-4, Sept. 2006, pp. 4-67 to
4-74.
4. Nagaraja, M., Balabhaskara, Reddy, B.,
Veeraragavan A., and Krishnamurthi 6. Udaykumar, L., Vivian Robert, R. and Amarnath
“Development of Composite Ranking M.S., “Ranking Technique for Prioritization of
Methodology for Prioritization of Highway Arterial and Sub Arterial Roads for Maintenance
Management” Journal of Indian Roads Congress,
Pavement for Maintenance Work –A Case
Nov. 2008, pp. 41 -52.
Study” Proceedings of the National Seminar
on Emerging Trends in Highway Engineering, 7. Veeraragavan, A., “Maintenance and Preservation
Bangalore, March 1995. of Rural Road Infrastructure Issues and Concerns”
in Monthly magazine GRAMEEN SAMPARK,
5. Rao, R., Venkateswara and Prasad, C.S.R.K. Nov. 2008, pp. 4-9.
The views expressed in the paper are personal views of the Authors. For any query, the author may be contacted at E-mail: vtare@rediffmail.com

Paper No. 591
STUDY ON RUTTING CHARACTERISTICS OF BITUMINOUS

BINDERS AND MIXES
I. Srinivasa Reddy* and M. Amaranatha Reddy**
Abstract
This paper presents a study carried out on rutting characteristics of binders and mixes typically used to construct wearing and surface courses of high
volume roads in India. Also correlations developed between rutting parameters of the binders and rut depth measured from the mixes. Three binders,
one modified and other two normal binders and two aggregate gradations and bituminous concrete (BC) and dense bituminous macadam (DBM) were
considered in the study. Binder rutting parameters such as G*/sinδ and zero shear viscosity (ZSV) were measured using Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR)
and rutting resistance of bituminous mixes was evaluated by an indigenously developed wheel tracking tester, IIT KGP Rut Tester. From the test results, it
was observed that parameters of binders selected in the study were found to be useful in identifying the rutting resistance of binders. Also mixes prepared
with modified binder and stiffer normal binder were found to be marginally different in offering rutting resistance and dense graded mixes showed improved
resistance to rutting for all types of binders. Good correlations were also obtained for binder and mix rutting parameters considered in the present study.
1 Introduction identified performance related parameters and included

in the specifications of the binders and mixes so as to
In recent years, the amount and severity of rutting on select proper binder and mix for improved performance
bituminous pavements in India has been increasing (SP-1, 1996). Binder parameters such as zero shear
due to ever increasing traffic volumes, overloading viscosity and G*/sind parameters have been used to
and high summer temperatures. Pavements constructed explain the rutting resistance of binder and rut depth
with thick bituminous layers are highly susceptible to evaluated in the wheel track tester is used to judge the
premature rutting within the bituminous layers, when suitability of mix in resisting rutting . However such
subjected to high tire pressures and heavy axle loads performance indicators of binders and mixes are yet to
especially at high pavement temperatures. In an effort be included in Indian binders and mix specifications
to provide better performing pavements in terms of and examined.
rutting, coarse aggregate fraction and shape of aggregate
as well as the quality of binder that includes modified In order to identify appropriate binder parameter
binders place a significant role. However, advantage of that can address rutting potential of the binder and
mixes prepared with modified binders is still not fully mixes, a laboratory study on rutting parameters of the
established. The test procedures and specifications for binders and mixes was carried out and test results of
bituminous binders should be adequate to address the these are presented in this paper. Two conventional
performance of pavements in terms of fatigue cracking viscosity grade binders VG 30 and VG 40 (IS: 73,
and rutting characteristics (Zaniewski and Pumphrey, 2006), one polymer modified binder (PMB 40) and
2004). In order to meet these requirements, parameters two aggregate gradations of bituminous concrete
of the binders and mixes that have direct relation with (BC), dense bituminous macadam (DBM) gradations
performance are being introduced gradually in terms of as per ministry of road transport and highways
specifications. However there is still wide gap between (MoRTH, 2001) guidelines were considered for the
the specification of mixes and binders considered to study. Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR) was use to
that of the field performance. On the other hand, some characterize binder rutting parameters such as G*/
of the mix designs and binder selection criteria have sind and zero shear viscosity (SP-1, 1996, Marasteanu
* Professor and Head of the Civil Engineering, NBKR Institute of Technology Vidyanagar, A.P, E-mail: inthareddy@gmail.com
** Associate Professor, Civil Engineering Department, IIT Kharagpur, Kharagpur, E-mail: manreddy@iitkgp.ac.in

Study on Rutting Characteristics of Bituminous Binders And Mixes 83
et al., 2005). Although multiple stress creep recovery Shenoy et al, 2003; Sherwood et al, 1998; Stuart
test (MSCRT) has been recommended to characterize et al. 2000; Sybilski, 1996; Zeng and Huang, 2006).
modified binders in the recent times, other two rutting Dynamic shear rheometer (DSR) has been popularly
parameters (G*/sind and zero shear viscosity) were used to characterize the binder. Similarly number
only considered as the modified binders in India are of wheel tracking testers has been used all over the
different from elsewhere. Also not much work has been world to evaluate the rutting potential of bituminous
reported on these two binder rheological parameters on mixes. These testers differ in the type of wheel, type
rutting performance. Therefore this study is to examine of test sample and number of wheel passes. Asphalt
these rheological parameters and their relation with Pavement Analyzer (APA), Hamburg wheel tracking
mix performance in rutting. device (HWTD, Georgia loaded wheel tester (GLWT),
French pavement rut tester (FPRT) and French rutting
In order to evaluate the rutting resistance of bituminous tester is also known as Laboratoire Central des Ponts et
mixes, indigenously developed wheel tracking tester, Chaussees (LCPC) wheel tracker are some of the wheel
IIT KGP Rut Tester was used. . Based on the experimental tracking devices popularly used.
results, correlations were developed between rutting
parameters of binders and the corresponding mix Bhasin et al. (2005) observed good correlations for
rutting to understand the role of binder and aggregate G*/ sind values of the binders with the APA and HWTD
gradation in resisting the permanent deformation. rut depths. D’Angelo and Dongre (2004) reported that
small changes in the G*/sind values of the polymer
2 STUDIES ON RUTTING PARAMETERS modified binders results in large changes in the APA
OF BINDERS AND BITUMINOUS rutting values. Youtcheff et al. (2004) reported that
MIXES the mixture rutting measured in LCPC wheel tracking
test has good correlation with binder G*/sind values.
Number of researchers used G*/sind as rutting Shenoy et al. (2003) reported that the average rut
parameters of binders (SP-1, 1996, Zaniewski and depth after 6,000 wheel passes of the FPRT showed
Pumphrey, 2004). However Bahia et al. (2001) and poor correlation with the G*/sind values. Creep slope
Leahy et al. (1994) observed that the parameter from the HWTD also was poorly correlated with the
G*/sind did not accurately predict the rutting G*/sind values. Stuart et al. (2000) developed
performance of binders. Marasteanu et al. (2005), correlations for G*/ sin d of the binders with the
Visscher and Vanelstraete (2004) and Anderson FPRT, GLWT and HWTD rut depths and reported
et al. (2002) reported that the zero shear rate viscosity that the 2.20 kPa minimum specification level for G*/
has been found to be a good predictor of rutting sin d after RTFO is valid. Stuart and Izzo (1995) also
performance of binders. However in the recent times, developed correlations for G*/ sind of the binders
better fundamental test method such as multiple stress with the three wheel tracking devices GLWT, FRT
creep and recovery test (MSCR) has been introduced and HWTD. The data showed that binders with higher
to characterize modified binders for predicting rutting G*/ sind produce mixes less susceptible to rutting. The
potential (ASTM D7405-10a, 2010). (D’Angelo and GLWT provided a good correlation between G*/ sind
Dongre, 2004; . Kim et al, 2009 have demonstrated and rutting susceptibility compared to the FPRT and
the practical use of this method by conducting test on HWTD. Collins et al. (1995) reported that the GLWT
modified binders. results agreed with those of DSR testing on RTFO
aged viscosity graded binders AC-10, AC-20 AC-30
On the other hand, rutting performance of bituminous and also reported that as G*/ sin d values increased, the
mixes has been evaluated by different wheel tracking measured rut depths decreased.
devices (Collins et al., 1995; Hong and Kim, 2008;
Jackson and Baldwin, 2000; Lundy and Sandoval- Researchers have shown that zero shear viscosity
Gil, 2004; Mallick and Kandhal, 1999; Smith, 2004; of binders correlates well with the number of cycles
Tarefder et al., 2003; Stuart and Izzo, 1995). Using needed to obtain a certain rut depth in accelerated testing
these parameters of binder and mix, attempts have facilities (Rowe et al. 2002, Sybilski, 1996). Guericke
been made to correlate binder rutting parameters with and Hoeppel, 2000) reported that of the ZSV measured
rutting susceptibility of mixes (Bhasin et al. 2005; at 60°C correlated well with the Hamburg wheel tracking

84 T.S. Reddy and M.A. Reddy on
test, which was also conducted at same temperature. operations, generally known as short term aging
Phillips and Robertus (1996) observed a good correlation (SP-1, 1996).
of ZSV of two unmodified asphalt binders and two
elastomer-modified binders with the corresponding ASTM D2872 (2004) procedure was followed for
rutting in dense asphalt concrete mixes and concluded preparing the short term aging of binders using RTFO.
that ZSV is a good measure of the permanent deformation Both aged and unaged binder samples were considered
in accelerated laboratory testing. for evaluating rutting parameters G*/sind and Zero
shear viscosity using Dynamic Shear Rheometer.
Following paragraphs present the materials used in the
present investigation, test carried out on the materials 3.3 Study of Binder Rutting Parameters Using
selected and analysis of the test data. Dynamic Shear Rheometer (Dsr)
3 Materials Used in the Present Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR) is the most popularly
used equipment used to evaluate the behavior of binder
Investigation
samples by subjecting it to the oscillatory (sinusoidal)
3.1 Aggregate stresses. A thin binder specimen is sandwiched
between the two parallel metal plates held in a constant
Two aggregate mid-point gradation namely bituminous temperature medium. One plate remains fixed while the
concrete (BC) and dense bituminous macadam (DBM) other oscillates at preset angular frequency with respect
were considered as per specification of road and bridge to the other. The DSR tests were performed using the
parallel plate arrangement with 25 mm diameter plate
works (MoRTH, 2001) The crushed coarse aggregate,
and the gap between top and bottom plate was set at
fine aggregate and mineral filler (Type: Dolerite)
1 mm. The unaged and RTFO aged binders were tested
procured from Shelda quarry in the state of West
in DSR to determine G*/sind and zero shear viscosity
Bengal, were used in the present investigation. Fig. 1
values at different temperatures.
shows the two aggregate gradations.
3.4 G*/Sinδ Parameter of Binder
The Superpave binder specification (SP-1, 1996)

used the parameter, G*/sind to specify the rutting
susceptibility of binders at intermediate and high
pavement temperatures. The tests were conducted over
a range of temperatures form 30 to 70ºC at an angular
frequency of 0.125 rad/s. This angular frequency
corresponds to the wheel speed of 1 km/h used in
IIT KGP Rut Tester. Results of the G*/sin d on both
unaged and RTFO aged binders are shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 1 Aggregate Gradation of Bituminous Concrete and
Dense Bituminous Macadam
3.2 Binders
Two conventional binders VG 30 and VG 40 and

one polymer modified binder (PMB 40- SBS type
modifier) were used in the present investigation. All
these binders were evaluated for basic properties
and found that the requirements were satisfied as
per IS: 73(2006) and IS: 15462 (2004) for normal
binders and modified binders respectively. Binders
were aged in Rolling Thin Film Oven Tester
Fig. 2 Binder G*/ sinδ versus Temperature at
(RTFOT) to simulate the aging of binders that Frequency of 0.125 rad/s
occurs during heating, mixing and construction

From the Fig. 2, it can be observed that the measured

G*/sind values of both unaged and RTFO aged binders
decreased with increase in temperature as expected.
Higher values of G*/sind indicate higher resistance
to rutting. The RTFO aged binders resulted in higher
G*/sind values compared to those of the unaged
binders at all temperatures. Among the three binders,
VG 30 binder has the lowest G*/sind values under both
unaged and RTFO aged conditions. Compared to PMB
40 binder, VG 40 binder has higher G*/sind values Fig. 3 Variation of Binder Zero Shear Viscosity with Temperature
up to 50ºC and beyond this temperature, PMB 40
binder showed marginally higher G*/sind values. This From the Fig. 3, it can be observed that zero shear
indicates that at higher temperatures, PMB 40 binder viscosity values of both unaged and RTFO aged
can be expected to perform better in rutting resistance binders decreased with increase in temperature.
compared to normal VG 40 binder. Wang et al. (2009) RTFO aged binders gave higher zero shear viscosity
reported that G*/sind values decrease with increase values compared to those of unaged binders at all
in temperature. Thodesen et al. (2009) and Silva et temperatures. The trends are similar to those of G*/sind
al. (2004) reported that modified binders have higher value indicating better performance of PMB 40 binder
G*/sind values compared to the unmodified binders compared to VG 40 and VG 30 binders especially at
which is same as it was observed in the present study higher temperatures. Rowe et al. (2002) reported that
especially at higher temperatures. zero shear viscosity values decreased with increase
in temperature. Anderson et al. (2002) and Desmazes
3.5 Zero Shear Viscosity (Zsv) Tests On Binder
et al. (2000) found that modified binders have higher
Zero Shear Viscosity (ZSV) is the viscosity measured zero shear viscosity values compared to unmodified
in shear deformation at a shear rate approaching to zero. binders and these are similar to findings in the present
As rutting is a very slow process, therefore appropriate study.
viscosity for visco-elastic material may be the limiting
4 Laboratory Rutting Test on
value at low shear rates where structures deform so
Bituminous Mixes
slowly and maintains a situation close to equilibrium.
Therefore at low shear rate, the viscosity of a visco- A number 100 mm diameter cylindrical sample of
elastic material will have a limiting value at a given BC and DBM mixes were prepared using optimum
temperature (Desmazes et al, 2000). ZSV is measured binder contents (OBC) of these mixes. The OBC
using Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR) an oscillation values, density, % air voids of the samples are given in
test or in a creep test. Table 1.
Zero shear viscosity (ZSV) values of both unaged Table 1 Properties of the Bituminous Mixes
and RTFO aged binders were determined in
oscillation test at an angular frequency of 0.1 rad/s at Mix Type OBC (%) Bulk Density Air voids (%)
five temperatures 30 to 70ºC at an interval of 10ºC. (g/cc)
The variation of zero shear viscosity values with BC- VG 30 5.1 2.553 4.0
temperature for different unaged and aged binders is
shown in Fig. 3. BC- VG 40 5.0 2.588 4.8
BC- PMB 40 5.0 2.548 4.9

DBM-VG 30 4.6 2.527 4.6

indicates the advantage of polymer modified binder
over conventional binder in resisting the rutting in
bituminous mix. Also the rutting values of mixes
DBM-VG 40 4.7 2.531 5.0
prepared with VG 40 are close to PMB 40 mixes.
DBM- PMB 40 4.6 2.545 4.8 4.1 Correlation between G*/sind and Zero Shear
Viscosity Values of Binders
*- all the values are the average of three samples tested
Since the rheological properties, G*/sind and zero
Laboratory rutting test on bituminous mixes shear viscosity, indicate the rutting susceptibility of the
(bituminous concrete-BC and dense bituminous binders, an attempt was made to develop correlations
macadam-DBM) were conducted using the between these two parameters. Figs. 4 and 5 show the
IITKGP Rut Tester, an indigenously developed relationship between G*/sind and zero shear viscosity
values of different unaged and aged binders.
wheel tracking tester by the Transportation
Engineering Section of IIT Kharagpur (Reddy and
Reddy, 2010). The wheel load of 100 kg applied
directly placed on the sample through a steel tyre,
which corresponds to the contact pressure of
620 kPa, was kept constant for all the tests. Tests
were conducted at temperatures of 30, 40, 50 and
60ºC and rutting in the mixes was measured using
data acquisition system, after 5000 load cycles.
One load cycle means to and fro movement of the
Fig. 4 G*/sinδ Vs. Zero Shear Viscosity
loaded wheel on test sample. Table 2 summarizes for Unaged Binders
the rutting test results of different bituminous
mixes.
Table 2 Summary of IITKGP Rut Tester Results
Rut depth (mm) at a Temperature (ºC)

Mix Type
30 40 50 60
BC-VG 30 2.19 2.81 3.64 4.53
BC-VG 40 1.79 2.44 3.22 4.02
BC-PMB 40 1.63 2.12 3.04 3.53

Fig. 5 G*/sind Vs. Zero Shear Viscosity for
RTFO Aged Binders
DBM- VG 30 3.23 5.02 6.13 7.82
It can be seen from the figures that the binder rheological
DBM- VG 40 2.39 3.35 4.70 6.87
properties, G*/sin d and zero shear viscosity values have
DBM-PMB 40 2.02 3.21 4.52 6.79 good correlations for different unaged and aged binders.
This indicates that that either of these parameters can
From the above test results, it was observed that be used to explain the rutting susceptibility of binders.
both mixes prepared with PMB 40 binders resulted These correlations are useful to findout ZSV values
in less rutting at all temperatures compared with from G*/sind of binder without testing for ZSV. As
mixes prepared using VG 30 and VG 40. This clearly most of the binders in India have G*/sind values not

ZSV, however it was found from the literature that ZSV From Fig. 6 it can be observed that mixes prepared
is better indicator of rutting than G*/sin d. with DBM gave lower rutting resistance compared
to dense graded aggregate mix, BC, for all three
4.2 Correlation Between Binder G*/Sinδ and binders considered. Of the three binders considered
Bituminous Mix’s Rutting for preparing mixes, PMB-40 mixes have resulted in
lower rutting compared to other binder mixes. Good
Rutting parameters of binder and corresponding rutting correlations were found between G*/sind value and rut
values of mixes gives information on material behavior depth of mixes. Similar results are also observed from
in resisting rutting. When aggregate parameters such Fig. 7 on zero shear viscosity and rut depth of mixes.
as source, shape and gradation are kept constant, Dense graded aggregates, stiffer and modified binder
relationships developed between rutting parameters play important role in providing rutting resistance in
of binder and corresponding mixes yields the role different mixes.
of binder in sustaining permanent deformation. Also
change in aggregate gradation with other parameters 5 Conclusions
being the same, effect of aggregate gradation on A study on rutting characteristics of binders and mixes
rutting susceptibility can be assessed. Therefore was carried out considering three binders including
relationship between G*/sind and zero shear viscosity one modified binder and two aggregate gradations.
values of RTFO aged binders and corresponding Rheological parameters of binders, G*/sind and zero
bituminous mix’s rutting measured from the IIT KGP shear viscosity of unaged and RTFO aged binders,
Rut Tester tests were developed and presented in were determined for VG 30, VG 40 and PMB 40
Figs. 6 and 7. binders using Dynamic Shear Rheometer at different
temperatures. Bituminous concrete (BC) and dense
bituminous macadam (DBM) mixes were prepared and
evaluated using IITKGP rut tester. From the limited
test results and analysis, it can be concluded that VG
30 has lower G*/sind and zero shear viscosity values
in both unaged and RTFO aged conditions indicating
less rut resistance compared to other binders and
PMB 40 binder which has higher rutting resistance.
Correlations obtained between G*/sind and zero shear
viscosity values for binders suggested that either of
these parameters can be used to explain the rutting
Fig. 6 Relationship between Binder G*/sin d and Mix’s Rutting susceptibility of binders. Also good correlation was
found between mix rut depth and binder parameters. It
is also evident that performance of VG 40 binders and
mixes are comparable to PMB 40 in terms of rutting
consideration.
Although G*/sind and zero shear viscosity have

demonstrated good correlation with mix performance,
literature indicates that these binder parameters are
generally incapable of demonstrating the rutting
characteristics of modified binders and multiple stress
creep recovery test (MSCRT) is most suitable. In order
to identify the most appropriate binder parameter that
Fig. 7 Correlation between Binder Zero Shear Viscosity and can be addressed to rutting performance of mix, it is
Bituminous Mix’s Rutting required to include large number of binders collected
from different sources and evaluated.

