Chemistry

I. Development of Atomic Models

a. John Dalton (1766-1844) - Dalton’s Atomic Theory
■ Dalton discovered that:
● All matter is made of atoms. Atoms are indivisible and indestructible.
● All atoms of a given element are identical in mass and properties. : Later
discovered to be false because of isotopes
● Compounds are formed by a combination of two or more different kinds
of atoms.
● A chemical reaction is a rearrangement of atoms.

b. J.J. Thomson (1856-1940) - Discovery of the Electron, “Plum-Pudding” Model (1897)

■ In 1897, Thomson discovered the electron by experimenting with cathode rays.
He realized that previous models of the atom did not take into account for
positively and negatively charged particles. Therefore he proposed the
“plum-pudding” model of the atom in which he explains some electrical
properties of atoms due to the presence of electrons.
c. Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937) - Discovery of the Nucleus, The Rutherford Model (1909)
■ Rutherford directed the Geiger-Marsden experiment in 1909 which suggested
that J.J. Thomson’s “Plum-pudding” model was incorrect. Rutherford’s new
model of the atom contained the new features of a relatively high central charge
concentrated into a very small volume in comparison to the rest of the atom
(nucleus in the center of the atom)
d. Niels Bohr (1885-1962) - Rutherford-Bohr Model of the Atom (1913)
■ The atom is depicted as composed of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by
electrons that travel in circular orbits around the nucleus (similar to the Solar
System)
■ The attraction is said to be provided by electrostatic forces rather than gravity.
The improvement to the Rutherford .Model is that it is a quantum physical
interpretation of it. The model incorporates the wave-particle duality, which
showed that interference caused some electrons to cancel themselves out
(because electrons are waves). The model also explained the Rydberg formula
used for spectral emission lines of the atomic hydrogen, by introducing the
concept of energy levels.
 e. Schrodinger (1887-1961) - Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom - The Atomic Theory
(1926)
■ Schrodinger took The Bohr Model of the Atom one step further in 1926 by using
mathematical equations to describe the likelihood of finding an electron in a
certain position. The quantum mechanical model of the atom does not define
the exact path of an electron but rather predicts the odds of the location of the
electron.
■ The model is portrayed as a nucleus surrounded by an electron cloud where the
more dense it is, the probability of finding an electron is greater and vice versa.
This model introduced the concept of sub-energy levels.
■ Takes into account the uncertainty principle of quantum mechanics

