941488

research-article2020
CDEXXX10.1177/2165143420941488Career Development and Transition for Exceptional IndividualsBross et al.

Article
Career Development and Transition for

Effects of Video Modeling for Young Adults

Exceptional Individuals
2020, Vol. 43(4) 209­–225
© Hammill Institute on Disabilities 2020
With Autism in Community Employment Article reuse guidelines:
sagepub.com/journals-permissions

Settings DOI: 10.1177/2165143420941488

https://doi.org/10.1177/2165143420941488
cdtei.sagepub.com

Leslie Ann Bross, PhD, BCBA-D1 , Jason C. Travers, PhD, BCBA-D2,

Howard P. Wills, PhD, BCBA-D3, Jonathan M. Huffman, MA3,
Emma K. Watson, BA3, Mary E. Morningstar, PhD4,
and Brian A. Boyd, PhD3

Abstract
This single case design study evaluated the effects of a video modeling (VM) intervention on the customer service skills of five
young adults with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Verbalization of greeting, service, and closing phrases contextualized to
community employment settings were the target behaviors. A systematic approach to visual analysis indicated the presence
of a functional relation for all participants. Coworkers, job coaches, and supervisors successfully applied the VM intervention
during the generalization condition. Maintenance probes conducted at 2 and 4 weeks indicated that most customer service
skills were maintained. Results indicated VM was also effective in enhancing the quality of interactions with customers.
Implications for research and practice related to the competitive employment of young adults with ASD are discussed.

Keywords
autism spectrum disorder, employment, single-subject design, video modeling

