Chapter 4

Presentation, Analysis, and Interpretation of Data

This chapter presents the highlight of the study which

expounds analyses and interprets the data. The data gathered were

analyzed, interpreted and presented through the use of tables.

I.PROFILE OF THE RESPONDENTS

A. Section

Table 1
Frequency and Percentage Distribution
According to their Section
Section Frequency Percent

Saint Gregory the 28 28

Great

Saint Andrew 24 24

Saints Peter And 22 22

Paul

Our Lady of the Most 26 26

Holy Rosary

Total 100 100%

The table shows the frequency of the different sections in

Grade 11 – STEM which has a result of Saint Gregory the Great

having the higher frequency among the three sections in Grade 11,
to be followed by Our Lady of the Most Holy Rosary, Saint Andrew

and Saints Peter and Paul that has the lowest frequency.

To support this, Rouse (2014), states that STEM is an

educational program developed to prepare primary and secondary

students for college and graduate study in the fields of science,

technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). In addition, to

subject – specific learning, STEM aims to foster inquiring minds,

logical reasoning, and collaboration skills. In the United

States, the program helps immigrants with skills in the STEM

subjects obtain work visas.

In addition, STEM focuses on perceive education quality

shortcomings on these fields, with the aim of increasing the

supply of qualified high – tech worker. (Retrieved July 19, 2017

fromhttp://whathis.techtarget.com/definition/STEM-science-

technology-engineering-and-mathematics).

According to Cruz (2014), Senior High School (SHS) students

opting to take the Science, Technology, Engineering, and

Mathematics (STEM) strand have a set of core subjects slightly

different from those taking the other strand.

B. Sex

Table 2
Frequency and Percentage Distribution
According to their Sex
 Sex Frequency Percent

Male 45 45

Female 55 55

Total 100 100%

The table shows the frequency of male and female which has a

result of female having a higher frequency than the male.

According to Ganley and Lubienski (2016), It actually depends on

which math outcomes we look at. At both elementary and secondary

levels, boys and girls score similarly on many state tests, and

girls get relatively good grades in math classes. However, some

gender differences in math attitudes and skills appear during

elementary school, and ultimately, boys are much more likely than

girls to pursue careers in some key math-intensive fields, such

as engineering and computer science. In recent years, concerns

about boys and reading have taken some attention away from girls

and math, as girls have higher reading achievement than boys in

early elementary school. However, it is important to consider

that research shows that reading gender gaps narrow during the

elementary grades, whereas gender gaps in math grow during early

elementary school.
 In a series of two posts, we will highlight some of the most

important recent research about gender and math and discuss the

types of changes that we might be able to make to increase girls’

math attitudes, performance, and later participation in math-

intensive careers.

In general, gender differences in math performance are

small, which is important to keep in mind. Gender differences on

math tests tend to be more pronounced when the content of the

assessment is less related to the material that is taught in

school (for example, on the SAT-Math as opposed to a math test in

school). In addition, researchers consistently find that gender

gaps are larger among higher-performing students, which may

partially explain why we see gender gaps in math-related careers,

as these are often pursued by the highest-performing students.

In noting that the gender differences in math are generally

small, it is helpful to think about this in terms of effect

sizes, which researchers use to measure the size of a difference

between groups. For gender differences in math-related

variables, effect sizes (Cohen’s d) are generally in the .1 to .3

range. To give you an idea of what this looks like, this

interactive visualization demonstrates how much overlap there is

between two groups who have an effect size of .2 for the

difference between them. As you can see, an enormous amount of

overlap shows how similar girls and boys are in terms of

performance on mathematics tests.

C. Age
Table 3
Frequency and Percentage Distribution
According to their Age

Age Mean Interpretation

15 13 13

16 66 66

17 21 21

18 and above 0 0

Total 100 100%

The table shows the mean of their ages which has a result of

16 years old having the highest mean of 66 and 15 years old

having the lowest mean of 13.