■ ’
II. Difference of the Modern Atomic Theory from Dalton’s Atomic Theory
a. Dalton’s theory was composed of several postulates that were based on his experiments
and laws of chemical combination while later models of the atom leading to the modern
atomic theory contributed to more advanced facts about the atom and its behavior.
b. In summary, the structure and properties of atoms in both theories are different as
proposed by more modern atomic theories.
III. Laws of Chemical Combination
a. Law of Conservation of Mass
■ Proposed by Lavoisier and verified by Landolt.
■ Matter is neither created nor destroyed in the course of chemical reaction
though it may change from one form to another, the mass remains the same
throughout.
b. Law of Constant/Definite Proportion
■ Proposed by Proust.
■ A pure chemical compound always contains the same elements combined
together in a fixed ratio of their weights whatever its methods of preparation
may be.
c. Law of Multiple Proportion
■ Proposed by Dalton and verified by Berzelius.
■ When two elements (A and B) combine to form more than
■ one chemical compound then different weights of A, which combine with a
fixed weight of B, are in proportion of simple whole numbers.
d. Law of Equivalent/Reciprocal Proportion
 ■ Proposed by Ritcher.
■ The weights of the two or more elements which separately react with same
weight of a third element are also the weights of these elements which react with
each other or in simple multiple of them.
e. Gay-Lussac’s Law
■ Proposed by Gay-Lussac.
■ Applicable only for gases.
■ When gases combine, they do so in volumes, which bear a
■ simple ratio to each other and also to the product formed provided all gases are
measured under similar conditions.
IV. Calculating the Atomic Mass (Weight) of an Element
a. Formula: Atomic Mass=Protons+Neutrons
b. Extra Equations
■ Atomic Number=Protons
■ Protons-(Charge)=Electrons
V. Calculating unknown percentage abundance (Isotope Atomic Mass) using Relative values
a. Solving for Atomic Weight for two isotopes
■ (Atomic Mass)1 x (Percentage Abundance)1 = A1
■ (Atomic Mass)2 x (Percentage Abundance)2 = A2
■ A1 + A2 = Atomic Weight
b. Solving for Percentage Abundance of two Isotopes
■ (Isotope A)(x) + (Isotope B)(1-x) = Average Mass Number
■ Let x=Percentage Abundance
VI. Counting subatomic particles in Atoms and Ions
a. Assumptions
■ Atomic Number = Protons
■ (Protons or Atomic Number) - (Charge)=Electrons
■ Mass Number - Protons = Neutrons
VII. Definitions of Ions and Isotopes
a. An ion is an atom or molecule with a net electric charge due to the loss or gain of one or
more electrons
■ When a molecule becomes an anion, it is known as a polyatomic ion.
b. An isotope is a variant of a particular element which differ in neutron number and in
atomic mass
■ All isotopes have the same number of protons in each atom, neutron is what
differs
VIII.
Interpreting element notation
IX. Diatomic Molecule Examples
a. Diatomic Molecules are molecules composed of only two (identical) atoms
b. All these elements contain Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Fluorine, Carbon, Iodine and
Bromine
c. Have No Fear Of Ice Cold Beer
■ H-Hydrogen
■ N-Nitrogen
■ F-Fluorine
■ O-Oxygen
■ I-Iodine
■ C-Carbon
■ Br-Bromine
X. Atomic Representations (Element, Compound, Mixture)
a. Elements
■ Consists of only one kind of atom
■ Cannot be broken down into a simpler type of matter by either physical or
chemical means
■ Can exist as either atoms or molecules
b. Compounds
■ Consists of atoms of two or more different elements bound together
■ Can be broken down into a simpler type of matter (elements) by chemical means
(but not by physical means)
■ Has properties that are different from its component elements
■ Always contains the same ratio of its component atoms
c. Mixtures
■ Consists of two or more different elements and/or compounds physically
intermingled
■ Can be separated into its components by physical means
■ Often retains many of the properties of its components
XI. Electron Configuration
 a. Definition
■ Electron Configuration is the distribution of electrons of an atommolecule in
atomic/molecular orbitals
■ Electronic configuration describes each electron as a moving independent in an
orbital, in an average field created by all other orbitals
b. Assigning Electron Orbitals
■ 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p
■ The s subshell can hold 2 electrons (1 orbital)
■ The p subshell can hold 6 electrons (3 orbitals)
■ The d subshell can hold 10 electrons (5 orbitals)
■ The f subshell can hold 14 electrons (7 electrons)
c. What to place
■ 1s is represented by one box
● 1s2 is represented by two up and down arrows in a box
■ The number (1, 2, 3, 4, …)s determines the excitement of electrons
XII. Electron Orbital Diagram Principles (LEDS)
a. Based on the letter
■ 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p
■ The s subshell can hold 2 electrons (1 orbital)
■ The p subshell can hold 6 electrons (3 orbitals)
■ The d subshell can hold 10 electrons (5 orbitals)
■ The f subshell can hold 14 electrons (7 electrons)
XIII. Difference between Ground State and Excited State Electron Configuration
a. Ground State
■ Refers to the lowest state of energy
■ More particularly, the ground state is known to have minimum energy, which is
known as the zero point energy of the system
b. Excited State
■ Refers to the higher-energy-state rather than ground state
■ Where there is energy, the electrons are in an excited state
XIV. Production of Light by Energized Electrons emitting light wave frequencies
a. Upon achieving excited state, the electrons of an atom emit a light photon allowing
emission of light
b. Given this, the less power the closer it is to shades of Red and Orange while with more
power it is closer to Blue and Indigo on the color spectrum
c. As this happens, it moves into a higher orbit
 XV. Orbital diagram of an Ion (Charged Atom)