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Paper No. 592
CONSISTENCY EVALUATION OF HORIZONTAL CURVES ON

RURAL HIGHWAYS
A.U. Ravi Shankar*, M.V.L.R. Anjaneyulu** and N.J. Sowmya***
Abstract
Geometric design consistency is emerging as an important role in highway design. Identifying and treating any inconsistency on a highway can significantly
improve its safety performance. Considerable research has been undertaken worldwide to explore this concept including identifying potential consistency
measures and developing models to estimate them. The goal of the research is to study consistency of design on intermediate lane highways existing in
Dakshina Kannada district of Karnataka state and to ascertain the existence of a relationship between consistency and safety level. The alignment of 55
stretches is surveyed and the geometrics of highway, speed and accident data are used to evaluate the consistency of the horizontal curves on highway.
The consistency models are developed and thresholds for good, fair and poor design consistency of any section are proposed. It is found that as design
consistency increased, the number of accidents decreased significantly.
1 Introduction take place on curved sections than on straight segments

(Stewart and Christopher,1990, Gibreel et al. 1999).
Most drivers think that they are capable of choosing a Thus, curved section and the corresponding transition
safe speed. Speed limits have, however, been introduced sections represent the most critical locations while
in all countries. No country today allows drivers to considering measures for improvement of highway
freely choose their speed wherever they drive. One of safety. Several studies (Gibreel et al.1999, Jadaan
the main causes for road accidents is violation of speed and Nicholson 1990) were conducted to identify the
limits. Hence, road safety is a major concern in the relationship between factors associated with accidents
present situation. It is believed that by the year 2020, and accident characteristics. Their studies strongly
road crashes will be the third leady cause of deaths and suggest the accident occurrences and severity are
disability (Chandra and Prashanth, 2004). During the greatly influenced by road geometrics, traffic volume
period 2000-2007, road fatalities in India increased by and speed characteristics.
45.2%, whereas in other countries there was a decreasing
trend varying from 13.6% to 42.8% (Srinivasan, 2011). 1.1 Design Consistency Concept
One of the main reasons for accidents occurrence is
lack of geometric design consistency, defined as the Design consistency is the conformance of the highway
degree to which highway systems are designed to geometry and operational features with driver
avoid critical driving maneuvers and ensure safe traffic expectancy (Nicholson, 1998). In another definition
operations (Gibreel et al.1999, Fitzpatrick et al. 2000). a design can be referred to as consistent, if it ensures
Therefore, improving highway design consistency that the successive elements are coordinated in a
is an important strategy that can aid highway safety. way to produce harmonized driver behavior without
Rural road safety accounts for a considerable share of surprising events (Gibreel et al.1999). Keeping a
the total road safety problem (Cafiso et al. 2005). It is roadway consistent in design is important because it is
estimated that, more than 30% of the total fatalities on believed that motorists make fewer errors at geometric
rural highways can be attributed to the accidents that features, which conform to their expectations than at
* Prof. & Head, Deptt. of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Mangalore, E-mail: aurshankar@gmail.com
** Prof. Deptt. of Civil Engineering, N.I.T., Calicut, E-mail: mvlr@nit.ac.in
*** Research Scholar, Deptt. of Civil Engineering, N.I.T., Karnataka, Surathkla, Mangalore, E-mail: sowm.shyam@gmail.com

92 Shankar, Anjaneyulu and Sowmya on
features that violate their expectancies (Fitzpatrick et characteristics, traffic condition and driver behaviour
al. 2000). Large reductions in motorist speeds represent are totally different. This study is an attempt to
locations with high potential for traffic accidents develop speed prediction models and to evaluate the
(Anderson et al. 1999, Hassan et al. 2000). Operating consistency of rural highways of intermediate lane
speed is an important parameter used to evaluate design (5.5 m) based on speed and recorded accident data.
consistency. This can be done by examining variation
between design speed and operating speed or examining 1.3 Objectives of the Study
the difference in operating speed on successive elements
of the road. Based on speed data and accident data, The accident situation in Dakshina Kannada district is
Lamm et al. (1988, 1995) recommended two speed relatively more serious due to rapid growth motor vehicle
traffic and inadequacy of road related characteristics.
criteria based on design speed and operating speed,
From literature study it was found that accidents
to evaluate the design as good, fair or poor. Safety
occur more in curves than straight sections Stewart
criterion (i) deals with the design speed and observed
and Christopher, (1990). Hence, the main objective of
operating speed, but safety criterion (ii) deals with the
this study is to evaluate the design consistency of the
operating speed transition between successive design
selected curves using operating speeds. It is necessary
elements. Similar studies have been carried out by to develop speed models in terms of highway geometry,
various researchers (Lamm et al. 1988, 1995, Gibreel which explains how geometric elements affect the
et al. 1999, Fitzpatrick et al. 2000) and concluded with accidents. Considering the main aim as a key point,
different recommendations to designate the consistency the objectives of the study can be stated specifically as,
as good. i) Development of speed prediction models for
horizontal curves and ii) Development of design
Operating Speed Models consistency evaluation criteria.
Kanellaidis (1990) conducted a study at 58 curve sites 2 Study Area
on three two lane rural roads in Greece found that the
85th percentile speed (V85) at curve is strongly related to This study is only on rural highways of Dakshina
the curvature and the desired speed. Also he suggested Kannada district with carriageway width of 5.5 m.
that a good design can be achieved when the difference Eight roads were selected for the analysis and the
between operating speed (V85 on the tangent and the details are shown in Table 1. The natural topography
following curve operating speed (V85) does not exceed of the project area ranges from plain to rolling terrain.
10 km/h. Krammes et al. 1995) presented several design Even though the selected highway has large number
consistency models to evaluate design consistency for of curves, the study is limited to the simple horizontal
rural two-lane highways. The 85th percentile speed curves. To maintain uniformity between the stretches
was predicted based on such independent parameters following criteria were considered, i.e., (i) no influence
as the degree of curve, length of curve and the of intersections, (ii) no influence of other adjacent
deflection angle. Al-Masaeid et al. (1995) considered sections, (iii) no physical features or activities adjacent
the speed reduction between tangent and curve as the to, or in the course of, the roadway that may create
inconsistency measure of a section and speed reduction an abnormal hazard such as narrow bridge, schools,
was found to be highly affected by the radius of the factories, or recreational parks, (iv) carriageway is
curve. Also the speed on the tangent was found to be unmarked and shoulders are unpaved and (v) grades
affected mainly by the tangent length. between + 2% to – 2% .
1.2 Need For Present Study Horizontal curve with a minimum 100 m tangent length
was considered assuming that it allows the driver to
From literature survey it was found that different accelerate, reach, and maintain desired speed. Keeping
type of consistency evaluation is carried out in site selection criteria as reference, a total of 178
developed countries. In India the applicability horizontal curves with more than 100 m tangent length
of consistency criteria developed in developed were considered from the 55 sections is tabulated in
countries is questionable, because the road geometric Table1.

Consistency Evaluation of Horizontal Curves on Rural Highways 93
Table 1 Study Stretches 85th Percentile Speed
Road No. of No. of From To The actual operating speed is defined as the speed
Sections Horizontal selected by the highway users when not restricted by
Curves other users, i.e., free-flow conditions, and is normally
selected for
study represented by the 85th percentile speed. The 85th
percentile speed is determined from the graph plotted
SH- 88 15 43 Sampaje Puttur
cumulative frequency v/s speed of vehicles. Then the
NH- 13 3 7 Nantoor Yadapadavu observed speeds were evaluated for sufficiency of the
sample size at 5% significance level and allowing a
SH-114 4 13 Kulkunda Gundya
permissible error in speed of ± 2km/h. A class interval
SH -37 8 26 Subhramanya Belthangadi of 5km/h for operating speed was used. The sample
SH -64 7 25 Charmadi B.C. Road values of observed 85th percentile speed of horizontal
curves at four study points are tabulated in Table 2.
SH -101 4 9 Polali Bajpe
SH -67 3 8 Permude Maradka
SH -70 11 47 Belthangadi Mulki
Total 55 178
2.1 Collection of Geometric Data
Data collection effort included obtaining (1) Geometrics

(2) Free flow speed and (3) Accident data at the site.
The geometric data includes the details, such as radius
Fig. 1 Study Points on the Curve
and length of the curve, deflection angle were retrieved
from CAD drawings drawn using theodolite surveying 2.3 Accident Data from Police Station
and super elevation, gradients, sight distance, road
width and shoulder width were measured in the field. In The accident data were extracted from FIR lodged in
this study, using IRC standards of height of the driver’s the police stations used to determine the seven years
eyes, h1=1.2 m and the height of the obstruction, h2=0.15 (2004-2010) accident experience of each individual
m, a number of trials were performed to measure sight tangent and horizontal curve. Pilot survey was
distance on a horizontal curve by considering the length conducted to identify accident spots along the stretches
of the road visible from the start, middle of tangent with the help of police person and FIR indicated the
point and start and middle of the curve. accident spots. Even though seven years accident
data were collected, but it was possible to identify an
2.2 Collection of Speed Data average of 76.5 % of recorded accidents spots of last
five years.
The speed measurements were taken at four points on
the curve, i.e., at the middle of tangent section (tp), 3 Operating Speed Model
start (sp), middle (mp) and end point (ep) of the curve Estimation for Horizontal
as shown in Fig.1. The speeds were measured manually Curves
during daylight, off-peak periods and under dry weather
conditions. The observers were located on the road in Having the dependent and independent variables, the
such a way from the driver’s sight to ensure that their modeling was carried out using the linear regression
presence would not influence the speeds of passing option in (Statistical Package for Social Sciences) SPSS
vehicles. A total of 100 to 110 observations were made software at study points. This study is confined to the
for passenger cars at each curve. intermediate lane roads, the 150 curves were selected

based on available carriageway width (5-6.1 m) available at the study points of curve is mainly depends on the
at the center of horizontal curve. Approximately two- radius and the sight distance available before the point.
third of data was used for the model development and It can be observed that the constant value decreased
one-third of data used for the validation of the models. at middle point and increased at end of the curve in
Scatter plots and correlation matrix (as shown in the model explains the deceleration and acceleration of
Table 3) were used to identify the tentative variables vehicles at study points of curve. Such a trend should
which satisfying 95% confidence level to be included be expected, as the drivers driving at higher speeds at
in the regression models. the tangent section would normally need more speed
adjustment when they encounter the curve. It can be
Keeping model development criteria in mind several observed that the developed models (in Table 4) are not
trials were performed to develop operating speed showing good relation with geometrics (r2 is less than
models at study points. Among different linear and 50%).
nonlinear models developed, in which the variables
have more logical significance and satisfying t- test Zegeer et al. (1986) identified the influence of shoulder
and F-test and that results in reasonable (coefficient of width on crash prediction and Lamm et al. (1988)
determination) r2 value are considered and tabulated in recognized shoulder width as another geometric variable
Table 4. that influences the operating speed of the vehicle on
horizontal curve. Further, to predict better models, which
In this study the developed operating speed model have significant logical explanation with independent
shows that operating speed at tangent point is mainly variables and also to find the affect of shoulder width
depends on sight distance available at the start of on speed, the selected curves are classified as class A,
tangent and preceding tangent length available. Speed class B and class C based on shoulder width available at
Table 2 A Sample of Geometric and Speed Details of Curves
Superelevation Sight distance Road width(m) Shoulder 85th Percentile operating

width(m) Speed
PTL(m)
Δ (Deg)
emp(%)
LH (m)
eep(%)
Curve
esp(%)
R (m)
SDmp
SDsp
Wmp
SDtp
SDts
Vtp Vsp Vmp Vep

Wsp
Wep
Smp
Sep
Ssp
H1 219 29 153 110 1.2 5.17 1.43 93 85 50 72 5.6 5.8 5.6 2 2.5 2 62.0 52.0 39.0 46.5
H2 181 41 190 112 2.78 3.57 2.18 80 60 90 80 5.4 5.5 5.6 1.5 1.5 1.2 55.5 44.0 40.0 41.5
H3 176 46 174 230 1.44 5.45 2.12 95 73 71 69 5.5 5.5 5.2 2 2.2 2 66.0 54.5 52.5 53.5
H4 115 45 127 230 1.55 4.68 2.12 120 100 36 38 5.1 5.4 5.2 1.4 1.7 1.5 66.0 50.0 52.0 55
H5 256 25 149 100 1.02 1.98 1.71 90 70 50 38 5.4 5.6 5.5 1 2.1 2 65.5 59.0 51.0 59.5
H6 56 66 85 200 2.59 5.69 2.53 103 80 42 38 5.2 5.2 5.6 2.3 2.4 1.4 64.0 50.0 40.0 57
H7 160 36 114 120 1.34 4.72 1.32 97 76 55 81 5.8 5.8 5.2 2 2.2 2.1 64.0 55.5 42.0 54.5
H8 145 32 103 100 1.29 2.05 1.03 87 80 72 70 5.1 5.2 5.3 1.9 1.7 1.8 53.0 53.0 43.0 53
H9 168 34 128 110 1.11 2.73 1.23 91 75 50 70 5.9 5.5 5.8 1.9 1.9 1.7 62.0 53.5 48.0 53
H10 368 12 100 360 1.36 4.14 1.11 110 100 59 67 5.5 5.6 5.4 2 2.2 2.1 67.0 59.0 51.0 57
H11 300 8 75 250 1.19 4.44 1.93 116 100 63 60 5.6 5.6 5.3 1.8 1.9 1.5 66.0 56.0 46.5 53.5

Table 3 Correlation Matrix Developed for Model Development (Before Classification)
R 1/ R ∆ LH PTL Vsp Vmp Vep esp emp eep SDts SDtp SDsp SDmp Ssp Smp Sep 1/R 2 √ R
R 1
1/ R -0.81 1
∆ -0.63 0.69 1
LH 0.6 -0.59 0.02 1
PTL 0.32 -0.16 0.02 0.41 1
Vsp 0.55 -0.54 -0.3 0.46 0.28 1
Vmp 0.58 -0.55 -0.34 0.49 0.2 0.79 1
Vep 0.49 -0.55 -0.33 0.43 0.21 0.81 0.75 1
esp 0.07 -0.07 -0.14 -0 0.05 0.04 0.05 0.11 1
emp -0.31 0.26 0.27 -0.2 -0.1 -0.1 -0.03 -0.06 0.11 1
eep -0.22 0.11 0.09 -0 0.02 -0.23 -0.08 -0.04 0.06 0.33 1
SDts 0.46 -0.34 0 0.62 0.62 0.56 0.38 0.44 0.04 -0.08 -0.12 1
SDtp 0.38 -0.21 0.04 0.48 0.6 0.38 0.2 0.24 0 -0.05 -0.15 0.8 1
SDsp 0.14 -0.25 0.01 0.28 0.23 0.3 0.36 0.29 -0.1 0.3 0.01 0.4 0.35 1

SDmp 0.25 -0.35 -0.14 0.34 0.35 0.39 0.35 0.44 -0.1 0.15 -0.01 0.53 0.44 0.64 1
Consistency Evaluation of Horizontal Curves on Rural Highways
Ssp -0.04 -0.01 -0.05 0.01 0.2 0.05 -0.1 0.03 0.1 -0.09 -0.1 0.25 0.19 0.24 0.24 1
Smp 0.1 -0.11 -0.01 0.18 0.21 0.04 -0.11 0.04 0.15 -0.03 -0.13 0.37 0.29 0.23 0.25 0.79 1
Sep 0.12 -0.16 -0.07 0.18 0.2 0.04 -0.03 0.06 0.2 -0.02 -0.15 0.27 0.21 0.2 0.18 0.72 0.81 1
1/ Rc 2 -0.67 0.97 0.64 -0.5 -0.09 -0.45 -0.47 -0.5 -0.04 0.21 0.05 -0.23 -0.12 -0.27 -0.3 -0.03 -0.11 -0.17 1
√ Rc -0.89 0.99 0.7 -0.6 -0.2 0.57 0.60 0.54 -0.08 0.29 0.15 -0.39 -0.26 -0.22 -0.3 0 -0.1 -0.15 0.92 1
95
Table 4 Operating Speed Models Selected for are also calculated to check the goodness of fit of the
Intermediate Lane Rural Highways models shows a reasonable value.
Pointat Model r2 PRMSE Table 5 Operating Speed Models Developed

Class
curve Based on Classification

Calibration Validation
Tangent 0.59 4.2 6.4

5.5-6.1m road width
Class Point at Model r2

Start 0.457 5.6 8.6
Start point 0.505
Middle 0.390 7.8 9.7
Middle point 0.557

End 0.388 6.9 8.2 A
End point 0.605
the middle of horizontal curve. This process results 65
curves with 0-1m Shoulder Width (SW) (Class A), 44 Start point 0.367
curves with 1-2 m SW (Class B) and 41 curves with 2-3 B
Middle point 0.506
m SW (Class C). Among various linear and nonlinear
models developed, the model that’s the coefficients End point 0.569
of variables are significantly different from zero and
show higher coefficient of regression and low PRMSE Start point 0.466
are tabulated in Table 5. From the Table 5 it can be C
concluded that as classification changes dependent Middle point 0.63
parameters whose affect on predicting speed are also

changes. During the analysis it was observed that none 5 Consistency Evaluation of
of the variables considered in the study show good Horizontal Curves
relationship to predict operating speed at end point
of Class C curves, hence it is not possible to develop The most commonly used criteria to evaluate the
highway design consistency is based on operating
operating speed model at the end of curve. The reason
speed. In this study based on Lamm et al. (1988, 1995)
may be that as shoulder width available at middle of the approach, accident data was compared with variation
curve increases driver reaction or behavior may change between geometrics and variation between speeds
due to increase in sight distance available, which results within the curve to identify the hazardous location.
in reduced affect of geometric variables considered in
the study. Many accidents occurred in the field were not reported
and also exact place of accident occurrence were not
4 Validation of Operating Speed properly reported in FIR reports. With this condition
Model Estimated several methods were tried to develop the design
criteria based on available accident data.
The validation of the developed model was carried out
to verify the predictability of the model for the part of the
database that has not been used in model development.
In this regard, the scatter plots are plotted between the
observed and predicted operating speed at all study
points of different class curves. Figs. 2 and 3 show the
relation between observed and predicted operating speed
at all study points of Class A curves. The plots plotted
for all class curves shows a good conformance between
the predicted and observed operating speed values. The
Percentage Root Mean Square Error (PRMSE) values Fig. 2 Calibration of Operating Speed Models
Developed at Study Points of Class A Curves

Table 6 Design Consistency Evaluation Criteria
Criterion Evaluation
(∆V85= Vtp-Vmp) <15km/h Good
(∆V85= Vtp-Vmp) =15-20 km/h Fair
(∆V85= Vtp-Vmp) >20km/h poor
6 Conclusions
Fig. 3 Validation of Operating Speed Models Developed

The study was performed mainly to develop the speed
at Study Points of Class A Curves prediction models and to evaluate the consistency of
the intermediate lane stretches selected for study based
The observed operating speed at tangent and middle
on operating speed. The speeds were recorded during
of curve (∆V85) was classified with different threshold
day time under free-flow conditions. Based on this
values. The total number of accidents were classified
study, the following conclusions are drawn.
as 0, 1 and >2 and type of accidents as fatal, grievous
and simple injury. The classified threshold values of 1. Statistically significant relationship was found
operating speed at the middle of the curve were compared between the speed at the approach tangent and
with classified range of accidents and its severity. The the geometric variable of the section. Tangent
number of curves matching with each category was length and the sight distance have significant
counted. Among various trials with different ranges of affect on the operating speed at tangent point of
∆V85, the best results (42 % i.e., 63 curves out of 150 curve.
horizontal curves) were obtained with the classified
2. Even though several geometric variables
ranges of 0-15 km/h, 15-20 km/h, and > 20 km/h. The
considered in the study the radius of horizontal
developed consistency matrix for this case is shown in
curve and sight distance available have
Fig.4 and the developed design criterion is tabulated
significant affect on the operating speed at
in Table 6. The results are consistent with the findings start, mid and end point of curve. Comparison
of Kanellaidis et al. (1990) and Lamm et al. (1988, was made between the observed and predicted
1995). values of operating speed by scatter plots and
PRMSE calculated shows that predicted speed
values are very near to observed speed values
of horizontal curves. So predicted models can
be recommended for practical application.
3. Compared to the results of previous studies

(Kanellaidis et al.1990, Krammes et al.1995)
the relationship between the operating speed
at the middle of a horizontal curve and the
horizontal curve radius or other alignment
parameters is relatively weak (low coefficient
of determination (r2), may be due to much
variations between the geometrics of highway
Fig. 4 Consistency matrix developed for │Vtp-Vmp │
that exist in India.

4. Potential design inconsistencies result from 2. Anderson, I.B., Karin, M.B., Douglas, W.H. and
significant difference in operating speeds Fitzpatrick, K. (1999), “Relation Ship of Safety
on two successive sections. The consistency of Geometric Design Consistency Measure for
evaluation criteria developed for successive Rural Two Lane Highways”. Transportation
elements of horizontal curve of intermediate research record 1658. paper No-0921,
lane rural highways is almost very nearer to pp. 43-51.
criteria developed for two lane rural highways
in developed countries. 3. Cafiso, S., Alessandro, D.G. and Cava,
G.L. (2005), “Actual Driving Data Analysis
Notations used:
for Design Consistency Evaluation”.
Vtp = operating speed on tangent section (km/h), Transportation Research Record,
No. 1912, Transportation Research Board,
Vsp = operating speed on approaching tangent point
Washington, D.C., pp. 19–30.
(km/h),
Vmp = operating speed on middle of the curve (km/h), 4. Chandra, Satish. and Prashanth, K.B. (2004),
Vep = operating speed at departing tangent point “Accident Analysis on Two Lane Roads”,
(km/h), Highway Research Board No. 70, IRC,
November, pp. 77-92.
PTL = Preceding tangent length(m).
R= radius of the curve in m 5. Fitzpatrick, K., Elefteriadou, L., Douglas,
∆= deflection angle in degree W.H., Collins, J. M., McFadden, J., Anderson,
LH= length of curve in m I.B., Krammes, R.A., Irizarry, N., Parma,
esp= Super elevation in percentage at start of curve K.D., Passetti, K., and. Bauer, K.M. (2000),
“Speed Prediction for Two-Lane Rural
emp= Super elevation in percentage at mid of curve
Highways”. Draft Final Report FHWA-RD-
eep= Super elevation in percentage at end of curve
pp. 99-171.
SDts = Sight distance at start of tangent (m).
SDtp = Sight distance at middle of tangent (m). 6. Gibreel, G.M., Easa, S.M., Hassan, Y., and El-
SDsp= Sight distance at start of curve (m). Dimeery, I.A. (1999), “State of Art of Highway
SDmp = Sight distance at middle of curve (m). Geometric Design Consistency”, Journal of
Transportation Engineering, Vol. 125 No. 4
Wsp= road width at the start of curve (m).
July/August, pp. 305-313.
Wmp= road width at the middle of curve (m).
Wep= road width at the end of curve (m). 7. Hassan, Y., Gibreel, G.M., and Easa, S.M.
Ssp= shoulder width at the start of curve (m). (2000), “Evaluation of Highway Consistency
Smp= shoulder width at the middle of curve (m). and Safety Practical Application”, Journal of
Transportation Engineering Vol. 126, No. 3
Sep= shoulder width at the end of curve (m).
May/June pp. 193-201.
References
8. Jadaan, K.S and Nicholson, A.J. (1990),
1. Al-Masaeid, H. R., Hamed, M., Aboul-Ela, “Relationship Between Road Accidents
M., and Ghannan, A.G. (1995), ‘‘Consistency and Traffic Flows in an Urban Network”
of Horizontal Alignment for Different Traffic Engineering and Control, September.
Vehicle Classes.’’ Transportation Research pp. 507-511.
Record 1500, Transportation Research Board,
National Research Council, Washington, D.C., 9. Kanellaidis, G., Golias, J., and
pp. 178– 183. Efstathiadis, S. (1990), “Driver’s Speed

Behaviour on Rural Road Curves” Traffic Built up Roads”, Transportation Research

Engineering and Control, Vol. 31 No. 7/8, Record 1523 TRB, National Research Council,
pp. 414-415. Washington D.C., pp. 34-45.
10. Krammes, R.A., Hoon, O.H., and Rao, 13. Nicholson, A. (1998), “Super Elevation, Side
K.S. (1995), ‘‘Highway Geometric Design Friction and Roadway Consistency” Journal
of Transportation Engineering, Vol. 124, No 5,
Consistency Evaluation Software.’’
pp. 411-418.
Transportation Research Record 1500,
Washington, D.C., pp. 19–24. 14. Srinivasan, N.S. (2011), “Critical Review of
Thrust Areas in Road Safety Action Plan”
11. Lamm, R., Choueiri, E.M., Hayward, J.C., and Indian Highways. Vol. 39, No. 12, pp. 9-21.
Paluri, (1988), “Possible Design Procedure
to Promote Design Consistency in Highway 15. Stewart, Douglas and Christopher, J.
Geometric Design on two Lane Rural Roads” Chudworth. (1990), “A Remedy for Accidents
Transportation Research Record 1195, TRB, at Bends” Traffic Engineering and Control.,
National Research Council, Washington D.C., February. pp. 88-93.
pp. 111-122.
16. Zegeer, C. V., Hummer, J., Herf, L., Reinfurt,
12. Lamm, R., Silemezoglou, B. P. and Kanellaidis, D. and Hunter, W. (1986). “Safety Effects of
G. (1995) “Driving Aspects and Related Safety Cross-Section Design for Two- Lane Roads”,
Issues for Modern Geometric Design of Non Report No. FHWA-RD-87-008, Federal
Highway Adminstration, Washington, D.C.
The views expressed in the paper are personal views of the Authors. For any query, the author may be contacted at E-mail: aurshankar@gmail.com

