International Journal of Food Properties

ISSN: 1094-2912 (Print) 1532-2386 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ljfp20

Characterization of Turkish-Style Boiled Coffee

Aroma by Gas Chromatography and Mass
Spectrometry and Descriptive Analysis Techniques

Jülide Kıvançlı & Yesim Elmacı

To cite this article: Jülide Kıvançlı & Yesim Elmacı (2016) Characterization of Turkish-
Style Boiled Coffee Aroma by Gas Chromatography and Mass Spectrometry and Descriptive
Analysis Techniques, International Journal of Food Properties, 19:8, 1671-1686, DOI:
10.1080/10942912.2015.1080726

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/10942912.2015.1080726

Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Published online: 14 Apr 2016.

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International Journal of Food Properties, 19:1671–1686, 2016
Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 1094-2912 print/1532-2386 online
DOI: 10.1080/10942912.2015.1080726

Characterization of Turkish-Style Boiled Coffee Aroma by

Gas Chromatography and Mass Spectrometry and Descriptive
Analysis Techniques

Jülide Kıvançlı and Yesim Elmacı

Engineering Faculty, Department of Food Engineering, Ege University, Bornova, Izmir, Turkey

The characteristic volatiles of light, medium, and dark roasted Turkish-style boiled coffee brews were
studied by headspace solid-phase micro extraction/gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and sensory
flavor profile analysis. Sixty-five volatile compounds, including furans, pyrazines, pyrroles, phenols,
pyridines, ketones, oximes, alcohols, aldehydes, thiophenes, benzenes, and terpenes, were isolated from
Turkish-style boiled coffee samples. The flavor profile analysis showed Turkish coffee brews as
roasted/burnt, spicy, bitter, acidic, sweet, salty, astringent (dry), woody, fermented, earthy, and
tobacco-like flavor characteristics. It was concluded that Turkish coffee was rich in furans, pyrazines,
pyrroles, and phenols giving its roasted/burnt, spicy, woody, and fermented flavor characteristics.

Keywords: Turkish-style boiled coffee, Turkish coffee aroma, Volatile compounds of Turkish coffee,
Descriptive analysis of Turkish coffee, Flavor descriptives of Turkish coffee.

INTRODUCTION

Turkish-style boiled coffee, which plays an important part in Turkish culture, is a coffee brew
prepared according to its unique brewing procedure. Traditionally, Turkish coffee, made from
roasted coffee beans which are ground to a very fine powder, is prepared in a small pot with a
narrow neck called “cezve” and is served in traditional Turkish coffee cups called “fincan.” Turkish
coffee is made by adding ground coffee, cold water, and sugar, if desired, into the coffee pot which
is then placed on a low/moderate heat. As the coffee pot is heated a froth/foam forms on the coffee
brew which is important for a good quality Turkish coffee. Just as the coffee comes to boil the
coffee is removed from the heat and poured into demitasse cups, where it is considered important
that the foam on the coffee is distributed equally among all cups. Traditionally, Turkish coffee is
served with a glass of cold water alongside which is used to clear the palate so that the coffee can
be tasted better. As there is no filtering procedure in Turkish coffee preparation the brew contains
coffee powder which sets at the bottom of the coffee cups, which is not drunk.

Received 16 April 2015; accepted 4 August 2015.

Address correspondence to Yesim Elmacı, Engineering Faculty, Department of Food Engineering, Ege University, 35100
Bornova, Izmir, Turkey. E-mail: yesim.elmaci@ege.edu.tr
Color versions of one or more of the figures in the article can be found online at www.tandfonline.com/ljfp.

