905910

research-article2020
HRDXXX10.1177/1534484320905910Human Resource Development ReviewJohnson et al.

Integrative Literature Reviews

Human Resource Development Review

Workplace Success
1­–30
© The Author(s) 2020
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DOI: 10.1177/1534484320905910
https://doi.org/10.1177/1534484320905910
With Autism Spectrum journals.sagepub.com/home/hrd

Disorder: A New Frontier

for Human Resource
Development

Karen R. Johnson1 , Demetria Ennis-Cole1,

and Matthew Bonhamgregory1

Abstract
The increased prevalence of young adults with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
translates into a dire need to find ways to facilitate successful employment
opportunities. Employment options are limited because of impaired communication
and social skills that are vital for the workplace. There are a growing number of studies
published on the need for employment, and primarily social psychologists, medical,
and rehabilitation professionals have conducted this research; this necessitates
multidisciplinary research that involves workforce development experts. Our study
identified ways that human resource development (HRD) professionals can foster
skill development and promote a work environment that supports the success
of employees with ASD. Through a narrative literature review, key themes were
identified as critical employment strategies that fall within the scope of HRD. As agents
of change, HRD professionals can play a role in the multifaceted and multidisciplinary
approach needed to facilitate improved work outcomes of employees with ASD.

Keywords
autism spectrum disorder, ASD, skill development, workplace readiness, human
resource development

1
University of North Texas, Denton, USA

Corresponding Author:
Karen R. Johnson, Department of Learning Technologies, University of North Texas, 3940 North Elm
Street, G150, Denton, TX 76207-7102, USA.
Email: karen.johnson@unt.edu
2 Human Resource Development Review 00(0)

One of the earliest definitions of human resource development (HRD) conceptualized

by Harbison and Myers (1964) is “increasing the knowledge, the skills, and the capaci-
ties of all the people in a society” (p. 2). They suggested that human resources (HR)
can be developed in many ways, including formal education, on-the-job formal and
informal training, and self-development with the goal of HRD to build knowledge and
skills needed for economic, social, cultural, and political development and to provide
avenues of participation for the creation of a better society for all (Harbison & Myers,
1964). Parallel to the underlying definitional philosophy of Harbison and Myers
(1964), McLean and McLean (2001) later defined HRD as

. . . any process or activity that, either initially or over the long term has the potential to
develop . . . work-based knowledge, expertise, productivity and satisfaction, whether for
personal or group/team gain, or for the benefit of an organization, community, nation, or,
ultimately, the whole of humanity. (p. 10)

In addition to the widely accepted components of HRD (training and development,

organization development, career development), McLean and McLean (2001) high-
lighted other expanding roles and activities of the field to include continuous quality/
process improvement, employee assistance, diversity management, community build-
ing, and employee retention, among others.
Early human capital–influenced descriptions stated that a core objective of HRD is
to provide employment and broader opportunities for individuals who are “unutilized
and underutilized” (Harbison & Myers, 1964). The opportunity to work and be pro-
ductive in a structured environment helps individuals to find purpose and contributes
positively to physical and psychological well-being and quality of life (Salkever,
2000). Yet, there are minority and underrepresented groups within the United States
that encounter challenges to obtain and retain jobs despite necessary qualifications and
skills set. For example, individuals with disabilities represent 26% (61 million) of the
U.S. population (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2019c), and only
19.1% who are of working age are employed (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018).
Although limited and fragmented in scope, HRD and adult education researchers have
sought to unearth root causes of employers’ mental barriers, the stigma, and associated
bias attached to people with disabilities with the aim to promote more equal opportuni-
ties, and integrate issues related to disabilities into HR activities and education to bet-
ter accommodate the work-related needs of this population (Hidegh & Csillag, 2013).
Ross-Gordon (2002) implored adult educators, trainers, and administrators to be aware
of, and responsive to the needs of, adult learners with disabilities. In addition, Fornes
et al. (2008) investigated job retention strategies by developing a model to provide
structure for rehabilitation and HR practitioners to understand job retention interven-
tions appropriate for individuals with intellectual disabilities and intellectual develop-
mental disorders. Researchers have argued that HR professionals play a vital role in
changing the status quo “necessary to deconstruct the beliefs and presumptions that
impede the employment of people with disabilities” (Hidegh & Csillag, 2013, p. 23).
Johnson et al. 3

While research on disability is dispersed throughout the HRD literature, generally,

the subject is largely neglected in HRD conversations when addressing diverse or
minority groups (Bierema, 2010; Rocco, 1998, 2002, 2005; Procknow & Rocco,
2016). The field of HRD claims “diversity as a vital responsibility, and diversity man-
agement a key competency” (Bierema, 2010, p. 565). Yet, race, age, and gender are the
central areas of HRD research on diversity, and the mention of disability has the ten-
dency to focus more on a physical disability rather than a mental, neurodevelopmental,
and/or cognitive disability (Procknow & Rocco, 2016). Furthermore, with the limited
HRD research that investigates ways that learning and training can enhance the poten-
tial of individuals with disabilities, there appears to be a disconnect between principles
of humanistic theories underpinning HRD (Bierema, 2010) and the actual mission of
HRD—the development of human potential to improve individual, organizational,
community, or national gain (McLean & McLean, 2001).
One minority group that has been ignored in the HRD literature includes individu-
als with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). ASD represents a distinct category of devel-
opmental disabilities, characterized by difficulties in social interaction and
communication, and restricted or repetitive behaviors (American Psychiatric
Association, 2014). As a lifelong neurodevelopmental disorder, ASD can mildly, mod-
erately, or severely impact an individual’s behavior, communication, and social inter-
action (CDC, 2019a). Individuals with ASD have a range of intellectual ability that
includes below average skills to giftedness. For those with average and above intelli-
gence, cognitive ability is not a barrier, so meaningful life outcomes (employment,
social interaction, independence, friendships, postsecondary education, and commu-
nity participation) are expected (CDC, 2019a). Unfortunately, this is not the case,
because IQ is not the only factor that determines a successful outcome (Duncan &
Bishop, 2015; Eaves & Ho, 2008; Farley et al., 2009). Employment options for many
individuals with ASD are limited because of impaired communication and social skills
critical for effective functioning in the workplace. However, studies have indicated
that appropriate interventions and training can lead to positive behavior change and
improved work performance (Smith & Coleman, 1986; Wehman et al., 2017). When
compared with other disability groups, individuals with ASD are at risk for unemploy-
ment and underemployment and have the lowest employment and pay rates (see Bush
& Tassé, 2017; Dreaver et al., 2019; Frank et al., 2018).
There are numerous and significant barriers to employment and workforce par-
ticipation (Nicholas et al., 2018). Adults with ASD tend to be unemployed and
underemployed because of the challenges with the application and interview pro-
cesses, lack of a thorough understanding of the social demands of the work environ-
ment, problems to secure a position that best matches their skills and qualifications,
and difficulty adapting to an unpredictable workplace, including environmental fac-
tors (Dreaver et al., 2019; Scott et al., 2019). For these reasons, the transition into
employment and retaining employment appear to be much more difficult for indi-
viduals with ASD. Almost 50% of individuals with a diagnosis of ASD have average
or above-average intelligence, yet regardless of their educational level and qualifica-
tions, only a small percentage are employed (Hensel, 2017). Some adults with ASD
4 Human Resource Development Review 00(0)