Paper No. 593
CROSSING BEHAVIOUR OF PEDESTRIANS AT MIDBLOCKS IN

MIXED TRAFFIC
Satish Chandra*, Rajat Rastogi** and Vivek R. Das***
Abstract
Lack of adherence to traffic regulations by vehicular drivers at designated pedestrian crossings creates a paradigm in which pedestrians may become bold
enough to break the traffic stream in order to gain priority. On the other hand, heavy pedestrian flows are likely to cause unacceptable vehicular delay and
this increases driver’s frustration. The system becomes more chaotic in mixed traffic conditions. These two situations highlight the need for proper planning
that would take care of interaction between the vehicles and the crossing pedestrians. This can be achieved by studying the actual crossing behavior of
pedestrians under varied roadway and traffic conditions under mixed traffic flow. Pedestrian crossing behavior has been analyzed in the present study by
taking data on 17 locations in five cities of India under varied geometric and spatial conditions. The pedestrian flow analysis and pedestrian – vehicle
interaction analyses were conducted on different road systems to understand their variations, and the results are presented and discussed in this paper.
1 Introduction women pedestrians are much greater than elderly male

pedestrians. The present paper aims at studying the
In India, the number of accidents quadrupled with behavior of pedestrians during crossing at mid block
more than 7 fold increase in injuries and more than 8 sections of urban roads in mixed traffic conditions.
fold increase in fatalities between 1970 and 2011. The For the purpose of this study, a midblock section is the
proportion of fatal accidents has increased consistently length of the road between two intersections and study
from 2001 to 2008 (17.6% - 22%). In India, pedestrian location was selected at midblock section sufficiently
related fatalities in the year 2008 accounted for about away from the intersection to avoid the effect of queuing
11% of all motor vehicle related deaths (Accident and slowing down of the vehicles due to intersection.
Report -2008, MoRTH). Around 72% of all pedestrian
fatalities occur in urban areas (National Highway 2 Literature Review
Traffic Safety Administration, 2004). The share of non-
motorized users in traffic fatalities is 92% in Mumbai Many researchers have focused on the effect of
of which 80% are pedestrians and 12% are bicyclists. pedestrians’ characteristics on their speeds. The studies
Pedestrians, by far, constitute the most vulnerable from the UK (Sjostedt, 1967; Cresswell et al., 1978;
road user group comprising high proportion of road Wilson and Grayson, 1980; Griffiths et al., 1984)
accident fatalities, typically 40–50% in India and have reported an average speed of elderly pedestrians
70–90% in metropolitan cities like Mumbai and between 1.11 m/s and 1.16 m/s. Higher variations are
Kolkata. The pedestrians, bicyclists and motorized two observed in crossing speeds of younger pedestrians,
wheeler riders constitute 60-80 per cent of all traffic with their average speed ranging between 1.32 m/s
fatalities in India (Mohan, 2004). Over 54% of all traffic and 1.72 m/s. Studies from the USA (Knoblauch et al.,
fatalities in Delhi are pedestrians (Grebert, 2008). In 1996; Guerrier and Jolibois, 1998; Gates et al., 2006;
Bangalore, pedestrian fatalities account for nearly Fitzpatrick et al., 2006) show a greater variation in the
54% of the total traffic fatalities. The share of children crossing speeds of the elderly when compared with
(<15 years), young men (16 to 45 years) and elderly in those found in UK. Daamen and Hoogendorn (2007)
pedestrian fatalities are found to be 6%, 51% and 17% observed average crossing speed of 1.24 m/s for older
respectively. It was also found that fatalities in elderly pedestrians and 1.5 m/s for younger pedestrians in the
* Professor,
** Associate Professor, } E-mail : satisfce@iitr.ernet.in
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee
*** Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, MVJ College of Engineering, Bangalore

Crossing Behaviour of Pedestrians At Midblocks In Mixed Traffic 101
Netherlands. The studies on flow relations indicate that A detailed and in-depth analysis of pedestrian behavior
the speed–density relation can be linear, logarithmic and their interaction with traffic at mid block sections is
or negative exponential (Underwood 1961; Bell and required to understand their needs. While going through
Kuranami, 1994; Lam et al., 2002). Pedestrians were literature, it is found that several studies relating to
found to adopt three to four types of crossing patterns pedestrian behavior have been conducted abroad where
based on availability of gap (Song et al. 1993 and uniform and disciplined traffic flow conditions exist.
Palamarthy et al. 1994). While crossing the road, The findings and recommendations of these studies
children and older pedestrians were more conscious of cannot be applied to India where nature of traffic is
their safety (Carthy et al.,1995). Psychological studies mixed and untidy. Therefore, it is important to conduct
were made by observing pedestrian behavior in different a detailed study to understand the crossing behavior of
pedestrians at midblock sections in India.
crossing environments and using questionnaires.
Literature indicates that various geometric features 3 DATA COLLECTION
like median, curbs, signs, barriers, etc. influence the
pedestrian crossing behavior (Chu, 2003, Arenda et al., The cities identified for the present studies are
2005 and Marie et al. 1998) . Traffic volume too affects Chandigarh and New Delhi in North India and
the crossing behavior of pedestrians; as traffic volume Chennai, Coimbatore and Erode in South India. The
increases the older pedestrians were found to judge study locations within a city are chosen based on width
gaps wrongly (Andrew, 1991). Pedestrian’s speeds of the road (number of lanes), provision of medians
were found to decrease when they cross the road in and type of land use on adjacent land. The selected
groups (Zhao and Wu, 2003). The results of gap studies study locations are categorized as having two lanes
indicate that the gap acceptance vary with various or three lanes. In case of 4-lane divided carriageway,
pedestrian factors and road features. Male pedestrians the observations are taken for one side of the median
accept shorter gaps than their counter parts. In age only and such location is classified as two-lane one-
groups, the accepted gap length was higher for older way road. The methods used to record the pedestrian
pedestrians (Cohen et al., 1955). However, critical crossing behavior include photographic and video
gap is not studied in much detail in any of these gap recording techniques and direct observational methods.
studies. Details of study locations are given in Table 1.
Table 1 Details of Study Location

Sl. Location(ID) Land use Width of Road Type Type of Traffic
No. road, m control (PCU/hr)
Chandigarh
1 Rock Garden (1) Recreational 12.8 3 – lane two way No 1634

2 Sukna Lake (2) Recreational 13.6 3 – lane two way No 1569
3 Sector 17 (3) Commercial 10.6 2 – lane one way Zebra 892
4 Inter State Bus Terminus (ISBT) Mixed 9.0 2 – lane one way No 1586
(4)
5 Post Graduate Institute of Educational 9.5 2 – lane one way No 2191
Medicine (PGI) (5)
Chennai
1 TH Road (6) Shopping 11.6 2 – lane two way No 2834
2 Old Washemanpet (7) Mixed 7.25 2 – lane one way Zebra 1417
3 Kaladipet (8) Shopping 10.0 2 – lane two way No 2510

102 Chandra, Rastogi and Das on
4 Near Marina Beach (9) Commercial/ 7.0 2 – lane one way Zebra 1600
Recreational
Coimbatore
1 Gandhipuram (10) Mixed 7.0 2 – lane one way Zebra 2395
2 Near Govt. Hospital (11) Mixed 7.8 2 – lane one way Zebra 2079
3 Near City Bus Stand (12) Mixed 7.8 2 – lane one way Zebra 1663
4 100th ft Road (13) Mixed 7.0 2 – lane one way No 2203
New Delhi
1 Connaught Place (14) Shopping 8.4 2 – lane one way Zebra 1658
2 Near Kalkaji Temple (15) Recreational 10.4 2 – lane one way Zebra 2482
3 Near Andra Bhawan (16) Residential 9.6 2 – lane one way No 2858
Erode
1 Near CSI School (17) Educational 8.6 2 – lane one way No 2243
The extracted data were categorized based on the waiting at curb till all the lanes are completely clear of
requirements of the analysis. The sample size used for traffic, the pedestrian anticipates the gaps between the
such categories is given in Table 2. vehicles and crosses the lane while searching for rolling
gap available to cross the road safely in the second
Table 2 Sample Size Collected lane. In two stage crossing, the pedestrian will cross
up to the median or centre of the road by accepting a
Type of analysis Type of Road Sample Size
gap smaller than what would have been required for a
System
single stage crossing and wait there until a suitable gap
2 – lane one way 2539 becomes available for the second stage.
Crossing speed 2 – lane two way 495
Single stage crossing was found to be dominating at all
3 – lane two way 208
locations mainly due to lesser risk involved. Two stage
2 – lane one way 2539 crossing where pedestrian stands at the middle of the
Gap acceptance 2 – lane two way 495 road was found more risky and hence the percentage of
3 – lane two way 208
this type of crossing was found to be low. Details are
given in Table 3.
4 Data Analysis
Table 3 Type of Crossing in Different Road Systems
The analysis was carried out to find the type of crossing
pattern, the crossing speed and the gap accepted during Single stage Rolling
Road Type Two Stage (%)
crossing. (%) (%)
2 – lane one
4.1 Crossing Pattern 47 31 22
way
It was observed that pedestrians cross a road in either 2 – lane two

65 32 3
of three patterns; single stage, rolling and two stage. way
When a pedestrian accepts a gap large enough to cross
3 – lane two
the whole width of road without stopping, then it is 46 45 9
way
called a single stage crossing. In rolling gap instead of

4.2 Crossing Speed Table 6 shows the speeds of pedestrians categorized by

age. As may be seen, the average crossing speed at all
The average crossing speeds for the different road study locations reduces with age of the pedestrians. This
widths are given in Table 4. High variation was is mainly due to the safety consciousness generated in
observed in crossing speed on 2-lane two-way roads. mind with increasing age.
On 3-lane two-way road, the low speed is mainly
due to moderate traffic (1569 – 1634 PCU/hr). Also, Table 6 Crossing Speed Based on Age
both the locations are adjacent to a recreational area.
The average speed on a two-lane one-way system
Road Young Middle age Old pedestrian
(1.34 m/s) is higher than that reported by Sjostedt
Type pedestrian (m/s) pedestrian (m/s) (m/s)
(1967), Cresswell et al. (1978), Wilson and Grayson
(1980), Griffiths et al. (1984), Guerrier and Jolibois 15th 50th 85th 15th 50th 85th 15th 50th 85th
(1998), Gates et al. (2006) but lower than that reported 2 – lane 1.19 1.45 1.97 1.09 1.34 1.68 0.94 1.17 1.48
by Knoblauch et al. (1996) and Fitzpatrick et al. (2006).
one way
Pedestrian crossing speed of 1.00 m/s on a 2–lane
system
one way, 1.06 m/s for 2–lane two way and 1.00 m/s
for 3–lane two way (average 15th percentile speeds) 2 – lane 1.44 1.77 2.17 1.35 1.68 2.02 1.27 1.56 1.89
are suggested for computing the pedestrian walk time two way
under normal crossing conditions. system
3 – lane 1.14 1.27 1.59 0.97 1.13 1.39 0.80 0.94 1.04
Table 4 Average Crossing Speed
two way
system
Road Type Percentile speed (m/s)
15th 50th 85th
The crossing speeds of pedestrians are estimated for
2 – lane one way system 1.03 1.34 1.65 different cities also. It is found higher in metro cities
2 – lane two way system 1.06 1.60 1.94 than in other cities. Crossing speed in medium sized
3 – lane two way system 1.00 1.18 1.43 cities is found around average and that in smaller
cities it is found to be the lowest. The 15th percentile
The pedestrian crossing speed with respect to gender crossing speeds are found to vary from 0.91 to 1.24 m/s
at various study locations and for different road types (Refer Table 7).
are given in Table 5. In general, the crossing speeds
of female pedestrians are found lower than male Table 7 Crossing Speed in Various Cities
pedestrians. These speeds are generally higher than
those reported in literature except the one reported by City Percentile speed (m/s)
Gates et al. (2006) for USA. th
15 50th 85th
Table 5 Crossing Speed Based on Gender Chennai 1.24 1.55 1.91
Delhi 1.17 1.44 1.90
Road Type Male pedestrian Female pedestrian
Coimbatore 1.01 1.29 1.66
speed (m/s) speed (m/s)
15th 50th 85th 15th 50th 85th Erode 0.91 1.31 1.82
2–lane one way 1.09 1.36 1.76 1.03 1.29 1.61 Chandigarh 0.96 1.15 1.39
system
The effect of crossing speed of pedestrians is also
2–lane two way 1.33 1.68 2.09 1.31 1.61 1.98
categorized by geographical region. Locations in New
system
Delhi and Chandigarh come under North India and
3–lane two way 1.05 1.23 1.52 0.95 1.12 1.34 locations in Chennai, Coimbatore and Erode are in
system South India. Table 8 shows that the average crossing

speed in South India is higher than that in North India. and
However, the different in speeds of pedestrians in
North Indian and South India is not found statistically
significant.
Table 8 Geographical Variations

Values of these parameters are given in the Table 9.
Location Percentile speed (m/s)
15th 50th 85th Table 9 Flow Relations for Different Roads
North India 1.1 1.3 1.6
Road Speed - Flow - Flow - uo qmax ko
South India 1.1 1.4 1.8 Type Density Density Speed (m/s) (ped/s) (ped/
m2)
4.3 Pedestrian Flow Relations
2-lane
one 0.58 0.39 0.67
This section mainly deals with the estimation of
relationship between basic flow parameters, flow (q), way
speed (u) and density (k). If any of these two variables 2-lane
are known, the third is uniquely estimated. There is two 0.83 0.34 0.41
actually no single dependent variable; however, density way
is often considered the dependent variable because flow 3-lane
and speed are easier to measure and therefore, serve as two 0.45 0.66 1.46
the independent variables. The speed was calculated way
as the average of one minute data and the flow is
calculated as the number of pedestrian crossing in both 4.4 Pedestrian Vehicle Interaction
directions in one minute. Speed and flow data were
used to determine the density at various flow levels and The average gaps accepted by the pedestrians on
then three fundamental curves were generated for each different road systems are given in Table 10. It was
type of facility as shown in Table 9.
found to be quite high for 3–lane two way road system
The speed (u) - density (k) relation was found to be which is understandable also as the requirement of
exponential of the form as given below. gap will increase with the road width to be crossed.
Average gaps accepted on a two lane one-way road
...1 and two-lane two-way road are quite comparable,
but their standard deviations are quite different. High
or ...2 value of standard deviation on two-lane two-way road
indicates high variability in gap acceptance on these
where u is the speed (m/s) and k is density (pedestrian/ roads. The maximum accepted gap at all 17 locations
m2), a and b are constants. The flow q is given by was more than 24 s. These pedestrians might have
arrived at a time when traffic volume is extremely
...3 low (or headway between two vehicles is very large).
The minimum value is as low as 3.19 s indicating
The maximum flow occurs at optimum density (ko) and that very risky crossings also occur on Indian roads.
optimum speed (uo), which are obtained differentiating Pedestrians accept lower gap by increasing their
equation (2) with respect to k and equating it to zero. crossing speed.

Table 10 Average Gaps Accepted Table 12 Average Gap Acceptance Based on Age
Road Type Mean Standard Minimum Maximum Road Type Young Middle aged Old
gap (s) Deviation
Mean (s) SD (s) Mean (s) SD (s) Mean (s) SD (s)
2 - lane one 8.42 3.31 3.52 24.31 2 - lane one 7.70 3.36 8.23 3.57 8.28 3.07
way system way system
2 - lane two 8.83 4.86 3.19 35.27
2 - lane two 8.02 3.97 8.95 5.28 10.43 5.17
way system
way system
3 - lane two 11.63 4.12 5.79 44.06
3 - lane two 10.35 4.34 11.30 3.96 14.65 4.57
way system
way system
The male pedestrians accepted shorter gaps than female

pedestrians as shown in Table 11. Similar observations 4.4.1 Effect of Conflicting Traffic
are reported by Cohen et al. (1955) also.
Microscopic analysis was carried out for the interaction
Table 11 Gap Acceptance Based on Gender between pedestrians and vehicular traffic. This differs
from standard method of estimating traffic flow rates,
Road Type Male Female in which averages are reported for some fixed period,
usually 15 min or 1 hr. Here the concept of instantaneous
Mean Standard Mean Standard
Deviation Deviation
conflicting traffic flow is used. This concept was used
by Kyte et al. (1991) for a vehicle waiting on a minor
2 - lane one 8.03 3.28 8.60 3.81
street of a two-way stop controlled intersection seeking
way system
the gap in the traffic flow on a major street. The same
2 - lane two 8.63 5.28 9.00 4.43 concept is extended here for pedestrians also. It is
way system explained below.
3 - lane two 10.25 3.41 11.60 3.67
way system Let to = Time of arrival of a pedestrian at the kerb
To observe the effect of age on gap acceptance behavior, tn = Time of arrival of nth conflicting vehicle at
pedestrians were classified into 3 groups as young (less the point of crossing
than 20 years), Middle age (20 to 50 years), and old
n = Number of observed conflicting vehicles for
(more than 50 years). The average gap accepted by these
the subject pedestrian, including the conflicting vehicle
groups is given in Table 12. For 2 – lane one way road
passing just after the pedestrian.
system, a mixed trend was observed for different age
groups. Old pedestrians accepted larger gaps compared
The definition of instantaneous conflicting traffic flow
to others at more than half of the locations, probably
as faced by the pedestrian is the number of observed
due to their higher safety consciousness. For two-lane
conflicting vehicles divided by the observation time as
two-way road system, accepted gaps are larger for all
given by Equation (4).
age groups mainly due to bidirectional traffic. The
average value of accepted gap is as high as 14.65 s on a ...4
3 – lane two way road system for old pedestrians. The
increase in the average accepted gap by old pedestrians Various forms of functions were tried on the observed
as compared to middle aged pedestrians is much higher data to find the relation between conflicting flow rate and
than that observed between middle aged and young the gap accepted. Inverse function as given by equation
pedestrians on a two way road system as compared to 5 was found to fit the data best based on R2, t – statistic
one way road system. and F – value. The model parameters and ANOVA

test results are given in Table 14. All the estimated Table 13 Model Parameters and Test Statistic for
parameters are statistically significant and of plausible Different Road Systems
sign. The typical scatter plots of the relationships for
three types of roads are shown in Figs. 1-2. Road Model Parameters ANOVA Results
Type
Bo B1 R2 F p-value
...5
2 lane one 4.635 12.46 0.336 482.58 0.000
where, CFlow is the conflicting traffic flow (vps) and Ga way
is the gap accepted (s). B0 and B1 are the coefficients 2 lane two 4.485 1.356 0.337 169.274 0.000
and their values at various locations are given in way
Table 13. R2 value for the combined model is
3 lane two 5.441 1.63 0.693 212.499 0.000
considerably high indicating the strength of the model.
way
In case of individual models also, p value is zero and
F values are very high which also show goodness of Combined 3.624 1.461 0.774 3627.792 0.000
these models. data
4.4.2 Gap Accepted Versus Crossing Speed
The scatter plot between crossing speed and accepted

gap indicated a power relation of the form given by
equation 6.
...6
where, Vc is the crossing speed (m/s) and Ga is the gap
accepted (s). The results were found in line with those
reported by Moore (1953). The pedestrians accept
shorter gaps at higher crossing speeds. The scaling
parameter (b0) varied from 3.415 to 16.081 and the rate
Fig. 1 Conflicting Flow Rate Versus Accepted of decay of accepted gap varied from 0.241 to 1.964 at
Gap for Two-Lane Two-Way Road different sections. The typical plot is shown in Fig. 3
and for the data combined from all locations the plot
is shown in Fig. 4. The model parameters are given in
Table 14.
Table 14 Model Parameters of Equation (6)
Road Type Model Parameters ANOVA Results

bo b1 R2 F p - value
2 lane one 9.396 0.792 0.554 2406.945 0.000
way
2 lane two 11.159 0.770 0.630 629.459 0.000
way
3 lane two 17.885 0.924 0.541 175.574 0.000
way
Fig. 2 Conflicting Flow Rate Versus Accepted Combined 10.875 0.849 0.712 3446.25 0.000
Gap for Combined Data data

Fig. 5 Determination of Critical Gap at

Fig. 3 Crossing Speed Versus Accepted Gap
Location 8
On Two-Lane One-Way Road
Average and critical gaps at various locations are given
in Table 15. For 2 – lane two way road systems the
critical gap was found to vary from 3.44 s to 9.756
(average 6.27 s). For two way three lane road system,
the critical gap is high mainly due to more width of the
road to be crossed.
Table 15 Average and Critical Gaps at

Different Locations
Road Type Critical Gap, s Average Gap, s
2 - lane one way 6.27 8.42

Fig. 4 Crossing Speed Versus Accepted Gap for All Locations
2 - lane two way 5.21 8.85
4.5 Critical Gap 3 - lane two way 11.34 11.63
Critical gap is defined as the minimum gap required

4.5.1 Effect of Age and Gender
between the vehicles to allow safe crossing by one
pedestrian. Various methods are available in literature Even though there is variation in gaps accepted between
to estimate the critical gap for a vehicle waiting in the gender groups, the critical gaps for female pedestrian in
approach of a two-way stop controlled intersections. general are higher than those for males at all locations
Ashalatha and Chandra (2010) have shown that none of (Refer Table 16). It is due to lower average speeds of
these methods provide a realistic value of critical gap female (0.99 to 2.1 m/s) than those of males (1.01 to 2.17
under mixed traffic conditions. Therefore a new but m/s). Older pedestrians have highest critical gap when
simple procedure was developed in the present study compared with young and middle aged pedestrians.
to estimate the critical gap of a pedestrian waiting to
cross a road. It is estimated from gap acceptance (Fa) Table 16 Critical Gap (s) Based on Age and Gender
and crossing time (Ft) distribution curves of pedestrians
at a location. The intersections of the curve (Fa) and Road Type Male Female Young Middle Aged Old
inverse of crossing time curve (1-(Ft) gives the value 2 - lane 6.2 6.4 5.6 6.3 7.0
of accepted gap which is just equal to crossing time of one way
the pedestrian. This is the critical gap. Determination 2 - lane 5.1 5.4 7.0 5.3 5.3
of critical gap at location 8 is shown in Fig. 5. Similar two way
plots were made for other sections also, and the average 3 - lane 10.4 11.9 10.3 11.3 12.9
values for three road types are given in Table 15. two way

4.5.2 Effect of Road Width
The variation in critical gap (Gcr) with road width (W)

is shown in Figure 6. As expected, the critical gap
increases with road width. The best relation between
the two, based on R2, t-statistic and F statistic, is given
in equation 7.
Gcr = 0.578*W1.105 ...7
R2 = 0.599, F(1,11) = 16.418, p = 0.02) Fig. 7 Effect of Traffic Volume on Critical Gap
4.5.4 Effect of Crossing Pattern

4.5.3 Effect of Traffic Volume
Rolling type crossing pattern yielded the highest critical
The variation in critical gap with traffic volume is gap (Refer Table 17). This might be due to incorrect
shown in Fig. 7. It was found that the critical gap judgment of rolling gap by the pedestrians. Out of three
decreases with traffic volume. At high traffic volume, types of crossings, two-stage gap was found to have
the average gap between vehicles reduces and it forces lower value of critical gap for all types of road system.
pedestrians to accept smaller gaps. The mathematical This is mainly due to high crossing speed of pedestrian
relation representing the variation in critical gap with and low conflicting traffic faced during this type of
crossing.
traffic volume is given by equation 8.
Table 17 Critical Gap (s) Based on Type of Crossing
Road Type Single stage Rolling Two stage

2 lane one way 5.93 6.34 4.97
(R2 = 0.532, F(1,14) = 6.832, p = 0.04) ...8 road system
2 lane two way 5.10 5.40 4.75
road system
3 lane two way 8.28 10.53 6.47
road system
5 Conclusions
The analyses of pedestrian speeds revealed that

pedestrians walk differently under different conditions.
The average speed on a two-lane one-way system
(1.34 m/s) is higher than that reported in most of the
earlier studies except the ones reported by Knoblauch
et al. (1996) and Fitzpatrick et al. (2006). High average
speeds of 1.73 and 1.91 m/s are observed in the present
study at locations where heavy bi-directional traffic
move with improper lane discipline. Use of average 15th
percentile speed (1.00 m/s) is suggested for pedestrian
Fig. 6 Variation of Critical Gap with Respect facilities like pedestrian signals so that all pedestrians
to Road Width can cross the road safely. In case, 50th percentile speed
is used for walk green time, additional time equivalent
to the difference between 15th and 50th percentile
speed (0.24 m/s) should be provided as pedestrian

clearance time. This will allow the pedestrians to reach is higher than that for males at all locations. Older
a comparatively safer location beyond the edge of pedestrians have largest critical gap when compared
the carriageway (either median or curb). The female with young and middle aged. The critical gap increases
pedestrians’ crossing speed is found lesser than male with road width and decreases with traffic volume on
pedestrians’ crossing speed in all study locations. The the road.
average crossing speed of male and female ( 1.40 and
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The views expressed in the paper are personal views of the Authors. For any query, the author may be contacted at E-mail: satisfce@iitr.ernet.in

