International Journal of Food Properties

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Flavour Characterization of Sumach (Rhus Coriaria

L.) by Means of GC/MS and Sensory Flavour Profile
Analysis Techniques

Banu Bahar & Tomris Altug

To cite this article: Banu Bahar & Tomris Altug (2009) Flavour Characterization of Sumach (Rhus
Coriaria L.) by Means of GC/MS and Sensory Flavour Profile Analysis Techniques, International
Journal of Food Properties, 12:2, 379-387, DOI: 10.1080/10942910701799249

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International Journal of Food Properties, 12: 379–387, 2009
Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 1094-2912 print / 1532-2386 online
DOI: 10.1080/10942910701799249

FLAVOUR CHARACTERIZATION OF SUMACH (Rhus

coriaria L.) BY MEANS OF GC/MS AND SENSORY
FLAVOUR PROFILE ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES

Banu Bahar1 and Tomris Altug2

1
Food Institute, TUBITAK Marmara Research Center, Gebze, Kocaeli, Turkey
2
Department of Food Engineering, Ege University, Bornova, Izmir, Turkey

The flavour characteristics of sumach (Rhus coriaria L.) from the southeastern region of
Turkey were investigated by using GC/MS and sensory flavour profile analysis techniques.
Three different extraction methods for the isolation of volatiles were applied prior to GC/
MS analysis. A total of 55, 17 and 28 volatiles were identified from the sumach sample by
using liquid-liquid extraction, SC-CO2 extraction and distillation techniques, respectively.
Malic acid was detected to be responsible for the sour taste of sumach. b-caryophyllene
(spicy, woody), cembrene (woody) and caryophyllene oxide (spicy) which were detected by
using the three different isolation techniques seem to have an important contribution to
sumach flavour. Sensory flavour profile analysis revealed oil and acid aroma and dried
lemon balm, cellulose/woody, spicy, earthy and astringent flavour characters as common
descriptors in grinded sumach, SC-CO2 extract, and water extract of sumach samples
examined in this study.

Keywords: Sumach, Sumach flavour, Gas chromatography (GC)/mass spectrometry

analysis (MS) of sumach, Flavour profile of Sumach.

INTRODUCTION
Sumach (Rhus coriaria, Lindl.) a member of the Anacardiaceae family is a shrub
used in pharmaceutical and cosmetic preparations, food colouring or preservations, veteri-
nary practices and leather processing technologies.[1] The fruits of the Sumach plant are
reddish brown colour and contain one seed, and the plant reaches 3–4 m in height in the
wild.[2] General distribution of this plant is in Mediterranean countries and Canary Islands,
reaching Iran and Afghanistan in the East. It is found naturally growing in the Aegean,
Mediterranean, southeastern, central and northern regions of Turkey. R. coriaria has eco-
nomic importance in the leather industry, pharmacy and food technology. The powdered
leaves of sumach were used as a tanning agent because of its high tannin content.[3,4] In
Turkey, the leaves and twigs are used as a black dye, and the bark as a yellow dye for wool
or cotton. Because of their astringent properties, sumach fruits are used in folk medicine
for diarrhea, diabetes, for mouth and throat diseases, to staunch bleeding and to treat intes-
tinal diseases.[2,3,5,6] The sumach fruits are either used whole or with the dried pericarp

Received 6 April 2007; accepted 11 November 2007.

Address correspondence to Banu Bahar, Food Institute, TUBITAK Marmara Research Center, P.Box 21
41470, Gebze, Kocaeli, Turkey.