1671
1672 KIVANÇLI AND ELMACI

Various studies regarding the effect of Turkish coffee traditions and coffee houses on social life
as well as studies on traditional equipment used for preparing and serving Turkish coffee and also
studies regarding the health effects of Turkish coffee, its antioxidant capacity and determination of
furanic compounds and furfural in Turkish coffee have been conducted.[1–11] But to the best of our
knowledge, no study has been carried out regarding the volatile compounds and flavor character-
istics of Turkish coffee.
Numerous researches on the flavor characteristics and volatile composition of ground and
brewed coffee have been carried out in which more than 800 compounds contributing to the
flavor of coffee (ground and brewed) have been identified.[12–14] The flavor characteristics and
volatile composition of coffee are mainly affected by the coffee bean type, origin, and roasting
conditions. Also, the grinding of roasted coffee beans and brewing are considered as important
steps in preparation of coffee brew.[14] Studies on the identification of volatile compounds in
ground roasted Arabica coffee,[15] impact of roasting conditions on the formation of aroma
compounds in coffee beans,[16] characterization of roasted coffees[17,18] have been conducted.
Also, various studies have been carried out on the characterization of the flavor and headspace
volatile profile of filter coffee, espresso coffee, plunger coffee, and various coffee brews, as well
as the effect of factors such as roasting conditions, grinding degree, water/coffee ratio, and brew
preparation conditions on the headspace volatiles and flavor attributes of these coffees.[13,14,19–32]
For the isolation of the volatile compounds coffee extraction methods such as, direct headspace
sampling, solid phase micro extraction (SPME), and purge and trap have been used in various
studies.[13,14,19–33] SPME is the most widely used method for evaluation of headspace volatiles of
coffee due to being a fast, cheap, reliable, and reproducible method.
People around the world enjoy drinking different types of beverages, but coffee tends to be one
of the most popular and most consumed beverages due to its unique sensory properties.[34,35] The
growing coffee market and the opening of international chain coffee shops Worldwide have
enabled consumers to develop an interest for different coffee beverages. For Turkish coffee to
take its place among other coffee beverages it is important to standardize and describe its flavor. To
the best of our knowledge, as no study has been carried out regarding the volatile compounds and
flavor characteristics of Turkish coffee, in order to form a starting point and basis for future studies
on the description of aroma and flavor characteristics of Turkish-style boiled coffee the aim of this
study was:
● To determine the volatile composition of the headspace of Turkish-style boiled coffee and by
comparing findings with literature on coffee aroma to predict possible contributors to Turkish
coffee aroma;
● To describe the flavor of Turkish-style boiled coffee.
For this purpose, the headspace volatiles of Turkish-style boiled coffee, brewed from light,
medium, and dark roasted, ground Arabica coffee beans, isolated by SPME were analyzed by gas
chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) analysis and descriptive sensory analysis was
performed.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Coffee Sample
Commercial green arabica coffee beans (Coffea arabica) from Brazil’s Rio Minas region
(Excellente NY 2/3) were purchased from a local supplier. The coffee beans were roasted to
three roasting degrees (L-values 25.81, 23.43, 20.75) using a table-top roaster (Has Garanti brand)
with a capacity of 1 kg and ground very finely (<300 µ) with a Turkish coffee grinder (Has Garanti
 CHARACTERIZATION OF TURKISH COFFEE AROMA 1673

brand). Roasted coffee beans were kept at room temperature for 24 h before grinding, and after
grinding, the coffee samples were immediately brewed and analyzed. The degree of roasting was
determined by measuring the L-value of the ground-roasted coffee using a ColorFlex EZ (Hunter
Associates Laboratory Inc., USA) colorimeter.

Preparation of Turkish Coffee Brews

The Turkish coffee samples were brewed from fresh roasted and ground coffee beans and analyzed
immediately to avoid flavor losses. To obtain a standard brewed Turkish coffee sample Turkish
coffee brewing machine (Arçelik K-3190 Telve brand) was used for brewing. The coffee brews
were prepared with bottled water (Erikli brand) and no sugar was added. In line with the coffee
machine user instructions and the preference tests carried out by the panel, 5 g coffee/65 mL water
ratio was chosen for brewing.

Headspace SPME Sampling

Volatiles of the Turkish coffee samples were extracted by using 50/30 μm thick, 1 cm long
divinylbenzene/carboxen/polydimethylsiloxane (DVB–CAR–PDMS) fiber (Sigma-Aldrich Co.)
selected from among four different SPME fibers used in a previous study.[36] For headspace
sampling, 20 mL of brewed Turkish coffee was transferred to a 40 mL vial closed with a septa
cap as suggested by Kıvançlı and Elmacı.[36] The vial was placed on a block heater at 60°C and the
fiber was exposed to the headspace in the vial for 30 min. After sampling, the fiber was placed into
the injection port of the GC–MS and thermally desorbed.

GC–MS Analysis and Identification of the Volatile Compounds

The separation of the volatiles of Turkish coffee was accomplished as suggested in Akiyama
et al.[14] by using a Hewlett-Packard (HP) 6890 GC/HP 5973 MS (Agilent Technologies) equipped
with a fused silica capillary column DB-WAX (60 m × 0.25 mm, 0.50 µm film thickness, Agilent
Technologies). The flow of the carrier gas Helium was 1.6 mL/min. The oven temperature was
programmed at an initial temperature of 50°C for 2 min, followed by an increase of 5°C/min to 90°
C and an increase of 2°C/min from 90 to 220°C, and held at 220°C for 15 min and the total run
time was 90 min. The injection port was held at 250°C. The inlet was operated in the splitless
mode. Volatile compounds were identified by comparing their mass spectra with the WILEY and
NIST mass spectral (MS) libraries. Additionally, Kovats indexes were calculated and compared
with the literature, by comparing the mass spectra of the volatile compounds to the mass spectra of
C7–C30 n-alkanes.