Paper No. 594
Applying ‘carbon critical design’ to Highway

Design and Construction: A comparison of the
carbon footprint of Concrete Viaduct and
Reinforced Soil Flyovers
Adrian Anderson* And Anjay Kumar**
Abstract
Due to the threat of climate change, in all infrastructure projects, there is an urgent need to move towards ‘carbon critical design’, where embodied carbon
becomes a key design parameter. India has the world’s most ambitious road building programme; it is creditable that the Indian Roads Congress has
recently identified reduction carbon emissions as a priority [4]. Two common structures used in a typical flyover are the reinforced soil (RS) wall and the
reinforced concrete (RC) viaduct. The RS wall, whilst being approximately half the cost, has only a quarter of the carbon footprint of the RC viaduct. This
is primarily because the main material component of the RS wall is backfill material; for the RC viaduct it is reinforced concrete. Reinforced concrete has
an embodied carbon value approximately 45 times greater than backfill material. This paper outlines the principles of how the carbon footprint calculation
was made using a renowned and freely available foot printing tool. It recommends the same, simple calculations be made for other infrastructure projects
to enable decisions that mitigate the effects of climate change.
1 Introduction to compare different options; in this case the reinforced

concrete (RC) viaduct and the reinforced soil (RS) wall.
Climate change and resource depletion are globally Often the better option for the environment is also more
recognised as the biggest long term threats to mankind. expensive; this is not the case here. Industry analysis
Of all energy using sectors, the green house gas emissions shows that the RS wall has approximately half the cost
(causing climate change) from the transportation sector, of the RC viaduct. This study shows it has only 24% of
and within that the road transportation sub sector, is the carbon footprint. In other words, the environmental
the fastest growing [1]. The economic case to take credentials of the RS wall are even better than its cost
action now to prevent the worst effects of even a 2 C o
credentials. The highways design engineer may not be
rise in global temperature is effectively highlighted in able to influence the carbon emissions of the highway’s
the 2008 Stern Review [2]. In the case of India these end use, but he or she can certainly use considered
effects are: sea level rise affecting Kolkata, Gujarat common sense to reduce its construction carbon footprint,
and Mumbai; glacier melt in the Himalayas leading to whilst also ensuring a cost effective solution.
flooding; cyclones in Southern India, and delay or loss
of the monsoon. Human induced climate change can be
remedied; one of the first steps is to be able to develop a
method of accurately analysing the options available.
This study looks at reducing emissions caused by the

construction phase of a highway, and within that, the
construction of the elevated sections which are the most
costly and carbon intensive sections. Previous studies
have gone into depth on carbon emissions from various
types of asphalt [4], but little has been written about
the emissions from constructing highway structures.
The carbon footprint from construction activities can Fig. 1 Sections through the reinforced soil (RS) wall (top) and
be measured in a meaningful way allowing engineers a reinforced concrete (RC) viaduct (bottom): two of the main
options for urban highway flyovers
* General Manger, Nehemiah Reinforced Soil (India) Pvt. Ltd., E-mail : adrian@nehemiahwalls.com
** Senior Engineer, Mott Macdonald (India) Pvt. Ltd.

112 Anderson And Kumar on
2 The Design Decision – RC Viaduct

or RS wall
For modern urban highway flyovers, design engineers

are faced with two options of how to support the majority
of the flyover. Either a less expensive ‘solid’ reinforced
soil (RS) wall is used, usually in the approaches only.
Or a more expensive ‘hollow’ viaduct of piers and
bridge sections is constructed, usually of reinforced
concrete (RC).
Fig. 3. View from behind an reinforced soil (RS) wall showing

the concrete facing panels, the reinforcing elements, the concrete
anchors and the backfill material
RS walls are made up of a thin facia of concrete panels,

with reinforcing elements embedded in compacted backfill
material. Traffic loading on the wall is transferred to the
backfill via the reinforcing elements; typically steel rods,
strips or geosynthetic strips. The Nehemiah Wall used
in this analysis (see Figure 2) is a reinforced soil wall
which employs a concrete anchor fastened to the end of
the reinforcing bar. Stress is transferred from the backfill
Fig. 2 Photograph showing an elevated road using both
RS wall and RC viaduct
to the reinforcing elements through both frictional and
passive resistance; a robust and cost effective solution
Of course, the central section of the flyover will always know as ‘Anchored Earth® Technology’.
be a bridge section however the approaches form a
large part of the cost of the flyover, hence the relevance 3 Principles of Carbon
of this study. The advantage of the viaduct over the Calculation
solid reinforced wall is that the space beneath can be
The calculation was done using the UK government’s
utilised for; cars or pedestrians passing underneath; for
Environment Agency (EA) construction carbon
parking; or for commercial space. Embankments can
calculator spread sheet (freely available online). For
be used to support flyovers, though in an urban context, civil engineering projects, with no mechanical/electrical
the additional space footprint means that this option is aspects, EA’s calculator is an appropriate tool by which
rarely considered; thus it is not discussed here. Whilst to compare the two design options. However, whilst
this paper highlights the lower carbon footprint of the carbon consultants and software are available to assist
RS wall in urban areas, discretion must be applied to in carbon calculation, it is important to outline some of
its use. In rural areas consideration must be given to the principles involved.
wildlife crossing underneath. In the city of Khanpur,
India, social divisions in the inappropriate overuse of Once the initial boundaries are drawn, carbon calculation
RS walls for flyovers should serve as a reminder that a is simple, it is no more complex than creating a bill
holistic approach must be applied. of quantities, the key output being ‘Tonnes of carbon’

Applying ‘carbon critical design’ to Highway Design and Construction: A comparison of the carbon
footprint of Concrete Viaduct and Reinforced Soil Flyovers 113
rather than ‘Cost’ as shown below: For the manufacture of construction materials much
research has been done. A well respected source which
Extract from a typical Bill of Quantities: is used by the EA is the Inventory of Carbon and
Embodied Energy, of Bath University (G. Hammond
Item Quantity Unit Rate Price and C. Jones) [6]. Those materials which require
(Rupees/ (Rupees) intensive energy to produce; e.g. steel and cement,
Unit) have a much higher carbon footprint than those that are
M35 1000 Cubic 5,500 5,500,000 simple to produce; e.g. aggregate or sand.
Concrete meters
The transportation of these materials from factory gate
Granular 10,000 Cubic 1,000 10,000,000 to construction site is then calculated. Air transport
Sub Base meters
has a much higher footprint than by rail, by ship or
Steel 500 Metric 45,000 22,500,000 by road and the longer the journey the more carbon is
Reinforcing Tonnes emitted. Added to this is the transportation of the plant
bar and labour from the normal source of residing to the
… … … … … construction site. Standard conversion factors are used
to convert the fuel used in transportation and on site
… … … … …
into a carbon equivalent.
TOTAL XXX Rupees
The key principle in any carbon footprint is the drawing
Extract from a typical Carbon Footprint Calculation: of the initial boundaries of the calculation. For example
some carbon footprint studies are for the complete
Item Quantity Unit Rate (Tonnes Carbon
life cycle of a product (e.g. Construction, Operation,
of Carbon / Footprint Maintenance, Demolition). This study reduced the
Unit) (Tonnes) boundaries of study to the Construction phase only. The
reason is two-fold; firstly is the phase that the highways
M35 1000 Cubic 2.5 2,500
construction engineer has most influence over. Secondly,
Concrete meters
it is also the easiest to calculate with a high degree
Granular 10,000 Cubic 0.005 50 of accuracy as all the inputs, are well understood. To
Sub Base meters calculate the life cycle carbon footprint of a highway
Steel 500 Metric 8 400 requires inputs such, resurfacing frequency, numbers
Reinforcing Tonne and types of vehicles plying, operational energy
bar input (such as street lighting), and the possibility of a
… … … … … highway upgrade. This type of assessment introduces
a number of uncertainties and has been attempted by
… … … … … the Asian Development Bank, using Indian Roads as
TOTAL XXX Tonnes a case study [3]. In that study, the construction stage is
almost entirely ignored and elevated structures are not
Fig. 4 Comparison of a typical Construction Bill of Quantities differentiated from flat sections of road.
with a Construction Carbon Footprint
As this is a comparative study, another key principle is
These extracts shows the calculation for materials only. that of consistency applied to both structures. A 30 m
However, a construction carbon footprint consists of long section (27.5 m wide and 8.5 m high) of a recently
three components: i) the carbon emissions from the designed RC viaduct (designed to the latest IRC codes)
manufacture of construction materials; ii) the carbon was chosen and a Nehemiah wall was designed using
emissions from transporting material, labour and plant exactly the same dimensions and foundation type
to site; and iii) the carbon emissions from the plant (see below). For both structures all the materials from
foundation to road top was included. The materials
used during construction. These all need to accurately
plant and labour for both structures was assumed to
estimated and summed to achieve to total carbon have travelled the same distances, by the same method
footprint. to the site.

114 Anderson And Kumar on
M35 1607 (pre- 0.308 285 (crash 0.308

Reinforced stressed beams barrier and
concrete and crash friction slab)
barrier)
Compacted 848 T 0.005 15,675 T 0.005
Fig. 5 Table highlighting the principle quantities of a 30 m

long section of RC and RS wall used in this analysis and their
respective values of embodied carbon (T CO2/T of material). The
key material in for the RS wall is aggregate; for the RC viaduct it
is Reinforced Concrete
Fig. 4 Elevation of the reinforced soil (RS) flyover (top) and

reinforced concrete (RC) viaduct (bottom)
4 Results
The volumes of materials in both structures, as well

as the plant and labour requirements, were entered
into the carbon calculator. The 30 m long section of
the Reinforced Concrete Flyover came to a total of
1522 T CO2e (carbon dioxide equivalent); whilst the Fig.6 Graph showing the breakdown of carbon footprint for the
30 m long section of the Reinforced Soil Flyover RS and RC flyovers. The embodied carbon emissions of concrete,
came to 370 T CO e, i.e. only 24%. It was found that particularly in RC viaduct is by far the largest factor in the
comparison. For RS walls, the emissions from backfill material,
2
one of the key reasons for this is the difference in the concrete and material transport are important.
embodied energy of the primary material of the RC
viaduct: Reinforced Concrete (0.223TCO e/T material),
2 5 Conclusion
whereas the primary material of the RS wall is backfill
material (0.005TCO e/T material).
2
Thus the Reinforced Soil flyover has a carbon footprint
of only approximately a quarter of that of the Reinforced
Reinforced Concrete Reinforced Soil (RS) Wall
Concrete flyover. The principle reasons are as follows:
Viaduct (RC) Flyover Flyover
• The RC flyover, has a volume of reinforced concrete
Tonnes of T CO2e/T Tonnes of T CO2e/T about 20 times that of the RS flyover.
Material material
• The embodied carbon value of reinforced concrete
M20 Mass 57 T (Footings) 0.113 73T (Footings 0.113 (particularly with higher volumes of steel, is
Concrete and anchor
blocks)
approximately 45 times than that of aggregate
which is the principle material of the reinforced
M30 2536 T (Piers 0.223 196 T (Facia 0.121 soil wall.
Reinforced and piles 1.25% panels - 0.48%
Concrete reinforcement reinforcement • The reinforced soil wall has few construction
by volume) by volume) plant requirements as is quicker to install than the
viaduct.

Applying ‘carbon critical design’ to Highway Design and Construction: A comparison of the carbon
footprint of Concrete Viaduct and Reinforced Soil Flyovers 115
Recommendations Climate Change, Chapter 5 Transport and its

infrastructure.
The first recommendation of this paper is that the low
carbon status of the reinforced soil (RS) wall be given 2. STERN Review: The economics of climate
a higher precedence when deciding between the two change, 2006, Sir Nicholas Stern.
options of using the RC viaduct or reinforced soil RS
wall. Obviously sound engineering judgement must 3. Methodology for estimating the carbon
always be used as other factors may also be important. footprint of road projects. Case Study: India,
Asian Development Bank 2010.
In addition this paper recommends that:
4. Indian Roads Congress: Proceedings and papers
• Low carbon concretes are used wherever possible.
from the “International Seminar on “Reducing
These calculations were based on the use of Carbon Footprint in Road Construction”
Ordinary Portland Cement which is typical in February 2011, New Delhi, India.
India. The inclusions of cement replacement such
as Granulated Blast Furnace Slag or Fly Ash can 5. Environment Agency (UK government),
drastically reduce the embodied energy of the Calculator of Carbon Footprint of Construction
cement with little or no reduction in strength. In Projects 2009: ‘www.environment-agency.gov.
addition, all materials, particularly backfill material uk/construction carbon calculator’.
in the case of the RS wall are, wherever possible,
sourced locally to reduce transportation emissions. 6. Bath University, Inventory of Carbon and
Embodied Energy, (G. Hammond and C.
• Regarding the carbon footprint of the operation Jones).
phase of a highway flyovers, a study could be done
in optimal highway gradient. A shallower gradient 7. Lynsay Hughes et al, Highways Agency
(UK Government), Cambridge University, Arup
would entail less energy by vehicles to pass over
Partnership, Blackwell Ltd, Proceedings of the
• Similar analysis needs to be done for other Institution of Civil Engineers: ‘Carbon Dioxide
from Earthworks: a Bottom-up Approach,
infrastructure projects, and that carbon calculation
May 2011’.
should become an integral part of the India
highways construction process. 8. B. Clarke, Professor of Civil Engineering,
University of Leeds, Proceedings of the
• The appropriate authorities adopt and adapts a Institution of Civil Engineers: ‘Carbon Critical
carbon calculator such as the EA’s to standardise Design, 2010.
calculations. Local conditions can be applied
to ensure the calculations are accurate. Carbon
calculations should be requested alongside a
cost calculation for any major infrastructure
development.
To encourage similar comparatives studies to, copies of

the spread sheets used in the calculation can be made
available: please email adrian@nehemaihwalls.com
Key References
Fig. 7 Photograph of the construction in Andhra Pradesh, India
1. IPPC, 3rd Assessment Report, Climate Change of the types of the two structures considered in this study; the RS
2007: Working Group III: Mitigation of wall (foreground) and the RC Viaduct (background)
The views expressed in the paper are personal views of the Authors. For any query, the author may be contacted at E-mail : adrian@nehemiahwalls.com

DISCUSSION
ON
PAPERS PUBLISHED IN
VOLUME 73 PARTS 1, 2 & 3

Discussion on Paper No.576*
‘Perpetual Flexible Pavements:
Pavements of Future”
By
Sanjay Garg
Paper No. 580**
“A Critical Review of Concrete Road Construction
Practices in India”
By
M.C. Venkatesha & Nawraj Bhatta
&
Paper No.584***
“Investigations on Laboratory Performance of Bituminous
Mixes with Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement Materials – A Step
Towards Sustainable Road Infrastructure in India”
By
Kanishak Chopra, Anjan Kumar, S. Rajib Basu Mallick & A. Veeraragavan
Dr. S.S. Jain (Chairman’s Opening Remarks) Paper No. 576
We have three very interesting Papers, First Paper Prof. A. Veeraragavan

No. 576 dealing with the Perpetual Flexible
Pavements, Second Paper No. 580 A Critical Review At the outset, I congratulate Mr. Garg for having brought
of Concrete Road Construction and third Paper out a nice paper on perpetual flexible pavements. He
No. 584 Investigations on Laboratory Performance of has compiled information from many international
Bituminous Mixes with Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement publications and presented the benefits of adopting
Materials. I am sure the authors will present the paper perpetual pavements in India.
in more detail to elicit views of our distinguished
participants. I request the authors to make their I request Shri Garg to clarify few points:
presentations after which we shall receive the
comments of the distinguished participants which then 1. Several Stretches of NHDP section carry heavy
can be replied by the authors. traffic, but have not warranted a resurfacing
even after eight years. The distresses are due
The authors made Power Point presentation of the
to the poor quality of the binder and poor mix
Paper Nos. 576, 580 & 584.
design. Structural bottom up fatigue cracks are
* Published at pages 79 to 93 of IRC Journal Vol.73 Part 1

** Published at pages 241 to 297 of IRC Journal Vol.73 Part 3
*** Published at pages 339 to 352 of IRC Journal Vol.73 Part 3

118 Discussion on Paper Nos. 576, 580 & 584
not observed on many of the NHDP sections Shri Nawraj Bhatt

and the cracks that are observed are only top
down cracks, due to binder aging and rutting Where in India perpetual pavement was tried?
due to poor mix design. How will perpetual
Shri Jaiprakash
pavement address these issues?
1. Has it been tried elsewhere?
2. The cost of two lane km of NH is 213 lakh/km,
whereas, the cost of deep strength bituminous 2. How about the cost Economics?
pavement is Rs.3.45 lakh/km. The author has 3. What is the Design Life?
presented that thicker the bituminous layer,
Shri R.S. Shukla
higher will be the life and lesser will be the
maintenance cost. If so, will our contract system 1. In scientific fraternity, there is a saying “One
encourage adoption of such new technology? If gram of practical is equal to one ton of theory”.
yes, why no concessionaire is adopting the new The present paper concentrates more on ton
technology, when international best practices are without bothering for the gram. This is the
permitted? If no, what are the impediments? reason that the author very often uses the phrase
again and again “ It is very well documented in
3. How should the decision makers take the issue the literature”.
forward to develop the guidelines for perpetual
pavements by the IRC? How long will it take, 2. Long lasting perpetual pavements are designed
in the opinion of the author, to bring out new such that structural distresses occur only at the
code/guidelines on perpetual pavements? surface where they are more easily and cast
effectively remedied. The core concept behind
4. How long should the performance be monitored, perpetual pavements is that the pavement
before we gain confidence on the performance response under load (Stress, strain, deflection)
of perpetual pavements and develop guidelines in the pavement layers are kept below the
for perpetual pavements in India? What are threshold level so that no structural distresses
the performance indicators that need to be are likely to occur.
compared between conventional and perpetual
pavements? How will the performance of 3. The existing designed methods such as the
perpetual pavement different from conventional AASHTO Design Guide 1993 and the Asphalt
Institute design methods rely upon increasing
pavement?
layer thickness, volume increase and are not
5. The author has recommended the adoption entirely appropriate for perpetual pavement
of the perpetual technology to expressways design.
and NHDP section. Why not the non-NHDP
4. The design concept of long lasting perpetual
sections, so that the Govt. can take decisions pavement is that the bottom up cracking is
without requesting the concessionaire to adopt reduced almost to zero. Several authors have
the new technology? attempted different thicknesses to reduce or
eliminate the bottom up cracking of bituminous
6. Dr. Kadiyali and others (Paper No. 577) have pavements. A thickness range of 160 mm to
predicted that the price of bitumen will rise from 360 mm has been found quite satisfactory
Rs.35,000 to Rs.3,00,000 per ton in the year for the elimination of bottom up cracking.
2030. If so, what may be cost of the perpetual To achieve this objective threshold strains to
pavements with deep bituminous layers? preclude rutting and fatigue cracking of flexible
pavements. Moni Smith and Long have reported

Discussion on Paper Nos. 576, 580 & 584 119
60 e as tensile limit for fatigue cracking and Conventional pavement - Rs.187 - 213 Lacs/
200 e in the sub grade as a compressive strain km
limit for rutting. Long lasting perpetual - Rs.240 - 294 Lacs/
km pavement
5. Assuming thickness of bituminous layer as
criteria for long lasting perpetual pavement, Due to high cost, for conventional pavements,
the flexible pavements designed as per stage construction is advocated to reduce
IRC: 37-2001 fall in the category of normal
pressure on our resources.
flexible pavements while those designed by
AASHTO method of design or categorized 8. The contents of the paper are entirely based on
as deep strength asphalt pavement structures literature review, giving little consideration to
because the latter are constructed on relatively
the environmental conditions prevailing in the
thin granular layers.
country. The idea of putting lower layers with
6. In tropical countries like ours and particularly Softer grade of binder is a welcome move but
in high rainfall region, deterioration of such pavements shall not be opened for regular
bituminous layer occurs by atmospheric ageing Traffic. Instances are not wanting where this
like oxidation, evaporation and polymerization immature decision have lead to premature
up to a depth of 7 cm to 10 cm while the bottom failure of the pavement even before receiving
layers are affected more by moisture damage. the regular surface course.
Due to oblivious reasons the concept of
perpetual long lasting pavement may not be that 9. Choice of appropriate grade of binder is the basic
effected. It is the reason IRC 37 recommends a requirement of flexible pavement performance.
design life of 20 years for granular layers but A CRRI/IOC Study revealed that a minimum of
advocates the design of bituminous layer for 10 three grades of binder is required for our roads.
years design life. The choice depends on the following:
7. In the flexible pavement designed as per a) Where the temperature difference between
IRC: 37-2001, the contribution of bituminous the maximum and minimum is less than
layer is as high as 70-80 percent. There is 20°C, a hard grade of binder such as 30/40
every attempt to economize the construction (VG 4O) is needed.
by reducing the thickness of bituminous layer
and the increase of thickness of granular layer. b) Where atmospheric temperature between
With this objective in mind the IRC: 37-2012 maximum and minimum is more than
advocates the concept of composite pavements 20°C, a soft grade of binder like 80/100
that is partly granular and partly cement (VG10) scores better.
stabilized bases and sub-bases.
c) Where the traffic intensity goes more than
Here it will not be out of place to mention that
50 msa, a hard grade of bitumen such as
in fifties the bitumen was sold at Rs. 350/ Ton
30/40 (VG40) is needed irrespective of
while today it is available at Rs. 35000/- per ton
(an increase of 100 fold.) temperature difference.
The author already calculated the cost difference Unfortunately India produces only two grades
between flexible pavement and long lasting of bitumen i.e. 80/100 (VG10) for Highways
perpetual pavements and found the perpetual and 60/70 (VG30) for airfield pavements
asphalt pavements about 1.5 to 2 times more leaving practically no choice for the grade of
expensive than the flexible pavements hitherto binder to be used. Modified binder is the only
practiced in India i.e. alternative.

