Consumer Behavior, 10e (Solomon)

Chapter 3 Learning and Memory

1) ________ refers to a relatively permanent change in behavior that is caused by experience.

A) Adjustment
B) Shaping
C) Reinforcement
D) Learning
Answer: D
Diff: 1
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Concept
Objective: 3-1

2) Much learning takes effort and time, but some learning is so casual as to be unintentional.
This type of learning is referred to as ________ learning.
A) stage one
B) subliminal
C) incidental
D) evoked
Answer: C
Diff: 2
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Concept
Objective: 3-1

3) Behavioral learning theorists do not focus on internal thought processes; rather, they look to
external evidence to study learning. What aspects of the environment are of most concern to
behaviorists in studying learning?
A) energy and work
B) stimulus and response
C) thought and memory
D) sensation and perception
Answer: B
Diff: 2
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Concept
Objective: 3-2
AACSB: Communication abilities
4) Which theory listed below assumes that learning takes place as the result of responses to
external events?
A) behavioral learning
B) episodic learning
C) incidental learning
D) Gestalt learning
Answer: A
Diff: 1
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Concept
Objective: 3-2
AACSB: Communication abilities

5) ________ was first demonstrated in experiments performed on dogs by Ivan Pavlov, a

Russian physiologist doing research on digestion in animals.
A) Instrumental conditioning
B) Classical conditioning
C) Cognitive conditioning
D) Extinction conditioning
Answer: B
Diff: 2
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Concept
Objective: 3-2
AACSB: Communication abilities

6) Classical conditioning takes place when a(n) ________ is continuously matched with a(n)
________.
A) conditioned stimulus; conditioned response
B) unconditioned response; conditioned response
C) conditioned stimulus; unconditioned stimulus
D) unconditioned stimulus; unconditioned response
Answer: C
Diff: 2
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Concept
Objective: 3-2
AACSB: Communication abilities
7) If a conditioned stimulus is only occasionally matched with an unconditioned stimulus, the
association between the two will become weakened. This is called ________.
A) generalization
B) interference
C) the spacing effect
D) extinction
Answer: D
Diff: 1
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Concept
Objective: 3-2
AACSB: Communication abilities

8) Stimulus generalization refers to ________.

A) the tendency for stimuli to be similar in nature
B) the fact that most conditioned stimuli are similar to unconditioned stimuli
C) the tendency of stimuli similar to a conditioned stimulus (CS) to evoke similar, conditioned
responses
D) the tendency for extinction to occur when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a
stimulus similar to a conditioned stimulus
Answer: C
Diff: 1
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Concept
Objective: 3-2
AACSB: Communication abilities

9) The ________ refers to the tendency people have to react to stimuli similar to an original
stimulus in a classical conditioning situation in much the same way they responded to the
original stimulus.
A) masking illusion
B) sensory memory
C) cueing effect
D) halo effect
Answer: D
Diff: 1
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Concept
Objective: 3-2
AACSB: Communication abilities
10) Which of the following occurs when a customer learns that two products are different even
though the packages of both products look similar?
A) extinction
B) brand equity
C) stimulus generalization
D) stimulus discrimination
Answer: D
Diff: 2
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Concept
Objective: 3-2
AACSB: Communication abilities

11) According to the theory of classical conditioning, ________ should be encouraged by

promoting unique attributes of a well-established brand.
A) stimulus generalization
B) the halo effect
C) stimulus discrimination
D) extinction
Answer: C
Diff: 3
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Concept
Objective: 3-3
AACSB: Communication abilities

12) Family branding, licensing, and look-alike packaging are all marketing strategies based on
________.
A) stimulus generalization
B) the spacing effect
C) stimulus discrimination
D) extinction
Answer: A
Diff: 2
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Concept
Objective: 3-3
AACSB: Communication abilities
13) Another name for instrumental conditioning is ________ conditioning.
A) operant
B) neo-classical
C) stimulus
D) reward
Answer: A
Diff: 1
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Concept
Objective: 3-4
AACSB: Communication abilities

14) The researcher and theorist most associated with instrumental conditioning is ________.
A) Pavlov
B) Skinner
C) Keller
D) Werner
Answer: B
Diff: 2
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Concept
Objective: 3-4