have the desire and ability to work after secondary education or following training
programs (Hendricks, 2010).
As the numbers of young adults with ASD continue to increase, there is a need to
expand and improve employment opportunities (Hensel, 2017; Shattuck et al., 2012).
However, there is a lack of research on employment skill development and workplace
strategies needed to promote the success of individuals with ASD (Bennett & Dukes,
2013). Although the primary goal of HRD is to improve the knowledge, skills, and
abilities of individuals for their well-being and organizational efficiency (McLean &
McLean, 2001), this issue has been overlooked in HRD research and practice.
Research has shown that individuals with ASD who obtain employment experience
decreased anxiety, improved self-esteem and emotional state, financial gain, indepen-
dence, and enhanced well-being (Hurlbutt & Chalmers, 2004). This study will help to
dispel some of the stereotypes employers have of individuals with disabilities that are
not substantiated by research (Lengnick-Hall et al., 2008). HRD professionals will
gain increased knowledge of ways to facilitate employment success of adults with
ASD and further promote workplace diversity through ASD awareness. As a starting
point in the HRD academic literature, the purpose of this study is to identify ways that
HRD professionals can foster skill development to support the success of employees
with ASD. The research question guiding the literature review study is, what role can
HRD professionals play to support employment success of individuals with ASD in
the workplace?

The Problem
By some estimates, 1% of the world’s population is diagnosed with ASD (CDC, 2014).
More than 3.5-million people in the United States live with the disorder. The percent-
age of individuals with ASD increased by 6% to 15% each year from 2002 to 2010
(CDC, 2014). Current estimates point to a widespread presence of ASD in the United
States as 1 in 59 children (CDC, 2019b), a dramatic increase from 1 in 68 reported in
2014 (CDC, 2014). Pressure to expand employment opportunities for people with
ASD will increase because experts project that there will be a 230% increase in the
number of young adults with autism over the next decade (Hensel, 2017).
The advantages of hiring individuals on the autism spectrum are becoming more
obvious to a handful of employers. Individuals with ASD offer productivity advan-
tages to the labor market because of their ability to make positive contributions to
the technology sector (Hayward et al., 2019). Technology-related work is viewed as
ideal for some individuals with autism because of their ability to maintain focus for
extended periods, recognize patterns, and accurately perform repetitive and detail-
oriented tasks (Hayward et al., 2019; Skibell, 2017). With the increasing use of
technology in organizations, the skills of individuals with ASD can be utilized
(Cullum & Ennis-Cole, 2014; Skibell, 2017) to benefit both the organization and the
employee. In addition to technology-related skills, some individuals with autism are
endowed with other qualities such as high levels of math and/or memory skills, cog-
nitive, spatial, musical, or artistic ability; furthermore, they possess characteristics
Johnson et al. 5

such as honesty, reliability, trustworthiness, and persistence (Caron et al., 2004;

Hillier et al., 2007; Mawhood & Howlin, 1999)—competencies and traits needed in
the workplace. Individuals with ASD outperform their counterparts on tasks that
require pattern matching, manipulating multidimensional shapes, and locating struc-
tures (Perreault et al., 2011). In addition, persons with ASD tend to perform better
than their neurotypical peers on Raven’s Progressive Standard Matrices—an IQ test
that requires the use of spatial skills to complete visual patterns (Nader et al., 2016;
Stevenson & Gernsbacher, 2013).
Technology-intensive companies including Microsoft, SAP Software and Solutions,
and JPMorgan Chase have launched programs to employ this potentially resourceful
and available pool of individuals (Skibell, 2017). Some adults with ASD have been
employed in industry sectors including health care, retail, recreation, hospitality/food
service, warehouse, education, and government (Wehman et al., 2016). However, they
tend to hold short-term employment because of workplace challenges with supervisors
and/or colleagues, or the demands of the job (Mawhood & Howlin, 1999). Employers
are timid to employ individuals with ASD because of a lack of awareness and under-
standing of the disorder and are more likely to focus on the repetitive or negative
behaviors than the individual’s potential and capabilities (Nesbitt, 2000).
Minimal research exists on employment readiness, access to employment, career
development, and retention of individuals with ASD in the workforce (Brooke et al.,
2018; Nicholas et al., 2018; Wehman et al., 2017). Understanding the experience of
individuals with ASD on the job is important to be able to develop strategic interven-
tions to better accommodate their needs. There is a need for more research focused on
strategies to improve employment outcomes (Wei et al., 2018). Although a growing
number of studies have been published on the need for employment opportunities, the
research has been conducted primarily by social psychologists, medical and rehabilita-
tion professionals (Lengnick-Hall et al., 2008) with very limited focus on work set-
tings and workforce development experts.
Employment opportunities are estimated to increase by 11.5 million over the 2016–
2026 decade, an increase from 156.1 million to 167.6 million. This 0.7% annual
growth is faster than the 0.5% growth from the previous decade. A decline in baby
boomers in the labor force (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2016) accompanied by a
decline in youth because of slow population growth (U.S. Census Bureau, 2013) will
result in a shortage of workers. Exploring the “largely untapped” and growing labor
pool of individuals with ASD can be beneficial to both employers and individuals on
the autism spectrum (Lengnick-Hall et al., 2008). The increased prevalence of ASD
translates into a need to find strategies to facilitate successful transition to the work-
place and adequate employment support.

Method
The narrative literature review methodology used for this study adhered to Gregory
and Denniss’ (2018) four step process: (a) define topic and audience, (b) search and
re-search the literature, (c) be critical, and (d) find a logical structure. A narrative
6 Human Resource Development Review 00(0)

review is a (non-systematic) comprehensive summation and synthesis of previous

publications and is usually driven by a broader research question in comparison to
systematic reviews (Gregory & Denniss, 2018). Narrative overviews help to present a
wider perspective on a topic and bring certain matters and concerns into view (Green
et al., 2006) while also aiming to provide “objective conclusions based upon the litera-
ture reviewed” (Green et al., 2006, p. 103).