Accoding to Sikali and Brown (2011),The action of delaying

school entry to give certain advantage to some students or

retaining students in certain grade to ensure students achieve

certain level of achievement could be a futile effort to enhance

students’ achievement. Empirical studies have conclusively

indicated that when students are older than their classmates,

their average academic performance declines and continue to

decline the older they get. The research literature also suggests

that older students also are more likely to drop out of school.

There were statistically significant evidence for females to

score better than males on GPA and to achieve more school and

post-school qualifications. However, more studies are needed in

gender and achievement that include factors such as cognitive

ability, classroom behavior, biological factors and school

factors.

A study on investigating children’s readiness in

Mathematics was conducted by Lee, Autry, Fox, and Williams

(2011). According to their findings that children's

Mathematics readiness depended not only on their demographic

variables and pre-kindergarten experience, but also on their

growth and development in all domains (e.g., language, social,

physical, and emotional developmental domains) and their

social/cultural context. In the United States, a large

number of students graduate high school unprepared for

post-secondary education and ill-equipped for the labor

force of the 21st century. Research on college readiness

reveals the prominent role that mathematics preparedness plays

in the fulfillment of hopes and dreams for a college degree. As

requirements for post-secondary education and qualifications

for the workforce merge, college readiness in mathematics

is a significant factor in job opportunities and career

choices. This calls for advancement in mathematics

preparedness in the education of today’s high school students

(McCormick & Lucas, 2011).

II. Assessment of the Grade 11 STEM studets in their Pre -

Calculus subject

A. Perception about Pre - Calculus

Table 4
Assessment of Respondents on their Perception about Pre –
Calculus

Perceptions Mean Interpretation

1.Pre- Calculus is enjoyable and 3.03 Sometimes

stimulating to me.
2.Pre- Calculus is not important in 2.26 Seldom
everyday life.
3.In Pre- Calculus you can be creative 2.92 Sometimes
and discover things by yourself.
4.I have never like Pre-Calculus, and 2.33 Seldom
it is my most dreaded subject.
5.There is nothing creative about Pre- 2.43 Seldom
Calculus; it’s just memorizing formula
and things.
6.Students who have understood the 2.90 Sometimes
Pre-Calculus they have studied will be
able to solve any assigned problem in
five minutes or less.
7.I try to learn Pre-Calculus because 3.11 Sometimes
it helps develop my mind and helps me
think more clearly in general.
8.Using the web (computer) is a good 2.72 Sometimes
way for me to learn Pre-Calculus.
9.I’m more interested when my teacher 3.13 Sometimes
teaches us well in Pre-Calculus.
10.I can answer problems orally or 2.80 Sometimes
written.
Mean 2.76 Sometimes

The table shows the mean of their perceptions in Pre-

Calculus subject. The result shows that most of the students are

more interested when their teachers teaches the lesson clearly.

According to Time4learning.com , Every child has different

learning preferences. Among the different ways of learning, some

prefer to learn by hearing, some by seeing, others by doing, some

by reading and others by asking questions. One thing all students

have in common is that they all learn best when they can

incorporate items and topics that interest them into their

studies, for example, building blocks, music, fashion, airplanes,

etc.

While there are different learning styles, your student will

likely favor several styles and not just one. However, you may be

able to see patterns in their learning preferences. For example,

a student who is a visual learner may also be a very social and

verbal learner who prefers to learn especially difficult topics

using their primary skills. Understanding how your student learns

is perhaps one of the most important parts of homeschooling your

child. Learning styles allow your child to get the most from

their homeschool experience, and helps parents choose the best

curriculum for their children. A) Visual (spatial) Learner

This style uses pictures, images, and spatial understanding to

learn. These students can easily visualize information and have a

good sense of direction. Using whiteboards can come in handy for

this type of learner who usually likes to draw and doodle. Learn

more on our Visual Learner page. b)Aural (auditory) Learner Sound

and music are a strong suit for these types of learners who

typically have a good sense of rhythm. These learners are usually

singers or musicians who are familiar with different instruments

and the sounds they make. Aural learners are good listeners who

normally learn best through verbal presentations like lectures

and speeches. Learn more on our Auditory Learners page. C) Verbal

(linguistic) Learner These learners prefer using words, both in

speech and writing. They can easily express themselves and

usually love to read and write. Verbal learners tend to have a

vast vocabulary and excel in activities that involve speaking,

debating, and journalism. Learn more on our Verbal Learning page.