10. Marshall method of bituminous mix design Paper No. 580

is quite common in India. The MORTH
orange book “Specifications for Road and Prof. A. Veeraragavan
Bridge Works” A BIBLE FOR HIGHWAY
1. Pre-mature failure in Indore bypass was
ENGINEERS ADVOCATES THE DESIGN
reported. I would like to know as how
PARAMETERS TO BE CONTROLLED AT
provision of drainage of depressed median
60°C but there are regions in the country where
was not considered by the consultant and other
the pavement temperature goes as high as 79°C.
agencies?
One may question as to whether the Marshall
properties at 60°C shall be able to cater to the 2. I request the authors to share their experience
traffic loading at 70°C. The Strategic Highway w.r.t. rigid pavement design as per the
Research Program (SHRP) has enlightened us IRC 58-2011 and will the revised design code
in this regard. I quote: ensure pre-mature failure?
“The desired properties of the mix remain the 3. Do we really require dowel bars in construction
same; actually it is the temperature which alters joints for load transfer as they are laid over a
the properties and hence the desired properties LCC base?
must be satisfied at the highest pavement
temperature prevailing in the region.” 4. In case of construction of pavement directly on
rock bed, longitudinal and transverse cracks
11. Overloading problem in India is rather acute. are reported. Based on the wide experience of
The flexible pavements designed as per the authors, what precautions should be taken
IRC: 37-2001 seldom last to its full design life. in case of construction of CC pavements over
Unpredictable VDF values are the basic cause. rock beds.
The overloaded vehicles always use high tyre
pressure to sustain the load. High tyre pressure 5. Based on the experience of several pre-mature
has a tendency to punch the pavement, causing failure of CC pavements, should we go ahead
pot holes. For controlling this aspect of the with CC pavement or continue with flexible
problem, Marshall quotient must be adequately pavements.
controlled. Jackson and Brien have suggested a
method for obviating this aspect of the problem Dr. R.K. Srivastava
of overloading and tyre pressure i.e.
1. We had wonderful Presentations, drawing
Stability (lbs) attention towards Design, Construction,
Maintenance of Rigid Pavement.
Marshall quotient = _______ > 1.2 tyre pressure (psi).
flow (1/100 of n inch) - 2. Study is based on observations only of
Highways, it should also conducted for ODR,
Shri M.N. Nagabhushana VDS.
1. Distresses are somewhat structural. What was 3. R.C.C. Pavements should be adopted by
done to address top down cracking? providing reinforcement at top and bottom and
advantages of flexure can also be taken.
2. Open graded Frictional course (OGFC) is not
a structural layer. How this will be a part of 4. Providing the RCC Pavement cracks due to
perpetual pavement? shrinkage and other reasons may be reduced.

Shri B.T. Jwalendra Kumar How can the disintegration of pavement due to poor
drainage be prevented? If poor drainage is the reason
New trend in Germany is to construct a bituminous why such a phenomenon has not taken place on Delhi
layer in place of DLC to reduce temperature stresses. Mathura road NH-2 where no drainage layer has
It means BT Layer is directly placed on GSB/DL. How been provided at all and DLC has been laid directly
effective will it be? What paving mix and thickness on compacted sub-grade. This sub-grade remains wet
shall be placed.
during rains due to percolation of rain water through
Shri S. Jaswant Kumar cracks and damaged joints.
i) If I remember correctly expansion joints Para 2 Page 247

were specified to be provided extensively
by previous standards. Only recently they Please bring out vividly the difference between a
are not recommended. But still, lot of permeable drainage coarse and free draining sub-
confusion in field engineer’s mind on this base. IRC and MORTH have recently done away
provisions is there. with grading III from close graded and coarse graded
drainage layers (GSB) and adopted permeability co-
ii) I have travelled on Yamuna Expressway efficient of 30 m/day. Is it ok or are you suggesting
and observed minor cracks already and some other value, although you have justified 30 m/
even the texture though better than other day permeability co-efficient adopted by IRC. In
projects still has problems. The tyre groove USA the specifications provide for very high value of
width is more. There is a need to improve permeability co-efficient.
texture laying.
Paper No. 584
Shri R.K. Jain
Shri S. Jaswant Kumar
First of all kindly accept my congratulation for writing
such a nice paper bringing out the likely distresses and Are the present specifications of MORTH sufficient to
suggesting their remedies. Some of the comments are go for RAP in traditional contracts? (Not PPP/BOT).
as under: For information: In two projects of NHAI, Double
Drum mix plants are processed and work in progress
1. General, Para 3 ….low grade DLC….
with RAP. Why some suggestions are given for only
The strength of DLC with 10 MPa seven days would be 20% RAP for the Present?
more than M15 at 28 days period. This is not low grade
concrete. Please clarify. Shri M.N. Nagabhushana
Para 2.2 Has any past of RAP been tried in WMM/GSB? What if
modified bitumen is in old pavement? Special reference
What is the functional difference between a pavement to CRMB?
with 5.0 m spaced transverse joints vs 4.5 m spaced
joints? Please bring out in the form of description Shri R.S. Shukla
considering warping stresses in view, as many panels
on Delhi Mathura road NH-2 have developed through 1. The authors have intruded on a beaten path
transverse cracks. without doing their home work properly.
4.2 Sub-surface Drainage 2. The recycling process/technology was in fact

born in India and also saw its death in India.
Refer photos 5, 6, 7 & 8 Thanks to the ingenuity of highway engineers

in India that they did not award the work on the produced is entirely original and there is no
basis of a single tender. touch of plagiarism in it.
3. In early thirties, the Recondo process was 7. On seeing the pitiable fate of his work,
developed by late N H Tailor. The Recondo Late Norman Tailor in one of the Seminar
method was used on a large scale in Singapore organized by the University of London in 1981
and to a limited scale on 24 roads in Bombay lamented:-
city. The process met with partial success as the
plant modification were not adequate. ‘There is a belief in India that every technology
comes from the west, unless the west adopts
4. The oil crisis of 1973 infused a new spirit the technology India will never adopt. Now the
among highway fraternity the world over. west has adopted the technology now India will
The purpose based machinery such as, milling also adopt’. How true is his forecast.
machines, repaver and remixing units were
developed which could recycle the mix in- 8. In 2005, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur
situ. Three milling machines and two recycling organized a seminar on recycling of bituminous
trains were brought in the country and it was felt pavements. Prof. Rajib Malik presented a
comprehensive scenario of the recycling the
that the time was not far off when the recycling
world over but the ultimate outcome remained
will be taken on a large scale in the country.
dismal.
About twenty eight roads in Delhi including
parliament street in Delhi, Nagabakkam road in 9. Now coming back to the research details
Madras, Sonali airfield in Jamshedpur and few contained in the paper, the Authors though
others were surfaced using in-situ recycling. describe the deficiency in aggregate gradation
For Nagabakkam road recycling, the mix in the recycled asphalt pavement, but kept to
design was worked out by prof late Dr. K.S. themselves as to how the binder properties
Sankaran of IIT Chennai in close cooperation were modified to sustain prevailing pavement
of CRRI. Later both the recycling trains were temperature and traffic loading. It is not true
reduced to junk as the work of recycling could that the in five years of traffic loading there is
not be awarded on the basis of single tender. perceptibly little hardening of bitumen in the
RAP. They should realize that in hot climate of
5. In 1988, the IRC in its annual session held at
south India, the hardening of asphalt is much
Trivandrum ,organized a panel discussion under
faster than hardening encountered in U S road.
the convenorship of Prof. C.G. Swaminathan, a
The field experiment conducted in India have
doyen of highway engineering in the country. shown that in five years trafficking on our roads
The eminent Highway Engineers expressed a bitumen 80/100 hardened to 10/20 which
their views and advocated the adoption of the needs modification to 30/40 grade in order to
technique without delay but later nobody talked sustain the traffic loading.
of the recycling technique.
10. The authors have referred Super pave method
6. A National Get together on Road Research and of mix design over the Marshall method of mix
its Utilization was organized by the Central design so prevalent in India, without bothering
Road Research Institute where a detailed note to use the binder of performance grade binders
on recycling covering the world scenario on (PG Grade) as envisaged in super pave method
process of recycling was brought out. The used in USA. They have ignored the SHRP
authors have presumed that whatever they have philosophy altogether which reads:-

“The desired properties of the material /mix readers. The reply of the author on the comments of
remain the same; actually it is the temperature the readers is:
which alters the properties and hence the
desired properties must be satisfied at the 1. Perpetual pavements are designed to preclude
highest pavement temperature prevailing in the the structural distresses developed deep within
region” the pavement structure, in the form of rutting
and bottom up fatigue cracking, to the extent
11. The authors preferred a binder VG30 with a possible. It is already stated under para 7 of
softening point of 47°C while in Indian roads the paper that optimized mix design, best
the pavement temperature goes as high as 70°C construction practice and proper adoption of
(20-25C above the atmospheric temperature). In quality control practices during construction
such situation only a binder with min softening stages of the perpetual pavements are the
point of 70°C will be able to resist rutting on essential prerequisites to maintain its perpetuity
roads in southern peninsula. property. Under such circumstances, the
distress resulted from binder aging and rutting
12. The authors have completely ignored the due to poor mix design as mentioned by the
phenomenon of overloading so common on our Prof. A. Veeraragavan can be minimized and
roads. The overloaded vehicle use invariably consequently, the service life of the pavement
higher tyre pressure to sustain the traffic load. structures in India can be enhanced.
A high tyre pressure has a tendency to puncture
the pavement similar to what has been envisaged 2. With respect to the adoption of higher thickness
of bituminous layers as asked by Prof. A.
in Hubbard Field method of mix design.
Veeraragavan, there is no bar in the present
Overloading coupled with high tyre pressure
contract system used in the construction of
can be overcome by controlling the Marshall
pavements in India. It is the entrepreneur or the
quotient adequately. Jackson and Brien gave a
policy makers, who can take initiative in the use
concept to take care of such a phenomenon as
of new technologies in line with international
under:
best practices. The only impediment is - “Are
stability (lbs) we ready for the adoption of new technology
instead of traditional construction and design
Marshall quotient = _______ = or > tyre pressure (psi) practices?”
flow (1/100 of an inch)
3. Prof. A. Veeraragavan, being a member of the
Finally I will suggest the authors that they should Flexible Pavement Committee (FPC) of IRC,
study the environmental conditions particularly the is well aware about the procedure in which
temperature profile carefully for use of either normal the guidelines are framed up. It is however
or recycled mix on Indian roads. Past experience of stated here that he along with other esteemed
late Norman Tailors and other Indian scientist should members of the FPC can initiate and take the
be thoroughly perused before pursuing such research decision for developing the guidelines for the
work. perpetual pavements, which can be deliberated
and decided by the Highways Specifications and
Replies by the Author (Paper No. 576) Standards Committee of IRC for the adoption of
the finalized guidelines in India by the Highway
The author appreciates the fact that his paper has Engineering and Construction Community. In
solicited numerous valuable comments from the this connection, a small pilot project for the

construction of perpetual pavement in a length cost, the cost of both types of pavements
of 200 m is initiated on NH 209 near Bengaluru will increase. The extent of cost increase of
in Karnataka, which will provide basis field perpetual pavements can easily be worked out
data needed in the framing such guidelines on as illustrated in the paper itself as asked by
perpetual pavements in India. Prof. A. Veeraragavan.
4. In response to the question of 7. In response to the question of Shri Nawraj

Prof. A. Veeraragavan – “How long should Bhatt and Shri Jai Prakash, it is informed
the performance be monitored, before we gain that perpetual pavements are not tried so far
confidence on the performance of perpetual in India. However, it is already illustrated in
pavements and develop guidelines for perpetual the paper that perpetual pavements are much
pavements in India?”, it is stated that in view of
economical and beneficial in comparison to
the performance monitored at abroad, especially
conventional flexible pavements on the basis of
in USA and European countries, construction of
longer service life; improved road user safety,
perpetual pavement can be considered in India
mobility & satisfaction; life cycle cost benefits;
also. Prof. A.Veeraragavan further wants to
know the difference between the performance material consumption; greater recyclability;
of perpetual pavements and conventional higher structural capability; lesser construction
pavements. In case of perpetual pavements, time etc. Design life for perpetual pavements
distresses are confined generally within 50 mm can be generally considered more than 50
to 100 mm thickness of top bitumen layers which years.
can be milled and repaved. Thus, the perpetuity
of the perpetual pavements can be maintained 8. Shri R.S. Shukla has stated that the concept
over indefinite period. In case of conventional of the perpetual pavements are not applicable
pavements, distresses are generally occurring for the tropical countries like India. On this
deep inside the pavements resulting failure statement, author’s response is that perpetual
of entire pavement structure after a certain pavement structures with proper mix design
specified period and thus, a conventional and construction can sustain the traffic
pavement structure has a limited service life generally observed on Indian Highways in all
and needs to be reconstructed repeatedly after regions of India and can provide the desirable
the completion of each service life. level of service to the road users for more than
50 years. IRC:37-2001 or even the IRC:37-
5. The perpetual pavements can be used for 2012 are completely silent for such type of
high as well as low traffic zones as already pavements in terms of their characteristic
suggested in the paper. The suggestion of as well as application properties. Further,
Prof. A. Veeraragavan for adopting the
the statement of Shri R.S. Shukla about the
perpetual pavements on Non-NHDP sections
design life of 20 years for granular layers and
say in PMGSY schemes or else is a much
10 years for bituminous layers is nothing but
needed step in India and author will also
a misinterpretation of IRC:37. IRC:37 never
support such initiatives to be considered by
the Government so as to evolve a long lasting recommends for such differential design life for
sustainable pavement network to the major various constituent pavement layers. In case of
portion of Indian population. stage construction, it is stated in IRC:37 that the
thickness of sub-base will be provided for full
6. Bitumen cost is about 65% in case of design life and thickness of bituminous layers
conventional pavements and 75% in case of will be sufficient to sustain the total traffic over
perpetual pavements. On increasing the bitumen the chosen design period.

9. A perpetual pavement structure is a sustainable Replies by the Author (Paper No. 580)
type of pavement structure as against the
non-sustainable nature of the conventional In reply to the questions of Dr. A. Veeraragavan, it is
pavements. The structural strength of a composite mentioned as under:
pavement structure is always a function of its
1. The depressed median of Indore Bypass of
service life and appears to be reducing over its
about 10 m width was provided with a median
service life and after a certain period (which is
drain in the centre comprising of narrow
much less than perpetual pavements), it also
shallow curved precast RCC sections with stone
require reconstruction. However, with proper
pitching of about a meter or so on both sides.
structural design, construction and maintenance This drain was connected to cross drainage
approach of shave and pave practices, a perpetual structures for disposing of surface water. The
pavement structure can work for indefinite reasons for premature failure of concrete slabs
service life. It has a very low maintenance require detailed study.
cost in comparison to conventional as well as
composite pavements. Initial higher cost to 2. Premature failure of rigid pavements observed
the tune of 30 to 60% can be recovered within in recently constructed CC pavements in India
10 to 20 years of the service life. Keeping are mostly attributed to construction deficiencies
in view of limited availability of material (viz. late saw cutting of joints, inadequate
resources and damages to the environment, such curing of concrete when it is hardening,
initial higher cost can be easily absorbed by the concreting during hot weather, misaligned
Government for the sake of enormous benefits dowels, pavement placed over weak foundation,
to the society. All other comments of Shri R.S. providing expansion joints indiscriminately,
Shukla are welcome and author may also hope less attention to quality control practices during
that all these comments of Shri R.S. Shukla construction etc.). As such, new IRC:58-2011
may be considered by the relevant Pavement will not prevent premature failures. Rather,
Committee of IRC for proper modification of adherence to the best construction practices
IRC guidelines. will certainly reduce the probability of such
premature failures to a minimum.
10. As already stated in the paper that all types
of surface distresses including the top 3. A construction joint is also a contraction
down cracking as mentioned by Shri M.N. joint except that it is not sawed. Hence load
Nagabhushana can be repaired with shave transfer mechanism across construction joint is
required same as contraction joint. Moreover,
and pave strategy of maintenance, in which,
construction joint, as far as possible, are placed
the affected thickness of the top 50 to 100 mm
at the location of contraction joints except in
thick bituminous layers will be milled off and
emergency situations like when there is sudden
repaved thereafter either with same quality
malfunctioning of Batching Plant etc. Load
or preferably with superior quality as already
transfer devices are however not required
suggested in the paper. Open Graded Fraction
for CC slabs of less than 200 mm thickness.
Course (OGFC) is definitely not a structural Although the Lean Cement Concrete (LCC)
layer as mentioned by Shri M.N. Nagabhushana. base helps in improving joint performance,
It is only a part of the wearing course as already dowels, however, are required at contraction
stated in the paper, wherein, it is clearly written and construction joints.
that at least 40 mm thick of OGFC layers can
be provided over at least 50 mm thick Stone 4. In our opinion when rocky strata is encountered,
Matrix Asphalt (SMA) layer. the designers should not eliminate normal

foundation layers like base and subbase. 4. With the provision of reinforcement, the
Besides, no attempt should be made to reduce number and magnitude of cracks will be much
the thicknesses of pavement layers. With this less. In CRCP pavement cracks do form but
precaution the pavement will perform without their width being very narrow, they get filled
serious adverse effect. normally with fine dust which will not permit
water to enter the slab up to the mid height
5. As discussed earlier at point no. 1, premature where reinforcement is placed.
failure of rigid pavements observed in
recently constructed CC pavements are mostly In reply to the question of Shri B.T. Jwalendra
Kumar, it is mentioned that the main purpose of DLC
attributed to construction deficiencies. If these
(or BT layer if adopted in lieu of DLC) is to provide a
are addressed appropriately, premature failures
uniform and stable support to the CC slab laid over it.
can be eliminated. The choice of rigid versus
If BT layer is used in lieu of DLC, it also acts as bond
flexible pavement should be governed by the
breaking interlayer between CC slab and underlying
economic considerations. At project level, a
layers. In the case of BT surface plastic membrane
life cycle cost analysis of both options will tell sheet is not required since bituminous mixes allow
us which option is cost effective. Moreover, CC expansion and contraction of the slab. The bituminous
pavement uses indigenously produced cement layer apparently being softer, it can accommodate a
binder compared to imported crude based curled slab to get seated fully thus reducing stresses
binder for flexible pavements. unlike in the case of DLC. This is a common practice
adopted by many countries for white topping projects
In response to Dr. R.K. Srivastava, it is stated as in which case CC overlay is paced over BT layer or
under: bituminous profile correction course. A minimum
thickness of 100 mm bituminous layer can be adopted
1. We are thankful to Dr. R.K. Srivatsava for his under concrete slabs. For smooth texture, dense graded
encouraging comments. bituminous (DBM) mix can be adopted.
2. Yes, we agree such studies should be conducted In reply to Shri S. Jaswant Kumar’s comments, it is
on concrete roads constructed by on VR by mentioned as under:
PMGSY. The MORD may initiate a similar
study on concrete roads got constructed by 1) As per prevailing IRC guidelines (IRC:58
PMGSY. and IRC: 15) expansion joints are not
required except when pavement abuts
3. A properly designed and constructed at permanent structures like bridges and
concrete pavement need not be provided with culverts.
reinforcement. Providing reinforcement on both
top and bottom is never practiced in pavement 2) Minor cracks which might have appeared
due to techno-economical considerations. near approaches to the structures etc are
not serious. As regards to texturing, there
Continuously reinforced concrete pavement
is a marked improvement in the texture
(CRCP) is adopted for avoiding formation of
type in the recent projects. In many of the
numerous joints. The reinforcement in this
recently constructed CC pavements, tine
case is placed at good height. Cost of CRCP
texture has replaced brush texture thereby
pavement is higher. Such works are popular improving the life and durability of
in advanced countries like France, Germany, texture. Longitudinal tine texture was also
Belgium etc. tried in some project (sections of NH-28

four-laning project between Lucknow and for some cracks which we are aware of. But
Muzaffarpur) which is believed to produce terrain of Delhi-Mathura road had the following
less noise. New mechanized texturing advantages:
machines are capable of producing uniform
textures. i) The area receives scanty rain,
ii) Road traverses on a flat terrain.
In response to Shri R.K. Jain’s comments, it is stated
as under: When there are valley curves the absence of drainage
layer will cause considerable distresses.
1. Yes, the statement is correct. Recognizing this
fact, a maximum compressive strength of 8.5
4. Free draining courses are those having
MPa is recommended in USA for highway
coefficient of permeability in the range of 15
pavements to control curling stresses. In
to 46 m/day as measured in the constant head
Australia, a characteristic compressive strength
of 7 MPa is specified for concrete produced laboratory permeability tests as per ASTM
with Portland cement. Even use of DLC of 6.5 D 2434. Permeable drainage courses are
MPa can also serve the purpose. The new IRC open graded subbases with almost single size
Codes must take this into consideration. gradation (coefficient of uniformity, cu between
2 to 6) and large coefficient of permeability
2. Warping stress is a function of transverse joint (k > 107 m/day or 350 ft/day). In the paper,
spacing. More spaced are the contraction joints, the authors had suggested a target permeability
higher is the temperature stress. This can be value of 30 m/day for drainage layer. Recent
illustrated with the following example: publications by American Concrete Pavement
Association (ACPA) seem to favor free draining
For a M-40 grade CC slab of 300 mm thickness permeable courses as compared to older
constructed over a sub-grade of 7% CBR, the
practice of providing open graded permeable
temperature stress is 23 kg/cm2 for 4 m spacing
layers. It may be noted that compacting open
and 26 kg/cm2 for 5 m spacing of contraction
graded layers is difficult unless it is treated with
joint.
bitumen or cement. Therefore a drainage layer
3. Disintegration of pavement can be prevented having coefficient of permeability of 30 m/day
by (a) improving drainage characteristics should be satisfactory in our works.
of the so-called GSB drainage layer and
(b) unhindered outlet of the GSB drainage layer Replies by the Author (Paper No. 584)
to the embankment slope. As discussed in the
paper, GSB grading of Table 400-1 & 400-2 In response to the comments by Shri Jaswant Kumar,
of MoRTH Specifications (4th Revision) have the authors wish to inform that the present specifications
coefficient of permeability (k-value) less than of MORTH needs refinement. The draft detailed
3.17 m/day. Such low values of the permeability specifications for recycling is under consideration of
coefficient indicate that these mixes cannot be the Flexible Pavement Committee of the IRC and once
used for subsurface drainage purposes as these implemented, it will meet the requirements of the road
are unable to effectively conduct the seeped construction industry. The procedures for utilization of
water to the adjacent drainage ditch. Water path 20% RAP could be adopted for other percentages as well;
is also blocked at the outlet by grass cover and however, 20% seems to be the most-adopted maximum
soil. limit of RAP percentage upto which the recycling could
be conducted with the same grade of binder as that used
Regarding the Delhi-Mathura Road the absence for all-virgin mixes, using conventional mixing plants.
of drainage layer must have been responsible Recommendations from research (conducted in the US)

are that if the percentage of RAP exceeds 15-20%, then have presumed that whatever is they have produced are
the upper performance grade (PG) of the binder needs entirely original and that there is no touch of plagiarism
to be decreased by one grade. Therefore, as a start, the in it, are not palatable. The views of Mr. Shukla are
maximum limit of 20% is suggested here that could purely based on surmises and conjectures. One of
utilized without using a separate binder for recycling the reasons, as why recycling has not been practiced
(and hence without needing a separate/additional in India is due to the absence of appropriate codes/
bitumen tank in the plant). Further research on design of guidelines from the IRC/MORTH.
bituminous mixes with higher percentage of RAP and
with different binder grades will throw more light in Regarding the properties of the old bitumen, the authors
this direction and this is an area of concern at present. wish to inform that the hardening effect was marginal,
as the existing pavement layers that are considered
In response to the comments made by Shri M.N. for recycling are less than five years old; however,
Naghabhushana, the authors wish to inform that the hardening of asphalt binder is marginally beneficial in
use of RAP has been tried in the wet mix macadam terms of providing rutting resistance; the issue could
and granular sub-base layers. However, the authors be related to fatigue cracking; generally, research
would like to point out that such use of RAP (which has shows that using RAP without lowering the grade
bitumen as well as aggregates) will not allow the full of asphalt (as mentioned earlier) is allowable upto
utilization of its potential, and hence realize its benefits, 15-20%. Similar research work has also been conducted
and, in some cases, could be harmful; for example, if in very hot climatic regions in the US. The authors would
the GSB is supposed to act as a relatively free draining like to point out that this paper has been presented as
layer, the presence of asphalt in the RAP would actually an example of a case study of successful use of higher
reduce drainage, and lead to its failure. percentage of RAP and it is expected that once the
technique is accepted for regular work, appropriate
The observations of Shri Naghabhushana on guidelines may be developed for selection of proper
utilization of RAP with modified binders are asphalt binder for specific percentages of RAP.
commendable. The presence of modified bitumen could
be an issue of concern; however, at the rate of 20% Regarding the adoption of Superpave specifications
usage of RAP, this is most likely not a major problem; in India, the authors wish to admit that the use of PG
recycling works have been conducted with modified grading was avoided since the needed equipment for
bitumen in the past and is being done, without any conducting the tests as per Superpave specifications are
problem. Again, the key issue is to limit the amount of almost absent in India (except few academic institutions
RAP such that this does not become an issue. Further and CRRI). VG-30 bitumen was selected, as it is the
studies are needed in this direction to decide the effect most prevalent grade of bitumen in the country. Most
of modified binders in RAP at higher dosages as well of the bitumen produced in India, do not even meet the
as the choice of rejuvenators / binder grades to modify BIS specifications and so, it is a long way to go for
the properties of the binder in RAP mixes and their adoption of Superpave specifications for bitumen in
role on performance. India.
Shri Shukla through his wide experience of several The issue of overloading is an issue to be considered
decades in Central Road Research Institute has not only in the present study, but in all road projects in
mentioned about the history of recycling of bituminous the country. Efforts are being made at the Government
pavement layers in India and the authors thank him for level to solve the problem of overloading. The authors
sharing his experiences. However, few of his comments thank Mr. Shukla for his knowledge and information
are his perceptions on adoption of recycling technology on bituminous mix technology and fully agree
in India. The comments of Mr. Shukla that, authors that environmental benefits of recycling should be

considered. The authors’ intention is to disseminate the country is working on massive investment on roads
information about successful application of recycling and now shifting to the concrete pavement likely causes
technology in India with the hope of generating of failure to concrete pavement has been really nicely
constructive criticisms and discussions from eminent brought out by the Author and new ideas of perpetual
experts, so that users become aware of this technology flexible pavement and the time will say really once the
and we move closer towards accepting a rational and new further studies on such improvement is carried
practical recycling procedure. out. So, I congratulate all the Authors and all the august
gathering for offering valuable comments and replies
The authors thank all the participants for their
by the Authors.
constructive criticisms and suggestions and it is hoped
that the proposed new guidelines for the use of RAP in Dr. S.S. Jain (Chairman’s Concluding Remarks)
bituminous mixes by the IRC will address the various
issues raised by the eminent participants. We have come to the conclusion of the session. The
authors presented their respective Papers in a very
Shri S.B. Vasava (Co-Chairman’s Concluding Remarks)
cogent manner for which I must complement them.
Good Morning everybody. Three good papers have There was lovely interaction from the floor. Members
been presented by Authors. I reaIly appreciate the may send their views to IRC Secretariat, which will
efforts of Authors in presenting the new things to the form part of the proceedings. I thank the authors, the
august gathering and I am sure that this new idea of speakers and members of the audience for their co-
recycling of pavement not really new but not yet picked operation in successfully conducting the session and
up to these new ideas of pavement recycling and when the interest shown in the subject.