Adolescents and young adults with autism spectrum disor-
der (ASD) often experience challenges obtaining competi-
tive integrated employment (CIE) in their local communities
(Newman et al., 2011). The Workforce Innovation and
Opportunity Act (WIOA) defines CIE as work where the
individual earns at least state or local minimum wages, the
location is typically found in the community, and opportu-
nities for advancement are similar for other employees
without disabilities who have similar job duties [34 C.F.R.
§361.5(c)(9)(i-iii)(2018)]. Unfortunately, the National
Longitudinal Transition Study-2 indicates only approxi-
mately half (53.4%) of young adults with ASD have worked
for pay outside the home since leaving high school (Roux
et al., 2013). This employment rate is lower compared to
individuals without disabilities and individuals with other
disabilities (Newman et al., 2011). Despite legislation
focused on enhancing postsecondary outcomes for students
with disabilities (i.e., Individuals with Disabilities Education
Improvement Act of 2004), transition-aged youth with ASD
who can be competitively employed may be inappropriately
relegated to sheltered workshops, day facilities, and other
employment experiences with subminimum or no wages.
Public perceptions about young adults with ASD and
factors to promote their successful employment may rein-
force barriers to CIE. Employers, vocational rehabilitation
(VR) counselors, and other related service providers may
subscribe to stereotypical beliefs about the types of jobs that
individuals with ASD will enjoy and perform well (Mai,
2019). For example, employers may believe solitary jobs
and/or those requiring repetitive tasks are the most appro-
priate positions for individuals with ASD. These types of
beliefs may exist because of the primary manifestations
associated with the disorder (i.e., social and communication
support needs and repetitive patterns of behavior, interests,
or activities; American Psychiatric Association [APA],
2013). However, individuals with ASD can be successfully
employed in a broad range of professions, including jobs
that require direct social interactions with others.
Customer service positions are particularly worth con-
sidering given occupations requiring customer service skills
1
The University of North Carolina at Charlotte, USA
2
The University of Kansas, Lawrence, USA
3
Juniper Gardens Children’s Project, The University of Kansas, Kansas
City, USA
4
Portland State University, OR, USA
Corresponding Author:
Leslie Ann Bross, Department of Special Education and Child
Development, The University of North Carolina at Charlotte, 9201
University City Blvd, Charlotte, NC 28223-0001, USA.
Email: lbross@uncc.edu
210 Career Development and Transition for Exceptional Individuals 43(4)
accounted for approximately one fourth of all employment
in the United States (Lawhorn, 2018). In addition, customer
service skills are relevant to seven of the 10 occupations
employing the most individuals in the United States, such
as retail salesperson, cashier, administrative assistant, office
clerk, and others (Lawhorn). Customer service positions are
expected to continue increasing over the next decade, but
individuals with ASD are more likely to experience job ter-
mination due to social competence (i.e., soft skills) rather
than general job performance (Agran et al., 2016). Soft
skills require a combination of interpersonal and social
skills (Morningstar et al., 2017), and customer service posi-
tions require a nuanced set of soft skills. For example, an
employee’s display of friendliness can influence customer
perceptions of service quality. The timing of interactions
and body language also contributes to the overall quality of
the interaction. Individuals with ASD who desire such posi-
tions must consistently demonstrate both verbal and non-
verbal aspects of communication and will likely benefit
from explicit instruction for job retention and performance.
Existing educational interventions with empirical evidence
may be a viable option to provide such instruction.
Video modeling (VM) is a well-established evidence-
based practice (EBP) for learners with ASD (Steinbrenner
et al., 2020). Based on Bandura’s (1969) social learning
theory, VM is a method of instruction in which learners
watch videos and then imitate the targeted behavior, skill, or
task demonstrated in the video. Variations of VM include
traditional VM, video self-modeling, video prompting,
point-of-view, and video feedback depending on who mod-
els the behavior and how the videos are filmed. For exam-
ple, Qi and colleagues (2018) concluded traditional VM
meets What Works Clearinghouse guidelines (Kratochwill
et al., 2013) for classification as an EBP for teaching social
and communication skills to individuals with ASD.
However, school, clinical, and home settings were the pri-
mary context where social and communication outcomes
were targeted. Similarly, Gilson and Carter (2018) used
video-based instruction to enhance employment-related
social behaviors of secondary students with intellectual dis-
ability in school settings. Additional research focused on
individuals with ASD in authentic postsecondary settings is
needed.
Much of the employment VM literature has focused on
job-related task acquisition (Seaman & Cannella-Malone,
2016). For example, VM was used to teach young adults
with ASD tasks specific to the employment setting, such as
cleaning a museum display case (Kellems & Morningstar,
2012) or planting flowers in a garden (English et al., 2017).
Variations of VM have been used to teach clerical skills
such as sorting mail (Alexander et al., 2013), making pho-
tocopies (Bereznak et al., 2012), and shredding paper (Goh
& Bambara, 2013). Cleaning tasks are also common in the
VM employment literature (e.g., Cullen et al., 2017).
A limited number of VM studies have focused on
employment-related social skills for individuals with ASD.
For example, Rausa et al. (2016) used VM to teach a 23-year
old with ASD telephone skills such as listening to custom-
ers and responding to their orders and complaints. In addi-
tion, Stauch and Plavnick (2020) used VM to teach
vocational and social skills simultaneously to two adoles-
cents with ASD. The target social skills were maintaining
small talk, accepting criticism, and accepting a compliment.
However, both of these studies were simulated in nature and
involved researchers serving as confederate customers for
purposes of the study. Only one study has used VM to
enhance the customer service skills of a competitively
employed young adult with ASD (Bross et al., 2019).
Findings from this study indicated VM improved verbaliza-
tion of customer service phrases appropriate for the retail
store where the young adult was employed. However, only
one participant was included, generalization or maintenance
was not measured, and phrases used were specific to a
cashier job. Moreover, they did not evaluate different quali-
ties of interactions with customers, and they relied on
researchers as the intervention agents. Individuals naturally
found in CIE settings (e.g., coworkers, supervisors) can
serve as intervention agents to enhance the social validity of
an intervention (Barton, Meadan-Kaplansky, & Ledford,
2018).
We selected VM as the intervention in this study because
of its likelihood to enhance customer service skills of indi-
viduals with ASD employed in such positions. Technology-
based interventions are liable to have high social validity in
community employment settings, and watching instruc-
tional videos should be considered a reasonable workplace
accommodation according to the Americans with
Disabilities Act (1990). Furthermore, we anticipated VM
would be age-appropriate and not stigmatizing to young
adults. One way to improve interactions with customers is
to explicitly teach customer service phrases contextualized
to the employment setting and required job tasks. We pre-
dicted VM would be efficient to teach verbal and nonverbal
communication skills necessary for successful customer
interactions. An additional purpose of this study was to rep-
licate the initial study conducted by Bross et al. (2019) to
include more participants, diverse community employment
settings, and natural intervention agents. Evaluating the
social validity of the VM intervention from the perspectives
of the individuals who watch and use the videos is impor-
tant. Finally, many vocational intervention studies lack gen-
eralization and maintenance measures (Seaman &
Cannella-Malone, 2016). We were guided by the following
research questions:
1. Does VM increase verbalization of job-specific cus-
tomer service phrases for young adults with ASD in
community employment settings?
Bross et al. 211
2. Does a VM intervention improve the quality of
delivery of job-specific customer service phrases for
young adults with ASD?
3. What is the social validity of the VM intervention
for improving job-specific customer service phrases
as reported by young adults and their coworkers, job
coaches, and/or supervisors?
Method
This study was approved by a university Institutional
Review Board prior to data collection and recruitment.
Young adults were recruited from public school districts,
adult agencies, non-profit organizations, VR agencies, col-
lege certificate programs, and other organizations that pro-
vided services to adults with disabilities. Young adults
were eligible to participate if they were (a) 18 years of age
or older; (b) diagnosed with ASD as confirmed by educa-
tional or medical documents (e.g., Individualized Education
Program [IEP], psychologist report); (c) used speech as the
primary method of communication; (d) currently employed
or participating in employment experiences in a commu-
nity-based customer service position; (e) already disclosed
or were willing to disclose their disability to their employer;
and (f) exhibited support needs related to customer service
skill acquisition as confirmed by observations conducted
during recruitment. Given the target age of participants,
individuals with disorders recognized in the ASD classifi-
cation of the Fourth Edition of the Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (APA, 2000) were
eligible for participation. Young adult participants received
a US$100 stipend for their cooperation in the study;
coworkers, job coaches, and supervisors did not receive
any compensation.
Preferred employment settings were those that met the
WIOA criteria for CIE. Public school secondary or 18–21