Step 1: Define Topic and Audience

A narrative review is appropriate for this study because to date, there is no coverage in
the HRD literature on the value that HRD researchers and practitioners can contribute
to facilitate more favorable workplace experiences and outcomes for individuals with
ASD. The aim is to create a broader perspective on the multifaceted process needed to
transition and retain adults with ASD in the workplace and to bring to light the poten-
tial role of HRD professionals to help ensure successful employment.

Step 2: Search and Re-Search the Literature

To answer the research question, a number of databases were used for the literature
search to provide reasonable depth and breadth of the topic (Green et al., 2006).
Databases included EBSCOhost, PsycARTICLES, PsycINFO, Psychology and
Behavioral Sciences Collection, Health Reference Center Academic, Business
Source Complete, Academic Search Complete, and Google Scholar. Keywords used
in the search were “autism,” “autism spectrum disorder,” “ASD,” “employment,”
“underemployment,” “unemployed,” “employment opportunities,” “job,” “work,”
“career development,” and “career.” Keywords were combined using Boolean oper-
ators to expand the search strategy. Articles were found primarily in rehabilitation,
medical, and health-related journals including Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation,
Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, Medical Teacher, Journal of the
American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, and Research in
Developmental Disabilities.
Because a significant number of individuals with autism are currently becoming
adults (Strickland et al., 2013), no time span was set for the study. The majority of
articles found were published within the last 10 years. Although selection criteria for
narrative reviews are not as rigorous as that of systematic reviews, specific parameters
were necessary to make the project more practical (Green et al., 2006). Articles included
in the search had to be conducted within the context of the United States, published in
English, with the primary focus on workplace readiness and skill development of indi-
viduals with ASD. From the initial search, operative words needed to be identified in
the title of the article, abstract, or keyword section. This initial search resulted in a total
of 178 articles identified through the databases. After sifting through the titles, a num-
ber of duplicates were identified from the search. With careful review of the abstracts,
fewer articles were reviewed for the study after eliminating nonrelevant publications
that were not directly related to the context of the workplace—may have focused too
Johnson et al. 7

Figure 1.  Article identification process.

heavily on comparison groups, or employment challenges of parents of individuals

with ASD. A total of 51 articles were screened for thorough review. After reviewing the
full article, there was a further elimination of some articles mainly because the studies
were conducted outside of the United States or may have been related to legal work
issues. Using the snowball technique, other related articles from in-text citations and
reference lists were included in the literature review to gain a richer collection of data
(Callahan, 2010) and a deeper perspective of the topic. From the search process, a total
of 49 articles were included in the study. Figure 1 outlines the article identification
process.
8 Human Resource Development Review 00(0)

Step 3: Be Critical
Narrative reviews are used to describe or explore emerging topics by highlighting the
influence of interventions and factors that affect the needs of specific population
groups (Popay et al., 2006). Narrative reviews tell a convincing story by portraying
evidence of the importance of a phenomenon (Popay et al., 2006). Considering that the
topic under investigation is preliminary, this study assumed the first stage of explora-
tion using a descriptive perspective. A critical discussion is provided by analyzing the
data, identifying knowledge gaps, and offering new insights (Gregory & Denniss,
2018) on how HRD can facilitate employment success and improved well-being of
individuals with ASD.

Step 4: Find a Logical Structure

Narrative reviews should be reported in a logical way, such as “thematically, chrono-
logically, or in order of complexity” (Gregory & Denniss, 2018, p. 896). This narrative
review is organized thematically as detailed in the discussion section. Following
Robson and McCartan’s (2016) phases of thematic coding, the researchers familiar-
ized themselves with the data. Each paper that was included in the review was read and
notes were taken. To be able to code, the data were organized into groups to identify
possible patterns or themes. Notes were captured in an Excel spreadsheet including
title of paper, author(s), year of publication, journal name, purpose of study, research
design/method, summary of findings, and a column for additional notes (see Table 1
for details). From the findings and additional notes, codes were then sorted into
themes. Themes were identified primarily on the basis of repetition of words and
phrases (Robson & McCartan’s, 2016). Common themes were identified and catego-
rized as critical to employment success of individuals with ASD to the workplace. The
themes generated from the review of the literature are meaningful collaboration, train-
ing and development, mentoring and coaching, and organizational support factors.
The themes are recognized as activities that fall within the scope of HRD as described
by Harbison and Myers (1964) and McLean and McLean (2001). However, the role
that HRD professionals can play to improve employment success of individuals with
ASD has been largely ignored in HRD research and practice.

Findings From the Literature

From a review of the extant literature, four themes were identified as key HRD-related
activities that, with the expertise of HRD professionals, can improve employment
readiness and retention levels of individuals with ASD in the workplace. The findings
from the articles are organized based on the following themes: (a) meaningful collabo-
ration, (b) training and development, (c) mentoring and coaching, and (d) organiza-
tional support factors. These themes form pillars of support for individuals with ASD
as they transition and remain in the workforce (see Figure 2). In the workplace, HRD
professionals can be influencers and drivers of these pillars of support.
 Table 1.  HRD-Related Themes From Literature Reviewed.
Author(s), year Purpose Findings Theme(s)

Alverson & 10-year analysis of employment outcomes investigating One significant predictor of employment outcomes was Meaningful collaboration
Yamamoto predictor variables against the criterion variable, found; the number of vocational rehabilitation services
(2018) competitive employment provided
Brooke et al. Address gap in the literature in employee retention and Individuals with ASD retained higher competitive integrated Organizational support factors
(2018) intervention in employees with ASD employment when provided employment supports
compared to those without
Coleman & Evaluate vocational status and government vocational Coaching and mentoring included as recommendations to Coaching and mentoring
Adams (2018) services; improve employment of adults with ASD improve vocational status
Morgan & Wine Evaluation of behavioral skills training to teach four job Four restaurant skills were effectively taught using behavioral Training and development
(2018) skills to an 18-year-old student skills training
Pfeiffer et al. Examined the influence of social and sensory Increased job satisfaction and retention when employers Organizational support factors
(2018) environments on job satisfaction of employees with understand the importance of the relationship between
ASD environment and autistic employees
Van Laarhoven Explored how universally designed prompting systems Universally designed prompting systems can be created using Training and development
et al. (2018) support the teaching of vocational skills to individuals software that is already available commercially leading to
with ASD the likelihood of mobile device supports development by
practitioners
Walsh et al. Evaluation of video modeling as a means to support Social skills training intervention using video modeling Training and development
(2017) workplace inclusion contributes to social competence
Crocco (2017) Examined if covert audio coaching is a viable intervention Covert audio coaching increases the classroom skill of Coaching and mentoring
strategy for increasing attending behavior individual with ASD
Hedley et al. Reviewed empirical peer-reviewed studies on Lack of opportunities to develop workplace skills; Meaningful collaboration;
(2017) employment programs, interventions, and employment- multifaceted approach needed to explore employment training and development
related outcomes in adults with ASD outcomes of individuals with ASD
Nicholas et al. Explored the ecosystem that exists between employment Job readiness found in the context of the broad ecosystem is Organizational support factors
(2018) and individuals with ASD framed within components of supports
Pfeiffer et al. Work satisfaction and performance of employees with Environmental factors and person-fit were perceived Organizational support factors
(2017) autism focusing on social, attitudinal, and sensory by individuals with ASD to impact experiences in the
environmental factors workplace. These factors were identified as barriers or
facilitators
Skibell (2017) Intensive technology organizations see the value of higher Social skills awareness and training on both the applicant and Training and development
functioning individuals with ASD workplace is needed for viability
Wehman et al. Project SEARCH was modified to determine its success Young adult with ASD can obtain and maintain competitive Training and development;
(2017) with young adults with autism to acquire and maintain employment through customized interventions while coaching and mentoring
meaningful employment showing more independence the more hours worked