Sensory Analysis
Sensory descriptive analysis of the Turkish coffee samples for the determination of the flavor
profiles was accomplished as suggested in Altuğ Onoğur and Elmacı[37] and conducted with a
panel consisting of eight assessors aged between 22 to 55 years from the Ege University,
Department of Food Engineering. The assessors were previously tested for their sensitivity to
major tastes and odors.[38,39] The sensory evaluation was carried out in the sensory analysis
laboratory within the Ege University Food Engineering Department. Twenty-two, 40 min training
sessions were held to familiarize the assessors with the flavor profile technique using reference
materials relevant to coffee flavor and during the training session’s descriptive terms for Turkish
coffee flavor were generated by the panel (Table 1). During the sensory evaluation, the Turkish
coffee samples were served at approximately 60ºC in white porcelain traditional Turkish coffee
1674 KIVANÇLI AND ELMACI

TABLE 1
Descriptive terms generated for Turkish coffee and reference materials

Descriptive term Reference material

Roasted/Burnt No reference
Spicy No reference
Bitter Caffeine solution (0.195 g/L)
Sour Citric acid solution (0.43 g/L)
Salty Sodium chloride solution (0.43 g/L)
Sweet Sucrose solution (5.76 g/L)
Astringent/Dry Ceylon tea (Lipton, Unilever)
Woody Dry wood
Fermented Decayed apple peel
Earthy Moist earth
Tobacco-like Pipe tobacco

cups. At each session only one sample was assessed and all the sessions were conducted at 10:30–
11:00 and/or 14:30–15:00. For each sample the evaluations were performed by consensus-based
discussion and the intensity of each descriptive term was rated by using a 0–50 mm scale. The
results of the sensory evaluation were plotted as spiderweb diagrams.

Statistical Analysis
All objective and sensory analyses were carried out on three independent brew samples of each
roast degree (in triplicate). The statistical analyses were performed by using XLSTAT 2011 trial
version. To investigate the effect of the degree of roast on volatile composition and descriptive
terms of the Turkish coffee, analysis of variance (ANOVA) was applied and the Duncan test was
performed at 95% confidence level. To evaluate the difference between the Turkish coffee samples
with different roast degrees and the relationship between variables cluster analysis and principle
component analysis (PCA) were applied to the volatile compounds and sensory ratings.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

GC–MS Analysis and the Effect of Roasting on Volatile Compounds

Table 2 shows that 50, 60, and 64 volatile compounds were isolated from the light, medium, and
dark roasted Turkish coffees, respectively. Differences among the peak areas of common volatiles
for three roast degrees were analysed by the Duncan test and 12 volatile compounds exhibited
significant difference (p < 0.05) among all roast degrees, while 18 compounds showed significant
difference between medium and dark roasted samples, 5 compounds showed significant difference
between light and dark roasted samples and one compound showed significant difference between
light and medium roasted samples (p < 0.05).
The volatile compound classes found in the light, medium, and dark roasted Turkish coffees
were furans, pyrazines, pyrroles, phenols, pyridines, ketones, oximes, alcohols, aldehydes, thio-
phenes, benzenes, and terpenes
According to the compound classes identified in the Turkish coffee samples, as the degree of
roast increased, the total area percentage of furans, pyrroles, phenols, and pyridines increased while
those of pyrazines, oximes, alcohols, and aldehydes decreased (Table 3). The total peak area
percentages of the volatile compound classes identified showed that in all samples furans were the
 TABLE 2
The identified volatile compounds, their relative peak area percentages, standard deviations, and the sensory descriptors found from literature for the identified
volatile compounds for the three roast degrees of Turkish coffee

Peak area percentage (%) ± standard

Kovats deviation* (n = 3)
Peak retention
number index Volatile compound*** Light Medium Dark Sensory descriptor****