transition program experiences (i.e., work-based learning)
were eligible if they occurred within the local community
where the young adult lived. School-based employment
experiences and separate employment settings (e.g., day
facilities, sheltered workshops) were not eligible for partici-
pation. In addition, employers had to agree for data collec-
tion sessions to occur during regularly scheduled work
shifts. Employers nominated coworkers to assist employees
with ASD who participated in the study.
Participants and Community Employment
Settings
Hank was a 19-year-old White male with ASD who was
competitively employed at an amusement park. Hank grad-
uated high school and lived at home with his mother. His
3-year re-evaluation reported a primary diagnosis of ASD
and secondary diagnoses of attention-deficit hyperactivity
disorder (ADHD) and mild cerebral palsy. Hank attended
general education classes 68% of the school day during his
final year of high school and received speech/language ser-
vices to address receptive, expressive, and pragmatic lan-
guage skills. Hank obtained his job at the amusement park
with the assistance of an adult agency 1 year prior to the
start of the study. The amusement park spanned 235 acres
and included a variety of rides, shows, food vendors, and
special events that attracted approximately 1 million visi-
tors each year. Hank was a ticket taker whose primary job
duty was scanning tickets as park visitors entered the park.
Therefore, park visitors were considered customers for pur-
poses of the study. The amusement park was open season-
ally during the warm months of the year and closed during
the winter months. Hank worked 2 or 3 days per week for
4- to 6-hr shifts with no on-the-job assistance from the adult
agency. He earned US$9.35 per hour.
Stacey was a 22-year-old White female with Pervasive
Developmental Disorder-Not Otherwise Specified (PDD-
NOS) who was competitively employed at Meals on
Wheels, a federally funded program that delivers meals to
elderly people or other citizens who are unable to leave
their homes. Stacey graduated high school and lived at
home with her parents. Stacey’s re-evaluation indicated
clinical diagnoses of PDD-NOS, ADHD, and generalized
anxiety disorder. Stacey received occupational therapy,
counseling, and indirect language services during high
school. Stacey obtained her job at Meals on Wheels with
assistance from her family 1.5 years prior to the start of the
study. Stacey worked in a kitchen area with an adjacent
loading dock. Volunteer drivers approached the dock and
requested Stacey locate and retrieve meals for their specific
route. After hearing the driver’s route, Stacey went to the
kitchen to retrieve the designated coolers and brought them
to the drivers. Therefore, volunteer drivers were considered
customers at Meals on Wheels. Stacey worked 5 days per
week for 4-hr shifts. She routinely worked without job
coach assistance and earned US$8.50 per hour.
Cole was a 26-year-old White male with ASD who was
competitively employed at a movie theater. Cole graduated
high school by meeting regular graduation requirements
and lived at home with his parents. Cole had attended a
community college and earned an Associate of Arts in
General Studies. Cole’s final year IEP indicated a diagnosis
of ASD and complex partial seizure disorder. Cole attended
general education classes 88% of the school day during his
final year of high school. Cole obtained his job at the movie
theater with the assistance of an adult agency 9 months
prior to the study. The movie theater included eight screens,
a large concession area, and bar area. Cole’s primary job
duty at the movie theater was to work the cash register in
the concession area. Customers were patrons who pur-
chased movie tickets, food, and/or drinks. Cole worked
independently at the movie theater with no job coach
212 Career Development and Transition for Exceptional Individuals 43(4)
assistance for 2 or 3 days per week for 3- to 6-hr shifts. He
earned US$9.00 per hour.
Aaron was a 19-year-old White male with PDD-NOS
and intellectual disability. He participated in work-based
learning at a nursing home through a public school 18–21
transition program. He received special education services
in the autism category and lived at home with his parents.
Aaron’s annual IEP goals related to asking for help, job
readiness skills, and transition. He received community-
based instruction, speech/language services, and occupa-
tional therapy. Aaron’s primary job duty at the nursing
home was delivering mail and newspapers to the nursing
home residents. The nursing home included 180 rooms
organized into three wings (i.e., luxury retirement rooms,
assisted living, memory care). Aaron sorted the mail accord-
ing to the wings and pushed a cart with organized mail
throughout the hallways. Aaron knocked on resident doors
and then handed the mail and newspaper to the resident who
answered the door. Nursing home residents were considered
customers for purposes of the study. Aaron worked at the
nursing home 5 days per week for 3-hr shifts with the assis-
tance of a job coach who was a paraprofessional employed
by Aaron’s public school district. Aaron earned a grade
through his transition program but did not receive regular
wages.
Marshall was an 18-year-old White male with ASD who
participated in the same work-based learning experience as
Aaron. Marshall lived at home with his parents at the time
of the study. His current IEP indicated diagnoses of ASD
and ADHD. His annual IEP goals related to math skills and
job skills. He received community-based instruction,
speech/language services, and occupational therapy.
Marshall worked at the same nursing home as Aaron and
took over Aaron’s responsibilities after Aaron completed
the study. Consequently, Marshall’s job duties were identi-
cal to Aaron’s. Marshall worked at the nursing home 5 days
a week for 3-hr shifts with the assistance of the same job
coach as Aaron. Marshall also earned a grade through his
transition program rather than regular wages.
Experimental Design
We used a multiple baseline across behaviors design (Gast
et al., 2018) to evaluate the effectiveness of the VM interven-
tion. We selected this design because the job-specific cus-
tomer service phrases were fitting as different target
behaviors. Specifically, greeting, service, and closing phrases
appropriate for customer interactions at each setting were
identified by observing coworkers without disabilities with
similar job duties and interviewing supervisors. We collected
baseline data concurrently for the three behaviors for each
participant for a minimum of five data points. When baseline
data were stable in all tiers (using a 20% stability envelope;
Barton, Lloyd, et al., 2018), we introduced the VM interven-
tion to the first behavior, a greeting phrase. Then, we
introduced the VM to the second behavior, a service phrase.
Finally, we introduced the third behavior, which was a clos-
ing phrase. We assigned behaviors to tiers according to the
natural sequence of interaction with customers. The criterion
for advancing to subsequent conditions was 80% or higher
usage of the targeted phrase for three consecutive sessions
and continued stable responding in other tiers. A minimum of
five data points per condition was the goal unless data were
highly stable (i.e., three sessions at 100%). Given there were
five participants in this multiple baseline across behaviors
design study, we evaluated functional relations based on
intrasubject replication, and intervention generality was dem-
onstrated by intersubject replications of the VM effects
(Johnston & Pennypacker, 2009).
Intervention Agents, Independent Variable,
and Treatment Integrity
The first author and two research assistants served as inter-
vention agents during the intervention condition and data
collectors for all conditions. Coworkers, job coaches, and
supervisors served as intervention agents during the gener-
alization condition. The first author created 12 videos con-
textualized for each employment setting as the independent
variable. An E0S Rebel T5i Canon digital camera with
video recording capability was used to film the videos. The
raw video footage was transferred to a MacBook Air com-
puter and edited using iMovie® video editing software
(Version 10.1.11). The first video for each setting targeted
the greeting phrase. The second video for each setting tar-
geted greeting and service phrases. The third video targeted
greeting, service, and closing phrases. The first author
developed scripts (available upon request) for all employ-
ment settings prior to filming that included two exemplars
for each type of customer service phrase based on employer
recommendation. The first author filmed all videos at the
employment settings, and coworkers (if available) or
research assistants served as the video models. The first
author edited all videos to include a title slide, introductory
narration video clip, modeling of target behavior, instruc-
tional text slides, and closing text slide. The videos modeled
tone of voice, timing, body language, and appropriate state-
ments. Text slides included narration to further emphasize
these aspects of responding. Video duration ranged from
1:41 to 3:13 min.
Data collectors assessed treatment integrity of the VM
intervention via a seven-step checklist during 100% of the
VM sessions. The checklist included steps such as ensuring
the correct video was played, volume was sufficient, and a
check for understanding after watching the video. Treatment
integrity during the VM condition with researchers serving as
intervention agents was 98% for Hank (range = 86%–100%),
98% for Stacey (range = 71%–100%), 96% for Cole (range
= 86%–100%), 100% for Aaron, and 100% for Marshall.
During the generalization condition, the data collectors
Bross et al. 213
completed the checklist to evaluate whether the coworker,
job coach, or supervisor implemented the VM intervention
with fidelity. Percent of treatment integrity during the gener-
alization condition with natural intervention agents was
100% for Hank, 93% for Stacey (range = 80%–100%),
100% for Cole, 100% for Aaron, and 94% for Marshall
(range = 83%–100%).
Dependent Variable and Instrumentation
The dependent variable was verbalization of customer ser-
vice phrases contextualized to the employment settings.
Employers provided input to develop topographies of cor-
rect greeting, service, and closing phrases for each setting.
All phrases had to be a minimum of three words or more to