15) If a woman gets compliments after wearing Obsession perfume, she is more likely to keep
buying the product and wearing it. What type of instrumental conditioning has occurred in the
situation?
A) neutral reinforcement
B) positive reinforcement
C) negative reinforcement
D) symbolic reinforcement
Answer: B
Diff: 2
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Concept
Objective: 3-4
AACSB: Communication abilities
16) In instrumental conditioning, what is the distinction between negative reinforcement and
punishment?
A) There is no difference. They are two words for the same thing.
B) Negative reinforcement can occur when a stimulus is positive, and punishment occurs when a
stimulus is painful.
C) Negative reinforcement occurs when a negative outcome is avoided, while punishment occurs
when an action causes a negative outcome.
D) Negative reinforcement creates a preference for negative results, while punishment teaches
people to avoid negative results.
Answer: C
Diff: 2
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Concept
Objective: 3-4
AACSB: Communication abilities

17) What mechanism is used when a consumer learns to perform responses that produce positive
outcomes?
A) extinction
B) punishment
C) negative reinforcement
D) positive reinforcement
Answer: D
Diff: 1
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Concept
Objective: 3-4
AACSB: Communication abilities

18) A woman no longer receives compliments on the perfume that she wears. In learning terms,
the stimulus-response connection has weakened. Which of the following processes best explains
what has occurred in the example?
A) negative reinforcement
B) extinction
C) discrimination
D) generalization
Answer: B
Diff: 2
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Concept
Objective: 3-4
AACSB: Communication abilities
19) Determining the most effective reinforcement schedule to use with consumers is important to
marketers. What type of reinforcement schedule is most likely being used when after a period of
time has passed, the first response a consumer makes brings the reward?
A) fixed-interval reinforcement
B) variable-interval reinforcement
C) fixed-ratio reinforcement
D) variable-ratio reinforcement
Answer: A
Diff: 2
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Concept
Objective: 3-4
AACSB: Communication abilities

20) A department store decides to use "secret shoppers" at unannounced times to test for service
quality among its personnel. Store personnel are rewarded for excellent service attitudes. Which
of the following reinforcement schedules would most likely apply in this situation?
A) fixed-ratio reinforcement
B) fixed-interval reinforcement
C) variable-frequency reinforcement
D) variable-interval reinforcement
Answer: D
Diff: 3
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Concept
Objective: 3-4
AACSB: Communication abilities

21) The popular marketing technique known as ________ marketing applies the principles of
instrumental conditioning by reinforcing regular purchases; consumers are given rewards with
values that increase along with the amount purchased.
A) rebate
B) discount
C) reward
D) frequency
Answer: D
Diff: 1
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Concept
Objective: 3-4
22) What type of learning theory emphasizes that people are problem solvers who actively use
information from the world around them to master their environment?
A) instrumental conditioning
B) classical conditioning
C) cognitive learning
D) operant conditioning
Answer: C
Diff: 1
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Concept
Objective: 3-4
AACSB: Communication abilities

23) ________ learning occurs when an individual watches the actions of others and notes the
reinforcements they receive for their behaviors.
A) Observational
B) Reinforced
C) Halo effect
D) Masked
Answer: A
Diff: 1
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Concept
Objective: 3-5
AACSB: Communication abilities

24) ________ involves a process of acquiring information and storing it over time so that it will
be available when needed.
A) Memory
B) Recognition
C) Comprehension
D) Attention
Answer: A
Diff: 1
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Concept
Objective: 3-6
AACSB: Communication abilities
25) According to the information processing-approach to studying the memory process, in the
________ stage, information enters in a way the system will recognize it.
A) storage
B) retrieval
C) encoding
D) decoding
Answer: C
Diff: 1
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Concept
Objective: 3-6
AACSB: Communication abilities

26) ________ memories relate to events that are personally relevant; therefore, a person's
motivation to retain these memories will likely be strong.
A) Sensory
B) Episodic
C) Primary
D) Elaborative
Answer: B
Diff: 1
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Concept
Objective: 3-6
AACSB: Communication abilities