1 947 2-Methylbutanal 0.61 ± 0.11a 0.28 ± 0.04b 0.16 ± 0.06c Chocolate,caramel, nutty,coffee-like, musty
2 1076 2,3-Pentanedione** 1.18 ± 0.05a 1.09 ± 0.21a 0.72 ± 0.13b Buttery, toasted
3 1087 2-Vinylfuran 0.62 ± 0.24a 0.79 ± 0.34a 0.74 ± 0.02a
4 1094 Hexanal 0.09 ± 0.13 ND ND Green, fatty, nutty
5 1144 1-Methyl-1H-pyrrole 0.41 ± 0.22a 0.41 ± 0.21a 0.24 ± 0.01a Sweet,warm, nutty, etheral,smokey, woody
6 1153 2-Vinyl-5-methylfuran** 1.06 ± 0.28a 1.27 ± 0.14a 0.46 ± 0.11b
7 1221 dl-limonene 0.07 ± 0.09a 0.08 ± 0.07a 0.01 ± 0.01a Citrus, spicy, terpene, camphor
8 1226 Pyridine** 1.45 ± 0.24b 1.60 ± 0.40ab 2.03 ± 0.23a Smokey, amine-like
9 1309 Methylpyrazine** 4.16 ± 0.07a 3.44 ± 0.13b 2.55 ± 0.33c Nutty, roasted, cocoa, popcorn
10 1316 Trans-2-methyl-n-propenylfuran ND ND 0.12 ± 0.17
11 1365 2,5-Dimethylpyrazine** 2.27 ± 0.10a 1.85 ± 0.06b 1.34 ± 0.22c Chocolate, roasted nuts, peanut,earthy
12 1371 2,6-Dimethylpyrazine** 2.01 ± 0.07a 1.66 ± 0.03b 1.25 ± 0.17c Coffee, chocolate, roasted nuts, fried potatoes
13 1374 Ethylpyrazine** 3.51 ± 0.10a 2.90 ± 0.08b 2.27 ± 0.33c Nutty,coffee, cocoa, roasted, fermented, musty, chocolate-peanut
14 1391 2,3-Dimethylpyrazine 0.63 ± 0.01a 0.55 ± 0.01b 0.35 ± 0.06c Musty, nut skin, cocoa powder,roasted, coffee, bready
15 1424 2-Ethyl-6-methylpyrazine** 4.48 ± 0.25a 3.77 ± 0.19b 3.04 ± 0.44c Cumin, roasted, fruity-floral, earthy
16 1432 2-Ethyl-5-methylpyrazine** 2.63 ± 0.17a 2.15 ± 0.11b 1.70 ± 0.22c Coffee,nutty, roasted, mild grass, cumin
17 1445 2-Ethyl-3-methylpyrazine** 3.01 ± 0.12a 2.52 ± 0.08b 1.98 ± 0.24c Nutty, potato, burnt, roasted, cereal, earthy
18 1470 2,6-Diethylpyrazine** 1.51 ± 0.11a 1.32 ± 0.07b 1.20 ± 0.13b Chocolate, roasted nuts, fried potatoes
19 1476 Linalooloxide 0.74 ± 0.09b 0.85 ± 0.13ab 0.92 ± 0.03a Floral, pleasant, citrus, terpene, earthy-floral, burnt, sweet,
caramel, coffee
20 1482 3-Ethyl-2,5-dimethylpyrazine** 4.80 ± 0.32a 4.06 ± 0.12b 3.47 ± 0.45c Roasted nuts
21 1499 2-Furancarboxaldehyde 13.52 ± 2.06a 12.91 ± 1.58a 8.22 ± 1.80b Sweet, woody,bready, nutty, burnt, astringent, caramel- like,almond
(Furfural) **
22 1501 2-Ethyl-3,5-dimethyl-pyrazine 0.39 ± 0.55a 0.28 ± 0.23a 0.36 ± 0.07a Chocolate, roasted nuts, friedpotatoes
23 1508 2-acetyl-5-methylfuran 0.48 ± 0.14a 0.54 ± 0.37a 0.63 ± 0.16a Nutty
24 1517 2-[(Methylthio)methyl]furan** 1.05 ± 0.13b 1.06 ± 0.10b 1.67 ± 0.06a Coffee-like, strong mustard, garlic, burnt,meaty, smokey-roasted
25 1521 Furfurylformate ND ND 0.20 ± 0.28 Ether-like
CHARACTERIZATION OF TURKISH COFFEE AROMA

26 1524 2,3-Diethyl-5-methylpyrazine** 1.21 ± 0.12a 1.11 ± 0.10ab 1.03 ± 0.09b Musty, nutty, meaty, vegetable, roasted nuts, toasty, potato,
cocoa, earthy

(continued )
1675
 TABLE 2
(Continued)
1676
Peak area percentage (%) ± standard
Kovats deviation* (n = 3)
Peak retention
number index Volatile compound*** Light Medium Dark Sensory descriptor****

27 1529 3,5-Diethyl-2-methylpyrazine** 1.38 ± 0.11a 1.16 ± 0.05b 1.05 ± 0.13b Nutty

28 1544 1-(2-Furanyl)ethanone** 2.24 ± 0.20a 2.34 ± 0.17a 2.34 ± 0.35a Fruity, sweet, caramel-like
29 1553 1-(2-Furyl)-2-propanone 0.64 ± 0.11b 0.67 ± 0.16b 0.91 ± 0.01a Caramel-like, fruity, spicy, sweet
30 1560 2-Methoxy-3-(2-methylpropyl) 0.50 ± 0.01a 0.46 ± 0.01b 0.41 ± 0.03c Green
KIVANÇLI AND ELMACI