379
380 BAHAR AND ALTUG

separated from the hard seed, while the coarsely ground fruit is mixed with salt to season
roasted meat or the boiled up extract is used to flavour salads and vegetables. The fruits
contain tannins, volatile oil, various organic acids (malic, citric, pyruvic), anthocyanins
and fixed oil. The overall flavour involves fatty aldehydic notes, which are reminiscent of
meat bouillon, and herbaceous, spicy, having slightly cumin-like aspects.[2,3] There are
several studies on chemical composition of essential oil,[2,3,7,9] antibacterial activity,[10–12]
antioxidant activity,[13–15] extraction of tannins,[4,16] mineral contents,[17] and traditional
medicinal effects[5,6] of sumach. In a study on the essential oil of Rhus coriaria fruits from
wild habitats and various provinces of Turkey by using a modified Karlsruhe apparatus
and GC/MS technique, several terpenoids and aliphatic compounds have been identified.
In the same study, sensory evaluation of water vapor volatiles of tanner’s sumach fruits
which were gathered from wild habitats in five different provinces of Turkey was con-
ducted by using the gas chromatographic sniffing technique to determine the components
with the highest odour impressions. Aldehydic components, along with naphthalene and
the terpenes and sesquiterpenes were found to compose the typical aroma of sumach.[2]
In the present study, the efficiency of three different techniques for isolation of vol-
atiles in sumach fruits from the southeastern region of Turkey was compared prior to GC/
MS analysis. The sensory flavour attributes of sumach fruits were identified and rated by
using the flavour profile analysis technique.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Materials
Sumach fruits were obtained from Diyarbakir area that is located in the southeastern
region of Turkey. The fruits were collected from the mountains during the harvest period
in the year 2003. The samples were packaged under vacuum in 500 g polypropylene
(BOPP) bags and stored in the refrigerator at 4 ± 2°C until used for analysis.

Methods
Extraction of flavour compounds for GC/MS analysis. The flavour com-
pounds of the sumach fruits were isolated by using liquid-liquid extraction[18] supercritical
carbon dioxide extraction (SC-CO2);[19–21] and distillation[22] techniques prior to GC/MS
analysis. In the liquid-liquid extraction technique; sumach seeds were grinded and sieved
(Fritsch Analysette 3, Electromagnetic Laboratory Sieve Shaker) to remove hard seeds of
the fruit. 25 g of sample was slurried with 100 ml of ethanol in a Waring blender and the
slurry was transferred into the sample tube of the extractor. The volatile compounds were
collected in 75 ml of hexane while the extraction continued for six hours and hexane was
concentrated to approximately 5 ml under nitrogen gas.
In the supercritical carbon dioxide extraction technique, grinded sumach samples were
isolated by using a SFE lab-type apparatus (SFE Process System Model #9925, Applied
Separations Inc.) consisting of 1 L stainless steel solid sample extractor and 2 L stainless steel
liquid extractor, and a separator. The dynamic extraction at 51°C and 135 bar and extraction
period of 155 minutes were used. The above-mentioned parameter values were selected after
a number of experiments and were considered as the optimum conditions for obtaining
acceptable yield. The distillation technique was applied by distilling 50 g of grinded sumach
sample for four hours in the distillation apparatus as described in ISO 6571.[22]
 FLAVOUR CHARACTERIZATION OF SUMACH 381

GC/MS Analysis
Separation and identification of the volatiles was performed by using a Perkin Elmer
Autosystem XL GC gas chromatograph with a 30m × 0.25 mm ID × 0.25 mm film thickness
5MS capillary column. The column temperature was programmed as follows: 60 °C for
1 min; 5°C min−1 to 260°C, held for 24 min. The carrier gas was helium at 1 ml min−1 flow
rate. The injector and detector temperatures were set at 260°C and 280°C, respectively.
The electron voltage was 70 eV and the mass range was m/z 35–350. Wiley and Nist
libraries were used as MS library.