27) ________ memory permits temporary storage of information we receive from our senses.
A) Elaborative
B) Sensory
C) Cognitive
D) Working
Answer: B
Diff: 1
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Concept
Objective: 3-6
AACSB: Communication abilities
28) Within a knowledge structure, which of the following is the LEAST complex knowledge
unit?
A) meaning
B) proposition
C) schema
D) script
Answer: A
Diff: 3
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Concept
Objective: 3-7
AACSB: Communication abilities

29) Memories of products are often replaced (forgotten) as we learn additional information. This
displacement of information is called ________.
A) the highlighting effect
B) interference
C) decay
D) generalization
Answer: B
Diff: 1
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Concept
Objective: 3-7
AACSB: Communication abilities

30) Almost any technique that increases the novelty of a stimulus also improves recall of the
stimulus. This result is called the ________.
A) highlighting effect
B) von Restorff Effect
C) spacing effect
D) halo effect
Answer: B
Diff: 2
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Concept
Objective: 3-7
AACSB: Communication abilities
31) Which of the following has occurred when a stimulus is able to evoke a weakened response
years after the stimulus was first perceived?
A) spontaneous recovery
B) scripting
C) reverse extinction
D) response bias
Answer: A
Diff: 1
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Concept
Objective: 3-8
AACSB: Communication abilities

32) In a typical ________ test, subjects are shown ads one at a time and asked if they have seen
them before.
A) recall
B) recognition
C) chunking
D) salience
Answer: B
Diff: 1
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Concept
Objective: 3-9
AACSB: Communication abilities

33) People tend to give "yes" responses to questions, regardless of what they are asked. This is
an example of ________.
A) response bias
B) elaborative rehearsal
C) salience
D) nostalgia
Answer: A
Diff: 2
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Concept
Objective: 3-7
AACSB: Communication abilities
34) Many marketers use "the good old days" as a common theme in promotional messages. This
is a strategy of focusing on ________.
A) the highlighting effect
B) the halo effect
C) nostalgia
D) memory spikes
Answer: C
Diff: 2
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Concept
Objective: 3-9
AACSB: Communication abilities

35) Sam Bolton hums the Purina Cat Chow jingle as he drives down the expressway. A thought
suddenly occurs to Sam: "Why am I humming this stupid jingle? I don't buy this stuff. In fact, I
don't even have a cat." Sam knows this jingle through ________.
A) stimulus generalization
B) reinforcement modeling
C) incidental learning
D) operant conditioning
Answer: C
Diff: 2
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Application
Objective: 3-1
AACSB: Analytic skills

36) Frank is sitting in his Psychology 101 class listening to his professor attempt to explain the
"black box" process and its connection with learning. He suddenly smells the aroma of fresh
cinnamon rolls and his mouth begins to water. He looks around and sees a student in the last row
bite into a big, juicy roll. "I wish I were sitting next to him," Frank thinks, "because I know I
could steal a bite." What Frank just went through in class was similar to the "black box" process
being described by his professor. This process is most closely associated with which of the
following learning methods?
A) incidental learning
B) Gestalt learning
C) cognitive learning
D) behavioral learning
Answer: D
Diff: 2
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Application
Objective: 3-2
AACSB: Analytic skills
37) Herbal companies traditionally sold their products in cylinder-shaped plastic containers that
were very characteristic of the herbal market. One company broke with tradition and began to
sell its herbal products in bottles that appeared to be straight from the pharmacy's shelf. They
were rectangular with white labels that looked very professional and very serious. Sales went
through the roof. What form of stimulus generalization seems to be working for the herbal
company?
A) masked branding
B) halo effect
C) continual reinforcement
D) shaping
Answer: B
Diff: 2
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Application
Objective: 3-2
AACSB: Analytic skills

38) John wants to teach his dog to do tricks such as "sit up," "roll over," and "fetch a stick." By
systematically rewarding his dog for responding in the correct way, John is able to accomplish
great progress over a 30-day period. John was able to teach his dog using which of the following
learning processes?
A) classical conditioning
B) instrumental conditioning
C) stimulation conditioning
D) extinction conditioning
Answer: B
Diff: 2
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Application
Objective: 3-4
AACSB: Analytic skills
39) Claudia Norman was a marketing consultant. She recommended that brand equity for a new
environmentally-friendly product could be established by giving her initial customers free
memberships in the Green Peace organization. Claudia used which of the following in her
recommendation?
A) promotional conditioning
B) emotional learning
C) classical conditioning
D) instrumental conditioning
Answer: D
Diff: 2
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Application
Objective: 3-4
AACSB: Analytic skills