XVI. History of the Periodic Table

a. Dmitri Mendeleev constructed original Periodic Table
b. Mendeleev listed the elements in order of relative atomic mass
c. Mendeleev was able to predict Gallium, Germanium and Scandium
d. Elements on the modern periodic table are arranged in order of increasing atomic
number
e. Henry Moseley made the change
f. In the modern table, elements with similar properties fall into groups
g. Physical and Chemical properties are repeated in each group
XVII. Flame Test
a. The metallic element is responsible for the flame color in the compound
b. Different elements release different amounts of energy when excited thus resulting in
different colors of flame
c. Strontium or Lithium released the least amount of energy while Potassium released the
most amount of energy
d. The further right an element is on the table, the lower the energy while the further down
it is, the more the energy
e. Results
■ Boric Acid: Green
■ Calcium Chloride: Orange
■ Strontium Chloride: Red
■ Potassium Chloride: Lilac/purple
■ Sodium Chloride: Yellow
■ Lithium Chloride: Pink/Hot Pink
■ Barium Chloride: Yellow/Green
■ Copper Sulfate: Blue/Green
XVIII. Anion Test
a. Anion is an ion with a negative charge(usually non-metals) while Cation is an ion with
positive charge(usually metals)
b. Dilute Nitric Acid was used in order to eliminate other metallic ions
 c.
d. Silver Nitrate made the precipitate appear
Salt Solution Observations Silver Nitrate

NaCl Diluted Ammonia: Fairly Translucent white, white

Soluble powder

NaCl Concentrated Ammonia:

Soluble

KBr DA: Insoluble Translucent white, light

yellow powder

KBr CA: Fairly Soluble

KI DA: Insoluble Translucent yellow, green

powder

KI CA: Insoluble

XIX. Periodic Trends

a. Atomic Size
■ Going left to right, the size decreases
■ Going top to bottom, the size increases
■ Francium has largest atomic size while helium has smallest
b. Ionization
■ Energy required to remove an electron from a neutral atom in its gaseous phase
■ Opposite of Electronegativity
■ Going left to right, ionization energy increases
■ Going top to bottom, ionization energy decreases
■ Helium needs most ionization energy to remove an electron
c. Metallic Property
■ How metallic an element is/Level of reactivity of a metal
■ Going left to right, metallic character decreases
■ Going top to bottom, metallic character increases
■ Francium has most metallic character
d. Electronegativity
■ An atom's ability to attract and bind with electrons
■ Opposite of Ionization
■ Going left to right, electronegativity increases
■ Going top to bottom, electronegativity decreases
■ Fluorine has highest electronegativity because Helium is a Noble Gas, thus it
does not need to attract electrons because it is stable
e. Ionic Radius
■ When an atom gains electrons or becomes a positive ion, it becomes smaller
 ■ Going left to right, ionic radius decreases
■ Going top to bottom ionic radius increasesq

XX. Naming Ionic Compounds

a. Monatomic ions: Na+,Cl-
b. Naming metal ion with a single charge
■ Metal ion + root of non metal ion: -ide
■ NaCl - Sodium Chloride
c. Naming metal ion with multiple charges
■ Metal ion + charge in roman numeral # in a parenthesis
■ Root of non-metal ion: -ide
■ Cu2+O2- = copper (II) oxide
■ Cu+O2- = copper (I) oxide
d. Giving of electrons by metals
e. Receiving of electrons of non metals
f. Bond let metal + non-metal
g. NaCl: formula unit

h.
XXI. Polyatomic Ions
a. Na+, NO3-, ClO4-, PO3-
b. Rules combined with monatomic ions
c. Name polyatomic metal ion and polyatomic nonmetal ion as is
 d. NH4 NO3 - ammonium nitrate
e. CaCO3 - Calcium carbonate / Cocaine
f. Cu SO4 - copper (I) sulfate
XXII. Covalent Compound
a. Sharing of electrons
b. Between nonmetals only