D) Physical (kinesthetic) Learner Whether it’s by using their

body or hands, these learners are all about the sense of touch.

Physical activities and sports play a big part in these student’s

lives. Getting hands-on is a must for these learners who love to

tinker and learn best when they can do rather than see or hear.

Learn more on our Kinesthetic Learning page. e) Logical

(mathematical) Learner If there is logic,reasoning and numbers

involved, these learners are sure to excel. These students

function and solve complex problems by employing strategies and

their scientific way of thinking. Computer programming, math and

science are usually favored by these types of learners. Link to

our Logical Learning page.f)Social (interpersonal) Learner If

there is logic,reasoning and numbers involved, these learners are

sure to excel. These students function and solve complex problems

by employing strategies and their scientific way of thinking.

Computer programming, math and science are usually favored by

these types of learners. Link to our Social Learning page.

G)Solitary (intrapersonal) Learner These students prefer to use

self-study and work alone. They are independent and are very

self-aware and in tune with their thoughts and feelings. These

learners prefer being away from the crowds and learn best in a

quiet place where they can focus on the task at hand. Learn more

on our Intrapersonal Learning page.

 B. Knowledge on Trigonometric functions

Table 5
Assessment of Respondents on their knowledge about Trigonometric
Functions

Knowledge Mean Interpretation

1. I know how to use the SOHCAHTOA in 2.71 Sometimes

solving problems.
2. I know how to use Cosine to 2.86 Sometimes
calculate the side of a right triangle.
3. I am familiar on how to use Tangent 3.05 Sometimes
to calculate the side of a triangle.
4. I know how to use Sine to calculate 3.01 Sometimes
the side of a triangle.
5. I know the different formulas in 2.70 Sometimes
trigonometry.
6. I know the six functions of an angle 2.77 Sometimes
commonly used in trigonometry.
7. I know the different angles in 2.67 Sometimes
trigonometry.
8. I can easily learn trigonometric 2.58 Seldom
problems on my own.
9. I can find the trigonometric ratios 2.55 Seldom
for the right triangle easily.
10.I know to label the different parts 2.84 Sometimes
of the circle.
Mean 2.77 Sometimes

The table shows the mean of their mean about their knowledge

in Trigonometric Function. The result shows that finding the

trigonometric ratios for the right triangle is the most difficult

for them.

According to Math Worksheet Center (2018),

Mathematics is a subject that is vital for gaining a better

perspective on events that occur in the natural world. A keen

aptitude for math improves critical thinking and promotes

problem-solving abilities. One specific area of mathematical and

geometrical reasoning is trigonometry which studies the

properties of triangles. Now it's true that triangles are one of

the simplest geometrical figures, yet they have varied

applications. The primary application of trigonometry is found in

scientific studies where precise distances need to be measured.

The techniques in trigonometry are used for finding relevance in

navigation particularly satellite systems and astronomy, naval

and aviation industries, oceanography, land surveying, and in

cartography (creation of maps). Now those are the scientific

applications of the concepts in trigonometry, but most of the

math we study would seem (on the surface) to have little real-

life application. So is trigonometry really relevant in your day

to day activities? You bet it is. Let's explore areas where this

science finds use in our daily activities and how we can use this

to resolve problems we might encounter. Although it is unlikely

that one will ever need to directly apply a trigonometric

function in solving a practical issue, the fundamental background

of the science finds usage in an area which is passion for many -

music! As you may be aware sound travels in waves and this

pattern though not as regular as a sine or cosine function, is

still useful in developing computer music. A computer cannot

obviously listen to and comprehend music as we do, so computers

represent it mathematically by its constituent sound waves. And

this means that sound engineers and technologists who research

advances in computer music and even hi-tech music composers have

to relate to the basic laws of trigonometry.