(continued)

9
 Table 1. (continued)

10
Author(s), year Purpose Findings Theme(s)

Kaya et al. (2016) Examination of demographic retrieved from the Transitioning—individuals with autism who received state and Meaningful collaboration
Rehabilitation Service Administration’s Case Services federal vocational rehabilitation services were significantly
Reports database to determine the impact on youth more likely to gain competitive employment
with ASD transitioning to the workforce
Wehman et al. A 5-year review of 64 employees with ASD examined if Customized employment with interventions is effective in Organizational support factors
(2016) gained employment via customized employment was increased work-retention, satisfaction, and maintaining
effective competitive integrated employment
Gentry et al. The facilitation of personal digital assistants as a means The use of Apple iPod Touch PDA can be used to improve Training and development
(2015) to support the needs and increased occupational work performance of individuals with ASD and lead to
performance of people with ASD reduced personal support on the job
Katz et al. (2015) Measured the trajectory of work performance and quality Participants maintain employment during period; important to Meaningful collaboration
of life on jobs of people with ASD over 9 months upon provide individuals with ASD with work placing programs
gaining employment from a work placement program and follow-up during actual job performance
Meeks et al. Developed a model to provide more support for autistic Collaborative employment resource model provides Meaningful collaboration
(2015) students that interconnects disability resources, career promising opportunities for individuals with ASD to receive
center, and counseling center career development support
Nicholas et al. Systematic review of studies relating to ASD employees’ Review of the literature shows that vocational training and Meaningful collaboration
(2015) intervention and supports support is needed by both the ASD employee and the
employer
Scott et al. (2015) Examined the factors that lead to successful employment Both employee with ASD and employer appear committed Organizational support factors
among ASD employees, expectations, supports, and to the employment process but there is still lack
productivity perspective of understanding regarding workplace support, job
expectation, and productivity requirements
Smith et al. Explored the feasibility and efficacy of virtual reality job Virtual reality job interview training improved interviewing Organizational support factors
(2015) interview training in individuals with ASD skills among trainees with ASD
Ham et al. (2014) Studied a multifaceted support system to transition two As a result of the implemented intervention, through Training and development;
youths with ASD through the transition process into training and coaching/mentoring two ASD employees held coaching and mentoring
employment employment for at least 2 years with fading supports
Hart & Crippen Examination of an eight-step, school-based employment Eight research-based steps to provide an employment training Training and development
(2014) training to increase employment program to students with autism to increase job attainment
during their postsecondary years
Smith et al. Assessment of virtual reality job interview training in Virtual reality job interview training delivered via computer- Training and development
(2014) autistic adults based software, or the Internet supports the efficacy of
virtual reality job interview training
The Community Provided information relative to the hiring of individuals Tax incentives provided by the government; support by the Meaningful collaboration
School (2014) with ASD Americans With Disabilities Act; additional resources to aid
employment

(continued)
 Table 1. (continued)
Author(s), year Purpose Findings Theme(s)

Walsh et al. Review of the literature examined existing predictors and Supportive work environment and teaching of vocational skills Training and development;
(2014) impact of employment among employee-aged individuals lead to more substantial employment outcomes and quality organizational support factors
with ASD of life of individuals with ASD
Wehman et al. Reported preliminary results of Project SEARCH plus Through internships, on-site systematic instruction and job Training and development;
(2014) Autism Spectrum Disorder supports model coaches were provided to improve task acquisition meaningful collaboration;
coaching and mentoring
Whetzel (2014) Provided specific examples for job interview interactions Preparing ASD individuals to improve skills for interviews Training and development
for individuals with ASD significantly altered their social interactions in employment
situations
Bennett & Dukes Literature review researching the effectiveness of teaching Behavioral skills training including instruction, modeling, Training and development
(2013) vocational and employment skills to secondary students practice, and feedback used to prepare individuals with ASD
for work
Bennett et al. Examined the effects of covert audio coaching performing Using convert audio coaching job task accuracy and fluency Coaching and mentoring
(2013) a job task on high school students with ASD improved during same task duties in a community-based
worksite
Strickland et al. Evaluated Internet-based training program to improve job Web-based program used in tandem with a trained therapist Training and development
(2013) interview skills for individuals with ASD can be an effective intervention in improving interview skills
in autistic people
Wilczynski et al. Researched lack of employment and supports for Supports and resources work to minimize ostracization and Meaningful collaboration
(2013) individuals with ASD in the workforce increased job satisfaction
Lee & Carter Leveraged existing literature from vocational rehabilitation Seven elements of transition services providing interventions Meaningful collaboration;
(2012) and school-to-work transition research to create a for promoting successful employment in individuals with coaching and mentoring
framework to facilitate transition to the workplace ASD
Wehman, Lau Examination of supported employment in securing and Supported employment approach was successfully used in Training and development;
et al. (2012) maintaining competitive employment vocational rehabilitation; intervention time decreased over organizational support factors;
time meaningful collaboration
Wehman, Schall Case studies examining the transition of individual with Through goal setting, internships and training, Project Training and development
et al. (2012) ASD into health care employment SEARCH may offer a model to support ASD youth’s
transition into the workplace
Mechling (2011) Analyzed and synthesized literature (2000–2010) focusing Use of portable electronic devices can be used to enhance Training and development
on the impact of portable electronic devices within the training for skill development for individuals with ASD
moderate intellectual disabilities and autistic spectrum
disorders populations
Taylor & Seltzer Analysis of 66 young adults with ASD who have Service supports lacking for individuals with ASD as they Meaningful collaboration
(2011) exited secondary school and their transition into transition into adulthood
postsecondary life, including employment