40) A sales manager pays a bonus to new trainees when they develop a good sales prospectus.
Later, after the trainees have completed two months of training, the manger pays a bonus only
for an actual sale. The manager is applying what process of instrumental conditioning to help the
trainees be productive in their sales careers?
A) shaping
B) modeling
C) negative reinforcement
D) variable-ratio reinforcement
Answer: A
Diff: 2
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Application
Objective: 3-4
AACSB: Analytic skills

41) On her first visit to China, Jane did not know how to pay for the produce she had selected at
a market. She watched several Chinese women pay for their selections and then Jane copied their
behavior. In this example, Jane used ________.
A) shaping
B) stimulus discrimination
C) modeling
D) stimulus generalization
Answer: C
Diff: 2
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Application
Objective: 3-5
AACSB: Analytic skills

42) "It's time for the Christmas shopping list," thought Martha's mother, so she asked Martha for
a quick list of her favorite perfumes. Martha gave her mother six names that were all her
"favorite." This group constitutes Martha's ________ for perfume.
A) position set
B) activation set
C) rational set
D) evoked set
Answer: D
Diff: 2
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Application
Objective: 3-7
AACSB: Analytic skills

43) As May-Lee considers her purchase of perfume, she shifts back and forth between thinking
about claims made by the different brands, remembering ads she has seen, and considering her
emotional responses to the various brands. Which of the following processes most accurately
describes what May-Lee is going through?
A) spreading activation
B) advertising decay
C) polar parallels
D) scalar processing
Answer: A
Diff: 2
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Application
Objective: 3-7
AACSB: Analytic skills

44) Melissa knows that when she goes to the dentist she must make an appointment, show up on
time, bring proof of insurance, and have her teeth cleaned before any other dental services will
be performed. With respect to her visit to the dentist, Melissa has learned a schema known as
a(n) ________.
A) service script
B) evoked set
C) proposition
D) elaborative rehearsal
Answer: A
Diff: 2
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Application
Objective: 3-7
AACSB: Analytic skills

45) Samantha is passing down the cereal aisle when she spots a box of Life cereal featuring
"Mikey" on box front. She remembers the taste of the cereal and how much fun she had talking
to "Mikey" while she ate her cereal as a kid. She buys a box and leaves the cereal aisle without
examining any other cereal products. What aspect of the retrieval process did Samantha use in
her product search process?
A) salience
B) the von Restoff effect
C) the spacing effect
D) state-dependent retrieval
Answer: D
Diff: 2
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Application
Objective: 3-7
AACSB: Analytic skills

46) Susan Saurage picks and runs her focus groups carefully. She wants to make sure that each
focus group member provides meaningful information for her research purpose. As she is
examining potential focus group candidates, she notices that three men and two women seem to
provide "yes" answers regardless of what she asks them. They seem to want to be on the focus
group very badly and appear eager to be "good subjects." If Susan follows prudent testing
methodology, she should reject these test subjects in order to avoid the possibility of which of
the following biases?
A) neophyte bias
B) order bias
C) response bias
D) affinity bonding bias
Answer: C
Diff: 2
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Application
Objective: 3-9
AACSB: Analytic skills
47) Erika landed a job as an analyst for a small marketing research firm whose task was to
observe and probe patient behaviors at a small Midwestern clinic. In her study, she noticed that
many of the patients had a tendency to underestimate the time since their last doctor visit. The
memory lapse she observed was due to a memory problem called ________.
A) omitting
B) averaging
C) telescoping
D) normalizing
Answer: C
Diff: 3
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Application
Objective: 3-9
AACSB: Analytic skills