Discussion on Paper No. 579*
“Disastrous Failure of A Major Bridge during High Floods:
A Case Study with Critical Review of Some Basic Design
Parameters”
By
A.G. Namjoshi
&
Paper No. 583**
“Construction of the Most Unbalanced CONTINUOUS

Cantilever P.S.C. Bridge Over River Munawar Tawi at
Beripattan, Jammu & Kashmir – A Success Story”
By
D.D. Sharma, V.K. Yadav, Praveen Gupta, Alok Bhowmick & S.K. Chellani
Shri V. Velayutham (Chairman’s Opening Remarks) comments as under:
Good Morning Delegates. Now, we are going to start 1. E.O.H.F.L. of August 2006 is given as 95.325
discussion on Paper No. 579 Disastrous Failure of A in Fig.1 when same is given as 94.550 in Fig.4.
Major Bridge during High Floods: A Case Study with While August 2006 level is not known at the
Critical Review of Some Basic Design Parameters” by time of construction of the swept away bridge,
Dr. A.G. Namjoshi and Paper No. 583 “Construction the E.O. H.F.L. (known back water level of
of the Most Unbalanced Continuous Cantilever P.S.C. 1959) R.L. 94.30 was known at that time
Bridge Over River Munawar Tawi at Beripattan, (Fig.1). Then, how is it that the soffit level was
Jammu & Kashmir – A Success Story” by D.D. Sharma, kept below that at R.L. 93.520?
Dr. V.K. Yadav, Praveen Gupta, Alok Bhowmick &
S.K. Chellani. I request all the Authors to come on the 2. Is it that since normally the discharge is not
dais and make their presentations. calculated based on B.W.L. of R.L. 94.30,
the discharge was calculated on the basis of
The Authors made Power Point presentation of the H.F.L. (Fictitious). It is felt that the induced
Paper Nos. 579 & 583. stresses obtained by the entrepreneur about
5-10 time higher than the permissible values
Paper No. 579 were obtained, in addition, due to reason
of considering the flood level near to the
Shri R.H. Sarma
superstructure top, may be due to the design
While congratulating the Authors for such a paintaking stage discharge was calculated based on the
Article full of Technical details. I am giving below the HFL designed (Fictitiously) R.L. 91.80.


Discussion on Paper Nos. 579 & 583 131
3. What was the design discharge considered at Rehabilitation of existing so called high level
the time of construction in 2004? bridges are also required to be thought.
4. Will it be possible to give same details of the Shri S.A. Wandhekar

Fictitiously designed HFL R.L. 91.80.
The paper is excellent. It is eye opener to all field
Shri J.C. Ganguly engineers. Please give guidelines to new field engineers
for execution of such bridges.
1. The afflux calculation should have been done
more critically, not only to confirm the code
Shri Naveen Govindaraju
of practice requirements, but also as per the
current literatures. In fact, this paper shall also
1. Whether present IRC codal provisions are
act as an eye-opener for designers in coming
ample to estimate future flash floods?
days.
2. When an irrigation project is in the offing in the 2. To reduce the scour failure, do we have to
vicinity, a model study is always recommended. mandate river training/floor protection works
In my experience, IIT, Roorkee has got a nice for Major Bridges?
set-up for this.
3. The diagonal shear cracks in the substructure of
Shri A.V. Vyas Major bridge might be due to the following
While congratulating Dr. Namjoshi for writing a Paper a) Eraser of Bearings

on such a important case study, I would like to offer
following comments: b) Sudden Impact of superstructure load
(say a load of 100 MT from a height of
1. Hydraulic design for the high level bridges 100 mm)
are done on the basis of English or Manning’s
formula & total catchment area with observed 4. Should IRC in joint collaboration with Indian
flood levels. If any dam is constructed on Meteorological Department (IMD) throw
the river, it is assumed that it adds to flood some light on flood discharge calculations
control. However, for high level bridge, the
in the course of revision of respective codal
flood discharge gets increased due to dam
provisions
construction. It is maximum flood discharge
+ discharge of balance catchment area. This
Shri Sandeep Pattiwar
discharge is more than double of normal design
flood discharge.
1. It is very pertinent after seeing the presentation
2. So, in view of the above, it is better to design that bridge structure piers and foundation
bridges structurally as submersible, than the should have been designed for higher forces.
high level for long term stability.
2. Foundations could have been anchored to lower
3. Now-a-days, normally water from the dam is not strata if rock is there.
released until heavy rainfall in the catchment,
to cater the anticipated draught condition, the 3. Super-structure could have been anchored with
chances of MFD over spillway are more to piercap for such lower level bridges where
create extraordinary flood levels. submergence chances are there.
4. Rechecking of hydraulics of high level bridges 4. Further paper has highlighted nicely the aspects
(existing) is needed, for such situations. and reason for the failure of bridge.

132 Discussion on Paper Nos. 579 & 583
Shri J.T. Nashikkar or u/s R.C. diaphragm wall/R.C. sheet piles on

U/S to be provided upto bedrock.
It is a very good paper: Such papers help to understand
the reasons for failure of structure. It is desirable as one Shri S.K. Banerjee
learns from the failures.
In most of the cases, maximum flood discharge from
Computation of design flood discharge is a debatable a dam discharge is not available from the Irrigation/
issue. Particularly in the areas where the river bed CWC authority in the name restricted data. IRC should
is flat and suddenly in monsoon it flood level rises look into the matter and formulate a methodology to
abnormally. For such rivers whether Lacey’s theory get data.
is applicable or otherwise can be a debatable issue.
Paper No. 583
However the frequency of High flood level could
be quite low. In case of such rivers it is desirable to Shri Bablu Kumar
provide submersible approaches. The bridge should
also be checked for submerged condition. In that case 1. During stage of construction you have
the excess flood water can safely pass over the bridge mentioned erection of CCE. What is C.C.E.
and approaches with minimum damage to the structure. 2. How many cells you have designed in between
It is felt that in such cases the approaches should be abutment & pier to balance the uplift load.
sloping and RTL lower than the bridge deck level,
so that excess floods can pass over it. This will avoid Shri R.H. Sarma
damage to the main structure.
My congratulations to the Authors for such a brilliant
I would once again like to compliment the Author for Article. I am giving below a few of my Comments:
such an exhaustive paper on an important subject.
1. It is stated that the total no. of top cables stressed
Dr. D. Venkateshwar Rao are 66 nos. of cables (16*4+ 1*2) and 4 blister
blocks. Two Cables (117) and 2 dummy cables
1. Railway Bridges are designed taking account are through cables and thus there are 64 cables
as Rly affected Tonks on U/S. anchored in the 48 m. cantilever arm. It appears
that 1 no. of cable in each web is anchored in
2. Generally now-a-days (Major) Bridges are each segment and with 16 segments in one
designed for 500/1000 years venturing floods. cantilever arm this accounts for 32 no. of cables.
Blister blocks provided are said to be 4 nos.
3. Concrete piers are sheared off due to high along the full width of the slab. Does this mean
velocity of flow of water. This indicate that in each segment 2 cables are anchored,
proper longitudinal velocity are not provided accommodated in the 4 blisters provided in
properly. each segment thus accounting for the balance
32 nos.of cables. It would be helpful if a plan
4. Generally for submersible bridges, decks is given showing the cables anchored in the
are anchor to piers by knuckle steel joints as blisters.
provided in Puligaddo acquaduct through
across Krishna River. 2. All the cables appear to be continuing in to
the side span and with cables 117,115,113 &
5. Foundations should have been provided by 116,114,112 anchored at intermediate points
providing wall foundation/or pile foundation and remaining cables anchored at the end. It is of

interest to know how these intermediate cables Shri Sandeep Pattiwar

are anchored. For e.g. in cables 117,115,113
there are 10 cables (1*2+2*4). Similarly cables This is with reference to the anchor arm resting on soil/
116,114,112 are 12 cables (3*4). How these are rock. My query was on the issue of the state of abutment
anchored in the intermediate sections? Here as during the presentation the cables shown taking from
also a plan showing the anchoring in blisters is top of the deck to the bottom of abutment. I wanted to
needed to understand the arrangement. know whether these cables have been anchored further
to the lower stratum and if not continued whether the
3. For bottom cables (sagging cables) it is stated foundation is safe for tension/compression pressure
that 16 nos.are anchored in 32 nos. of blister developed during the construction as well as service
bocks thus anchoring 2 cables in 4 blister stage.
blocks. Actually in Plate 20, 9 nos. of blisters
Shri S.K. Banerjee
are shown in section accounting for total 36
nos. of blisters considering the 2 nos. dummy Considering high seismic force, difficulty in transport
cables also. This is somewhat understandable. of material, maintenance and high upward force due
However here also a plan showing the blister to massive dead load; why a steel structure in place of
blocks and cables anchored will greatly add to concrete structure not considered?
the understanding.
Dr. V.K. Raina
4. Almost all the cables are continuing in to the
short span (side span of 14 m. Plate 20). It is 1. Initially, before it becomes continuous some of
also said that long cables are stressed from both the super structure launch they are coming as
ends while short cables are stressed from one statically determined. After the structure had
end only . As compared to the main span of 96 attained its final statistical status, i.e. become
m. the side span is only 14 m. long. Does this continuous with those close to the load which
not result in over stressing the side span? How come before it, picked up the final statistical
is it adjusted? status. Their moments and shears and reaction,
rotation and deflection that everything get
5. It is stated that Blister blocks have been provided corrected by heat now, that correction of heat
either in the web or in the junction of the web was moment-wise opposite of the order of, how
with the deck or the soffit slab.Does this mean much of the order 3, 4, 5 & 6 percent.
that blisters are provided at mid depth of web
2. On account of various reasons one side of the
also since generally blisters are provided at the
cantilever is done first and then the other side.
junction of the web with the deck or web with
How the weather, the humidity, the temperature
the soffit slab. that could have affected the deflection criteria
of the first one compare to those with the second
6. It is stated that M/s D2S Infrastructures Pvt.
one and listed bottom 1 mm deflection.
Ltd. after executing the work of Chenab Bridge
took a conscious decision of avoiding blisters Replies by the Author (Paper No. 579)
for prestressing cables to the extent possible. It
would be helpful if the reasons for avoiding the In reply to Shri R.H Sarma’s comments, it is mentioned
blisters are presented. as under:
7. In Para 4.5 (Abutment Design), 3rd para it is 1. The E.O.H.F.L at RL-95.325 given in Fig.1 is
stated that 4 cables of 18T13 are provided for an apparent HFL which was assumed to have
each portal leg. However, in Plate 26, 8 cables risen at the moment of failure. It is calculated
are shown for each leg. after deducting apparent afflux [the difference

between flood levels at u/s and d/s faces of The reasons for the 'actual stresses' developed at the time
superstructure Box (95.920 - 0.595 = 95.325)]. of failure as worked out by the entrepreneur were 5-10
times more than the 'designed values' are elaborately
Please refer to Appendix-I [Page 212] which explained in Para-7.7 & 7.8 and complete Para-9 &
enlists the comparative salient features of the Para-10. The assumptions made by the entrepreneur
'Survived Bridge' (B-2) Vis-a-Vis 'Swept Away which lead to arrive at higher values while calculating
Bridge' (B-1). The information about the 'swept the ultimate stresses at failure are given below:
away bridge' is given in the last column. The
comparative figures of the E.O.H.F.L at this i) It was considered that the superstructure box
bridge is given in item at Sr. no-20 as E.O.H.F.L. got fully submerged in floods and the whole
94.17 (1986) [as per local information]. The horizontal water current force of 343 tons as per
R.L. 94.30 in Fig. -1 is wrongly shown as
method given in IRC: 6-2002 [against actually
'E.O.H.F.L (Known back water level of 1959)'.
value of 58 tones para-10 (Fig-6-a)] acted over
The same may please be read as 'E.O.H.F.L.
the superstructure.
94.17 (1986) [as per local information]'.
Please refer to item no. 2 in Appendix-I. In the ii) The above assumption lead to two fold effect:
last column 'observed HFL' at 90.20 is given for (a) The vertical load of superstructure was
this bridge . It appears that all the subsequent reduced from 525 tons to 306 tons. (b) weight
decisions [Appendix -7 Sr. No. 2 to 5] taken of water (240 tons) filled inside the hollow
about the 'Designed HFL' and consequent portion of the box due to slow rise in the flood,
soffit level are above this basic observed HFL was completely ignored as was considered to
RL-90.20. have fully submerged. whereas only submerged
weight of concrete portion [bottom slab &
The parameters from item no. 1 to 18 given in webs] should have been considered.
last column of Appendix - I [Page 212] were
those considered while floating the tender in the 3. The comparative salient features of the
year 1999 for this (Swept Away) bridge. The 'Survived Bridge (B-2)' Vis-a-Vis 'Swept Away
information from item no. 19 to 21 appear to Bridge (B-1) are given in Appendix - I [Page
be subsequently revealed after the construction 212]. The parameters from item no. 1 to 18
of the bridge was nearly completed. The details were considered while floating the tender in
as to how the soffit level is obtained from the the year 1999 for this (Swept Away) bridge.
'designed HFL' are given at item Sr. no 12 (last The designed discharge of 18,550 cumecs was
column) in the same Appendix. The work was considered at the 'designed HFL' RL 91.80 as
awarded to the entrepreneur in March 2000 per 'manning's method', which was matched
& construction started. The work was finally
with 'Ingles' discharge at 18,426 cumecs.
completed in the year June 2004.
Both the figures are given at serial no. 7 & 3
2. The practice invoke in the region for respectively.
deciding the basic parameters necessary
4. The said detailed calculations are not available.
before finalizing the design of the bridge viz.
(i) maximum flood discharge (ii) designed However, the basic parameters considered while
HFL and consequent maximum mean velocity, calculating discharge are given in Appendix-I
afflux (iii) linear waterway (iv) the concept [Page 212], at Sr. No 5, 6 & 9 viz. Bed slope,
about the flood discharge at HFL accompanied Roughness coefficients finally assumed, silt
with 'back water' (v) decision about freeboard factor etc. The bed levels are given in Fig. 4.
to be provided below bridge soffit in both cases Normally, possibility of any arithmetical error
[HFL / BWHFL], etc. are elaborately given in does not arise as they are scrutinized at various
Para-12 (sub paras12.1 to 12.5) in the paper. levels.

After ascertaining, the maximum flood level at above case. This aspect in general is covered in
the proposed site that occurred in the past 50 the paper Para 14-(II). While designing a new
years return rain cycle, the success of obtaining high level bridge, the anticipated maximum
realistic quantity of maximum flood discharge, flood discharge should be computed in two
using 'manning's method' mainly depends parts.
upon, judicious demarcation of different
compartments Vis-a-Vis the 'roughness a) Maximum flood discharge from reservoir
coefficients' in tune with the field conditions calculated as per appropriate formulae as is
[the guide lines given in the IRC pocket book applicable in that region [Ingles / Dickens
hardly help in field realities] and the hydraulic etc.] for 50 years recurrence period. This
gradient. It otherwise proves to be a wilds quantity of discharge should reduced in
guess leading to cause disastrous failure. These proportion to distance of the reservoir from
aspects are elaborated in Para-13.2 (a) to (d) of the proposed bridge site. It is observed that
the paper. such effect dampens in proportion to its
distance from the bridge. However, such
It is observed at the bridges constructed in the reduction should be limited to fifty percent
past on the u/s side across the same river that (50%).
during this unprecedented floods, the 'HFL' and
'quantity of floods discharge' both significantly b) Normal maximum flood discharge from
exceed the previously known values. Though it the balance catchment calculated as per
was the principal reason behind the disastrous practice invoke in the region.
failure of the bridge, there appears lacuna in
the process of ascertaining the maximum flood c) If the total discharge calculated through the
level/ back water level that occurred in the past total catchment area (including that shared
and paying judicious consideration to it, as was by the reservoir) by appropriate formulae
done in case of the design of the bridge at 9 km applicable in that region is greater than
on u/s side across same river in year 1992, and sum of the above (a+b), higher value of
which proved to be a major factor contributing the them should be considered for the
to survival of that bridge. design.
It is learnt recently that a new high level bridge 2. The cost of a submersible bridge with higher
with a linear water way of 450 m and a height heights from river bed, to counter against
of 19.0 m above LWL [about 171 m longer and interruptions during such events would be very
4.0 m taller than the deceased one] has been high. It would be desirable and reasonable to
constructed and commissioned to traffic. take the following measures while designing a
high level bridge.
The author thanks for his compliments and
critical review. a) Provision of additional free board as
suggested in Para - 14-II(c).
In reply to Shri J.C. Ganguly’s comments, the author
thanks for his comments and concurs with his views b) Provision of a "saddle type spillway" in
and suggestions. the bridge approaches to act as a 'safety
vent way' to discharge the excess quantity
1. The author agree with Shri A.V. Vyas views of incoming flood in such eventualities.
in general. The conventional concept that The road top at this location should be kept
construction of a reservoir dam on u/s side adds just 0.5 m above the 'designed high flood
to flood control on the d/s side is scarcely found level (including afflux)'. The flood water
true in practice as has been observed in the rising above this level shall automatically

and safely pass through this 'saddle type required after final submission to undergo the scrutiny
spillway'. If this saddle is located where and final approval by the IRC before publication.
the natural 'spill channel' of the parent
river crosses the approach alignment, its In response to Shri Naveen Govindaraju’s comments,
effective functioning will be ensured. it is mentioned as under:
The provision of such measures is found
useful which helped in survival of one 1. Please refer to reply to Shri A.V. Vyas above.
high level bridge under such situation The reply given to suggestions in Para 1 & 2
[Para - 12 page 207]. need to be covered in the IRC code.
3. The present scenario described by the speaker The climatic conditions have not material
is true and the author agrees it. This was the one changed so far as intensity & duration of rainfall
together with total average annual rainfall
of the major contributory factor which caused
is considered. The apparent nature of flash
this failure.
floods are due to human apathy in controlling
4. The author agrees with the suggestion to recheck the release of water from the reservoirs during
the hydraulic adequacy of all the existing High natural high floods.
level road bridges, on the back ground of the
There should be guideline yardsticks fixed to
irrigation / reservoir dams constructed on u/s
regulate such operations in order to maintain
side, for the 'apparently enhanced catchment
the 'rate of natural rise' of floods in the river,
area effect' and potential flood discharge likely
beyond a distance of at least 25 km on the
to be released by the projects.
downstream side of river. [This distance may
vary according to length required to dissipate
Whenever a new irrigation project is undertaken, the
the effect of potential energy head difference
cost of rehabilitation [Raising, extension of waterway,
between reservoir and natural river water level
strengthening or reconstruction] of existing bridge
on the d/s side. and all the structures falling
structures affected by submergence on u/s side is
within this limit should be designed to cater for
warranted, the cost of the same is included in the main
the designed discharge of the reservoir].
project of reservoir construction.
Once the amount of rainfall in the reservoir
In the similar manner the 'high level bridges' on d/s
catchments crosses the limit when 50% of
side of such projects, which are likely to be affected
the total storage capacity of the reservoir is
by construction of the irrigation project also, should
ensured, the release operations should be
be rechecked for its hydraulic adequacy. The cost of
started to ensure the 'rate of natural rise' in
additional measures required to ensure its hydraulic floods in downstream side. Moreover when the
adequacy falling short due to reasons stated above above limit crosses 75% of the full capacity,
should be included in the main Irrigation project. all the incoming flood should be allowed to
pass over on d/s side. The rest 25% quantity
In reply to Shri S.A. Wandhekar’s comments, the
of storage could be ensured at the end of the
Authors thanks for the compliments. The main text of
rainfall storm conditions.
the paper together with the comments of the delegates/
members and with replies given by the author may This system would be effective only when
serve the purpose. The author proposes to submit an sufficient number of 'rain gauge stations'
article on "Applicability of 'Lacey's theory' in regions are established evenly all over the reservoir
other than 'Indus and Gang-tic Plains' and appropriate catchments. and further also when efficient
application of manning's method to ascertain realistic monitoring system between those 'rain gauge
quantity of flood discharge through rivers" which is stations' and flood controlling authority at the
under preparation. It however may take some time reservoir is established.