be scored as verbalized. Greeting phrases indicated a saluta-
tion or welcome statement (e.g., “Welcome to [name of
employment setting]” or “How are you doing today?”) at
the beginning of the transaction or task (e.g., scanning a
ticket, delivering mail). Service phrases indicated a service-
related need specific to the employment setting (e.g., “Here
you go” or “Would you like anything else?”). Closing
phrases indicated a farewell to the customer upon the trans-
action or task concluding (e.g., “Bye, have a good day!” or
“See you tomorrow”). All intervention agents encouraged
participants to use variations of the target phrases to avoid
static customer interactions. We calculated three scores for
each data collection session using the following formula:
[(Number of times the target phrase was verbalized)/
(Number of opportunities to interact with customers) =
Percent of Usage]. A session was 20 opportunities to inter-
act with customers or 1 hr, whichever came first. We
graphed all responses for visual analysis.
We calculated interobserver agreement (IOA) between
two data collectors for a minimum of 20% of sessions
across all conditions. We calculated reliability of data using
a point-by-point formula where [(Agreements)/(Agreements
+ Disagreements) × 100 = Percent of Agreement] (Cooper
et al., 2020). We considered data reliable if the two observ-
ers had 90% or higher agreement. Reliability of the depen-
dent variable for all participants across all conditions was as
follows: 99% for Hank (range = 97%–100%), 99% for
Stacey (range = 95%–100%), 97% for Cole (range =
92%–100%), 99% for Aaron (range = 97%–100%), and
99% for Marshall (range = 97%–100%).
Observer Impression Scale. We created a measure called the
Observer Impression Scale (included as online Supplemen-
tary Material) to assess the quality of customer interactions.
We modeled the scale after a measure used by Wills et al.
(2014) to assess student and teacher behavior in classroom
settings. The Observe Impression Scale included four catego-
ries: (a) tone of voice, (b) timing, (c) body language, and (d)
appropriate statements. Tone of voice referred to the quality of
voice while participants delivered the phrases (e.g., friendly
vs. rude). Timing referred to delivery of the phrases in chrono-
logical order (i.e., greeting phrase first, service phrase second,
and finally closing phrase). Body language referred to orient-
ing the body toward the customer and avoiding repetitive
body movements. Appropriate statements referred to deliver-
ing target phrases featured in the videos or other socially
appropriate customer service phrases.
Data collectors scored the four categories as appropriate
or inappropriate for each opportunity participants interacted
with customers. If fewer than 25% of interactions in one
session were appropriate for a category, the participant
scored a one for that category. If fewer than 79% of interac-
tions but more than 26% were appropriate, the participant
scored a two. If less than 100% but more than 80% or
greater of interactions were appropriate, the participant
scored a three. Finally, if 100% of interactions were appro-
priate, the participant scored a four. We reported means and
ranges of the four categories for all conditions and partici-
pants. Employers at all settings reported they considered
scores of three and four acceptable to successful employ-
ment, whereas scores of one and two were generally consid-
ered unacceptable.
We conducted reliability checks for a minimum of 20%
of Observer Impression Scale scores during the same data
collection sessions as reliability of the dependent variable.
Given the Observer Impression Scale was a 4-point scale,
possible scores were 0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%. Using
the same point-by-point formula described above, Observer
Impression Scale reliability scores for all participants across
all conditions were 97% for Hank (range = 75%–100%),
93% for Stacey (range = 50%–100%), 100% for Cole, 90%
for Aaron (range = 75%–100%), and 92% for Marshall
(range = 50%–100%).
Social validity. Young adults and their coworkers, job
coaches, and/or supervisors completed a questionnaire to
report their overall satisfaction with the VM intervention.
The eight-item questionnaire required participants to rank
their level of agreement with statements using a 4-point,
Likert-type scale with anchors strongly disagree, disagree,
agree, and strongly agree. Statements related to the effec-
tiveness of the intervention (e.g., “The VM intervention
helped improve my job performance”), feasibility of the
intervention (e.g., “The VM intervention was easy to use”),
and level of enjoyment while watching the videos (e.g.,
“The videos were fun and engaging”). Statements were the
same content across all questionnaire versions but with
slightly altered language to reflect the role of the respon-
dent. We also included a text box for participants to provide
additional feedback.
Procedures
Intervention agent training.  The first author trained research
assistants and natural intervention agents to implement the
214 Career Development and Transition for Exceptional Individuals 43(4)
VM intervention. Research assistants followed each step of
the intervention procedure with a confederate and com-
pleted the treatment integrity checklist until they obtained
100% accuracy. Similarly, coworkers, job coaches, and
supervisors practiced implementing the VM intervention
with the first author and asked clarifying questions prior to
the generalization condition. When natural intervention
agents followed procedures with >90% accuracy, they
were considered trained.
Baseline condition.  Participants performed their job duties as
usual without access to videos during baseline. Participants
were aware the study targeted social and communication
skills but were not provided with information regarding the
videos or target phrases. Participants who worked with the
support of a job coach received coaching if needed for task
competition, but we asked the job coach to avoid explicit
instruction regarding customer interactions. Similarly,
coworkers and supervisors interacted with the participants
as usual during baseline.
Intervention condition. All VM sessions took place during
regularly scheduled work shifts. Intervention agents asked
participants to watch the designated video in a quiet,
employee-only space immediately prior to behavioral
observations for data collection purposes. Participants did
not have access to the videos outside the scheduled VM ses-
sions. Intervention agents checked for understanding after
the video played by saying, “What customer service
phrase(s) will you say today?” Verbal praise was provided
based on participant responses. Although intervention
agents gave participants the option to view the video a sec-
ond time if desired, all participants declined. Therefore,
participants watched the designated videos only once dur-
ing all intervention sessions.
Generalization and maintenance conditions.  A coworker, job
coach, or supervisor implemented the VM intervention dur-
ing the generalization condition. Data collectors were pres-
ent during all generalization sessions to measure treatment
integrity and provide coaching if fidelity was lower than
80% according to the treatment integrity checklist. How-
ever, this never occurred. We conducted maintenance
probes 2 and 4 weeks following VM intervention cessation.
Intervention agents did not play videos during the mainte-
nance sessions. Rather, participants completed their job
tasks as usual and we conducted behavioral observations
using the same procedures described above.
Data Analysis
We conducted formative visual analysis within and across
conditions to identify changes in behavior as participants
progressed through the study. Specifically, within condition
analyses of level, trend, variability/stability, overlap, and
immediacy of change were conducted. Level for each con-
dition included the range or amount of behavior change in
that condition. We reported mean responding to supplement
the range. Accelerating, decelerating, or flat trends were
determined using the split middle method (Barton, Lloyd,
et al., 2018). Responding was considered stable if 80% of
the values fell within 25% of the median for each condition
according to a stability envelope (Barton, Lloyd, et al.,
2018). Percent of non-overlapping data (PND; Scruggs
et al., 1987) was used to estimate the change between two
adjacent conditions. An abrupt change in responding (i.e.,
immediacy) was indicated when the first intervention ses-
sion datum was 80% or greater than the final baseline
datum. We conducted summative visual analysis at the con-
clusion of the study by analyzing all opportunities for
potential behavior change to determine if a functional rela-
tion existed between the VM intervention and the depen-
dent variable. We concluded a functional relation for each
participant if an experimental effect was evident for each of
the three target behaviors (Barton, Lloyd, et al., 2018;
Kratochwill et al., 2013). The generality of the findings for
the VM intervention were enhanced when similar effects
were present across all five participants and settings.
Results
Hank
Figure 1 depicts Hank’s responding to the VM intervention
at the amusement park. Hank rarely used the customer ser-
vice phrases during baseline as indicated by a level of 0%
for greeting phrases, 1% (range = 0%–10%) for service
phrases, and 2% (range = 0%–25%) for closing phrases.
All baseline trends were flat and baseline data were stable.
Upon implementation of the VM intervention, Hank’s level
increased to 53% (range = 30%–85%) for greeting phrases,
80% (range = 55%–100%) for service phrases, and 57%
(range = 35%–80%) for closing phrases. Intervention con-
dition trends were decelerating (greeting and service
phrases) and accelerating (closing phrase). All intervention
data were unstable. The PND across all phrases was 100%.
An abrupt change was evident for all three phrases. A func-
tional relation existed between the intervention and depen-
dent variable for Hank.
Data indicated VM generalized to a coworker as the
intervention agent for Hank. Levels of responding during
generalization were 66% (range = 38%–85%) for greeting
phrases, 96% (range = 94%–100%) for service phrases, and
57% (range = 50%–60%) for closing phrases. Finally, only
one maintenance session at 2 weeks was conducted because
the amusement park closed for the winter season. Hank
maintained the service phrase at 80% during the 2-week
Bross et al. 215