48) Scott thought of himself as a very successful marketer. He created a campaign with a product
logo that was very popular and that customers associated with a quality product. It was so
popular that in a few months, the logo began to appear almost everywhere. Instead of increasing
sales of the product, the customer demand began to decrease as competitors' products became
more successful. What characteristic of learning was ruining Scott's apparent success?
A) Too much repetition was decreasing the strength of the CS, thus leading to extinction of the
learned relationship between the logo, the quality of the product, and the association with Scott's
company.
B) Customers confused Scott's logo with the logo of Scott's competitors, making cognitive
learning incomplete.
C) The logo produced only a fixed-ratio schedule of reinforcement that did not sustain sales,
while Scott's competitor used a variable-ratio schedule.
D) Over time the logo became boring, and customers punished Scott's company by buying
competitors' products as a type of revenge for their boredom.
Answer: A
Diff: 3
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Critical Thinking
Objective: 3-2
AACSB: Reflective thinking skills
49) According to the definition of learning, how could a researcher ever show that cognitive
learning had taken place in a subject?
A) by removing the conditioned stimulus
B) by measuring a behavioral change that could directly be tied to a previous experience
C) by measuring the brainwave pattern of the subject
D) by relying upon an intuitive feel for the amount of learning the subject had experienced
Answer: B
Diff: 3
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Synthesis
Objective: 3-4
AACSB: Reflective thinking skills

50) Which type of reinforcement best characterizes what an individual would typically
experience while fishing?
A) fixed-interval reinforcement
B) variable-interval reinforcement
C) fixed-ratio reinforcement
D) mixed-ratio reinforcement
Answer: B
Diff: 3
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Critical Thinking
Objective: 3-4
AACSB: Reflective thinking skills

51) Learning refers to a relatively permanent change in behavior that is caused by experience.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 1
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Concept
Objective: 3-1

52) Behavioral theorists rely on internal mental states to explain learning.

Answer: FALSE
Diff: 2
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Concept
Objective: 3-2
AACSB: Communication abilities
53) Conditioning effects are more likely to occur after the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli
have been paired a number of times.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 2
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Concept
Objective: 3-2
AACSB: Communication abilities

54) When Pavlov's famous dogs responded to a bell signaling feeding time, they were exhibiting
what is called classical conditioning.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 2
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Concept
Objective: 3-2

55) The two major approaches associated with behavioral learning theory are classical
conditioning and observational learning.
Answer: FALSE
Diff: 2
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Concept
Objective: 3-2
AACSB: Communication abilities

56) When a company engages in a "piggybacking strategy," it is hoping that customers will be
able to discriminate between the company's product and a competitor's product.
Answer: FALSE
Diff: 2
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Concept
Objective: 3-2
AACSB: Communication abilities

57) Stimulus generalization can create a halo effect.

Answer: TRUE
Diff: 2
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Concept
Objective: 3-2
AACSB: Communication abilities
58) Secret shoppers may be used by marketers to test the effectiveness of service quality among
employees. This is a form of variable-interval reinforcement.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 2
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Concept
Objective: 3-4
AACSB: Communication abilities

59) Consumers' attraction to slot machines can be explained by the variable-ratio reinforcement
schedule the machines use.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 2
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Concept
Objective: 3-4
AACSB: Communication abilities

60) Cognitive learning theory approaches stress the importance of internal mental processes.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 1
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Concept
Objective: 3-4
AACSB: Communication abilities

61) The book Blink: The Power of Thinking without Thinking presents the argument that we
often make snap judgments that result in superior decisions compared to those that we think
about a lot because we rely on our "adaptive unconscious" to guide us.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 3
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Concept
Objective: 3-4
AACSB: Communication abilities
62) The observational learning process begins with a step called motivation.
Answer: FALSE
Diff: 2
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Concept
Objective: 3-5
AACSB: Communication abilities

63) Marketers assist in the process called elaborative rehearsal when they use catchy slogans or
jingles to help consumers remember information about products or services.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 2
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Concept
Objective: 3-6
AACSB: Communication abilities

64) One of the goals of successful marketing is to have potential customers think of the
marketer's product whenever they try to remember products within a certain category. This
remembered set of products is called an evoked set.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 2
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Concept
Objective: 3-7
AACSB: Communication abilities