2. Failure of foundations has not been observed In reply to the comment of Shri Sandeep Pattiwar it
in the case under study. In general, however, if is stated as under:
the foundations are anchored in the rock with
a grip for adequate depth and designed for all 1) The portion of pier shaft with cap above the
likely horizontal forces at this level, failure designed HFL and below the soffit of the
against scour can be effectively ensured. Floor superstructure [safety margin provided for free
protection works for the major bridges is not board and probable afflux] is most susceptible
considered necessary in the regions other than for being subjected to horizontal water current
the 'Indus and Gang-tic plains' in the opinion of force, due to error of judgment likely to be
the author. committed by the designer, in the process of
assessing the realistic level of the maximum
3. The detailed structural analysis of P-4 at the
flood. The present code do not provide for
time of ultimate failure is given in Para-10-IV
designing the same for any horizontal forces.
& [Table-8]. All the pier shafts [P-2 to P-7]
were sheared off from the neck level due to 2) The portion stated above be designed for
combined effect of stresses due to horizontal
application of a mandatory force equivalent to
shear force accompanied with the bending
value of average horizontal water current force
moment induced by the water current force
in the top 1.0 m of pier shaft below the 'designed
acting on the superstructure box and pier caps.
flood level'. The pier shaft and its foundations
The reasons for diagonal shear cracks are
explained in details in Para-11(A). The pier should also be designed accordingly. It is
shafts no. P-4, 3 & 2 gave way sequentially one suggested that necessary provision be made in
after the other creating 'one span off condition' the revised IRC code.
and inducing additional bending moment at
3) The pier foundations be anchored in to rock
the neck level. Since the effect of bending got
prominence over the direct horizontal shear, below with minimum 8 numbers of 20/32 mm
diagonal shear pattern took place. Whereas, the (as required) bars as an additional precautionary
superstructure box over Span no. 5 gave way measure.
initially and almost simultaneously along with
span no. 6 &7 resting over pier shafts no. P-5,6 4) This type of provision of anchorage of
& 7, which also gave way. Those pier shafts superstructure is necessary for submersible
therefore exhibited a 'perfect horizontal shear bridges. One type of anchoring arrangement
pattern'. projecting from RCC cap which allows free
movement of neoprene bearing pads has
4. A number of new irrigation reservoirs are exhibited successful performance in a 600 m
commissioned on the u/s side of the CWP&RS long submersible bridge [Refer IRC: Journal-
observations/gauging stations. More accurate 2004 Vol. 67-2. (Information Section)].
measurements of flood discharge are possible
over the waist weirs. This data can be correlated The author thanks for the compliments.
at the CWP&RS observations/gauging stations
and more reliable data can be generated. In reply to Shri J.T. Nashikkar’s comments, the author
agree with his views in general and as regards viability of
The author agrees with the suggestion that IRC application of Lacey's theory under such circumstances.
in joint collaboration with IMD and CWP&RS The arrangement suggested by him for providing the
prepare some authentic data to enable accurate saddle portion in the approaches below the soffit level
discharge calculations and include in the revised of superstructure, for safe passage of excess floods is
code. also necessary. The protected submersible approaches

need to be provided in this portion as suggested. Please designed features are displayed normally on the
refer to the reply given to 'Shri A.V. Vyas' [Para 2.(b)] information board at the entrance gate of the main
in this regards. reservoir dam. Moreover, it is mandatory on the part
of the above authorities to inform about the quantity
The author thanks for the compliments. of flood released from dam from time to time to the
revenue authorities/District Collector and the concerned
In response to the comments of Dr. D. Venkateshwar authorities likely to be affected by it.
Rao it is mentioned as under:
Replies by the Authors (Paper No. 583)
1) It is suggested that even the effect of
release of flood discharge from the new In response to Shri Bablu Kumar’s comments, it is
major Irrigation Projects/Reservoirs to mentioned as under:
be constructed on the u/s side be also
considered in addition to existing tanks. 1) CCE means is Cantilever Construction
Equipment. This is self-supporting
2) The potential commercial loss likely to be shuttering arrangement used for
suffered by railways due to disruption of cantilever construction technology of the
traffic under such eventualities is much superstructure.
higher as compared to road bridges. It will
therefore be a sound practice to design the 2) All cells are within the abutment itself,
railway bridges for the projected frequency no cell is in between of abutment and
period of 500/1000 years. Moreover, the pier. Total numbers of abutment cells are
basic datum floods level should be decided 15 and all are interconnected by heavily
after taking into account the effect in rise reinforced R.C.C. walls as per design. The
in flood Vis-a-Vis now likely to occur due broad plan of abutment cell partition is
to the effect of release of floods from the shown in Plate no. 14.
reservoirs on u/s side in inverse proportion
In reply to Shri R.H. Sarma’s comments, it is
to their distances from the railway bridge.
mentioned as under:
3) The detailed analysis of hydraulic flow
Thank you Sir, we are honoured with your compliment
and the structural analysis is given and
and express our gratitude for the same.
elaborately described in Para 6 to 10 in the
paper. 1) Plan of top and bottom cable profile of
quarter section is as below which itself is
4) This bridge was designed to function
the self-explanatory.
as a 'High Level Bridge'. Please refer to
Para 3 of reply given to Shri Sandeep
Pattiwar as regards the anchoring
arrangement of superstructure to piers in
case of submersible bridges.
5) Sound rock was available at reasonable

depth at this bridge and the pier foundation
(open type) was anchored with a grip of
2.0 m into it. The substructure pier shaft at
top gave way in this bridge failure and no
failure of foundation was observed.
In reply to the comments made by Shri S.K. Banerjee,

Plate no. 20 (A)
it is mentioned that it is not a restricted data. Those

Each cable no. up to 116 are at four 3) Each bottom cable is stressed with both
locations as shown by centre of symmetry ends blister blocks, thus each cable requires
along both x and y axes. These cables two blister blocks. There are eight cables
from 101 to 116 were stressed when the on each side web - soffit junction, this
superstructure was in determinate stage ie means total 16 nos. of cables and hence
pure cantilever and having to connection to stress them, 32 no. blister blocks are
with the both opposite cantilever arms. required. Two dummy cables are also left
The cable no. 117 shown single by centre with additional 4 blister blocks. Thus total
line of symmetry means total two continue blister blocks are equal to 36 no. hence the
cables were stressed after the casting same are presented.
of central stitch segment and thus the
Plan of bottom cable profile is shown as above.
structure become fully continuous and
indeterminate.
2) Refer the deck plan of cable. Cable no.

112, 114, 116, x 2 means total 6 cables
were anchored in the single blister block
across the full inner deck width between
the two webs and similarly cable no. 113,
115, 117 x 2 were anchored in next adjacent
blister block with similar nature across the
full width between the webs. All other
cables were stressed within the web itself
by providing suitable anchorages as per
design and no addition blister block is used
to anchor the top deck cables. Thus two in
one arm of the cantilever and similarly two Refer plate 20 (B) Blister blocks for Soffit (bottom) cables
in the other arm of cantilever, total four 4) There is no allowance of overstressing
blister blocks were used to anchor the top and thus no requirement of adjustment.
deck cables. As the Stress = Force/Area ± Moment/
Sectional Modulus. For the first part,
short span 14.0 m long is having more
cables, as more force and correspondingly
more area (refer plate no. 19, indicating
web thickness 725 mm and depth
6.0 m throughout the span compared to the
web thickness which varies from 450 to
300 mm in the central 96.0 m span) is
required to accommodate the force of cables
to limit the stress as within the permissible
limit, and second part (Moment/Sectional
Modulus) is planned in such a way that the
eccentricity of the cable is kept according
to the design requirement, keeping the
stress level within permissible limit as per
IRC 18 – 2000. All the designs have been
proof checked by the proof consultant and
Plate 20 (B) Blister blocks for top cables the rechecked by the Directorate of Bridges

and Tunnel of DGBR before the drawing that 16 cables with 288 strands of 12.7
were approved executions. All drawings mm diameter have been used to anchor
shown in the paper are reproduced from the superstructure with each abutment i.e.
the approved drawings only. 16 x 18 = 288 Nos.
5) The anchorages for the cable had been In reply to Shri Sandeep Pattiwar’s comments, it is
provided within the junction haunch of stated that the abutment cables have not been anchored
deck slab and web. in the foundation rock strata, bur in the foundation RCC
block If these had been taken to the rock inside, the
6) It is stated that M/s D2S Infrastructures uplift forces should could have taken care of by the rock
Pvt. Ltd. after executing the work of mass itself. However the cables of the vertical anchors
Chenab Bridge took a conscious decision were embedded in the properly design foundation bed
of avoiding blisters for prestressing cables block (RCC).
to the extent possible. The considerations
leading to this decision are follows:- Please refer clause 4.8, point 5.
The blister blocks are the stress The board of management of Executing Agency
concentrated area and a good design and (M/s D2S Infrastructures P. Ltd) in consultation with
durable and safe practice is to minimize the Design Consultant (M/s Skyline Developers) took
them as much as possible in the cantilever the decision to take the both abutment’s foundation
construction bridges. deeper to 9.5 m below the NIT level at their own
(Executing Agency’s) cost. This decision not only
It is highlighted that the stressing of the helped to counter balance the downward force to resist
cables was done about 72 hours after the the uplift force, but also transferred the abutment
concreting of the blisters to achieve a 6 to 8 base pressure to the deeper strata of the rock. And the
days cycle. The total load on each blister was final base pressure during the construction stage and
248 MT. Hence this green concrete becomes service stage is maximum/minimum 33.32/0.703 and
vulnerable to such huge stresses and may 18.87/8.95 t/m2 respectively at A1 and A2. Hence the
show signs of distress. Accordingly the foundation of the abutment is 100% safe and durable as
reinforcement in the blisters was increased designed for seismic zone V without depending upon
by more than 50% than what was required the risk of rupture of the base rock.
as per design. Consequently no distress was
observed during the execution of both in The structure lies in zone V of the seismic zone as
the Chenab Bridge (where the load was 500 per IRC: 6 – 2000. During the seismic condition, it
MT) and this Beripattan Bridge (where the is apprehended that the rock mass may move relative
load was 248 MT). to the various plates which may be existing below
the foundation. In such an eventuality, the embedded
7) Refer plate 26: anchorages could become dislodged or displaced.
Each cable no. indicate 18T13 by encircled The type of abutment structure has been provided will
(N) remain stable even if the soil mass moves below it hence
this proposal was executed based on the durability
Inner side dotted line (first portal leg)
carrying four cable no. as 1, 4, 5 and 8. X 2 consideration only. It is our firm conviction that while
economizing the structure, the design life should never
Outer side dotted line (second portal leg) be compromised.
carrying four cable no. as 9, 12, 13 and
16. X 2. In response to Shri S.K. Banerjee’s comments, it is
mentioned that Transportation of steel superstructure,
Thus there are four portal legs in each its fabrication and the problems associated with
abutment and hence 16 no. of 18T13 are the quality assurance could be some of the reason
provided in each abutment. Same can also considered by the department and a conscious decision
be correlated with the synopsis stating of going for a P.S.C. structure was taken. Necessity is

the mother of invention. Tenders by the department steel truss superstructure. Please refer Fig. 1 of the
were called for offering the title of the bridge that is paper the existing adjoining distressed bridge 700 m
reproduced below: downstream is suspension steel bridge superstructure
built with much lower specifications.
“Design and Construction of 124 M. Span major Pmt.
bridge with PSC Box Super structure at Beripattan over In reply to Dr. V.K. Raina’s comments, it is stated as
river Munwar Tawi at Km 13.795 on road Sunderbani- under:
Beripattan -Naushera under project Sampark in Jammu
& Kashmir State.” 1. The upward reaction was in the range of 5.8%
at pier P1 and P2 The BM and SF diagrams are
The role of D2S and authors came after the shown below for clarity for both conditions
specifications were frozen and the work put to tender before the structure became continuous ie.at
by the client. the time of the stitching requirement when
the continuality cables became operative.
It would have been quite difficult and logistically Determinate stage and after it became
difficult to fabricate, transport and erect 96/100 m span continuous i.e. Indeterminate stage.


2. The deflection at every stage of construction of Second paper on the unbalanced Cantilever was a very
each segment first side arm was recorded and eye-opener especially I will complement the authors
compared with the newly constructed segment and the design Engineers and everybody that they find
of the second arm. a very unique solution to take the site and considering
the constraints and in such difficult working period
All input ingredients for concreting, stressing etc. like and working season. They could achieve the technical
aggregate cement, adhesive, water source etc. were excellence which is obvious from the various facts
kept exactly same. The team during the construction which has been put in the article and also even working
was also kept the same. Constant endeavors were in such difficult situation. They could maintained not
made to keep the ambient temperature of the concrete only the quality but the cost part also. I must complement
almost similar for both the arms. Dead load deflections them for this. We have received lot of comments and we
on both arms were catered for in the design. However
request authors to reply these comments so that these
the age difference and the difference in the maturity
can be published by IRC in the IRC Journal.
of the concrete were accounted for in the second arm
concreted at the subsequent stage. The net camber was Shri V. Velayutham (Chairman’s Concluding
incorporated in the subsequent segment of the second Remarks)
arm. All these precautions led to the maintenance of the
almost same level (+1mm) at the time of the stitching Both the papers are very informative, exhaustive
segment. and thought provoking. I welcome such papers on
the analysis of bridge collapse so that we can take
The suitable camber as per design calculations was sufficient lesson from them. There is no tried & tested
incorporated in the next segment of the second
formula for deciding the high flood discharge. The
arm. Last two segments of both the arms were cast
formula which is applicable to certain circumstances
simultaneously and stitching segment was cast at the
only and we have to apply our judgment in arriving
exact design calculated camber level and hence the
of the design discharge. Our codal provision will give
whole bridge was completed satisfactorily.
only a guidance. We have to apply our judgment and
Shri P.L. Bongirwar (Co-Chairman’s Concluding especially in some irrigation structures which have
remarks) different return periods are also built in the same river
and we have to very careful in deciding the high flood
We had two very interesting papers today and I am happy discharge. In addition in these cases where we are not
that somebody had done the actual video recording sure of high flood discharge accuracy. We should be
how the bridge behave in a flood mark and trying to liberal in giving free board over HFL.
expand scientifically the cause of failure. It will defend
all of us to come to some positive conclusion. Only The second paper on the construction of most unbalanced
thing is one important issue which is pointed out in bridge in a remote and difficult area is of special
such situation where there are flood unpredictable we importance to the bridge engineers. The Paper deals
tend to go for may be a low level approaches so that it with all aspects of design, construction, challenges faced
attacks the weaker section and the structure is saved. It and the solutions arrived at. I congratulate the author
is very important concept and we have already adopted for bringing out such an important bridge construction
in Maharashtra in few places. to the record for the benefit of all concerned.

“Some Issues Pertaining to Sustainability of Road Transport
Operations, Road Construction and Maintenance in India
Over the Next Twenty Years”
By
M. vishwas, Pradeep Kumar, Sowjanya & L.R. Kadiyali
Paper No. 581**
“Capacity and Performance Indicator Framework for Road
Agencies in India”
By
Rajesh Rohatgi, Arnab Bandyopadhyay & D.P. Gupta
&
Paper No. 582***
“Time & Cost Overrun Analysis of National Highway
Development Project”
By
M. Kishore Kumar, Ch. Hanumantha Rao & L. Boeing Singh
Dr. S.P. Palanisamy (Chairman’s Opening Remarks) The Authors made Power Point presentations of the
Paper Nos. 577, 581 & 582.
Good Morning Delegates. All the three topics
which were listed mainly “Some Issue Pertaining to Paper No. 577
Sutainability of Road Transport Operations, Road
Construction and Maintenance in India Over the Next Shri Shriraj
Twenty Years” by S/Shri M. Vishwas, Pradeep Kumar,
Sowjanya & Dr. L.R. Kadiyali and the Second Paper Toll Rates Four-Wheelers Unrealistic.
“Capacity and Performance Indicator Framework for
Road Agencies in India” by S/Shri Rajesh Rohatgi, Why Toll rate for Nano Car and Toyota Fortune be
Arnab Bandyopadhyay and D.P. Gupta and the third same.
Paper “Time & Cost Overrun Analysis of National Isn’t it unrealistic leading to resistance of toll by users.
Highway Development Project” by S/Shri M. Kishore More realistic would be to change vehicle on basis of
Kumar, Ch. Hanumantha Rao & L. Boeing Singh. economy level of user.
I am very happy to see that all the three papers were Usage for commercial purpose can be charged higher.
interrelated. Firstly, we will have Presentations and
discussion and then I will offer my observations at the Regarding traffic safety, I strongly feel that traffic
end. Now, I request Dr. L.R. Kadiyali to present his accidents are more because of mixed vehicle with
Paper. Jugad, Tractor Trolleys, old fashioned trucks with no

*** Published at pages 299 to 321 of IRC Journal Vol.73 Part 3

reflective lighting provision in night leads to about 50% Paper No. 581
of accidents as high speed new generation vehicles
cannot visualise the presence of such vehicles in night Shri G.C. Tallur
leading to deadly collisions. So segregation, banning of
such vehicle is must if we say that highway is designed “I feel that capacity and performance indicator
for 80 km ph. framework for road agencies needs to be mandated by
the Government of India rather than leave it to the States
Shri G.M. Akhone who would delay the matter unduly. This can be done
by the Government of India in a similar way as certain
Why can’t we think in terms of reducing the number reforms have been mandated under the Jawaharlal
of Trucks, Cars and Two-Wheelers etc by way of Nehru Urban Renewal Mission (JNNRUM) on the State
centralization of work places, apart from using Governments if they want to access the funds from the
conventional sources of energy, the concept of Centre.”
superconductivity.
“The authors have done a commendable study of the
Shri T. Dhanasekar entire South Asia Region as a base for their study.
In order to draw a performance monitoring and
Soil stabilisations must be given much importance to
evaluation framework, those in South Africa, New
avoid further mining and taking out excavating earthen
natural resources. State agencies must be instructed to Zealand, Australia and Sweden have been studied.
use stabilized Roads in State funded programes like It is a comprehensive and broad based study from
CRIDP (including from SC to OL and DC) and CRF which the framework has been drawn up for the
works and Bharat Nirman Programme. Standard Data Indian Road Agencies i.e. primarily the State Public
has to be arranged for stabilized roads. Works Departments and the State Road Development
Corporations.
Shri Damodar Sahoo
The performance indicators and the framework drawn up
If the impact of material utilization on road development for the Indian Road Agencies needs to be implemented
is incremental by 2031, say use of material to the tune without delay and there lies the hitch. Because roads fall
of 450 million cubic mtr ten years and 20 million tonne in the administrative domain of the State Governments,
bitumen per year by 2031, then GSB leveled road/soil excluding the National Highways. State Governments
stabilised Road be thought of under PMGSY while are, by and large, accustomed to treat the road agencies
giving connectivity to unconnected habitations having in the age old way which is not to measure build their
population < 500 or < 250, more specifically to give capacity and not to set any performance indicators to
connectivity to end habitation. By that way, we can assess their performance.
save lot of resources in construction materials. Till
date projects for connecting even 1,00,000 habitations The seven categories of indicators i.e. policy and legal
involving construction/up gradation of over 461 framework, planning, capacity, efficiency, quality
thousand km of roads with an investment of over 136 of road network, private sector participation and
thousand crores sanctioned and lot of length/habitation governance, even when adopted halfheartedly, are not
are left to be given connectivity to unconnected pushed to their logical conclusion for the political and
habitation in future. the ensuing administrative will are lacking. It is also
a fact that the necessary knowledge too is, to a great
Shri V.C. Reddy extent, is lacking. But ever since externally aided road
projects, mainly under the World Bank and Asian Bank
It was suggested by Dr. L.R. Kadiyali to go for
assistance got implemented, certain knowledge in this
construction of overlaying by white topping in view
sector was acquired by the agencies. But the knowledge
of future shortage of bitumen. But so far there is no
initiation by State Governments for adoption of white thus acquired, under loan obligation to the international
topping. Whether IRC has published any publication aid agencies, was frittered away and not used to bring
on white topping for overlaying in road sector by about necessary administrative, legal, policy and
government agencies? financial changes. Once the aided project was over the

road agencies retracted, by and large, to their old ways Para 3.2.1
with some good exceptions though.
It is true that some states have prepared vision
Though roads do fall within the domain of the states, documents. However, this is not being implemented
the Government of India can play a facilitatory role to to a great extent. Some of the states have not even
see that the state road agencies reform themselves. The prepared such a document. Does the World Bank has
Government of India has the leverage to do so. And it is some guidelines document to help prepare a vision
all for the good of the states and ultimately for the good document by the states?
of the state and national economy.
Most of the JV’s implementing the Highway Projects
Such a strong leverage that the Government of India on PPP basis have gone into red. What could be the
can exercise is in the form of large grants that it reasons and remedies? The entrepreneurs are not
annually accords to the states for road improvement, bidding for PPP mode projects any more. Banks also
even to State Highways, Major District Roads and are hesitating to advance huge loans needed for such
Village Roads. Government of India has follow the projects vide para 5.1.2 – sub para 3, the authors have
same procedure it has adopted in case of JNNRUM indicated timely intervene (by the controlling agency)
where certain governance reforms are mandated on for realization of the projects. However, this is not
the urban bodies if they want to be brought under the happening on the ground. The projects are lingering on
JNNRUM umbrella to access the substantial funds and on. The courts are passing orders for completion,
from the Government of India. This has been on since but still the desired is not being realized. Do the authors
suggest some remedy for this impasse, so that the public
a decade and has lead to certain reforms in the urban
gets the benefit of the facility. This is a burning need of
bodies and their governance. There is a strong case to
the days.
adopt a similar way to mandate road sector reforms on
the state road agencies if they want to access central Paper No. 582
funds as left to themselves most of the states would
drag their feet and not usher in reforms in the state road Shri S.M. Ramchandani
agencies.”
1. Bonus Clause
Shri R.K. Jain
Providing the Bonus Clause in the
First of all kindly accept my hearty congratulation for Contract : It has been observed while executing
writing such a nice paper bringing out the deficiencies the project of 50 flyovers in Mumbai that the
in the capacity of highway agencies (both Govt. & user traffic got the required infrastructure
Private) and suggesting the possible road map for their in the given time due to provision of Bonus
efficient performance. Clause in the construction contracts entered
into with various Contractors by MSRDC.
Some of the comments are as under: As the time and cost overrun in the National
Highway Development project has shown
Para 3.1.3 some startling and eye opening facts to the
engineering fraternity, it appears necessary
No doubt, 60% highway agencies have road policy that all such contracts having value more than
in place, but the same is not implemented. This may Rs.100 Crs are provided with Bonus Clause
be due to budgetary and sometimes even political at say Rs.1 lakh per day so as to avoid the
considerations. This is more true to the case of state liability of escalation payment on the client
highway agencies. Do you suggest some mechanism to due to extensions granted otherwise. All
monitor the implementation. Perhaps this could be done contracts where no Bonus Clause has been
through construction and maintenance act, where such provided for, run into time extension leading
a monitoring will be mandatory and the road agency to cost escalation much beyond the likely
will be subject to audit by public. bonus.