Baseline Intervention Generalization Maintenance

100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
Percent of Opportunities Customer Service Phrases Were Used

Greeting
10%
Phrase
0%

100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10% Service
0% Phrase

100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10% Closing
0% Phrase

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

Sessions

Figure 1.  Hank’s responding to the VM intervention at the amusement park.

Note. VM = video modeling.

follow-up but had considerably lower levels of responding 62% (range = 0%–100%) for greeting phrases, 97% (range
for the greeting phrase (30%) and closing phrase (15%). = 79%–100%) for service phrases, and 100% for closing
phrases. Intervention trends were accelerating for greeting
and service phrases and flat for the closing phrase.
Stacey Intervention data were unstable for greeting phrases but
Figure 2 depicts Stacey’s responding to the VM interven- stable for service and closing phrases. The PND was 84%
tion at Meals on Wheels. Stacey’s baseline levels were 1% for greeting phrases and 100% for service and closing
(range = 0%–7%) for greeting phrases, 40% (range = 0%– phrases. An abrupt change was not evident for greeting
75%) for service phrases, and 4% (range = 0%–20%) for phrases but was evident for service and closing phrases. A
closing phrases. Greeting phrases were flat, service phrases functional relation was evident for Stacey.
were accelerating, and closing phrases were decelerating. Data indicated VM generalized to a coworker as the
All baseline data were stable. Upon implementation of the intervention agent for Stacey. The levels during generaliza-
VM intervention, Stacey’s level of responding increased to tion were 100% for all three behaviors. All generalization
216 Career Development and Transition for Exceptional Individuals 43(4)

Figure 2.  Stacey’s responding to the VM intervention at Meals on Wheels.