pyrazine
31 1565 2-Furanmethanol acetate** 9.75 ± 0.73b 10.74 ± 1.53b 14.82 ± 1.08a Fruity, sweet, banana-like
32 1576 Linalool 0.89 ± 0.01a 0.82 ± 0.08a 0.54 ± 0.07b Floral, citrus, orange, lemon, waxy, aldehyde-like, woody, sweet-
fruity, coriander seed
33 1580 Dimethyl-2-vinylpyrazine 0.37 ± 0.11a 0.36 ± 0.08a 0.17 ± 0.24a Nutty
34 1614 5-Methyl-2- 9.96 ± 1.31b 11.74 ± 0.72a 11.57 ± 1.02a Caramel-like, sweet, bready, coffee-like
furancarboxaldehyde**
35 1624 2-Furanmethanol propanoate** 0.79 ± 0.06b 0.89 ± 0.09b 1.28 ± 0.13a Fruity, sweet, green banana, fatty, coffee, spicy
36 1629 2,2’-Bifuran 0.63 ± 0.03a 0.64 ± 0.01a 0.55 ± 0.05b Aromatic, medicinal, camphor
37 1635 2,2’-Methylenebisfuran** 1.73 ± 0.14b 1.89 ± 0.19b 2.83 ± 0.61a Bitter, redcurrent
38 1653 1-Ethyl-1H-pyrrole-2- ND 0.19 ± 0.07 0.36 ± 0.11 Burnt roasted
carboxaldehyde
39 1667 1-Methyl-1H-pyrrole-2- 1.50 ± 0.17b 1.67 ± 0.14b 2.07 ± 0.01a Coffee
carboxaldehyde**
40 1671 Unknown 0.59 ± 0.29 0.56 ± 0.25 0.62 ± 0.21
41 1677 1-(1H-pyrrol-2-yl)-ethanone 0.18 ± 0.07a 0.25 ± 0.22a 0.33 ± 0.11a Nutty, sweet, liquoriceroot-like
42 1682 1-(2-Furyl)-butane-3-one ND 0.20 ± 0.12 0.61 ± 0.21 Spicy, caramel
43 1692 2-Furanmethanol** 3.73 ± 0.20b 3.83 ± 0.21b 4.29 ± 0.15a Burnt,sweet, caramel, coffee, bitter, astringent
44 1700 1-(1-Methyl-1H-pyrrol-2-yl)- 0.96 ± 0.09b 1.01 ± 0.01b 1.31 ± 0.15a Earthy
ethanone**
45 1704 2-(2-Furanylmethyl)-5- 0.50 ± 0.08b 0.60 ± 0.08b 1.03 ± 0.39a Liquriceroot-like
methylfuran
46 1710 2-Methoxybenzeneamine ND 0.33 ± 0.12 0.37 ± 0.05 Fishy
47 1724 2-(Methoxymethyl)furan 0.48 ± 0.11b 0.50 ± 0.26b 0.86 ± 0.06a Roasted coffee
48 1731 3-Ethyl-2-hydroxy-2- ND 0.07 ± 0.13 0.36 ± 0.11 Strong caramel-like, burnt
cyclopentene-1-one
49 1741 2-Thiophenecarboxaldehyde ND 0.05 ± 0.09 0.06 ± 0.08
50 1747 Pulegone ND 0.20 ± 0.28 Minty, spicy
51 1759 Pyrazine ND 0.03 ± 0.05 0.22 ± 0.31 Nutty, astringent,sweet, corn-like, roasted hazelnut shell
52 1761 Unknown ND 0.10 ± 0.10 0.35 ± 0.06
53 1765 Methoxyphenileoxime 1.09 ± 0.23a 0.93 ± 0.34a 0.92 ± 0.12a Floral, fruity,light green, sweet
54 1777 2,3-Dihydro-6-methylthieno 3.86 ± 0.10a 3.40 ± 0.17b 2.55 ± 0.17c Coffee-like, smoke
[2,3c]furan**
55 1815 Unknown ND 0.67 ± 0.20 1.02 ±
0.42
56 1845 2-Ethylfuran 0.38 ± 0.09b 0.56 ± 0.16ab 0.73 ±
0.14a Burnt, sweet, caramel-like,coffee
57 1854 Pentylthiophene 0.53 ± 0.00a 0.52 ± 0.04a 0.42 ±
0.01b Fruity,butter-like, meat-like
58 1864 N-furfurylpyrrole** 2.81 ± 0.15b 3.00 ± 0.38b 3.68 ±
0.09a Vegetable-like, onion, strong metallic, plastic, green, waxy, fruity,
coffee
59 1900 2-Methoxyphenol (Guaiacol) 0.28 ± 0.21b 0.46 ± 0.06ab 0.72 ± 0.24a Phenolic, medicinal
60 1911 1-Methyl-1H-pyrrol-2- ND ND 0.04 ± 0.06 Coffee
carboxaldehyde
61 1937 1-Methyl-1H-pyrrole ND 0.26 ± 0.12 0.84 ± 0.14 Woody, smoke
62 2024 2,2’-[Oxybis(methylene)]bis ND 0.11 ± 0.19 0.36 ± 0.46 Salicilate, coffee-like
furan,
63 2044 Phenol ND ND 0.08 ± 0.11 Phenolic
64 2072 4-Ethyl-2-methoxyphenol, 0.49 ± 0.06b 0.56 ± 0.07b 0.85 ± 0.22a Balsamic, clove, phenolic, woody, smoke, pepper
65 2245 4-Vinyl-2-methoxy-phenol** 1.86 ± 0.14a 1.94 ± 0.31a 1.66 ± 0.07a Clove-like, woody, spicy, smoke

*The letters a,b,c denote the coffee samples statistically different according to Duncan test (p < 0.05);
**Volatile compounds chosen for cluster analysis and principle component analysis (PCA);
***Reliability of identification: all compounds were considered to be tentative (by comparing mass spectrum with MS library WILEY and NIST databases and retention indexes
with literature data);
****Schenker et al., 2002; Gloess et al., 2013; Andueza et al., 2007; Baggenstoss et al., 2008; Acree and Arn, 2011; The Good Scents Company 2011; Mottram, 2011; UFL, 2011;
Leffingwell and Associates, 2011; Chembase, 2011; Chemical Book, 2011; Oomah and Liang, 2007; Surburg and Panten, 2006, Flament, 2002;
*****n: number of replicates.
CHARACTERIZATION OF TURKISH COFFEE AROMA
1677
1678 KIVANÇLI AND ELMACI