11
(continued)
 Table 1. (continued)

12
Author(s), year Purpose Findings Theme(s)

Burke et al. Evaluated a vocational training program to teach specific The intervention of behavioral skills training and performance Training and development
(2010) social-vocational skills cue system provides increased job workplace opportunities
Hendricks (2010) Review of evidence-based research about obstacles to Support needed for successful employment of ASD Meaningful collaboration;
successful employment of individuals with ASD individuals; interpersonal skills training needed to improve training and development;
work experience coaching and mentoring;
organizational support factors
McDonough & Overview of employment outcomes research for Two case studies provided insight into the development and Training and development;
Revell (2010) individuals with autism implementation of employment plans meaningful collaboration
Perry Lattimore Examination of workers with ASD job-site training of Evidence supports the utility of simulation training of adults Training and development
et al. (2008) vocational skills with training that includes simulation with ASD to improve job performance
training
Hillier et al. Evaluation of nine ASD employees enrolled in a vocational Vocational support program increased employment and Training and development;
(2007) support program income rates in employees with ASD coaching and mentoring;
organizational support factors
Perry Lattimore Job-site training of vocational skills with training compared Job-site training improves if accompanied by simulation Training and development
et al. (2006) to the training that includes simulation training training
Hagner & Qualitative data exploring the relationship between Management/supervisor style influences employment success Organizational support factors
Cooney (2005) management and employees with ASD for autistic individuals
Howlin et al. Examined the outcomes of individuals with ASD On-the-job support is vital for employment success Work–environment support
(2005) supported by employment services factors
Müller et al. Study to develop strategies for improving vocational Job coach can help ASD employee to adjust more easily to Coaching and mentoring;
(2003) placement and job retention service of autistic the culture of the organization; maintaining structured organizational support factors
individuals jobs and consistent work schedules can support work of
employee with ASD
Luecking & Explained benefits, provided quality examples, and Research indicated benefits of exposure to work experience; Meaningful collaboration
Gramlich demonstrated models of work-based learning experiences should begin during secondary school; meaning
(2003) and integrated employment should be available to all ASD
individuals seeking employment
Capo (2001) Review of existing literature to generate guidelines for Job coach plays important role in identifying job that matches Coaching and mentoring
occupational therapy roles for individuals with ASD skills of individuals with ASD and teaching the required job skills

Note. ASD = autism spectrum disorder; PDA = personal digital assistant.

Johnson et al. 13

Meaningful Collaboration
Meaningful and integrated employment should be available to all job-seeking indi-
viduals with ASD (Hendricks, 2010; Luecking & Gramlich, 2003). Nicholas et al.
(2018) described the employment of individuals with ASD as “inextricably linked to
broader community resources, family support, workplace capacity building . . . and
policy” (p. 264). Therefore, a multifaceted approach is needed to facilitate successful
employment outcomes (Hedley et al., 2017). As noted in the literature, this collabora-
tive approach starts with the family having the responsibility to understand ASD and
how it affects the individual on the spectrum. The school system is another form of
support for individuals with ASD (Ennis-Cole, 2019). Collaboration and interagency
involvement play a vital role to ensure quality and seamless transition from school to
work through effective employment training and workplace readiness (Hart Barnett &
Crippen, 2014; Lee & Carter, 2010). Individuals with ASD have access to a variety of
services provided through agencies including State Vocational Rehabilitation pro-
grams, community rehabilitation service providers, and state- and community-level
developmental disabilities programs. A State’s Vocational Rehabilitation Center is
positioned as the hub to facilitate the move from secondary education to employment
(McDonough & Revell, 2010). Within this agency, an individualized plan for employ-
ment is created and serves as a guide for transitioning into the workplace (McDonough
& Revell, 2010). Individuals who receive vocational services and job readiness train-
ing are more likely to gain employment (Alverson & Yamamoto, 2018; Kaya et al.,
2016).
Assistance from state agencies include job placement services, employment sup-
port programs, community/vocational training (Hendricks, 2010; McDonough &
Revell, 2010), on-the-job training, career counseling, assessment of job fit, supported
and customized employment, and employment specialists services (Hendricks, 2010;
McDonough & Revell, 2010; Nicholas et al., 2017) to help the employee adjust to the
organizational culture and work responsibilities (Wehman, Lau, et al., 2012). While
these services can foster increased remunerative and rewarding employment opportu-
nities (Hart Barnett & Crippen, 2014), the availability of resources is often limited in
comparison to the need (Nicholas et al., 2018).
Although vocational rehabilitation plays a vital role in preparing persons with ASD
for employment, only about one third obtain jobs through this service (Alverson &
Yamamoto, 2018). The tax incentive provided by the government to employers who
hire individuals with autism may lead to increased job opportunities (The Community
School, 2013), but currently many factors contribute to the unemployment issues
experienced by individuals with ASD. For example, curriculum and instructional prac-
tices in secondary special education do not provide adequate preparation for work
(Bennett & Dukes, 2013), transition planning and programming are not available in
some schools (private, charter, etc.), and individuals with ASD are not always the
beneficiaries of active and early transition planning activities and resources. (See
https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/osers/transition/products/postsecondary-tran-
sition-guide-2017.pdf) Some state agencies work in collaboration with secondary
14 Human Resource Development Review 00(0)

Figure 2.  Pillars supporting the transition and success of individuals with ASD to the
workforce.
Note. ASD = autism spectrum disorder.

schools to offer work experience programs (Alverson & Yamamoto, 2018). These pro-
grams should connect to real-world experiences, provide prevocational tasks, supply
training materials that closely resemble actual work processes, and initiate the process
to instill workplace skills and competencies as early as secondary school (Bennett &
Dukes, 2013). Meeks et al. (2015) noted the importance of aligning college support
services with career development of individuals with ASD. Work placement programs
(Katz et al., 2015) and intensive internship programs have proven to be helpful for
individuals with ASD to gain and retain paid employment (Wehman et al., 2014) but
not many organizations have extended the opportunity to this underrepresented
Johnson et al. 15

population. The current system is not adequate to accommodate the needs of adults
with ASD as they transition to the workplace (Taylor & Seltzer, 2011). Scholars argue
that there is need for state/community-based agencies to boost employment outcomes
(Nicholas et al., 2015) because positive employment outcomes are likely to occur
when there is collaboration between the education system and vocational rehabilita-
tion (Wilczynski et al., 2013).