Note. VM = video modeling.

trends were flat and generalization data were stable. Results
indicated Stacey’s skills were maintained at variable levels
after the VM intervention concluded. The three phrases
were not maintained during the 2-week follow-up as indi-
cated by low levels of responding for the greeting (27%),
service (36%), and closing (18%) phrases. However, Stacey
demonstrated considerably higher levels of responding dur-
ing the 4-week follow-up. Specifically, she increased to
78% for the greeting phrase, 100% for the service phrase,
and 100% for the closing phrase.
Cole
Figure 3 depicts Cole’s responding to the VM intervention at
the movie theater. Cole’s baseline levels were 12% (range =
0%–20%) for greeting phrases, 23% (range = 10%–50%) for
Bross et al. 217

Figure 3.  Cole’s responding to the VM intervention at the movie theater.

Note. VM = video modeling.

service phrases, and 1% (range = 0%–10%) for closing
phrases. Baseline trends were decelerating (greeting and ser-
vice phrases) and flat (closing phrase). Baseline data were
unstable (greeting and service phrases) and stable (closing
phrase). Upon implementation of the VM intervention, Cole’s
levels increased to 82% (range = 60%–100%) for the greet-
ing phrase, 82% (range = 70%–100%) for the service phrase,
and 83% (range = 40%–100%) for the closing phrase.
Intervention trends were decelerating (greeting phrase) and
accelerating (service and closing phrases). Intervention data
218 Career Development and Transition for Exceptional Individuals 43(4)
were stable for the greeting and closing phrases but unstable
for the service phrase. We observed an abrupt change for all
three behaviors. The PND for all three behaviors was 100%. A
functional relation was evident for Cole.
Data indicated VM generalized to a coworker and super-
visor as the intervention agent for Cole. Level for the greet-
ing phrase was 78% (range = 47%–94%) during
generalization with accelerating, unstable data. Level for
the service phrase was 75% (range = 46%–94%) during
generalization with accelerating, unstable data. Level for
the closing phrase was 79% (range = 64%–100%) with
descending, stable data. Finally, results indicated Cole’s
skills were maintained at variable levels after the VM inter-
vention concluded. Specifically, Cole maintained the greet-
ing phrase at 69%, service phrase at 88%, and closing
phrase at 69% during the 2-week follow-up. He maintained
the greeting phrase at 87%, service phrase at 67%, and clos-
ing phrase at 33% during the 4-week follow-up.
Aaron
Figure 4 depicts Aaron’s responding at the nursing home.
Aaron’s baseline levels were 0% for the greeting phrase,
5% (range = 0%–16%) for the service phrase, and 0% for
the closing phrase. All baseline trends were flat, and data
were stable. Upon implementation of the VM intervention,
Aaron’s levels increased to 89% (range = 58%–100%) for
the greeting phrase, 86% (range = 44%–100%) for the ser-
vice phrase, and 91% (range = 78%–100%) for the closing
phrase. Intervention trends were accelerating (greeting and
closing phrases) and decelerating (service phrase).
Intervention data were stable for all three behaviors. PND
was 100% for the three behaviors. In addition, we observed
an immediacy of change for all three behaviors. A func-
tional relation was evident for Aaron.
Data indicated VM generalized to a job coach as the inter-
vention agent. Aaron’s level for the greeting phrase level was
92% (range = 78%–100%) during generalization with flat,
stable data. Aaron’s level for the service phrase was 88%
(range = 78%–100%) during generalization also with flat,
stable data. Aaron’s level for the closing phrase was 90%
(range = 67%–100%) during generalization with a slight
decelerating trend and stable responding. Results indicated
Aaron’s skills maintained at high levels after the VM inter-
vention concluded. Specifically, Aaron maintained all three
phrases at 100% during the 2-week follow-up. He maintained
the greeting phrase at 79%, serving phrase at 86%, and clos-
ing phrase at 86% during the 4-week follow-up.
Marshall
Figure 5 depicts Marshall’s responding at the nursing home.
Marshall’s baseline levels were 0% for the greeting phrase,
17% (range = 0%–37%) for the service phrase, and 4%
(range = 0%–18%) for the closing phrase. Baseline trends
were flat (greeting and closing phrases) and decelerating
(service phrase). Baseline data were stable (greeting and
closing phrases) and unstable (service phrase). Upon imple-
mentation of the VM intervention, Marshall’s levels increased
to 89% (range = 58%–100%) for the greeting phrase, 86%
(range = 62%–100%) for the service phrase, and 100% for
the closing phrase. Intervention trends were accelerating
(greeting and service phrases) and flat (closing phrase). All
intervention data were stable. PND was 100% for all three
behaviors, and we observed an abrupt change for all three
behaviors. A functional relation was evident for Marshall.
Data indicated VM generalized to a job coach as the
intervention agent. Specifically, Marshall’s level during
generalization for the greeting phrase was 90% (range =
75%–100%) with a slight decelerating trend and stable data.
Marshall’s level during generalization for the service phrase
was 95% (range = 90%–100%) with a slight decelerating
trend and stable data. Marshall’s level during generalization
for the closing phrase was 92% (range = 80%–100%) with
a slight decelerating trend and stable data. Marshall’s skills
maintained at high levels after the VM intervention con-
cluded. Marshall maintained the greeting phrase at 61%,
serving phrase at 78%, and closing phrase at 67% during the
2-week follow-up. He maintained the greeting phrase at
82%, service phrase at 91%, and closing phrase at 91% dur-
ing the 4-week follow-up.
Observer Impression Scale and Social Validity
Table 1 presents a summary of the quality of interactions
between participants and customers as measured by the
Observer Impression Scale. We calculated an overall mean
of the four categories for each participant and condition. All
participants increased their quality of interactions with cus-
tomers in the categories of tone, timing, body language, and
appropriate statements from baseline to maintenance. For
example, Hank scored an overall mean of 2.1 during base-
line and increased to 4.0 during maintenance. Likewise,
Stacey increased her overall mean from 1.8 to 2.8, Cole 2.2
to 4.0, Aaron 3.5 to 4.0, and Marshall 2.7 to 3.5.
Table 2 presents the social validity questionnaire results.
Four of the five young adults reported the VM intervention
helped them do their job better, was easy to use, and helped
them remember the customer service phrases to say. Marshall
was the only participant who reported overall low satisfac-
tion with the videos although he reported the videos were
easy to use. When asked which component was most effec-
tive, Hank wrote, “I think the videos helped me learn to say
the phrases more to the customers.” Similarly, Stacey wrote,
“I think the videos helped me learn how to interact with the
drivers, but they got redundant towards the end.” Although
four participants reported overall high satisfaction, only two
young adults expressed interest in continuing the VM
Bross et al. 219

Figure 4.  Aaron’s responding to the VM intervention at the nursing home.

Note. VM = video modeling.

intervention. Supervisors reported the VM intervention was
easy to use and they would like the employee to continue
using the videos. When asked what component was most
effective, the movie theater supervisor wrote, “The video
model does a great job of displaying the words and actions
that the employee is trying to learn and implement.” Finally,
coworkers reported the videos were fun and engaging, and
they liked watching the videos with the employees. For
example, Cole’s coworker wrote, “I think it helped Cole, but
I feel as though it also helped remind me of different things
to say too.”
Discussion
We evaluated the effects of a VM intervention to increase the
verbalization of contextually relevant customer service
phrases of young adults with ASD in community employment
settings. This study extends the ASD and VM employment
220 Career Development and Transition for Exceptional Individuals 43(4)

Figure 5.  Marshall’s responding to the VM intervention at the nursing home.