Sensory Flavour Profile Analysis

Flavour profile analysis technique[23] was applied to grinded sumach, SC-CO2
extract and concentrated water extract of grinded sumach samples. Concentrated water
extract of sumach was prepared by mixing the grinded and sieved sumach sample with
water (sumach: water-1: 5) as suggested by Bayram,[24] the mixture was stirred in a shaker
for 24 h at room temperature and filtered. The filtrate was evaporated to 27 Brix and the
concentrate was used for sensory flavour profile analysis.
Samples were judged by seven assessors aged 25–36 years who were previously
tested for their sensitivity to major tastes and odours. Seven one-hour training sessions
were conducted prior to the formal evaluation of sumach samples by providing the ref-
erence standards. The sensory term equivalents of the volatiles[25,26] that were detected
by GC/MS and reference standards (Table 1) were used during the training sessions.
Formal evaluation of sumach fruits was performed in a total of 20 sessions. The sumach
samples were presented to the judges at room temperature (20–23°C) in 50 ml beakers
covered with aluminium foil. The judges identified and rated the intensity of each char-
acter on a 0–5 cm unstructured scale. Spider web diagrams were obtained by using
Microsoft Excel 5.0.

Table 1 Reference samples and descriptive terms used during training sessions.

Descriptive terms References

Sour 0.43 g/L citric acid solution

Oil Linseed oil
Oleastar Oleastar fruit
Tobacco Tobacco (Drum, Premium quality handrolling tobacco, UK)
Cellulose/Woody Wood
Medicinal bitter 0.195 g/L caffein solution
Sweet 5.76 g/L sucrose solution
Dried lemon balm flavour Dried lemon balm
Dried basil flavour Dried basil
Apple-like Green apple
Grape molasses Grape molasses
Henna Henna (Amar’s, Hennex, India)
Green walnut skin Green walnuts
Flowery No reference used
Astringent No reference used
Spicy No reference used
Earthy No reference used
382 BAHAR AND ALTUG

Statistical Analysis
GC/MS and descriptive flavour profile analysis were performed in triplicates for
each sumach sample. Differences between samples according to the common volatiles
detected by GC/MS and common characters identified by sensory flavour profile analysis
were evaluated by Least Significant Difference (LSD) test at 99 % confidence level.[27]

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

GC/MS Analysis
Tables 2, 3, and 4 show that a total of 54, 27, and 17 signals were identified in the
studied sumach samples by liquid-liquid extraction, SC-CO2 and distillation techniques,
respectively. The major volatiles detected in liquid-liquid extraction were malic acid
(sour), b-caryophyllene (spicy, woody), N-nonadecane (kerosene), succinic acid (acidic),
phenol (medicinal-astringent), cembrene (woody, spicy), trans-2,4-decadienal (geranium),
hexadecanoic acid (oily), stearic acid (oily), octadecane, decane, undecane, eicosanoic acid
(oily), 9-octadecanoic acid (oily), hexadecanoic acid ethyl ester (oily), (z)-cis (a-bergamoten,
and linoleic acid (oily). Total peak area of the mentioned volatiles was calculated to be
approximately 78%. N-nonadecane, phenol, octadecane, b-caryophyllene, cembrene,
hexadecanoic acid, caryophyllene oxide (spicy), eicosanoic acid and linoleic acid were
observed to be the major volatiles by SC-CO2 technique, whereas b-caryophyllene, malic
acid, cembrene, caryophyllene oxide, a-pinene (pine, resinous), and a-humulene (woody)
are the main volatiles detected by the distillation technique. Total peak area of the men-
tioned volatiles determined by SC-CO2 and distillation techniques were 86 and 51%, respec-
tively. b-caryophyllene, caryophyllene oxide, caryophyll 4(12), cembrene, a-humulene,
2-pentadecanone and farnesol (oily) were found to be common volatiles by using the three
isolation techniques. Cembrene and b-caryophyllene were also detected at significant
amounts in Sumach from Diyarbakir province of Turkey in the study conducted by
Brunke et al.[2] The differences between the percentages of common compounds in sum-
ach samples detected by three techniques were found to be statistically significant (p ≤
0.01) for 2-pentadecanone, a-humulene and b-caryophyllene. Volatiles such as limonene
(citrus) and a-pinene (pine, resinous) were only detected by using distillation and liquid-
liquid extraction techniques in the present study. Brunke et al.[2] also revealed high quanti-
ties of monoterpene hydrocarbons such as limonene and a-pinene in sumach essential oil
isolated by steam distillation.
It can be observed from the Table 3 that the numbers of volatiles isolated by SC-CO2
extraction are lower in comparison with the liquid-liquid extraction technique. This result
can be due to the lack of entrainer port in the SC-CO2 apparatus used in the present study
Thus, apolar compounds could be easily extracted by CO2, whereas polar volatiles could
not be detected. In a study conducted on the yield of total valerinic acids from valerian
root, it was detected that the same amount of valerinic acid obtained by addition of 5%
methanol or ethanol as entrainer to the supercritical CO2 extraction resulted in the same
yield as percolation (liquid extraction).[28] Further studies by using methanol or ethanol as
entrainers can also be conducted for improving the conditions during SC-CO2 extraction
of sumach volatiles.
Sensory flavour profile analysis showed that (Table 5 and Figure 1) oil and acidic
aroma and dried lemon balm, cellulose/woody, spicy, earthy and astringency flavour
descriptors were detected in all 3 samples (grinded sumach sample, SC-CO2 extract,
 FLAVOUR CHARACTERIZATION OF SUMACH 383