Training and Development

Research has shown that with the appropriate training interventions, adults with ASD
can work effectively in different organizational settings (Hillier et al., 2007). Various
types of training techniques have been utilized to improve skills, competences, and
behaviors needed for the workplace (Hedley et al., 2017). Although the individual
would have entered the workplace with skills from secondary school and vocational
programs, additional and customized training is necessary to increase skill acquisition
on-site (Wehman, Lau, et al., 2012). On-the-job training can promote job retention and
is beneficial for providing learning opportunities in an actual job setting (Hendricks,
2010; Wehman, Lau, et al., 2012). On-the-job training coupled with off-site simulation
training results in increased skill acquisition and transfer of training to the job itself
(Perry Lattimore et al., 2006, 2008). Intensive internship training, guided by Applied
Behavior Analysis, has also resulted in increased possibilities of gaining a job
(Wehman et al., 2014, 2017; Wehman, Schall, et al., 2012). Scholars have suggested
using principles derived from Applied Behavior Analysis (Burke et al., 2010) that
include role-playing (Whetzel, 2014), modeling, video modeling, and visual support
(Hart Barnett & Crippen, 2014; Hendricks, 2010; Van Laarhoven et al., 2018). Through
behavioral skills training, individuals with ASD are taught job skills successfully in
the natural work environment (Morgan & Wine, 2018).
Research has shown that technology-enhanced training is a highly effective
technique for individuals with ASD to learn job skills and support employment
independence (see Gentry et al., 2015; Van Laarhoven et al., 2018). For example,
simulation training and behavioral skills training through the use of various mobile
technology applications such as the iPhone and iPad have been found to be success-
ful training interventions (Perry Lattimore et al., 2008). It is evident from research
that mobile technological devices are used for visual and/or auditory supports to
successfully demonstrate task-oriented skills that help to improve job dependence.
Mobile technologies with universally designed features such as touch screen and
voice recognition have been found to enhance learning (Mechling, 2011; Van
Laarhoven et al., 2018). The use of iPod Touch personal digital assistant (PDA)
supports employment independence, and individuals with PDA may need less hours
of job coaching support (Gentry et al., 2015).
Virtual reality training has been used as an intervention to improve job-interview-
ing skills for individuals with ASD (Smith et al., 2014, 2015; Strickland et al., 2013).
Individuals who received the virtual reality job interview training (VR-JIT) demon-
strated an increase in verbal content skills (Strickland et al., 2013), social skills, and
16 Human Resource Development Review 00(0)

were more likely to obtain competitive employment (Smith et al., 2015). The VR-JIT
is a computer software application that consists of repetitive simulated job interviews
with a virtual character and didactic training (Smith et al., 2014). Virtual reality train-
ing can be more advantageous than traditional types of training, in that, there is oppor-
tunity for (a) repetitive practice with the simulation, (b) active participation, (c)
accurate representation of real-life simulation, (d) opportunities for trainees to make
and correct mistakes, (e) consistent and momentary feedback, and (f) access to web-
based learning materials before and during the simulation (Issenberg et al., 2005).
Together, these training and development interventions have equipped individuals
with ASD with the necessary competences needed to gain employment and experience
greater independence on the job (Ham et al., 2014). These specific types of training
that help with obtaining employment can be transferred to the workplace for continu-
ous improvement.

Mentoring and Coaching

Mentoring has been viewed as effective for individuals with learning disabilities and
mental health issues (Brown et al., 2010). Research also shows that mentors have
helped to improve social interactions between individuals with and without disabilities
(Storey, 2003). Peer mentors are recommended on-the-job to help the employee with
ASD refine his or her social skills and develop problem-solving skills related to
employment. These efforts improve employment outcomes for employees with ASD
(Coleman & Adams, 2018).
Job coaching has been used in the workplace as a beneficial intervention for
individuals with ASD (Ham et al., 2014; Wehman et al., 2014). A job coach plays
several roles in the process of transitioning to employment: provide job shadowing
for the individual to have a deeper understanding of the job and to determine job fit
(Coleman & Adams, 2018), teach the person with ASD the required job skills, and
educate employees about autism and individual needs (Capo, 2001). A job coach
can aid in the provision of comprehensive methodical training during the earlier
stages of employment and once the tasks are learned and workplace policies and
procedures are understood, the coach can eventually fade (Hendricks, 2010; Hillier
et al., 2007). Through covert audio coaching, an individual on the autism spectrum
can perform work tasks more accurately and effectively (Bennett et al., 2013).
Covert audio coaching involves an instructor who provides performance feedback,
guidance, prompts, or corrections, from a distance, through the use of a technologi-
cal device (Crocco, 2017).
Job coaches have been employed in intensive internship programs to help indi-
viduals with autism acquire and maintain jobs (Wehman et al., 2014, 2017) and more
easily adjust to the culture of the organization (Müller et al., 2003). Findings from a
business-based model using students with ASD as interns in a suburban hospital indi-
cated that a “protracted intensive immersion in the workplace through internships can
be a powerful way to achieve competitive employment upon graduation from high
school” (Wehman et al., 2014, p. 498). Co-workers were trained to be mentors and
Johnson et al. 17

coaches by working closely with the interns to ensure that skills were learned, jobs
were performed to meet employers’ expectations, and appropriate job behaviors,
including social skills, were displayed. The mentor or coach provided support until
the intern with ASD demonstrated the ability to work independently (Wehman et al.,
2017). Coaching and mentoring are techniques that can foster self-determination and
independence (Lee & Carter, 2010).

Organizational Support Factors

The absence of understanding and support from co-workers can pose a challenge for
employees with ASD (Hagner & Cooney, 2005). Studies show that on-the-job sup-
port is vital for workplace learning and success (Howlin et al., 2005). When employ-
ers and employees have greater awareness of ASD, they will be more welcoming,
accommodating, and supportive of individuals with ASD (Hendricks, 2010; Nicholas
et al., 2018). Employer and employee knowledge of ASD can help strengthen rela-
tionships through supervisor and peer support (Nicholas et al., 2018). “Co-worker
involvement in onsite work experience and learning was viewed as important for
collegial/peer relationship building, mutual learning, and social skill development”
(Nicholas et al., 2018, p. 270). Although both employers and employees with ASD
appear to be committed to the employment process, there are still misunderstandings
of job expectations and performance requirements that serve as barriers to maintain-
ing employment (Scott et al., 2015). The qualifications and potential of the employee
with ASD have proven to be less of a concern when compared with the ability to
meet social expectations and requirements in the work environment (Hendricks,
2010; Pfeiffer et al., 2017).
Research indicates that individuals with autism benefit from customized employ-
ment as an ongoing supported employment service (Brooke et al., 2018; Wehman
et al., 2016). Employment support encompasses services such as employer/supervisor
support, co-worker support, and assistive technology (Wehman et al., 2016).
Customized employment occurs when an employment specialist and the job applicant
(with the disability) collaborate with an employer to create a job description that aligns
with the skills of the applicant while also satisfying the needs of the employer (Wehman
et al., 2016). Person–environment fit in the workplace impacts levels of job satisfac-
tion and performance (Pfeiffer et al., 2017, 2018). In general, on-the-job support can
promote job retention (Wehman, Lau, et al., 2012).
Many individuals with ASD need support to learn job tasks and to maintain employ-
ment (Van Laarhoven et al., 2018). Employers can contribute to successful work expe-
riences of individuals with ASD through modification of the work environment, job
tasks, and expectation of social interaction (Hendricks, 2010; Walsh et al., 2014).
Workplace accommodation strategies have proven to be beneficial. These strategies
include maintaining consistent work schedules, workload accommodations, providing
highly structured jobs, supplying a description of the task(s), and communicating in a
direct way (Muller, Schuler, Burton, & Yates, 2003; Nicholas et al., 2018; Walsh et al.,
2014). Other basic environmental modifications include noise level, crowding, and
18 Human Resource Development Review 00(0)