Trigonometry finds a perfect partner in modern architecture. The

beautifully curved surfaces in steel, stone and glass would be

impossible if not for the immense potential of this science. So

how does this work actually. In fact the flat panels and straight

planes in the building are but at an angle to one another and the

illusion is that of a curved surface. Neat huh!

Digital imaging is another real life application of this

marvelous science. Computer generation of complex imagery is made

possible by the use of geometrical patterns that define the

precise location and color of each of the infinite points on the

image to be created. The image is made detailed and accurate by a

technique referred to as triangulation. The edges of the

triangles that form the image make a wire frame of the object to

be created and contribute to a realistic picture. Several imaging

technologies that apply the concepts of trigonometry find usage

in medicine. The next time you go in for an advanced scanning

procedure, be sure to check out how the sine and cosine functions

you learn at school find a practical application is medical

techniques such as CAT and MRI scanning, in detecting tumors and

even in laser treatments. Whoever said studying math has only an

academic value! Need other reasons to know how formulae in

trigonometry make life easier for you? Now we all use patterns

and symmetry in relating to objects around us. For instance there

is a need for harmony and symmetrical agreement even if you are

just redecorating your home. You need to be sure about angles and

positioning when deciding lighting arrangements.

C. Knowledge on Analytical Geometry

Table 6
Assessment of Respondents on their knowledge about
Analyical Geometry

Knowledge Mean Interpretation

1. I know how to use the midpoint 2.87 Sometimes

formula.
2. I know how to use distance 2.89 Sometimes
formula.
3. I know how to distinguish the 2.81 Sometimes
difference between perpendicular and
parallel lines.
4. I know how to compute the 2.98 Sometimes
distance between point and a line.
5.I know the two perpendicular axes 2.94 Sometimes
namely x and y.

6. I know how to get the slope of a 3.02 Sometimes

line.
7. I can remember all the formulas 2.65 Sometimes
since it was being thought to me.
8. I can easily solve analytical 2.53 Seldom
geometry problems on my own without
looking any examples.
9. I can easily learn the formula 2.54 Seldom
without further more explanations.
10. I don’t need someone to help me 2.41 Seldom
in solving analytical geometry.
Mean 2.76 Sometimes

The table shows the mean of their mean about their knowledge

in Analytical Geometry . The result shows they know how to get

the slope of a line.

According to Fitriana (2018), A linear equation is an

algebra material that exists in junior high school to university.

It is a very important material for students in order to learn

more advanced mathematics topics. Therefore, linear equation

material is essential to be mastered. However, the result of 2016

national examination in Indonesia showed that students'

achievement in solving linear equation problem was low. This fact

became a background to investigate students' difficulties in

solving linear equation problems. This study used qualitative

descriptive method. An individual written test on linear equation

tasks was administered, followed by interviews. Twenty-one sample

students of grade VIII of SMPIT Insan Kamil Karanganyar did the

written test, and 6 of them were interviewed afterward. The

result showed that students with high mathematics achievement

donot have difficulties, students with medium mathematics

achievement have factual difficulties, and students with low

mathematics achievement have factual, conceptual, operational,

and principle difficulties. Based on the result there is a need

of meaningfulness teaching strategy to help students to overcome

difficulties in solving linear equation problems.

D. Knowledge on Arithmetic sequence

Table 7
Assessment of Respondents on their knowledge about
Arithmetic Sequence

Knowledge Mean Description

1. Arithmetic sequence is one of my 2.82 Sometimes

favorite lesson in our Pre-Calculus
subject.
2.I know how to determine the 2.91 Sometimes
arithmetic sequence in every terms.
3.It is easy to solve arithmetic 2.77 Sometimes
sequence problems on my own.
4.I can effectively answer 2.89 Sometimes
arithmetic sequence problem with the
help of others.
5.My teacher explains well the 3.04 Sometimes
lesson that’s why I can answer all
given problem given.
6.I can answer the problem by 2.69 Sometimes
looking on it.
7.I don’t want others to teach me if 2.24 Seldom
I’m wrong.
8.I can answer confidently the 2.49 Seldom
problems without using calculator.
9.I can perform well in class if the 2.67 Sometimes
Arithmetic Sequence is the lesson.
10.I can answer arithmetic sequence 2.67 Sometimes
problems orally and written.
Mean 2.71 Sometimes

The table shows the mean of their mean about their

knowledge in Arithmetic sequence . The result shows that the

teacher explains well the lesson that’s why they can answer all

the given problem properly.