TABLE 3
Total peak area percentages of the volatile compound classes isolated from the
three roast degrees of Turkish coffee brews

Total peak area percentage (%)

Volatile class Light Medium Dark

Furans 54.17 55.53 57.69

Pyrazines 32.86 27.62 22.38
Pyrroles 5.85 6.79 8.86
Phenols 2.62 2.96 3.31
Pyridines 1.45 1.60 2.03
Ketones 1.18 1.16 1.27
Oximes 1.069 0.93 0.92
Alcohols 0.89 .82 0.54
Aldehydes 0.75 0.28 0.16
Thiophenes 0.53 0.57 0.48
Terpenes Trace Trace Trace

most abundant group in Turkish coffee followed by pyrazines, pyrroles, and phenols (Table 3).
Furans are described as typical Maillard reaction compounds of carbohydrates, as well as resulting
from thermal oxidation of lipids, from degradation of thiamine and from breakdown of nucleotides-
[40]
and are formed during roasting of coffee,[41] which could explain the increase in furans in the
Turkish coffee samples as the degree of roast increased. In line with the results of this study furans
are considered to be among the most abundant group of volatiles present in coffee.[40,41] Furans are
considered to be important for coffee aroma and flavor and are associated with sweet, roasted,
fruity, nutty, caramel-like, smoke, burnt, floral, and ethereal odors.[16,18,26,29,32,40–50]
Pyrazines are an abundant class of compounds present in coffee and are of key importance to
the flavor of coffee.[41,51] Pyrazines are formed by complex interactions between α-amino acids and
carbohydrates.[32] Alkylprazines are formed during coffee roasting and the amount formed is
considered to be proportional to the degree of roasting, but as prolonged roasting causes loss of
pyrazines by decomposition, the highest concentrations are found in lightly roasted coffees.[51]
Likewise in this study the total area percentage was highest in light roasted Turkish coffee.
Pyrazines are associated with nutty, coffee-like, roasted, earthy, green, and musty
odors.[16,18,26,29,32,40–50]
Phenolic compounds are generated and released during roasting and increase as roasting
continues.[41,51] Likewise in this study the total area percentages for phenols increased as the
roast degree increased and was highest in dark roasted Turkish coffee. Phenolic compounds are
considered essential to the typical quality of coffee flavor[40] and are associated with smokey,
burnt, spicy, clove-like and bitter aromas and impart astringency.[16,18,26,29,32,40–50]
Among the isolated volatiles 2-furancarboxaldehyde, 2-furanmethanolacetate, and 5-methyl-2-
furancarboxaldehyde were the most abundant compounds in all roast degrees which is in line with
the study on espresso and filter coffee beverages by Lopez-Galilea et al.[23]
2-Methylbutanal, 2,3-Pentanedione, 2,3-Dimethylpyrazine, Ethylpyrazine, 2-Ethyl-6-methylpyr-
azine, 3-Ethyl(2,3-dimethyl)pyrazine, 2-Ethyl-3,5-dimethylpyrazine, 2,3-Diethyl-5-methylpyrazine
2-Methoxy-3-(2-methylpropyl)pyrazine, Furfural, 2-[(Methylthio)methyl]furan, Furfuryl formate,
2-Furanmethanolacetate, 5-Methyl-2-Furancarboxaldehyde, Pyridine, Linalool,2-Methoxyphenol
(guaiacol), 4-Ethyl-2-methoxyphenol, and 4-Vinyl-2-methoxyphenol which were quantified as
key odorants for coffee brews in other studies,[14,25,41,52–56] were also identified in the Turkish
coffee samples, while key odorants such as methanethiol, acetaldehyde, propanal, 2-
 CHARACTERIZATION OF TURKISH COFFEE AROMA 1679

methylpropanal, 3-methylbutanal, 2,3-butanedione, and hexanal, responsible for fresh, fruity,

malty, and buttery flavors were not isolated from Turkish coffee samples which could be a result
of the different preparation method of Turkish coffee as well as Turkish coffee being prepared from
very finely ground coffee.
Although most of the volatile compounds isolated from the Turkish coffee samples were also
identified in other studies on various coffee brews[14,19,22] in contrast with these studies, thiazoles,
lactones, indoles, and acids were not identified in Turkish coffee samples, but Turkish coffee
samples were found to be rich in furans, pyrazines, pyrroles and phenols, which are responsible for
mainly roasted, nutty, earthy, burnt, spicy, woody, and caramel-like flavors which could be a result
of the different brewing method of Turkish coffee. But also in espresso coffees prepared with very
fine ground coffee key odorants (pyrazines) related to roasty, earthy/musty flavors were higher than
espresso coffees prepared from coarser ground coffee[26] which suggest that the fact that Turkish
coffee is prepared from very finely ground coffee could also explain the difference in the results for
Turkish coffee and those results present in previous studies on different coffee brews.
In order to evaluate the difference between the Turkish coffee samples of different roast degrees
and the relationship between variables, cluster analysis and PCA were applied to 27 volatile
compounds (Table 2) that were identified in all roast degrees and which add up to approximately
85% of the total peak areas. The cluster analysis results showed that while light and medium
roasted Turkish coffee samples formed one cluster, dark roasted Turkish coffee samples formed a
separate cluster (Fig. 1). In order to determine the compounds contributing to the cluster, PCA was
applied and two principle components (F1 90.72%; F2 9.28%) were found to explain the variation
and by using the two components, bi-plot diagram was generated (Fig. 2).