Table 2 Volatile compounds in sumach isolated by liquid-liquid extraction

technique and detected by GC/MS.

Retention time Volatile compounds % Area

5.843 a-Pinene 0.13 ± 0.02

6.045 2,5 Furandion, 3-methyl 0.64 ± 0.06
7.824 Decane 1.55 ± 0.01
8.740 Benzene 0.09 ± 0.01
8.887 1-Limonene 0.08 ± 0.01
9.382 Limonene 0.15 ± 0.01
9.529 2,5 Furandion, dehydro 3-methyl 0.19 ± 0.02
9.987 Benzene, 1-ethyl-2,3-dimethyl 0.16 ± 0.02
10.152 Hexane 0.68 ± 0.03
10.519 Undecane 1.51 ± 0.12
10.677 Nonanal 0.52 ± 0.14
10.849 Naphthalene 0.09 ± 0.03
11.857 Azulene 0.07 ± 0.01
12.444 Succinic acid 6.74 ± 0.83
12.792 Dodecane 0.21 ± 0.02
12.920 2-Decanal, (E) 0.25 ± 0.02
13.122 Nonanoic acid 0.37 ± 0.01
13.764 Trans-2,4-decadienal 2.91 ± 0.26
14.937 Malic acid 23.42 ± 6.58
15.872 2-Undecanal 0.16 ± 0.01
16.349 b-Caryophyllene 11.51 ± 0.01
16.642 (z)-cis (a-Bergamoten 1.25 ± 0.03
17.192 a-humulene 0.69 ± 0.03
17.999 Hexadecane 0.15 ± 0.01
18.531 2-Butendioic acid 0.98 ± 0.02
20.291 Caryophyllene oxide 0.64 ± 0.04
22.069 Caryophyll 4 (12) 0.13 ± 0.02
24.636 Tetradecanoic acid 0.28 ± 0.02
25.314 Octadecane 0.05 ± 0.0
26.066 2-Pentadecanone 0.26 ± 0.01
26.414 Pentadecanoic acid 0.09 ± 0.01
27.313 2-Heptadecanone 0.23 ± 0.01
27.459 Farnesol 0.11 ± 0.01
27.679 Cembrene 3.32 ± 0.12
28.834 Hexadecanoic acid 2.86 ± 0.42
29.164 Hexadecanoic acid, ethyl ester 1.41 ± 0.06
31.163 Camphen 0.09 ± 0.01
31.914 7,10 Hexadecadienoic acid 0.38 ± 0.07
32.061 Linoleic acid 1.00 ± 0.13
32.538 9-Octadecanoic acid 1.49 ± 0.22
34.738 Ethyl linoleate 0.17 ± 0.02
36.039 Octadecanoic acid 2.34 ± 0.44
36.333 1-Octadecene 0.41 ± 0.08
36.425 Tricosane 0.15 ± 0.03
37.689 1-Pentadecene 0.05 ± 0.01
38.056 Eicosanoic acid 1.51 ± 0.27
38.460 Tetracosane 0.48 ± 0.10
39.211 5-Eicosene, (E) 0.51 ± 0.13
40.091 Heptadecene-(8)-carbonic acid 0.05 ± 0.01
41.173 Phenol 5.07 ± 1.13
42.768 1,2-Benzendicarboxylic acid 0.62 ± 0.17
44.913 N-nonadecane 9.17 ± 2.45
50.560 Octadecane 1.59 ± 0.47
59.727 Hexadecane, 2,6,11,15-tetra methyl 0.17 ± 0.06
384 BAHAR AND ALTUG