During the past twenty years, a global movement is started

among researchers and policy makers to study the effective

factors in making the educational system efficient (Teddlie

&Reynolds, 2000). The concept of professional promotion of

teachers has emerged since the mid-twentieth century –i.e. when

the implementing reforms in educational systems became necessary.

The research findings and comparisons between educational systems

had played a great role in the advent of this concept since the

research indicate that "teacher" has a mutual role in

implementing educational reforms. In one hand, the "teacher" is

the subject of educational reforms and on the other hand he/she

is the cause of educational reforms. So, the main objectives of

training teachers are: professionalization (focusing on low

quality teachers or without quality), making teachers’ capable

(preparing teachers for accepting new responsibilities or

confronting curriculum changes), updating teachers and their

knowledge according to new conditions and teaching methods

(Huberman 2004; Tong&Han 2005). Teaching styles (which often

reflect teachers’ views on teaching and learning and their

preferred behaviour) have also received a considerable degree of

attention within the educational literature over the past two

decades. There is some evidence that teaching styles can help to

interpret the influences of teachers on student achievement

(Aitkin & Zuzovsky, 1994; Ebmeier & Good, 1979). Teachers who

continually review their perceptions and their supporting basics

increase their ability to communicate properly with wide variety

of students. (Capra, 1996). The key to * Maghsood Amin Khandaghi.

Tel.: 0098-511-8783009; fax: 0098-511-8783012. E-mail address:

aminkhandaghi@ferdowsi.um.ac.ir Open access under CC BY-NC-ND

license. Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license. 1392 Maghsood

Amin Khandaghi and Maryam Farasat / Procedia Social and

Behavioral Sciences 15 (2011) 1391–1394 maintaining good

discipline is to establish a good relationship with pupils based

on mutual respect and rapport (Cooper and McIntyre, 1996; Morgan

and Morris, 1999; Pollard et al, 2000). This involves us showing

respect for our pupils, by treating them in a polite and

courteous manner, and not resorting to making unfair and hurtful

comments based on sarcasm or belittling the pupil. The teacher

also, however, needs to be able to command authority. However,

this authority should not be based on pupils' fear of the

teacher's 'nastier' side. Rather, it should come from the feeling

of trust and respect that the pupils have in the manner in which

the teacher characteristically exercises their teacher role. In

this study, teaching styles is defined based on 4 components

including creation, continuity, effectiveness and evaluation and

is divided into two styles: teacher-centered style (direct) and

learner-based (indirect). Teachers who use more learner-centered

practices (i.e., practices that show sensitivity to individual

differences among students, include students in the decision-

making, and acknowledge students’ developmental, personal and

relational needs) produced greater motivation in their students

than those who used fewer of such practices (Daniels & Perry,

2003; Perry & Weinstein, 1998).. As MacBeath(1999 ) points out,

teachers and students do not exist in a vacuum but are influenced

by one another’s expectations and behaviours .mutual discussion

about expectations and behaviours can lead to increased

understanding about teacher-learner relationships that promote

learning. Explicitness about what is valued in teachers and

learners encourages a learning community. A process that invites

dialogue about what it means to be members of the community, to

be learner, a teacher, what are good lessons, for example, can

promote self-review at an individual and organizational level.

The good teacher, described above, has relationships with

students that are based on trust, openness and they therefore

allow this kind of self-review process to take place. Weinstein

(1983) describes how children perceive the teachers relationship

to high- and low-achieving students. Students described as low

achievers received more negative feedback and teacher direction,

and more work and rule orientation than high achievers. High

achievers were perceived as receiving higher expectations, more

opportunity and choice than low achievers. Studies have shown

that what teachers expect from students can be a realizable

prediction. Students expected to work well by teachers have more

tendency for development than those who are not expected to do

well. The relationship between teacher and students can be

extended along a continuum from formal to informal and cold to

warm. Findings indicate that warm and supportive environment is

critical for teacher to be effective and also for encouraging

student to participate in courses. Teachers who are sympathetic,

supportive and intimate and lead without strictness cause an

increase in cognitional and emotional success among students.