65) Retrieval is the process whereby we recover information from long-term memory.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 2
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Concept
Objective: 3-7
AACSB: Communication abilities
66) The spacing effect describes the tendency for consumers to more effectively recall printed
material when the advertiser repeats the target item repeatedly in a short time period rather than
periodically over a longer time span.
Answer: FALSE
Diff: 2
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Concept
Objective: 3-7
AACSB: Communication abilities

67) The salience of a brand refers to its degree of pricing flexibility (i.e., frequency of price
changes).
Answer: FALSE
Diff: 2
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Concept
Objective: 3-7
AACSB: Communication abilities

68) A free recall test of a sample of potential customers would involve showing ads one at a time
and asking each respondent if she had seen it before.
Answer: FALSE
Diff: 2
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Concept
Objective: 3-9
AACSB: Communication abilities

69) Shari Gomez sees the big red heart on the front of a Cheerios box and immediately thinks of
an ad she has seen that discusses the heart-healthy benefits of Cheerios. This is an illustration of
a stimulus-response connection.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 2
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Application
Objective: 3-2
AACSB: Analytic skills
70) John Deere established a reputation for building dependable farm tractors. When the
company began to build small yard tractors, it insisted on using the same logo on its small
mowers as on its large tractors. John Deere was applying stimulus generalization through look-
alike packaging.
Answer: FALSE
Diff: 3
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Application
Objective: 3-3
AACSB: Reflective thinking skills

71) When Shira was a young girl, her teacher gave her a sticker every time she earned above
90% on a test. Shira's teacher was using classical conditioning.
Answer: FALSE
Diff: 2
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Application
Objective: 3-4
AACSB: Analytic skills

72) Fixed-interval reinforcement explains why airlines' frequent flyer programs are so successful.
Answer: FALSE
Diff: 2
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Application
Objective: 3-4
AACSB: Analytic skills

73) A mother observes her daughter stirring batter in a bowl just the way she does when she
bakes. The daughter has modeled her mother's behavior.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 2
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Application
Objective: 3-5
AACSB: Analytic skills
74) The success of hybrid ads supports the idea that the viewing environment of a marketing
message affects recall.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 3
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Critical Thinking
Objective: 3-7
AACSB: Reflective thinking skills

75) Episodic memories are likely to become part of a person's long-term memory.
Answer: TRUE
Diff: 3
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Synthesis
Objective: 3-6
AACSB: Reflective thinking skills

76) Define the terms learning and incidental learning.

Answer: Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior caused by experience. The
learner need not have the experience directly. We can also learn by observing events that affect
others. We learn even when we are not trying. This casual, unintentional acquisition of
knowledge is known as incidental learning.
Diff: 2
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Concept
Objective: 3-1
AACSB: Communication abilities
77) Compare and contrast classical and instrumental (operant) conditioning.
Answer: Classical conditioning involves the close pairing of two stimuli. Classical conditioning
occurs when a stimulus that elicits a response is paired with another stimulus that initially does
not elicit a response of its own. Over time, this second stimulus causes a similar response
because it is associated with the first stimulus. The person who first studied this form of
conditioning was Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist (while doing research on digestion in
animals).

Operant (or instrumental) conditioning occurs as an individual learns to perform behaviors that
produce positive outcomes and to avoid those that yield negative outcomes. B. F. Skinner
demonstrated the effects of instrumental conditioning by teaching animals to dance, play ping-
pong, and so on by systematically rewarding them for desired behaviors.

Although responses in classical conditioning are involuntary and fairly simple, those in
instrumental conditioning are made deliberately to obtain a goal and may be more complex and
shaped over a period of time. Instrumental learning occurs as a result of a reward following the
desired behavior. It takes place over a period of time while the individual tries a variety of other
behaviors and abandons them because they are not reinforced. In instrumental learning, the
response is performed because it is instrumental in gaining a reward or avoiding punishment.
Diff: 3
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Application
Objective: 3-4
AACSB: Analytic skills