lighting (Hillier et al., 2007). With the progression of time, some of these supports can
be faded while others may remain (Walsh et al., 2014).

Discussion
This study reviewed literature to identify and explore various strategies that can be
used in the workplace to foster skill development and the success of employees with
ASD and the potential role of HRD professionals to improve their work outcomes.
In the collaborative multifaceted and multidisciplinary network needed to facili-
tate employment success of individuals with ASD (Hedley et al., 2017), HRD pro-
fessionals can represent the workplace by serving as a conduit between agencies
and education systems. HRD professionals can provide support for career develop-
ment pathways for employees with ASD. Career development, a core component of
HRD, is described as a collaborative process “requiring individuals and organiza-
tions to create a partnership that enhances employees’ knowledge, skills, competen-
cies, and attitudes required for their current and future job assignments” (Gilley
et al., 2002, p. 94). As Herr (2001) articulated, one of the many practices of career
development is to “provide hope to people, the affirmation of their individual dig-
nity and worth, and the support to establish new career directions” (p. 207).
Individuals with ASD who obtain employment gain a sense of purpose and belong-
ing because of the level of independence the job provides (Hurlbutt & Chalmers,
2004). Collaborative work between schools and vocational/community rehabilita-
tion centers and other support services will result in positive outcomes (Wilczynski
et al., 2013). However, it is challenging to improve employment outcomes without
input from organizations. When organizations are integrated in this collaborative
approach, more robust, coordinated, and comprehensive plans can be developed to
make a greater impact.
Training and development are central HRD activities (Harbison & Myers, 1964;
McLean & McLean, 2001). Training is the process through which skills are developed
and attributes are nurtured, to help employees work more effectively and efficiently
on-the-job (Davis & Davis, 1998). If training plays such a crucial role to prepare indi-
viduals with ASD with the skills needed for employment, HRD professionals, as
industry representatives, can assist in spearheading training and development initia-
tives in the workplace through partnerships with secondary and postsecondary educa-
tors, community, and state agencies, to ensure that the appropriate work skills are
being nurtured. For example, HRD professionals can represent business and industry
by collaborating with community agencies and educational institutions to determine
the skills set of individuals with ASD and to offer internship and/or apprenticeship
programs that will provide real-world learning experiences and opportunities for fur-
ther skill development that can be applied to jobs in the workplace.
The advancements in technology have revolutionized the workplace (Li, 2013),
and sophisticated technology is now used in organizations to “support learning at
work, enhance job performance, and facilitate organizational development and
change” (Benson et al., 2002, p. 392). Individuals with ASD learn job skills through
Johnson et al. 19

technology-enhanced training, and increasing numbers are being trained for technol-
ogy-related jobs (Skibell, 2017). Organizations can adapt technology-based training
to facilitate continuous learning and skill development. Technology-enhanced train-
ing may also benefit other employees, especially Generation X and Z employees,
who are more technologically savvy than their predecessors and may prefer high-
tech learning tools.
Mentoring is an important career training and development tool (Hunt & Michael,
1983). HRD plays an important role in the effectiveness of mentoring programs
(Hegstad, 1999; Hezlett & Gibson, 2005). Mentees acquire knowledge and develop
skills through the mentoring relationship (Hezlett & Gibson, 2005) to enhance their
career, professional, and personal development (Noe, 1988; Russell & Adams, 1997).
A successful mentoring relationship can yield a sense of competence, increase levels
of satisfaction (Hegstad, 1999), motivation, work commitment, retention, and perfor-
mance (Fagenson-Eland et al., 1997)—all of which are outcomes of HRD (Hezlett &
Gibson, 2005) and activities that can be supported by HRD professionals.
Through coaching, an employee’s competence, learning, and performance can be
enhanced. A coach provides “goals, techniques, practice, and feedback” on job tasks to
increase the employee’s success and improvement in work relationships. Like mentor-
ing, coaching is an essential area of expertise that is a key function of HRD profession-
als (Ellinger & Kim, 2014; McLagan, 1996). Both mentoring and coaching are
organization development interventions used to improve employee development and
performance outcomes (Kim et al., 2013). With assistance from agency representa-
tives, HRD professionals can drive successful mentoring and coaching initiatives for
employees with ASD.
Organizational support as described in the HRD literature is the degree to which
the workplace values and cares about the well-being of the employees (Eisenberger
et al., 1986). An organization that offers support “may be seen as offering a form of
inducement to the employee and so may create a sense of obligation in the employee
to the organization” (Allen et al., 2003, p. 103). HRD professionals can support
employees with ASD by redesigning work environments to accommodate their
needs and ensure high levels of job involvement, fulfillment, and efficient perfor-
mance (Torraco, 2005).
Various factors, including supervisor and peer support within the work environ-
ment, can impact the transfer of post-training behaviors (Ford & Weissbein, 1997).
Although employees on the autism spectrum receive training, the absence of support
from peers and supervisors can impact job performance. Co-workers’ willingness to
provide work-related assistance to aid in the completion of job tasks is highly valued
(Susskind et al., 2003). Employees with ASD reported an increase in job satisfaction
when supervisors nurtured their strengths and when co-workers were willing to assist
them as they mastered new job tasks (Müller et al., 2003). As gleaned from the HRD
literature, supervisor- and peer-support are key factors that affect learning and perfor-
mance on the job for employees (Cromwell & Kolb, 2004; Noe & Wilk, 1993). As
noted by Torraco and Lundgren (2019), “today, HRD is diffused and integrated into a
broad range of leadership and supervisory roles” (p. 1).
20 Human Resource Development Review 00(0)