Teachers who are unreliable, dissatisfied and advisor lead to

less cognitional and emotional success (Wubbless,Brekelmans

&Hooymayers,1991) Marcel,1954 and Burton1952 reported that

learners have more progress in individual and social learning in

permissive environments. So that they have defended democratic

organization of class rather than authoritarian organization

regarding the nature of desired tasks or the relationship between

teacher and students. When teachers have positive relationships

with their students, it affects the student’s behaviour in

relation to school. Students who perceive their teachers as

highly supportive have better attendance and avoid problem

behaviour. (Rosenfeld, Richman, & Bowen, 2000). Sawatzki (1993)

noted that not only teachers are responsible for mental and

cognitional progress but also they must be careful about their

moral, social and emotional progress and pay attention to the

emotional efficiency of education. According to performed studies

about the relationship of teacher – student and teacher teaching

style, the main purpose of this research is to examine the effect

of teaching style on students' adaptation in three emotional,

educational and social domains. Adjustment behaviors in the

learning environment decrease the anxiety and tension of students

and improve learning. The purpose of emotional adjustment is to

identify the feelings and positive and negative emotions in self

and having control on negative feelings related to self and

others. Educational adjustment is defined as adaptation with

school environment, teachers, classmates, training materials and

lesson content and also having interest to education and

attention to the lesson. Social adjustment refers to having some

characteristics such as communication with classmates and

friends, proper communication with teachers, participation in

collective works and group activities and having social skills.

E. Difficulties Encountered in Pre – Calculus

Table 8
Assessment of Respondents about their Difficulties
Encountered in Pre – Calculus

Difficulties Mean Interpretation

1.I have confidence in solving 2.65 Sometimes

problems that involve
substituting numbers into
formulas in Pre-calculus.
2.I have high knowledge in 2.59 Seldom
solving word problems in pre-
calculus/math.
3.I often recite and answer 2.67 Sometimes
mathematical problems on the
boar.
4.Usually I fully understand the 2.8 Seldom
constant of pre-calculus in our
class.
5.I love solving mathematical 2.71 Sometimes
problems.
6.I have difficulty in solving 2.73 Sometimes
word problems.
7.I understand the examples on 2.8 Seldom
the board but when it comes to
seatwork I find it difficult.
8.I’m not familiar with the 2.59 Seldom
mathematical problems.
9.I seldom recite/answer 2.59 Seldom
mathematical problems on the
board.
10.Usually I don’t understand 2.72 Sometimes
word problems.
11.I can’t solve any 2.87 Sometimes
mathematical problems without my
calculator.
12.When I do hard math problems, 2.8 Seldom
I work hard to get the answer by
myself
13.I often pass my quizzes and 2.92 Sometimes
exams in pre-calculus/math.
14.For me learning pre- 2.71 Sometimes
calculus/math is stressful.
15.I don’t usually do my pre- 2.53 Seldom
calculus/math homework.
16.If I have trouble with 3.1 Sometimes
math/pre-calculus problem, I get
the teacher or a friend to
explain it to me.
17.I often come prepared in 2.79 Sometimes
attending my pre-calculus
subject.
18.During pre-calculus class, I 3.16 Sometimes
don’t pay attention and
participate in class activities.
19.I try to figure out how the 2.92 Sometimes
math I learned in class might be
useful in my daily life or in
other subjects.
20.When I have trouble on 2.51 Seldom
solving pre-calculus problems, I
use the internet to help me
solve it.
21.I often sleep during pre- 2.27 Seldom
calculus/math subject.
22.I don’t participate in every 2.67 Sometimes
activities in my pre-calculus
subject.
23.I’m not interested on 2.29 Seldom
learning pre-calculus subject
because I believe that I won’t
be able to use my knowledge
about it in my daily life.
24.I often forget the topics and 2.74 Sometimes
formulas on pre-calculus.
25.I can’t solve mathematical 2.4 Seldom
problems without the help of my
seat mate.
Mean 2.26 Sometimes
 The table shows the mean of their mean about their

difficulties faced in Pre- Calculus. The result shows that they

can’t solve mathematical problems without the help of their seat

mate.