c. H2O-molecule
d. Use prefixes to indicate no. of electrons
■ 1 - mono
■ 2 - di
■ 3 - tri
■ 4 - tetra
■ 5 - penta
■ 6 - hexa
■ 7 - hepta
■ 8 - octo
■ 9 - nona
■ 10 - deca
e. Use prefix mono for only second element
f. Second element ends with suffix -ide
g. Awkward vowels: mono-oxide ---> monoxide
h. Awkward vowels: tetra-oxide ---> tetroxide

The Periodic Table

* During the nineteenth century, chemists began to categorize the elements according to similarities in
their physical and chemical properties.
* The following helped in the development of the modern periodic table
* Advent of Electricity
* Development of Spectrometer
* The Industrial Revolution

Antoine Lavoisier
* In the late 1700s, he compiled a list of all elements that were known at the time.
* Lavoisier's Table of Simple Substances (Old English Names)
* Gases
 * Light, Heat, Dephlogisticated air, Phlogisticated Gas, Inflammable Air
* Metals * Antimony, Silver, Arsenic, Bismuth, Cobalt, Copper, Tin, Iron, Manganese, Mercury,
Molybdenum, Nickel, Gold, Platina, Lead, Tungsten, Zinc
a * Nonmetals
* Sulphur, Phosphorus, pure charcoal, radical

John Newlands
* In 1863, he suggested that elements be arranged in "octaves." He later called this as the Law of Octaves.

Lothar Meyer
* Demonstrated a connection between atomic mass and elements' properties

Dimitri Mendeleev
* In 1869 he published a table of the elements organized by increasing atomic mass

Henry Moseley
* Discovered that atoms contain a unique number of protons called the atomic number.
* Arranged elements according to increasing atomic number
* “There is in the atom a fundamental quantity which increases by regular steps as we pass from each
element to the next. This quantity can only be the charge on the central positive nucleus. “
* His research was halted when the British government sent him to serve as a foot soldier in WW2. He
was killed fighting in Gallipoli by a sniper’s bullet, at the age of 28. Because of this loss. The British
government then created a policy which disallowed its promising and prominent scientists to enlist for
joining in the armed forces of the Crown
Periodic Law
* “When arranged by increasing atomic number. The chemical elements display a regular and repeating
pattern of chemical and physical properties”
Unlocking of terms
Family or Group
* Associated with the vertical columns on the periodic table
Period
* Associated with the horizontal rows on the periodic table.
Periodic Table
* Atoms with similar properties appear in groups or families on the periodic table
* They are similar because they all have the same number of valence electrons, which governs their
chemical behaviour.
Metals
* Generally shiny when smooth and clean
* Solid at room temperature.
* Good conductors of heat and electricity.
Alkali Metals
* Very reactive metals that do not occur freely in nature
* Malleable, ductile, good conductors of heat and electricity
* Can explode if they are exposed to water
Alkali Earth Metals
* Metals
* Very reactive
* Not found free in nature.
Transition Metals
* Ductile and malleable, and conduct electricity and heat
* Iron, Cobalt, and nickel, are the only elements known to produce a magnetic field
Lanthanide series
* Many are man made (synthetic)
Actinide series
* Metals
* Just metals
Metalloids
* Posses both properties of metals and non-metals
* Some of the metalloids are semiconductors.
Non-Metals
* Not able to conduct electricity or heat very well
* Very brittle
* Do not reflect light.
* Insulators
Halogens
* “Halogen” means “salt-former” and compounds containing halogens are called “salts”
* Exist in all three states of matter.
* Salt forming elements
Noble Gas
* Do not form Compound easily
* Non reactive.
* Happy/Inert elements (full outer shells)
Summary
* Elements in the periodic table are classified or grouped based on their properties and number of
valence electrons in the valence shells.