78) The process of stimulus generalization is often central to branding and packaging decisions
that attempt to capitalize on consumers' positive associations with an existing brand or company
name. In this context, list and briefly discuss the four strategies based on stimulus generalization
presented in the text.
Answer:
∙ Family branding—A variety of products capitalize on the reputation of a company name.
Positive corporate images help to sell the company's different product lines.
∙ Product line extension—Related products are added to an established brand.
∙ Licensing—Well-known brand names are "rented" by others. This strategy is increasing in
popularity as marketers try to link their products and services with well-established figures.
∙ Look-alike packaging—Distinctive packaging designs create strong associations with a
particular brand. Imitating the look of an existing successful brand is common in today's
crowded marketplace.
Diff: 3
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Application
Objective: 3-3
AACSB: Analytic skills
79) Give a brief explanation of cognitive learning.
Answer: In contrast to behavioral theories of learning, cognitive learning theory approaches
stress the importance of internal mental processes. This perspective views people as problem
solvers who actively use information from the world around them to master their environment.
Supporters of this viewpoint also stress the role of creativity and insight during the learning
process.
Diff: 2
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Concept
Objective: 3-4
AACSB: Communication abilities

80) For modeling behavior to occur during observational learning, four conditions must be met.
What are those conditions? Be specific in your description.
Answer: The four conditions are:
∙ The consumer's attention must be directed to the appropriate model, which, for reasons of
attractiveness, competence, status, or similarity, he must want to emulate.
∙ The consumer must remember what the model says or does.
∙ The consumer must convert this information into actions.
∙ The consumer must be motivated to perform these actions.
Diff: 3
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Concept
Objective: 3-5
AACSB: Communication abilities

81) What is the capacity of short-term memory? Comment and explain.

Answer: It was originally believed that STM had an upper limit of five to nine chunks of
information. People combine small pieces of information into a large whole in a process called
chunking. Based on more current research, the optimal capacity of STM appears to be about
three to four chunks of information.
Diff: 2
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Application
Objective: 3-6
AACSB: Communication abilities
82) Jason heard an old but familiar song that reminded him about a summer in Austria when he
was in college. As he thought more about his summer of the past, a flood of memories came
rushing back. Describe what was happening to Jason in terms of memory markers. What specific
term is used to describe the process whereby his memories came flooding back?
Answer: Memory markers are retrieval cues. The song acted as a mnemonic device that allowed
Jason to retrieve episodic memories. A mnemonic is a cue that is memorized along with a
memory that will trigger the memory. Episodic memories are those that allow us to remember
what we did, or what happened to us or others, and in what order. Spontaneous recovery explains
why Jason's memories came back in a rush.
Diff: 3
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Application
Objective: 3-8
AACSB: Communication abilities

83) Discuss what stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination are and present an example
of each that is relevant to the field of marketing.
Answer: Stimulus generalization refers to the tendency of stimuli similar to a conditioned
stimulus to evoke similar, conditioned responses. The idea is that people react to other stimuli
(similar stimuli) in much the same way they respond to the original stimuli. For example, a drug
store's bottle of private brand mouthwash might be deliberately packaged so as to resemble a
name brand (such as Listerine). The consumer would assume this "me-too" product has the same
characteristics as the name brand and buy it because of its lower price.
Stimulus discrimination occurs when a stimulus similar to a conditioned stimulus is not followed
by an unconditioned stimulus. In this case, reactions are weakened and will soon disappear.
National manufacturers remind consumers that if they buy cheaper brands they will not get the
same results as they do when they buy the national brand.
Diff: 3
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Critical Thinking
Objective: 3-2
AACSB: Reflective thinking skills
84) An important factor in instrumental (operant) conditioning is the set of rules by which
appropriate reinforcements are given for a behavior. The chapter discusses four possible
schedules of reinforcement. Briefly describe each schedule and give a short example. Be sure to
use the proper terminology for each schedule.
Answer:
∙ Fixed-interval reinforcement—After a specified time period has passed, the first response
that is made brings reward. Under such conditions, people tend to respond slowly right after
being reinforced, but their responses speed up as the time for the next reinforcement looms.
Example: crowding a store on the last day of a sale but not returning until the next sale.
∙ Variable-interval reinforcement—After a variable unspecified time period has passed, the
first response that is made brings reward. Because the person does not know exactly when to
expect the reinforcement, responses must be performed at a consistent rate. Example: using
mystery or secret shoppers to watch store employees and their attempt to provide quality service.
∙ Fixed-ratio reinforcement—Reinforcement occurs only after a fixed number of responses.
This schedule motivates people to continue performing the same behavior over and over again.
Example: repeat shopping to earn prizes by earning credits or trading stamps.
∙ Variable-ratio reinforcement—The person is reinforced after a certain number of responses,
but he or she does not know how many responses are required. People in such situations tend to
respond at very high and steady rates, and this type of behavior is very difficult to extinguish.
Example: gambling or playing slot machines.
Diff: 3
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Critical Thinking
Objective: 3-4
AACSB: Reflective thinking skills