Table 3 Volatile compounds in sumach isolated by SC-CO2 extraction technique and

detected by GC/MS.

Retention time Volatile compounds A (% Area)

12.205 Succinic acid 0.32 ± 0.04

12.700 Dodecane 0.21 ± 0.05
13.709 Trans-2,4-decadienal 0.21 ± 0.06
16.239 b-Caryophyllene 5.03 ± 0.73
17.137 a-humulene 0.16 ± 0.03
20.236 Caryophyllene oxide 1.83 ± 0.37
21.556 Caryophyll 4 (12) 0.14 ± 0.01
26.011 2-Pentadecanone 0.17 ± 0.04
27.257 2-Heptadecanone 0.10 ± 0.02
27.404 Farnesol 0.11 ± 0.01
27.587 Sembrene 2.49 ± 0.74
28.669 Hexadecanoic acid 1.94 ± 0.43
31.786 7,10 Hexadecadienoic acid 0.36 ± 0.09
31.951 Linoleic acid 1.26 ± 0.25
32.391 9-Octadecanoic acid 0.82 ± 0.13
34.683 Ethyl linoleate 0.11 ± 0.02
35.874 Octadecanoic acid 0.97 ± 0.07
36.498 Tricosane 0.10 ± 0.01
37.763 1-Pentadecene 0.15 ± 0.01
37.983 Eicosanoic acid 1.83 ± 0.08
38.386 Tetracosane 0.62 ± 0.04
39.083 5-Eicosene, (E) 0.12 ± 0.01
41.100 Phenol 17.16 ± 0.2
42.676 1,2-Benzendicarboxylic acid 1.55 ± 0.01
44.858 N-nonadecane 46.83 ± 1.1
50.413 Octadecane 8.12 ± 0.42
59.415 Hexadecane, 2,6,11,15-tetra methyl 0.54 ± 0.04

and water extract of sumach) examined in the study. Results of variance analysis and
LSD test demonstrated that there were significant (p ≤ 0.01) differences between the
samples according to the common sensory characters perceived. Beside the common
characters, grinded sumach sample involved henna odour, dried basil, green walnut
skin, flowery, sour, tobacco, oleastar, and oily flavour descriptors. Grape molasses
odour was detected only in water-extract of sumach, while medicinal odour was
detected only in SC-CO2 extract. The medicinal odour perceived in the SC-CO2 extract
can be the result of the high percentage of phenol (%17.16) as detected by GC/MS
(Table 2). Malic acid, the component that is responsible from the sour taste of sumach
fruit was detected at a significant level in liquid-liquid isolation technique and distilla-
tion techniques (Table 2), whereas this volatile could not be observed by SC-CO2
extraction. Sour character was not observed in SC-CO2 extract during sensory analysis
(Table 5, Figure 1) as well.
The evaluation of GC/MS and sensory data revealed some of the sumach volatiles
responsible for specific aroma characters as acidic (succinic acid), flavour characters as;
dried lemon balm (limonene and 1-limonene), sour (malic acid,) tobacco (azulene);
flowery (2-decenal); cellulose/woody (cembrene, b-caryophyllene and a-humulene), spicy
(caryophyllene oxide, b-caryophylene), oily (nonanal, linoleic acid, eicosanoic acid, far-
nesol), medicinal and astringent (phenol).
 FLAVOUR CHARACTERIZATION OF SUMACH 385

Table 4 Volatile compounds in sumach isolated by distillation technique

and detected by GC/MS.