Implications for Research and Practice

The study extends previously conducted research on people with disabilities by
identifying strategies to help employees with ASD transition and function success-
fully in the workplace. A lack of attention to diversity education and research is
reflected in a number of HRD and management programs failing to integrate
diversity related courses into textbooks, curricula, and research (Bierema, 2010).
Universities should offer diversity courses with an ASD component to heighten
students’ (future industry leaders/managers) awareness of the employment-related
challenges of the ASD adult population and the work that few employers are doing
to provide job opportunities to this population. An early exposure to employment
barriers will help to remove the stigma associated with their employment (Hidegh
& Csillag, 2013), fill the gap between education and practice (Kuchinke, 2002),
and hopefully inspire future researchers to further investigate workforce needs of
individuals with ASD.
The study has implication for HR professionals, industry leaders, and managers, as
well as employees. As experts in training design and delivery, HRD practitioners can
work with vocational rehabilitation agencies, medical and psychology professionals to
develop and implement training for employees to increase their awareness of autism
(Hillier et al., 2007), to foster employers and employees’ knowledge and understand-
ing of individuals with ASD, to promote relationship building, and to ensure accom-
modation and support for employees on the spectrum. Support programs should be
developed to inform employers and colleagues in the workplace of the strengths and
challenges of individuals with ASD (Frank et al., 2018). Training on ASD will help to
reduce employers’ misunderstandings of job and performance expectations that often
lead to turnover. ASD training for employees will extend the various types of diversity
training noted in the HRD literature (Alhejji et al., 2016). According to Ross-Gordon
(2002), instructors and trainers include assumptions and bias associated with disability
into training and classroom activities. Ross-Gordon cautioned adult educators to be
aware of the bias and amend it.
As an extension of vocational training programs, industry leaders can work more
closely with community agencies and schools, to provide internship and apprentice-
ship opportunities to foster talent and skill development to aid in streamlining a less
challenging transition as the individual on the spectrum moves from a postsecondary
experience into the workplace.
A number of the strategies used to promote work performance for individuals with
ASD can also benefit the entire workforce. As noted by Wehman et al. (2014), supervi-
sors are using positive reinforcement to support all employees because of the interac-
tion and observation of intensive internships for individuals with ASD. Moreover, the
technology-enhanced training found to be ideal for individuals with ASD are in line
with current research promoting the advancement of the utilization of smart learning
in the workplace. The rapid development of smart devices and sensing technologies
play a major role in facilitating a new paradigm of learning called “smart learning” (J.
Lee et al., 2015). Smart learning adoption in the workplace will soon become more
Johnson et al. 21

widespread as the more traditional models of learning/training in the workplace will

no longer suffice.

Limitations and Recommendations for Future Research

Although this study helps to give shape to the topic and builds on the literature, there
are limitations worth noting. During the search process, specific parameters were set
for the study to make it more practicable given time constraints and although selection
criteria for narrative reviews are more compromising, relevant papers may have been
missed and excluded from the study. The limited sample sizes of the peer-reviewed
articles included in the study may be a possible limitation of this study. A few of the
studies were pilot tested; others were case studies with small number of participants.
Research on the employment experiences of individuals with ASD in the workplace is
still scarce and scattered over a wide variety of journals from multiple disciplines.
Further research is needed to improve workplace transition and to determine strate-
gies to increase employment outcomes of individuals with ASD. The four themes gen-
erated from the study that are reflected in Figure 2 as the pillars supporting the
transition and success of individuals with ASD to the workplace are functions of HRD.
HRD professionals can influence these supporting pillars by contributing to the skills
and capacities of individuals with autism. With a small percentage of the ASD adult
population being adequately prepared with skills to obtain gainful employment, there
is a need to advance inquiries, using both qualitative and quantitative research meth-
odologies to investigate interventions and supportive strategies for the workplace.
More empirical research on employees with ASD will make a valuable contribution to
the HRD literature through investigation of employment work attitudes and outcomes
including work engagement, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, turnover
intention, job retention, and other important variables that can influence increased
employee and organizational outcomes. It is also critical to explore employees with
autism motivation for, benefits of, and colleague/supervisor support for training to
determine the impact on their work performance. Assessing the influence of mentoring
and coaching from the perspective of both the mentor/coach and the employee with
ASD will provide evidence of the benefits or limitations of these relationships. Other
research can further examine the needs, barriers, and benefits of individuals with ASD
in the workplace through interviews with employees with ASD and their managers/
supervisors, and peers to understand factors that work well or is in need of improve-
ment. Comparing the work outcomes of employees with ASD and other employees
will also be another significant area to explore and to inform organizational leaders
who may be contemplating employment offers for this population. HRD researchers
can also conduct more critical investigation on how the experiences of people with
ASD in the workplace differs depending on their varied challenges. Individuals with
ASD in the workplace can be explored in various country and culture contexts.
It is important to note that research involving individuals with ASD may require
extra effort and understanding considering their social and communication challenges.
A qualitative interview study may need to utilize a structured approach with interview
22 Human Resource Development Review 00(0)

guide and questions sent to participants with ASD ahead of interview date to allow
time to prepare and ensure a smoother process. Notes from interview can be sent to
interviewees for validation. Interviews should be kept short and can be conducted
online or in person based on the interviewees’ preference. The researcher can allow
short breaks during the interview. The designated room/space for the interview should
be conducive for the conversation and free of distractions. Researchers should be
mindful of surveys that may be too lengthy for individuals with ASD. The option to
complete survey/questionnaire in parts should be allowed.
Future research should also have a multidisciplinary and multifaceted approach
(Hedley et al., 2017) as successful employment outcomes of individuals with ASD
will require an integrative role of various stakeholders and systems (Nicholas et al.,
2018). Individuals with autism long for a sense of contribution and accomplishment
that stems from having a job, and some have the capabilities to be successful in the
workplace with the implementation of appropriate interventions and adequate support
systems. In keeping with the underlying definitional philosophies of HRD, HRD pro-
fessionals can play a role in this multifaceted approach to ensure successful work
outcomes of individuals with ASD by creating channels to participation in the work-
force to create a better society for all.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship,
and/or publication of this article.

Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of
this article.

ORCID iD
Karen R. Johnson https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9900-6650

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Author Biographies
Karen R. Johnson, PhD, is an assistant professor of learning technologies in the College of
Information at the University of North Texas.
Demetria Ennis-Cole, PhD, is a professor of learning technologies in the College of Information
at the University of North Texas.
Matthew Bonhamgregory is a doctoral student in the Department of Learning Technologies in
the College of Information at the University of North Texas.