According to Doyne (2011), Children come into school with

differences in background knowledge, confidence, ability to stay

on task and, in the case of math, quickness. In school, those

advantages can get multiplied rather than evened out. One reason,

says Mighton, is that teaching methods are not aligned with what

cognitive science tells us about the brain and how learning

happens.

In particular, math teachers often fail to make sufficient

allowances for the limitations of working memory and the fact

that we all need extensive practice to gain mastery in just about

anything. Children who struggle in math usually have difficulty

remembering math facts, handling word problems and doing

multistep arithmetic. Despite the widespread support for

“problem-based” or “discovery-based” learning, studies indicate

that current teaching approaches underestimate the amount of

explicit guidance, “scaffolding” and practice children need to

consolidate new concepts. Students need to experience

mathematical ideas in the context in which they naturally arise—

from simple counting and measurement to applications in business

and science. Calculators and computers make it possible now to

introduce realistic applications throughout the curriculum.

The significant criterion for the suitability of an application

is whether it has the potential to engage students' interests and

stimulate their mathematical thinking. (NRC, 1990, p. 38)

Mathematical problems can serve as a source of motivation for

students if the problems engage students' interests and

aspirations. Mathematical problems also can serve as sources of

meaning and understanding if the problems stimulate students'

thinking. Of course, a mathematical task that is meaningful to a

student will provide more motivation than a task that does not

make sense. The rationale behind the criterion above is that both

meaning and motivation are required. The motivational benefits

that can be provided by workplace and everyday problems are worth

mentioning, for although some students are aware that certain

mathematics courses are necessary in order to gain entry into

particular career paths, many students are unaware of how

particular topics or problem-solving approaches will have

relevance in any workplace. The power of using workplace and

everyday problems to teach mathematics lies not so much in

motivation, however, for no context by itself will motivate all

students. The real power is in connecting to students' thinking.

There is growing evidence in the literature that problem-centered

approaches—including mathematical contexts, "real world"

contexts, or both—can promote learning of both skills and

concepts. In one comparative study, for example, with a high

school curriculum that included rich applied problem situations,

students scored somewhat better than comparison students on

algebraic procedures and significantly better on conceptual and

problem-solving tasks (Schoen & Ziebarth, 1998). This finding was

further verified through task-based interviews. Studies that show

superior performance of students in problem-centered classrooms

are not limited to high schools. Wood and Sellers (1996), for

example, found similar results with second and third graders.

Research with adult learners seems to indicate that "variation of

contexts (as well as the whole task approach) tends to encourage

the development of general understanding in a way which

concentrating on repeated routine applications of algorithms does

not and cannot" (Strässer, Barr, Evans, & Wolf, 1991, p. 163).

This conclusion is consistent with the notion that using a

variety of contexts can increase the chance that students can

show what they know. By increasing the number of potential links

to the diverse knowledge and experience of the students, more

students have opportunities to excel, which is to say that the

above premise can promote equity in mathematics education.

There is also evidence that learning mathematics through

applications can lead to exceptional achievement. For example,

with a curriculum that emphasizes modeling and applications, high

school students at the North Carolina School of Science and

Mathematics have repeatedly submitted winning papers in the

annual college competition, Mathematical Contest in Modeling

(Cronin, 1988; Miller, 1995).

The relationships among teachers, students, curricular materials,

and pedagogical approaches are complex. Nonetheless, the

literature does supports the premise that workplace and everyday

problems can enhance mathematical learning, and suggests that if

students engage in mathematical thinking, they will be afforded

opportunities for building connections, and therefore meaning and

understanding.