2. Bid Capacity use transporting planning with emphasis on several

work places surrounded by residential places is a good
During the course of execution of all the solution.
major infrastructure projects by MSRDC it
is experienced that if the Contractor does not The authors agreed with the suggestion of
have sufficient bid capacity or takes up projects Shri T. Dhanasekar that the various road building
in the intervening period i.e. between date of authorities should be directed to incorporate soil
submission of tender and date of award of stabilisation techniques in preference to use of stone
the project invariably runs into time and cost aggregates.
overrun. Hence, as a practice just before the
award of the work to the Contractor any change The authors fully agreed to the suggestion of
in the bid capacity between the time of the bid Shri Damodar Sahoo that under the PMGSY
submission and the award of work needs to programme, considerable resources like stone
be considered to avoid such instances. NHAI/ aggregates, bitumen and fuel can be saved if soil-
MORTH may come out with guidelines on this stabilised/ gravel roads are constructed.
provision in the bid document for both EPC/
PPP models. As regards Shri V.C. Reddy’s suggestion that IRC
should publish guidelines on whitetopping, the author
Shri R.K. Jain replied that IRC had published guidelines under
IRC:SP:76-2008.
The major delay reasons are:
Replies by the Author (Paper No. 581)
1. Land acquisition
In reply to Shri G.C. Tallur’s comments, it is mentioned
2. Delay in conveying approval to General as under:
Arrangement Drawing (GAD) and line closure
and launching girders by Railways. 1. Shri Tallur has appreciated the broad framework
based on the study as brought out in the paper.
3. Delay by forest – clearance by Ministry of He has made three main comments as under:
Environment and Forest (M.E.F.)
i) Capacity and performance indicator
4. Delay in decisions by clients. framework for state road agencies need to
be mandated by the Government of India
The cost of arbitration awards due to prolongation cost in a similar manner as certain reforms have
caused by above reasons is immeasurable as on today. been mandated in urban local bodies under
What are your views on this major issue as it will eat the JNNURM. The Government of India
away lot of budget? has the leverage as they provide grants to
states even for state roads;
ii) External aid agencies like the World Bank
Replying to the comments of Shri Shriraj, the authors and the ADB have helped in improving the
clarified that the Paper did not deal with toll rates and knowledge-base in the road agencies in
were unable to understand the basis of this comment. the country but there have been occasions
The authors agreed that several accidents are caused that knowledge gained was frittered away
because of the use of highway by vehicles not provided and not used to bring about necessary
with safety features. The authors have given some administrative, legal, policy and financial
general measures to improve safety, which included changes.
better traffic control measures.
iii) State Governments are by and large,
The authors agreed with the suggestion of accustomed to the age old way of not to
Shri G.M. Akhone that the use of vehicles can be measure the capacity of road agencies and
reduced by suitable location of work places. Land not to set any performance indicators to

assess their performance. Partly it is due Congress would be a good forum to create
to lack of necessary knowledge too. awareness raising in this context. The World
Bank could be approached for some assistance
2. These comments have bearing on the strategy in this regard.
towards forward path espoused in the paper. As
regards, the Government of India mandating 5. Certainly there are pockets of excellence in
the state road agencies, it may be mentioned some area or the other in each of the state
that at the highest policy level, the Government road agencies. However, what is required is a
of India has requested the states to adopt a wholesome excellence.
Results Framework Document in various social
and economic infrastructure sector and services 6. The authors express their gratitude to
for assessing their performance and capacity Shri Tallur for his appreciation of the paper
to deliver the programmes and projects. And, based on the World Bank study.
several states have geared or are gearing
themselves on their own to some indicator In response to the comments by Shri R.K. Jain’s
framework. comments, it is mentioned as under:
3. The authors agree that the World Bank and the 1. Shri Jain has appreciated the paper and made
ADB have supported the country in enhancing the following two observations:
knowledge base through Technical Assistance.
However, it is to be underscored that reform i) What is the mechanism to monitor the
and reorientation of existing road agencies is a implementation of the road policy where
long drawn and gradual process and we should it so exists?
not expect overnight changes. What is critical
is that the state road agencies realize their ii) Most of the JVs implementing highway
mandate in a manner proposed in this paper projects on PPP basis have gone into red
and identify their own indicator framework for and project implementation is lingering.
the immediate term and build upon that in the What remedy would the authors like to
medium and long term. It is the direction of suggest?
reform that is crucial. And our broad analysis of
response received from the State PWDs to the 2. The study of responses received from the state
questionnaire sent out by the World Bank give road agencies revealed that wherever road
us confidence that the framework proposed in policy exists, it emanated basically from the
the paper is adoptable and adaptable. However, political bosses backed by the administration
it is accepted that more awareness raising in and supported by technical senior management
this regard is required. level. For implementation oversight, normally
a high level steering committee is set up
4. The authors agree with the observations of comprising of various concerned departments.
Shri Tallur that there could be lack of knowledge And, some of the states have widened the
on this front. There is scope for creating more ambit of such oversight committees to set
awareness among the States road agencies up Advisory Committee of domain experts
and even in the central agencies to reorient and industry stakeholders whose feedback is
themselves to concerns and demand of users constantly helping in implementation of the
since roads should be seen basically as a means policy and vision set by the government for
to provide service to road users for efficient the road agencies. It will be appreciated that
and safe movement of goods and passengers several states have made good progress in this
in rural, urban and inter-city transport. The direction. However, there is need for continued
World Bank study did not cover the central effort.
road agencies in India. However, even in such
agencies, some areas might be worth exploring 3. As regards, PPP projects in the road sector, the
for enhancing efficiency of delivery and value authors are not in a position to provide response
for money from investments. The Indian Roads in absence of any specific insight into the issues

raised by Shri Jain. This would be a matter of Projects Ltd. echoes this sentiment. “The
a separate study in itself. However, such a call payment of bonus for early completion should
is to be taken by the government itself. The be made mandatory,” adds Mathew. Patwardhan
authors do believe that the government would has more to say. “A 10 per cent penalty for delay
be seized of these developments. in completion is very unreasonable as right
from the beginning, the responsibility for the
Replies by the Author (Paper No. 582) delay is thrown on the contractor in the guise
of the above mentioned “liaison” clause. It is
In reply to Shri S.M. Ramchandani’s comment, it is used as a pressure point to get away with lapses
mentioned as under: on the part of the client.” Notwithstanding the
merits on the arguments of these contractors, it
1. “Where a contractor completes the work before may better be appreciated by all concerned that
time, flimsy excuses are made by pointing out no bonus clause exists in conventional contracts
minor defects, delaying the issue of completion of PWDs and inclusion of progressive clauses
certificates. Where minor defects not affecting such as bonus for early completion in NHDP
traffic flow are pointed out, the rectification contracts is a welcome step and any hiccups in
should be permitted within a specified period to its implementation should be resolved amicably
spill over into the defects liability period” as per by the contracting firms with the executing
Col Vivek Bopiah (Retd), Executive Director agency & Consultants.
(P), Bhagheeratha Engineering Ltd. “The bonus
and penalty are normally not kept the same in the 2. As per the Revised Guidelines by Infrastructure
bid documents, which seems to be unjust,” says & Project Monitoring Division (IPMD)
Dinesh Valecha, Executive Director, Valecha of Ministry of Statistics & Programme
Engineering. “Penalty conditions are often Implementation (Apr 2005), Bid Capacity = A
imposed without making any provisions for x N x 2 - B, where
rewarding the contractor for early completion,”
adds Shaju Mathew, General Manager - HR ‘N’ = Number of years prescribed for completion of
& Marketing, Techni Bharti Ltd. If it is so, the the subject contract.
basic spirit of constructive cooperation between
‘A’ = Maximum value of works executed in any one
the client & the contractor is defeated.
year during last five years (at current price
Infact only the contractor is benefited from level)
incentive clause for early completion, thus no ‘B’ = Value, at current price level, of existing
motivation for NHAI staff or it’s Supervision commitments and on going works to be
Consultant. The successful completion of a completed in the next ‘ N ’ years.
project depends on the contractor, the consultant
and the NHAI field staff thus necessitating for Yes. I totally agree with Shri Ramchandani that since
introducing a system of bonus and penalty for considerable time elapses between bid opening and
the others too. Further NHAI can ensure that its awarding of contract, contracting firm’s potential needs
appraisal system (Annual Confidential Reports to be reassessed at the time of awarding of contract.
ACRs) for their field staff takes cognizance Also bidders may be asked to reveal the list of projects
of the success or failure of the project. The they are bidding for at the time of submission of tender
defects liability period could be extended for so that executing agency/user will have an idea of likely
the affected portion by the specified period or future work load by the tenderer.
completion time, whichever is earlier. In the
event the contractor is unable to complete the In response to Shri R.K. Jain’s comments it is
rectification within the specified period, the mentioned as under:
bonus for the corresponding period should be
denied. “Bonus and penalty should be equal I would like to cite the Solution proposed by B.K.
to encourage contractors,” feels Valecha. SV Chaturvedi Committee for resolving the pending
Patwardhan, Managing Director, Madhucon arbitration issues.

Sl. Category Suggestion by BK Chaturvedi The presentation on the highway capacity, of course,
No. Committee on Dispute Resolution I would not comment on that because I am one of the
Mechanism author. But I want to highlight a key message. Start
i) Claims < Rs 100 Review on case to case basis by an
something, at whatever form, may be at very simplistic
million or 5% of Independent Expert Group (IEG) with form. You may not have to look into all the seven
contract amount eminent representation comprising of groups of indicators but start something perhaps very
which ever is say a retired Deputy Comptoller & simple. Look at the issue of data management, data
lower Auditor General, a former Vigilance collection and integration system. Currently what we
Commissioner and a retired Senior Officer
have noted that there are systems available but those
of the Law Ministry besides a technical
expert. The IEG’s opinion may be sought are not integrated and it has been done in little bit,
by the variations committee in all cases scattered and patchy manner.
where the tribunal awards have already
been published and appeals are pending Third presentation by Dr. Kishore Kumar is very
in various courts, and on selective basis exciting and good. I would thank him for getting into
in respect of cases pending decision by that in much detail and research in this area. In fact,
Arbitral Tribunals (AT). In particular,
where the decisions have been similar
as you may be aware that Ministry of Statistics &
and unanimous both in the DRB and AT Programme Implementation (MOSPI), they are on it
stages, the appeals pending in the various now. It is a national crisis and it is not only road sector.
Courts may invariably be withdrawn. All the public sector projects are at huge time and cost
ii) Claims between In general, award of arbitral tribunal may overrun and more awareness has to be created because
Rs 100 million to be accepted particularly in cases where what I see we have some kind of excellent suggestions
Rs 1 billion the unanimous decision at DRB level is on all kind of reforms, land acquisition, procurement
upheld by the tribunal. on the contracting agency’s capacity etc., which is
iii) Claims > Rs 1 NHAI may carefully consider the very critical. But I think at the same time, there is one
billion award of tribunal before challenging in critical element, that all the Ministries, not only the
the court. NHAI may take up with the Infrastructure Ministry, work together to understand
arbitral tribunal/court for early hearing that this is a big issue to highlight the economic losses,
and disposal of all pending cases. These
measures would enable significant
we are currently incurring because of these delays.
savings in interest payment. In view of the
long time taken by the tribunals to decide Dr. S.P. Palanisamy (Chairman’s Concluding Remarks)
issues (on an average of 2-3 year time
span, after 70-80 sittings), fast tracking Thank you Shri Arnab. It has been a great pleasure
and early disposal of decisions by arbitral to preside over this function. In all, three papers have
tribunals may be incentivised by way of a been presented in this Session. I thank all the authors
flat fee to the tribunal members.
for their excellent presentations. I know 30 or 40
years’ experience have gone in doing this research
Shri Arnab Bandyopadhyay (Co-Chairman’s
and development work and it is very difficult to write
Concluding Remarks)
such informative and so much knowledge is build up.
I want to thank all the three speakers for excellent I want to congratulate all the authors and wish them
presentations. Particularly Dr. L.R. Kadiyali’s presentation well and hope that they would produce more papers
has been very well received because I think there were in the forthcoming Session of IRC. I would like to
20 or 30 questions and this is very much relevant at least personally convey my congratulations again and would
at central level. The thinking of long term planning, like to request the audience if you got any discussion
national transport development policy committee, as yet pending in your mind, you please send it to IRC and
many of you may know, has been constituted to actually they will take care of it and suitably reply in some form,
do 20/30 horizon transport planning and I think some of electronically or otherwise. I thank all the audience for
these very well fit into that. patient listening.

“Mixed Traffic Flow Analysis on Roundabouts”
By
Satish Chandra & Rajat Rastogi
&
Paper No. 585**
“Application of ANT Administrative System in Web GIS Based
Advanced Public Transport System (APTS)”
By
Sanjeev Suman & Praveen Kumar
Shri Nirmal Jit Singh (Chairman’s Opening Remarks) the members of the Committee and is to be discussed
in the next meeting of the Committee. Under these
In this Technical Session two Papers are scheduled for circumstances, it is very useful that result of similar
discussion. The first Paper is on “Mixed Traffic Flow studies by Dr. Rastogi and if any other suggestion
Analysis on Roundabouts” by Dr. Satish Chandra comes on any work of roundabouts and traffic rotary
and Dr. Rajat Rastogi and the Second Paper is on they should also bring out and may be passed on to
“Application of ANT Administrative System in Web Committee so that when we revise IRC: 65, all those
GIS Based Advanced Public Transport System (APTS)” results is taken care of. Now, I request Dr. Rastogi to
by Dr. Sanjeev Suman & Dr. Praveen Kumar. I now give his presentation.
request the authors to come to the dais.
The Authors made Power Point presentation of the
First Paper is on Mixed Traffic Flow Analysis on Paper Nos. 575 & 585.
Roudabouts. Traffic rotary is roundabout, the quite
commonly used word in Urban and Sub-urban areas. Paper No. 575
For traffic movements where there are three or more
Shri K. Jhangavel
roads are meeting in an intersection and the proportion
of right turning traffic is substantial. The advantages of 1. What about the Pedestrian crossing?
traffic rotary are self-governing and traffic movement is
2. Is there any provision provided in planning
smooth as long as the traffic volume does not exceed the
about roundabout?
rotary capacity. We have already IRC: 65 published in
1976 which gives the recommended practice for traffic Dr. S. Velmurugan
rotaries. As per this the practical capacity of rotary is
determined on the basis of average entry with width At the outset, I would like to congratulate the authors
and length of the weaving section and the proportion of for bringing out an excellent paper with the primary
the weaving traffic. Our guidelines are almost 35 years focus on evolving a rational approach after critical
old and we may review. The Urban Roads Committee examination of the capacity estimation procedure
of IRC (H-8) already taken up this job and the first draft employed in developed countries and comparing the
of the revision is already prepared and circulated among same with the method proposed by IRC.


The outcome of this work can be reckoned to be Shri M.V. Patil

one of the major inputs towards the recent endeavor
undertaken by CSIR-CRRI titled “Development of How the entry capacity has calculated by the new
Indian Highway Capacity Manual” (Indo HCM) formula compared with actual counts?
sponsored by CSIR.
Paper No. 585
However, I have the following comments based on the
issues discussed in the paper: Dr. S. Velmurugan
i) At page No.70 and 71, though the test At the outset I would like to congratulate authors for
sections considered are typical urban a practical illustration of the application of APTS for
intersections (in the form of rotaries) the study area of Chandigarh. It is an excellent work
located in Chandigarh, the PCU values demonstration of ITS Applications. The following
applicable to Inter-city corridors (vide aspects may be clarified.
IRC: 64-1990) have been deployed which
1. Though it is mentioned in the manuscript that
is somewhat illogical.
the city of Chandigarh is taken as the case
ii) It is surprising to note that there is no study, nowhere the network and number of
mention of the count of the Non-motorized routes considered is mentioned in the paper.
traffic (NMT); esp-cycles) flow, conducted The provision of such a information would
at any of the intersections despite the have enhanced the readership.
fact that most of the major arterials in
2. How it is expected that buses/bus route always
Chandigarh have cycle tracks catering
be routed based on the shortest/minimum length
to some proportion of NMT traffic. This
while applying the ANT algorithm? This may
aspect may be clarified.
be clarified.
iii) Roundabout in most of the metropolitan
cities are fast being converted into
signalized intersections due to land
In reply to the question of Shri K. Jhangavel, it is
issues and traffic growth except of course
mentioned as under:
Chandigarh and New Delhi Municipal
Area. The authors may solicit their views 1. Pedestrian crossings are not considered in this
on the same. study. It may be mentioned that roundabout is
not a good choice if pedestrian movement is
iv) What is your view on the elevated Rotary
considerable.
coming up in some of the cities like
Coimbatore and Chennai? 2. No, the scope of this study was limited to
the analysis of traffic flow only and planning
v) How come based on the observed flows
aspects are not considered.
at the roundabout, it is concluded that
the capacity of the intersection has been In reply to Dr. S. Velmurugan’s comments, it is stated
realistic estimated. Looks like some of as under:
the junctions are flowing at L.O.S.C or
D. This may be clarified. In this regard, it i) Authors are thankful to Dr. Velmurugan for
would have been prudent to simulate the appreciating the work. Four intersections
conditions so that the capacity of all the chosen for this study are located in
considered test sections can be realistically suburban area and hence pcu values as
estimated. given in IRC:64 or IRC:106 are equally

not valid. Authors agree to the comments by IRC as given below:

that PCU values as suggested in IRC:106,
1990 could have been more appropriate Suman Sanjeev and Kumar Praveen, Web GIS based
for the analysis. Advanced Public Transport System (APTS) using
MapServer and Ant Algothithm, Indian Highways,
ii) Data collection for this study lasted for Indian Roads Congress, Vol 40, No. 9, September
about two hours at each roundabout and 2012, pp.41-55.
non motorized traffic during this period
was in insignificant proportion. Therefore It is observed that it is not necessary that they will always
these are not considered in the analysis. move on shortest route. But while planning the route
it has been tried to put the bus on as far as as possible
iii) Signalized roundabouts are not considered shortest route with maximum satisfaction of user.
in the analysis and hence the comment is
outside the scope of the work. Shri Nirmal Jit Singh (Chairman’s Concluding Remarks)
iv) Grade separated roundabouts are not We had two very useful presentations. Straightway
considered in the analysis and hence the application for the work should have been traffic
comment is outside the scope of the work. movement research done on traffic movement on
roundabouts and as we have already mentioned that
v) This study presents a method of estimating IRC: 65 is under revision. Whatever the results, they
entry capacity of a roundabout approach are obtained now and I believe some further work is
based on the circulating flow. Simulation going on as also mentioned in the presentation. All
of traffic from at roundabout can be these will be available when we revise IRC 65.
taken up in future studies to verify the
results. However, it should be noted that As regard to the second paper, we have seen around the
even during simulation some method is country that the number of the vehicles are increasing,
needed to determine the capacity of the almost at a compounded rate of more than 10% growth
intersection. of the year and especially personalized vehicle have
a big growth and inspite of lot of development in our
In reply to Shri M.V. Patil’s comments, it is stated that major cities more grade separators, flyovers, etc., travel
the curve shown in Fig. 3 is drawn using actual field time is increasing. Congestion are increasing. The
counts of vehicles. Authors have not developed any government has taken large number of steps to wean
formula to calculate entry capacity. It is only graphical away the people to use personalized transport and
procedure and it is explained in quite detail in the encourage using more and more public transport. If we
paper. want that people use the public transport then we have
to provide the people with reasonable trip length so that
Replies by the Author (Paper No. 585) they are able to reach the destination within the shortest
possible time. All through these methods we will be able
In reply to comments of Dr. S. Velmurugan, it is to discourage the people to use personalized vehicles.
mentioned as under: I think this way, more and more studies and modern
ways might be developed by Roorkee University and
The paper is an outcome of Ph.D. work which includes
the same can also be applicable to some other cities
vast and exhaustive study. The work was divided into
also. Both these papers are very good and will help us
two papers and it was tried to avoid the repetition of
in moving forward in traffic transportation.
material in the papers. That is why the details were not
repeated in this paper. However, the interested readers With this I conclude this Session. Thank you very
may refer the other paper for details of area, published much.

Pavement Deterioration Modeling For Low

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Journal Of The

Indian Roads Congress

The Indian Roads Congress Founded: December 1934

Published by the Indian Roads Congress

The Indian Roads Congress as a body does not hold

PAVEMENT DETERIORATION MODELING FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

1 INTRODUCTION out on performance of rural roads. The construction

*** Ph.D Students, E-mail: bhatore_atul01@yahoo.co.in

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, April-June 2013

Table 1 List of Selected Road Sections

R1 Jhabua Bokadia Approach kms Bituminous Sandy & Above 1000

R2 Jhabua Akola kms Bituminous Silt + Fine Above 1000

R3 Jhabua Akola kms Bituminous B.C. + Fine Above 1000

R4 Jhabua Guda kms 3.00 Bituminous Moorum Above 1000

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, April-June 2013

R7 Indore (Indore) Hansa khedi kms Bituminous Moorum 500 to 1000

3 Data Collection properties of hard shoulder material, properties of

Name of Road R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8 R9 R10

1. Crust Details (A) Old pavement composition

Sub-grade (mm) 150 - 100 - 100 - - - - -

Sub base GSB (mm) - 150 - - - - - - - -

Base Course (mm) 50 75 - - 75 - - - - -

Surface Course (mm) - - - - - - - - - -

Total Thickness (mm) 200 225 100 - 175 - - - - -

(B) New pavement composition

Surface Course (mm) 20 20 20 20 200 20 20 20 20 20

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, April-June 2013

Type of adjoining land AL AL AL AL AL+BU Resi AL AL AL AL

Penetration in mm 68 67 68 62 N.A. 64 49.5 49.5 64 62

Softening point, 0C 55 54 52 55 N.A 55 62 62 55 56

AL – Agricultural Land; BU – Built Up; Resi – Residential;

Name of Road R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8 R9 R10

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, April-June 2013

Name of Road R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8 R9 R10

20 mm 93 100 95 100 97 100 95 95 75 100 78 100 77 68 78 100 71 100 72 66

10 mm 83 73 85 100 87 100 83 83 72 100 73 100 74 58 72 100 55 100 71 60

4.75 mm 71 71 70 95 80 100 69 69 62 100 64 100 65 54 66 100 30 100 69 55

Un soaked 10 14 9.5 10 10 12 14 12 13 10 9.3 11 9.5 13 11 9.6 10 9.2 8.6 15

22.4 mm 2 3 2 3 6 1 2 1 5 7 2 0.6 2.52 0.6 2.2 2 3 5 3 0.5

13.2 mm - 2 - 1.8 - 0.6 - 0.3 - .8 - 0.3 - 0.3 - 1.3 - 4 - 0.3

11.2 mm - 0.8 - 0 - 0.3 - 0.1 - 0.6 - 0.2 - 1.4 - 1.1 - 2 - 1

P.I. of Binding 5 5 4 5 3 3 5 5 - - 6 6 5 5 5.4 5.4 5 5 5 4

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, April-June 2013

Name of Road R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8 R9 R10

13.2 mm 2 1 0 1 - 0.9 - 0.8 - - 2 2 2 5 - 0.9 - 0.9 - 0.8

CR – Construction Record; STA – State Technical Agency; NA – Not Available

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, April-June 2013

3.2 General Details surface drainage arrangement, MERLIN roughness

Table 3 Periodical Data (General Details)

Length of Road 5 8.65 8.65 3 1.8 2 3.3 3.3 5.5 2

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, April-June 2013

Table 4 Pavement Condition Survey

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, April-June 2013

10 10 10 10 NIL 11.7 13.2 11.7 10 10.8

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, April-June 2013

Table 5 Traffic Data

62 53 81 22 129 100 75 86 44 55 Jan-08

70 75 99 69 120 139 102 106 62 77 May-09

75 77 101 73 132 144 115 132 77 79 Nov-09

4 Analysis of Data vii) Edge drop (mm).

The statistical analysis of the data, as presented in 4.2 Determination of Weightages

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, April-June 2013

Name of Road R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8 R9 R10