Retention time Volatile compounds % Area

6.057 a-Pinene 0.94 ± 0.01

9.980 Limonene 0.36 ± 0.02
10.860 Nonanal 0.05 ± 0.01
12.024 Trans-2-nonenal 0.32 ± 0.05
12.840 a-terpineol 0.07 ± 0.02
13.362 Decanal 0.32 ± 0.12
14.536 2-Decanal, (E) 0.12 ± 0.04
15.609 Malic acid 13.86 ± 2.61
16.929 b-Caryophyllene 28.52 ± 0.23
17.570 a-humulene 0.86 ± 0.02
18.946 2-Butendioic acid 0.32 ± 0.01
20.522 Caryophyllene oxide 1.8 ± 0.06
22.612 Caryophyll 4 (12) 0.47 ± 0.08
24.922 Tetradecanoic acid 0.13 ± 0.05
26.187 2-Pentadecanone 0.55 ± 0.01
27.507 Farnesol 0.11 ± 0.01
27.948 Sembrene 4.96 ± 0.18

Table 5 Sensory characters of sumach samples and mean intensity scores.

Grinded sumach SC-CO2 extract Water extract

Odour notes
Henna 2.1 3.3 0
Oil 1.1 1.6 0.5
Medicinal 0 0.8 0
Acidic 0.8 0.3 0.4
Grape molasses 0 0 1.1
Flavour notes
Green walnut skin 0.9 0.1 0
Flowery 0.7 0.1 0
Dried basil 1.4 0.8 0
Dried lemon balm 0.3 0.8 0.4
Sour 4.2 0 4.8
Cellulose/Woody 3.1 2.2 3.1
Tobacco 0.1 0 0.1
Oleastar 1.1 0 0.4
Oily 1.1 4.2 0
Spicy 0.6 0.6 0.6
Earthy 1.7 1.7 1.3
Astringency 2.3 0.6 1.4

CONCLUSION
The isolation of volatiles in sumach by liquid-liquid extraction technique was
observed to be more efficient than the other two techniques in terms of the number of vol-
atiles determined. The volatiles that make up approximately 60% of sumach volatile oil
determined by liquid-liquid extraction were malic acid (23.42%), b-caryophyllene
386 BAHAR AND ALTUG

Henna odour
5
Astringency Oil odour
4,5
4
Earthy Medicinal odour
3,5
3
2,5
Spicy Acidic odour
2
1,5
1
Oily 0,5 Grape molasses odour
0

Oleastar Green walnut skin

Tobacco Flowery

Cellulose/Woody Dried basil Grinded sumach

Sour Dried lemon balm SC-CO2 Ext.
Water Ext.

Figure 1 Flavour profiles of grinded sumach, SC-CO2 and water extracts of sumach.

(11.51%), N-nonadecanol (9.17%), succinic acid (6.74%), phenol (5.07%), and cembrene
(3.32%). Among these volatiles, malic acid and succinic acid are used as acidity regulators;
succinic acid is also added as a flavour enhancer to foods. Succinic acid had been used as a
natural antibiotic while phenol is a carbolic acid that has been used as an antiseptic. Thus,
the presence of these volatiles can have an important contribution to the medicinal effect
of sumach, as well as to its flavour.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors especially thank the TUBITAK Marmara Research Center, Food Institute employees for
participating as panelists in this research.

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