FIGURE 1 Cluster diagram for the common volatile compounds present in the Turkish coffee samples of different
roast degrees.
1680 KIVANÇLI AND ELMACI

FIGURE 2 PCA for the common volatile compounds present in the Turkish coffee samples of different roast
degrees.

For light roasted Turkish coffee methylpyrazine, 3,5-diethyl-2-methylpyrazine, 2,5-dimethyl-

pyrazine, 2-ethyl-6-methylprazine, 2-ethyl-3-methylpyrazine, 2,3-diethyl-5-methylpyrazine, 3-
ethyl-2,5-dimethylpyrazine, 2,6-dimethylpyrazine, ethylpyrazine, 2,6-diethylpyrazine, and 2-
ethyl-5-methylpyrazine were observed as the corresponding volatiles, which contribute mainly to
the nutty, roasted flavors of coffee. 4-vinyl-2-methoxyphenol, 2-vinyl-5-methylfuran, 2-furancar-
boxaldehyde (furfural), 2,3-pentanedione, and 2,3-dihydro-6-methylthieno[2,3c]furan were
 CHARACTERIZATION OF TURKISH COFFEE AROMA 1681

observed as the corresponding volatiles for medium roasted Turkish coffee. As referred to in
Table 2; the sensory description for 4-vinyl-2-methoxyphenol was clove-like, woody, spicy, smoke-
like while for 2-furancarboxaldehyde sweet, woody, bready, nutty, burnt, astringent, caramel-like,
almond, for 2,3-pentanedione buttery, toasted, and for 2,3-dihydro-6-methylthieno[2,3c]furan
coffee-like, smoke. 1-methyl- 1H-pyrrol-2-carboxaldehyde, pyridine, 1-(1-methyl-1H-pyrrol-2-
yl)-ethanone, N-furfurylpyrrole, 2-furanmethanol, 2,2’-methylenebisfuran, 2-furanmetanol, propa-
noat, 2-[(methylthio)methyl]furan and 2-furanmethanolacetate were observed as the corresponding
volatiles for dark roasted Turkish coffee. As referred to in Table 2 sensory descriptors for 1-methyl-
1H-pyrrol-2-carboxaldehyde was coffee, for pyridine smokey, amine-like, for 1-(1-methyl-1H-
pyrrol-2-yl)-ethanone earthy, for N-furfurylpyrrole vegetable-like, onion, strong metallic, plastic,
green, waxy, fruity, coffee, for 2-furanmethanol burnt, sweet, caramel, coffee, bitter, astringent, for
2,2’-methylenebisfuran bitter, red currant, for 2-furanmetanol propanoate fruity, sweet, green
banana, fatty, coffee, spicy, for 2-[(methylthio)methyl]furan coffee-like, strong mustard, garlic,
burnt, meaty, smokey-roasted, and for 2-furanmethanolacetate fruity, sweet, and banana-like.

Sensory Analysis and the Effect of Roasting on Flavor Characteristics

Descriptive flavor characteristics of Turkish coffee samples (Fig. 3) demonstrate that light,
medium, and dark roasted samples had roasted/burnt, spicy, bitter, sour, salty, astringent/dry,
woody, fermented, earthy, and tobacco-like characters, whereas a sweet character was only detected
in light and medium roasted coffee. In all three roast degrees roasted/burnt flavor was the most
intensely perceived flavor characteristic in Turkish coffee. Following roasted/burnt flavor, sour was
the second most intensely perceived flavor characteristic in light roasted Turkish coffee, while
bitter was the second most intensely perceived flavor characteristic in medium and dark roasted
Turkish coffees.
To evaluate the difference between the Turkish coffee samples of different roast degrees and the
relationship between variables, cluster analysis and PCA were applied to the intensity ratings of the
flavor descriptors. The cluster analysis resulted in two main clusters, medium, and dark roasted
Turkish coffee formed one cluster while light roasted Turkish coffee formed a separate cluster
(Fig. 4). In order to determine the compounds contributing to the clusters, PCA was applied and

Roasted/Burnt
5.00
Tobacco-like Spicy
4.00
3.00
Earthy 2.00 Bitter
1.00
0.00
Fermented Sour

Woody Sweet

Dry/Astringent Salty

Light roasted Medium roasted Dark roasted

FIGURE 3 Flavor profile of light, medium, and dark roasted Turkish coffee samples of different roast degrees.
1682 KIVANÇLI AND ELMACI

FIGURE 4 Cluster diagram of flavor characteristics of Turkish coffee samples of different roast degrees.