85) Gradually changing the package of a product that depends heavily on brand loyalty can be
successful if each change is minor. Over the course of a year or more the package may change
totally in appearance without offending or confusing brand loyal customers. What factors
influencing forgetting allow this marketing strategy to work?
Answer: Because of stimulus generalization, the customer learns to associate the benefits and
feelings of the old product with the new package. At the same time, retroactive interference is
causing the memory of the original package to weaken.
Diff: 3
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Critical Thinking
Objective: 3-7
AACSB: Communication abilities
86) Why isn't the behavioral change associated with breaking a bone typically considered to be
learning?
Answer: Although learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior caused by
experience, and although an injury is an experience, the injury itself is not the cause of any
subsequent change in behavior. Behavior changes to accommodate the results of the injury. We
may, for instance, learn to walk in a certain way because we are negatively reinforced by the
absence of pain. We may learn certain behaviors by watching others with the same injury adapt.
If the same bone was broken and we were never aware of the injury, there would be no change in
behavior and no learning.
Diff: 3
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Synthesis
Objective: 3-1
AACSB: Reflective thinking skills

87) Variable reinforcements result in behavior that is more difficult to extinguish than fixed
schedules. Why?
Answer: When animals or people learn with a fixed schedule, they learn that reinforcement
comes after a certain number of repetitions or in a certain time interval. If the reinforcement is
not forthcoming, extinction begins to take place. When animals or people learn with a variable
schedule, they also learn that reinforcement is not always forthcoming. However, they continue
to work, expecting to eventually be rewarded.
Diff: 3
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Synthesis
Objective: 3-4
AACSB: Analytic skills

88) Why would short-term memory be greatly impaired, or perhaps made impossible,
without sensory memory?
Answer: Visual stimuli literally arrive at the speed of light. It takes time for the brain to
recognize and process information. Without a means of storing sensory information for a
short period of time, new stimuli would override old stimuli before it could be processed.
The attention process would have to shut out new incoming sensations while it worked on
what it had, which would reduce the person's interaction with the world and decrease the
probability of recognizing danger or opportunity in an ever-changing environment.
Diff: 3
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their
marketing applications.
Skill: Synthesis
Objective: 3-6
AACSB: Reflective thinking skills
89) People have a tendency to more effectively remember ads that are unusual than ads that are
not. Why? What is this phenomenon called?
Answer: An unusual ad has greater salience. Stimuli that stand out in contrast to their
environment are more likely to command attention, which in turn increases the likelihood they
will be recalled. This phenomenon is called the von Restorff Effect.
Diff: 3
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their marketing
applications.
Skill: Critical Thinking
Objective: 3-7
AACSB: Reflective thinking skills

90) Measuring memory for marketing stimuli is often difficult. Discuss the differences
between recognition and recall. Give examples of methods for testing each form. Which one
is thought to be the more reliable measure of memory?
Answer: Two basic measures of impact are recognition and recall. In the typical
recognition test, subjects are shown ads one at a time and asked if they have seen them
before. In contrast, free recall tests ask consumers to independently think of what they
have seen without being prompted for this information first—obviously, this task requires
greater effort on the part of respondents.

Under some conditions, these two memory measures tend to yield the same results,
especially when the researchers try to keep the viewers' interest in ads constant. Generally,
though, recognition scores tend to be more reliable and do not decay over time the way
recall scores do. Recognition scores are almost always better than recall scores because
recognition is a simpler process and more retrieval cues are available to the consumer.
Diff: 3
Learning Outcome: Summarize the major theories of learning and describe their
marketing applications.
Skill: Critical Thinking
Objective: 3-9
AACSB: Reflective thinking skills