Note. VM = video modeling.

literature by using VM to enhance interactions with custom- there were consistent changes in data for all 15 potential dem-
ers. Specifically, results indicated evidence of a functional onstrations of an experimental effect. Furthermore, immediate
relation between the VM intervention and the dependent vari- improvements were evident for 14 of 15 (93%) of the poten-
able for all participants. Summative visual analysis indicated tial effects across the study. During baseline observations, all
Bross et al. 221

Table 1.  Observer Impression Scale Results.

Appropriate
Participant and Body language mean statements mean
condition Tone mean (range) Timing mean (range) (range) (range) Overall mean
Hank
 Baseline 1.4 (1.0–2.0) 1.6 (1.0–2.0) 4.0 1.4 (1.0–2.0) 2.1
 Intervention 2.3 (1.0–3.0) 3.5 (3.0–4.0) 4.0 3.7 (2.0–4.0) 3.4
 Generalization 3.3 (3.0–4.0) 4.0 4.0 4.0 3.8
 Maintenance 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0
Stacey
 Baseline 2.2 (2.0–3.0) 1.8 (1.0–2.0) 1.2 (1.0–2.0) 2.0 (2.0–3.0) 1.8
 Intervention 3.0 (2.0–4.0) 2.9 (2.0–4.0) 2.4 (1.0–4.0) 3.6 (2.0–4.0) 3.0
 Generalization 2.0 (1.0–3.0) 2.6 (2.0–3.0) 3.6 (3.0–4.0) 4.0 (4.0–4.0) 3.1
 Maintenance 2.0 3.0 (2.0–4.0) 3.0 (2.0–4.0) 3.0 (2.0–4.0) 2.8
Cole
 Baseline 1.8 (1.0–2.0) 2.2 (2.0–3.0) 2.6 (2.0–4.0) 2.2 (2.0–3.0) 2.2
 Intervention 3.2 (2.0–4.0) 3.6 (3.0–4.0) 3.8 (3.0–4.0) 3.8 (3.0–4.0) 3.6
 Generalization 3.8 (3.0–4.0) 4.0 4.0 4.0 3.9
 Maintenance 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0
Aaron
 Baseline 3.4 (2.0–4.0) 3.4 (2.0–4.0) 3.8 (3.0–4.0) 3.4 (2.0–4.0) 3.5
 Intervention 3.7 (2.0–4.0) 3.6 (2.0–4.0) 4.0 3.8 (2.0–4.0) 3.8
 Generalization 4.0 3.8 (3.0–4.0) 4.0 4.0 3.9
 Maintenance 4.0 3.5 (3.0–4.0) 4.0 4.0 4.0
Marshall
 Baseline 1.6 (1.0–2.0) 3.0 (3.0–3.0) 2.4 (1.0–4.0) 3.6 (3.0–4.0) 2.7
 Intervention 2.4 (1.0–4.0) 3.4 (2.0–4.0) 3.2 (2.0–4.0) 3.5 (2.0–4.0) 3.1
 Generalization 3.0 (2.0–4.0) 3.6 (3.0–4.0) 3.8 (3.0–4.0) 4.0 3.6
 Maintenance 2.5 (2.0–3.0) 3.5 (3.0–4.0) 4.0 4.0 3.5

participants completed their job tasks in a satisfactory manner
(e.g., scanning tickets, delivering mail) but were relatively
quiet and unengaged while interacting with customers. This is
concerning because employment-related social skills are nec-
essary for successful employment (Agran et al., 2016). The
positive effects observed after participants watched the videos
indicate VM was a potent, effective intervention to increase
customer service skills. This finding is important because
some people may assume individuals with ASD will not be
successful in customer service positions, but participants in
this study quickly met employer expectations following
intervention.
Participants also improved their quality of interactions
with customers. Customer satisfaction is highly influenced
by interactions with employees (Byron et al., 2007). This
study suggests VM can improve tone, timing, body lan-
guage, and appropriate statements associated with cus-
tomer service. Specifically, all participants improved the
timing of delivery of phrases after receiving the VM inter-
vention. Some participants (i.e., Stacey, Cole, Marshall)
improved in body language after VM, whereas other par-
ticipants (i.e., Hank and Aaron) did not demonstrate a need
in this category prior to VM. This means employers and
transition professionals may consider VM to enhance posi-
tive customer service interactions to employees with ASD
who demonstrate a need in this area.
Nearly all young adults reported overall high satisfaction
with the VM intervention. This finding confirms VM can
have high social validity in community employment set-
tings. Marshall was the only participant who reported low
satisfaction with VM despite improved customer service
skills. Supervisors and coworkers also reported high overall
satisfaction with the intervention which may indicate that
supervisors view VM as a valuable training method and on-
the-job support. Despite general enthusiasm across partici-
pants, three participants (Stacey, Cole, and Marshall)
reported they did not want to keep watching the videos after
the study concluded because the videos were redundant.
Varied videos targeting more diverse and complex employ-
ment-related social skills may enhance some aspects of
social validity.
An additional finding relates to the successful applica-
tion of the VM intervention by coworkers, job coaches, and
supervisors. These key individuals voluntarily served as
intervention agents without compensation or other incen-
tives. In addition, they implemented the VM intervention
222 Career Development and Transition for Exceptional Individuals 43(4)

Table 2.  Social Validity Questionnaire Results.

Coworker or job
Questionnaire statements Hank Stacey Cole Aaron Marshall Supervisor mean coach mean
The video modeling intervention 3 4 4 4 1 3.8 3.8
helped improve my (the
employee’s) job performance.
The video modeling intervention 3 3 4 4 4 4.0 3.8
was easy to use.
I (the employee) liked watching 3 2 4 2 1 3.0 3.6
the videos at work.
The videos helped me (the 4 3 4 4 1 3.8 3.8
employee) remember the
customer service phrases to say.
The videos were fun and engaging. 3 2 4 4 1 3.8 3.8
Sufficient support is provided at 3 3 4 4 1 3.8 3.8
the place of employment.
I (the employee) would like to 3 1 1 3 1 3.3 3.4
keep watching the videos at
work.
I (the employee) would like to 3 1 1 2 1 3.5 3.4
watch videos about different
topics.