FIGURE 5 PCA of flavor characteristics of Turkish coffee samples of different roast degrees.
 CHARACTERIZATION OF TURKISH COFFEE AROMA 1683

two principle compounds (F1 80.12%; F2 19.88%) were found to explain the variation (Fig. 5).
According to the PCA results sour and salty characters had close correlation with the flavor
characteristics of light roasted Turkish coffee. Spicy, roasted/burnt, woody and earthy, tobacco-
like, dry/astringent, sweet, and fermented characters had close correlation with the flavor char-
acteristics of medium roasted Turkish coffee. Bitter character had close correlation with the flavor
characteristics of dark roasted Turkish coffee.
To the best of our knowledge, no study on Turkish coffee flavor was found in the literature, but
various studies are available about the flavor of roasted, ground coffee, and different types of
coffee beverages. Bicho et al.,[57] Bhumiratana et al.,[58] Akiyama et al.,[14] and Grosch[12] stated in
their studies that as the degree of roast increased the intensity of burnt/sharp/bitter, smoke-like, ash/
tar-like, coffee, roasted, earthy, and phenolic characters of coffee increased, whereas sweet
character decreased. Likewise in this study it was found that as the roast degree increased the
intensity of roasted/burnt, bitter and earthy flavor characteristics of Turkish coffee increased, while
sweet character decreased. In studies on filter and espresso coffees, during sensory analysis fruity,
flowery, and buttery characters were identified,[14,19,23–27] but in this study the mentioned char-
acters were not identified in any of the Turkish coffee samples, which could be a result of the
different preparation style of the brew as there may be flavor losses during brewing, namely during
boiling. Also Turkish coffee is prepared from very finely ground roasted coffee and grinding grade
can also affect the chemical and sensorial characteristics of coffee brews as stated in a study on
espresso coffee.[26] In espresso coffees with fine and very fine grades woody/papery, fermented,
and burnt/roasty notes were observed by a higher percentage of judges and key odorants (pyr-
azines) related to roasty, earthy/musty flavors were higher in espresso coffees prepared with very
fine ground coffee. In the same study, although the quantities of compounds associated with buttery
flavor (2,3-butanedione and 2,3-pentanedione) were higher in finer ground espresso coffees,
buttery flavor was not perceived by judges and this was explained with the fact that most likely
these compounds were masked by more potent odorants such as pyrazines.[26]
The results of the cluster analysis applied to the GS–MS and sensory analyses data showed
different grouping of the Turkish coffee samples of different roast degrees. According to the GC–
MS results, light and medium Turkish coffee formed one cluster and dark Turkish coffee a separate
cluster, while in the case of sensory analysis medium and dark samples formed one cluster and
light samples a separate cluster. The volatile compounds found to contribute to the differentiation
of the light and medium Turkish coffee samples as per the PCA results were generally described
sensorily as nutty, roasted, spicy, clove-like, woody, smokey, coffee-like, and buttery whereas the
volatile compounds contributing to dark Turkish coffee were described as bitter, smokey, burnt,
coffee-like, sweet, caramel, fruity, banana-like, and green.
The PCA results for the sensory data suggest that the main characters contributing to the
differentiation of the coffee samples were sour, salty, bitter, and woody. The characters sour,
salty, and bitter are taste-related characters and it is highly possible that the compounds contribut-
ing to these characters are non-volatile constituents of coffee, such as caffeine responsible for bitter
taste, chlorogenic acids responsible for astringency and carboxylic acids responsible for
sourness.[56]

CONCLUSION

It was determined that Turkish coffee was rich in furans, pyrazines, pyrroles, and phenols and
among the isolated volatiles 2-furancarboxaldehyde, 2-furanmethanolacetate, 5-methyl-2-furancar-
boxaldehyde, 3-ethyl-2,5-dimethylpyrazine, 2-ethyl-6-methylpyrazine, 2-furanmethanol, methyl-
pyrazine, and 2,3-dihydro-6-methylthino[2,3c]furan were the most abundant compounds in all
roast degrees, which are volatile compounds responsible for mainly roasted, nutty, burnt, sweet,
1684 KIVANÇLI AND ELMACI

caramel-like, coffee-like, bitter, astringent, woody, and earthy flavors. The sensory analysis
resulted in roasted/burnt, spicy, bitter, sour, sweet, salty, astringent/dry, woody, fermented, earthy,
tobacco-like flavor descriptives for Turkish coffee brews and for all samples the most intensely
perceived flavor characteristic was found to be roasted/burnt character. The results of this study and
their comparison with studies available on different coffee brews suggested that due to its unique
preparation method, including the fact that it is prepared from very fine ground coffee, the volatile
composition and flavor of Turkish coffee is different than other coffee beverages such as espresso
and filter coffee. In this study some flavor characteristics of Turkish coffee and some volatiles that
possibly contribute to the aroma of Turkish coffee were determined, but for an exact description of
Turkish coffee flavor and aroma it is important to carry out further studies on its volatile
components with methods such as olfactomery and Aroma extract dilution analysis, as well as
studies on the non-volatile components of Turkish coffee.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors would like to thank Has Garanti Değirmen ve Kavurma Mak. San. Tic. Ltd. Şti. for the
roasting and grinding of the coffee samples used in this research.

FUNDING

The authors wish to acknowledge the support of E.U. Research Fund.

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