Note. 1 = strongly disagree; 2 = disagree; 3 = agree; 4 = strongly agree.

with high fidelity and relatively minimal training. This is
particularly important in CIE settings where the presence of
non-employees (e.g., teacher, parent) may be potentially
distracting, influence responding, or contribute to stigmati-
zation. Finally, maintenance of customer service phrases
varied across and within participants. Maintained perfor-
mance suggests VM was an effective training method for
some participants that could be appropriately withdrawn.
Conversely, participants whose social communication skills
were not maintained by VM may instead rely on VM as
ongoing workplace accommodation that is never withdrawn
for purposes of a research study. That is, employees with
ASD could watch videos before and during their shift to
maintain expected levels of work performance.
Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research
We encourage these findings to be considered in light of
several limitations. First, we used VM along with a check
for understanding (e.g., asking “What customer service
phrases will you say today?”) followed by praise for partici-
pant responses to the question (e.g., “Great, that’s an appro-
priate greeting phrase!”). These procedures may not be
consistent with some applications of VM and may be con-
sidered supplemental intervention components. However, it
is noteworthy that participants did not receive any pro-
grammed reinforcement for appropriate customer interac-
tions during the behavioral observations. Future researchers
who incorporate or omit specific VM procedures may gen-
erate results different from those obtained in this study.
A second limitation relates to data collectors who also
served as intervention agents as well as our use of a
researcher-developed instrument. Improved work perfor-
mance and customer service skills may have been partially
attributed to participant awareness of researchers observ-
ing them (i.e., reactive effect; Cooper et al., 2020). Future
researchers may consider less obtrusive observations using
technology (e.g., video recordings) or consider using con-
federate data collectors. Also, the Observer Impression
Scale was a researcher-developed instrument created for
this study. Researcher-developed instruments tend to be
very closed aligned with an intervention and may overesti-
mate general effects (Lipsey et al., 2012). A validated
instrument might generate different results. However, our
experimental results were not dependent on outcomes
using this instrument as it focused on qualitative aspects of
responding. Future researchers may consider using vali-
dated instruments for measuring such responses or validat-
ing their instrument prior to conducting a study if one does
not exist.
A third limitation relates to experimental design deci-
sions for Hank at the amusement park. We modified the a
priori mastery criterion (≥80% or higher for three consecu-
tive sessions) for his three behaviors. This decision was jus-
tified in two ways. First, customer interactions were very
brief based on the large number of visitors entering the park
and employer expectations to keep entry lines moving
quickly. Therefore, in collaboration with Hank’s employer
and based on performance by other employees, we reduced
mastery criterion to 50% for three consecutive sessions.
Bross et al. 223
Second, the amusement park was a seasonal job and sched-
uled to close for the winter. The reduced criterion provided
Hank an opportunity to benefit from participation in the
study by improving performance for all three targeted
responses. Given these adjustments, the degree of confi-
dence about a functional relation may be slightly dimin-
ished for this participant. Future researchers may consider
establishing mastery criterion specific to an employment
setting based on input from employers and comparing the
job performance of coworkers without disabilities.
Finally, the target behaviors were nuanced and specific
to the job tasks of each employment setting. We encourage
future researchers to examine other employment-related
social skills beyond the distinct skills targeted in this study.
Using customer service phrases is an important aspect of
interacting with customers, but a variety of other social
skills are needed to improve employment outcomes for this
population. For example, young adults with ASD have
reported challenges with maintaining positive interactions
with coworkers and supervisors, plus solving problems at
work (Müller et al., 2003). Consequently, future employ-
ment-related social skills studies may focus on improving
conversations during non-work times, asking for help,
requesting a change in schedule, and other skills necessary
to navigate social demands at work. Studies focused on
such topics could reveal whether and to what extent job sat-
isfaction of individuals with ASD is affected by positive
workplace relationships with others.
Implications for Practice and Conclusion
This study has implications for transition educators and
professionals who hire, train, and support employees with
ASD. The positive findings suggest VM is a viable way to
teach customer service skills in community employment
settings. Importantly, watching relatively brief videos at
work to enhance job performance can be considered a rea-
sonable workplace accommodation according to the
Americans with Disabilities Act (1990). In addition,
coworkers and supervisors can be trained to watch videos
with employees as ASD as a means to enhance social valid-
ity of VM and provide natural workplace supports. Utilizing
natural intervention agents may potentially enhance the CIE
experiences of young adults with ASD due to increased
interactions with others.
A viable method to disseminate VM at a larger scale may
be to train employers how to film and edit videos to train all
employees (regardless of disability status). Employers may
also consider systematic methods and incentives to recruit
coworkers to support fellow employees with ASD. For exam-
ple, coworkers could serve as part of a peer network in com-
munity employment settings. A peer network is a group of
students without disabilities meeting on a regular basis with
students with disabilities to participate in shared activities
(Carter et al., 2013). Coworkers without disabilities may be
willing to provide informal social supports to employees with
ASD, such as eating lunch or taking a break together. A
coworker could also be assigned as a mentor to help solve
work-related problems.
A final implication for practice relates to the broad inte-
gration of established EBPs for learners with ASD in CIE
settings. This study evaluated VM, but there are many
EBPs that may also be effective, such as antecedent-based
interventions, self-management, task analyses, visual sup-
ports, and others (Steinbrenner et al., 2020). Employment
settings are largely social environments where employees
interact with customers and each other. The integration of
EBPs in CIE contexts may enhance important employ-
ment-related social behaviors of individuals with ASD and,
in turn, potentially their overall job experiences. Transition
professionals may further improve job satisfaction by
emphasizing relationships between coworkers, supervi-
sors, and employees with ASD.
Employment is vital to increased community integration
and overall quality of life for individuals with ASD. These
findings contribute to the VM employment literature for
individuals with ASD. Relevant stakeholders (e.g., employ-
ers, job coaches, secondary teachers, VR counselors) must
promote the competitive employment of individuals with
ASD in jobs they desire, and VM can be one means to do so.
Given the relatively high feasibility of VM and strong evi-
dence of positive effects, it seems this intervention can con-
tribute to improved postsecondary employment outcomes
for young adults with ASD.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with
respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
article.
Funding
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support
for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This
study was funded by the National Institute on Disability,
Independent Living, and Rehabilitation Research (NIDILRR,
Grant #90DP0058).
ORCID iD
Leslie Ann Bross https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4707-4758
Supplemental Material
Supplemental material for this article is available online.
References
Agran, M., Hughes, C., Thoma, C. A., & Scott, L. A. (2016).
Employment social skills: What skills are really valued? Career
Development and Transition for Exceptional Individuals,
39(2), 111–120. https://doi.org/10.1177/2165143414546741
224 Career Development and Transition for Exceptional Individuals 43(4)
Alexander, J. L., Ayres, K. M., Smith, K. A., Shepley, S. B., &
Mataras, T. K. (2013). Using video modeling on an iPad to
teach generalized matching on a sorting mail task to adoles-
cents with autism. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders,
7(11), 1346–1357. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2013.07.021
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statis-
tical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text rev.). https://
doi.org/10.1176/ajp.152.8.1228
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and sta-
tistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). American
Psychiatric Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books
.9780890425596
Bandura, A. (1969). Social-learning theory of identificatory pro-
cesses. In D. A. Goslin (Ed.), Handbook of socialization the-
ory and research (pp. 213–262). Rand McNally.
Barton, E. E., Lloyd, B. P., Spriggs, A. D., & Gast, D. L. (2018).
Visual analysis of graphic data. In J. R. Ledford & D. L. Gast
(Eds.), Single case research methodology: Applications in
special education and behavioral sciences (3rd ed., pp. 179–
238). Routledge.
Barton, E. E., Meadan-Kaplansky, H., & Ledford, J. R. (2018).
Independent variables, fidelity, and social validity. In J. R.
Ledford & D. L. Gast (Eds.), Single case research method-
ology: Applications in special education and behavioral sci-
ences (3rd ed., pp. 133–156). Routledge.
Bereznak, S., Ayres, K. M., Mechling, L. C., & Alexander, J.
L. (2012). Video self-prompting and mobile technology to
increase daily living and vocational independence for students
with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Developmental
and Physical Disabilities, 24(3), 269–285. https://doi.
org/10.1007/s10882-012-9270-8
Bross, L. A., Travers, J. C., Munandar, V. D., & Morningstar, M.
(2019). Video modeling to improve customer service skills of
an employed young adult with autism. Focus on Autism and
Other Developmental Disabilities, 34(4), 226–235. https://
doi.org/10.1177/1088357618805990
Byron, K., Terranova, S., & Nowicki, S., Jr. (2007). Nonverbal
emotion recognition and salespersons: Linking ability to
perceived and actual success. Journal of Applied Social
Psychology, 37(11), 2600–2619. https://doi.org/10.1111/
j.1559-1816.2007.00272.x
Carter, E. W., Asmus, J., Moss, C. K., Cooney, M., Weir, K.,
Vincent, L., Born, T., Hochman, J. M., Bottema-Beutel, K., &
Fesperman, E. (2013). Peer network strategies to foster social
connections among adolescents with and without severe dis-
abilities. TEACHING Exceptional Children, 46(2), 51–59.
http://doi.org/10.1177/004005991304600206
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L. (2020). Applied
behavior analysis (3rd ed.). Pearson.
Cullen, J. M., Alber-Morgan, S. R., Simmons-Reed, E. A., &
Izzo, M. V. (2017). Effects of self-directed video prompting
using iPads on the vocational task completion of young adults
with intellectual and developmental disabilities. Journal
of Vocational Rehabilitation, 46(3), 361–375. https://doi.
org/10.3233/JVR-170873
English, D. L., Gounden, S., Dagher, R. E., Chan, S. F., Furlonger,
B. E., Anderson, A., & Moore, D. W. (2017). Effects of
video modeling with video feedback on vocational skills
of adults with autism spectrum disorder. Developmental
Neurorehabilitation, 20(8), 511–524. https://doi.org/10.1080/
17518423.2017.1282051
Gast, D. L., Lloyd, B. P., & Ledford, J. R. (2018). Multiple base-
line and multiple probe designs. In J. R. Ledford & D. L. Gast
(Eds.), Single case research methodology: Applications in
special education and behavioral sciences (3rd ed., pp. 239–
282). Routledge.
Gilson, C. B., & Carter, E. W. (2018). Video-based instruction to
promote employment-related social behaviors for high school
students with intellectual disability. Inclusion, 6(3), 175–193.
https://doi.org/10.1352/2326-6988-6.3.175
Goh, A. E., & Bambara, L. M. (2013). Video self-modeling: A job
skills intervention with individuals with intellectual disability
in employment settings. Education and Training in Autism
and Developmental Disabilities, 48(1), 103–119. https://
www.jstor.org/stable/23879890
Johnston, J. M., & Pennypacker, H. S. (2009). Strategies and tac-
tics of behavioral research (3rd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum.
Kellems, R. O., & Morningstar, M. E. (2012). Using video model-
ing delivered through iPods to teach vocational tasks to young
adults with autism spectrum disorder. Career Development
and Transition for Exceptional Individuals, 35(3), 155–167.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0885728812443082
Kratochwill, T. R., Hitchcock, J. H., Horner, R. H., Levin,
J. R., Odom, S. L., Rindskopf, D. M., & Shadish, W. R.
(2013). Single-case intervention research design standards.
Remedial and Special Education, 34(1), 26–38. https://doi.
org/10.1177/0741932512452794
Lawhorn, W. (2018, September). Customer service skills:
Occupational employment, outlook, and wages. Career
Outlook. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. https://www.bls.
gov/careeroutlook/2018/article/customer-service.htm
Lipsey, M. W., Puzio, K., Yun, C., Hebert, M. A., Steinka-Fry,
K., Cole, M. W., Roberts, M., Anthony, K. S., & Busick,
M. D. (2012). Translating the statistical representation
of the effects of education interventions into more readily
interpretable forms. National Center for Special Education
Research, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department
of Education. https://ies.ed.gov/ncser/
Mai, A. M. (2019). Hiring agents’ beliefs: A barrier to employ-
ment of autistics. SAGE Open, 9(3), 1–15. https://doi.
org/10.1177/2158244019862725
Morningstar, M. E., Lombardi, A., Fowler, C. H., & Test, D. W.
(2017). A college and career readiness framework for sec-
ondary students with disabilities. Career Development and
Transition for Exceptional Individuals, 40(2), 79–91. https://
doi.org/10.1177/2165143415589926
Müller, E., Schuler, A., Burton, B. A., & Yates, G. B. (2003).
Meeting the vocational support needs of individuals with
Asperger syndrome and other autism spectrum disabilities.
Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 18(3), 163–175.
Newman, L., Wagner, M., Knokey, A. M., Marder, C., Nagle, K.,
Shaver, D., & Wei, X. (2011). The post-high school outcomes
of young adults with disabilities up to 8 years after high
school: A report from the National Longitudinal Transition
Study-2 (NLTS2) (NCSER 2011-3005). National Center for
Special Education Research.
Bross et al. 225
Qi, C. H., Barton, E. E., Collier, M., & Lin, Y. L. (2018). A sys-
tematic review of single-case research studies on using video
modeling interventions to improve social communication
skills for individuals with autism spectrum disorder. Focus
on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 33(4), 249–
257. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088357617741282
Rausa, V. C., Moore, D. W., & Anderson, A. (2016). Use of
video modelling to teach complex and meaningful job skills
to an adult with autism spectrum disorder. Developmental
Neurorehabilitation, 19(4), 267–274. https://doi.org/10.3109/
17518423.2015.1008150
Roux, A. M., Shattuck, P. T., Cooper, B. P., Anderson, K. A.,
Wagner, M., & Narendorf, S. C. (2013). Postsecondary
employment experiences among young adults with an autism
spectrum disorder. Journal of the American Academy of
Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 52(9), 931–939. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.jaac.2013.05.019
Scruggs, T. E., Mastropieri, M. A., & Casto, G. (1987). The quan-
titative synthesis of single-subject research: Methodology and
validation. Remedial and Special Education, 8(2), 24–33.
https://doi.org/10.1177/074193258700800206
Seaman, R. L., & Cannella-Malone, H. I. (2016). Vocational
skills interventions for adults with autism spectrum disor-
der: A review of the literature. Journal of Developmental
and Physical Disabilities, 28(3), 479–494. https://doi.
org/10.1007/s10882-016-9479-z
Stauch, T. A., & Plavnick, J. B. (2020). Teaching vocational and
social skills to adolescents with autism using video mod-
eling. Education and Treatment of Children, 43, 137–151.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s43494-020-00020-4
Steinbrenner, J. R., Hume, K., Odom, S. L., Morin, K. L.,
Nowell, S. W., Tomaszewski, B., Szendrey, S., McIntyre, N.
S., Yücesoy-Özkan, S., & Savage, M. N. (2020). Evidence-
based practices for children, youth, and young adults
with autism. National Clearinghouse on Autism Evidence
and Practice Review Team, Frank Porter Graham Child
Development Institute, The University of North Carolina at
Chapel Hill.
Wills, H. P., Iwaszuk, W. M., Kamps, D., & Shumate, E. (2014).
CW-FIT: Group contingency effects across the day. Education
and Treatment of Children, 37(2), 191–210. https://10.1353/
etc.2014.0016